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HISTORY FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS METALLURGY

Definitions Type of furnace determines type of steel and vice versa REDUCTION - OXIDATION - Equilibrium Refining by oxidation Factors affecting oxygen content in steel Desulphurization Casting and solidification of steel

Process route determines type of furnace STEELMAKING: "Playing back and forth with oxygen Effects of alloying elements and impurities on steel properties Dephosphorization Deoxidation Vacuum treatment, Hydrogen Removal

DEFINITIONS

III. Metalloids Properties : intermediate of I and II I. Metallic materials can be divided into * IRON/STEEL with in general iron, Fe, as the main part - CAST IRON > Grey and white cast iron > Nodular iron > Malleable iron

- HOT METAL - PIG IRON, Solid - STEEL > Carbon steels > Low alloy steels > High alloy steels * NON-FERROUS METALS - Alloying elements in steel, e.g. manganese, chromium, nickel - Gold, silver, copper, lead etc - Other metals not desirable in ironand steelmaking II. Nonmetallic materials a) Carbon, phosphorus, sulphur etc b) Ceramics, silicates, oxides, carbonates Rock, gangue, slags, refractories c) Wood, wood pulp d) Plastics e) Fibers, composites f) Leather III. Metalloids * Boron * Silicon etc Members of all three material classes are present in ironand steelmaking. Process metallurgy: Study of the technical production of metals. This includes both chemical and physical (mechanical) processes. Process metallurgy also implies high-temperature physical chemistry, and is in general more difficult to control than are chemical processes at room temperature. There is a lack of sensors which tolerate the often harsh environment in process metallurgy, and therefore each point in the process route cannot be regulated to the same degree as in chemical processes. Therefore in iron- and steelmaking (a branch of process metallurgy) it is the operator who controls the process to a greater degree, while in the fully automated chemical industry, it is more likely the process which controls the operator.

THE REQUIREMENT FOR TECHNICAL TRAINING IS THEREFORE HIGHER IN THE STEELMAKING BRANCH THAN IN MANY OTHER INDUSTRIES! Of all metals produced, IRON dominates in tonnage; Gold is however the most valuable, when considering market price. Iron is the dominating element is steel. Experience has taught us that when foreign substances are introduced into a metal its hardness, strength, flexibility, melting point, and other properties are changed. This often means that the arisen alloy can be much more suitable for industrial and other applications than the pure metal itself.

For example, copper is added to gold and silver to make them suitable for practical use. Zinc is alloyed with copper to make brass, copper is alloyed with tin to make bronze, etc. PURE (that is, unalloyed) IRON (Fe) has no practical significance as a material. It is first when iron is alloyed with other elements (and becomes steel) that it becomes interesting. The most common alloying element is carbon.

Iron with carbon contents up to 2% is called steel. Iron with carbon contents of 3-4% is called pig iron or cast iron depending on the area of application. Steel is ductile; it can be deformed. Cast iron is not ductile--i.e. it is brittle.

Steel can be divided into groups: * Carbon steels

* Low alloy steels

* High alloy steels

CARBON STEELS are steels which contain relatively small amounts of silicon (Si) and manganese(Mn), as well as the main alloying element carbon (C). This group includes steels contains some 0.01 - 1.3%C, about 0.3%Si and roughly below 0.8%Mn. The sum of these three elements lies in general below 2.5%. Example of carbon steels: deepdrawing steels for such products as (car) autobodies, bathtubs etc. C:<0.06%, Si:0.02%, Mn:0.03%.

LOW ALLOY steels can contain in addition elements such as chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo) etc. The total alloying content lies below about 5%. Example of low alloy steel: Bearing steels: C : 1%, Si : 0.3%, Mn : 0.3%, Cr : 1.5%.

HIGH ALLOY steels are the remaining steels in general. Example: "Stainless", e.g. cutlery C : 0.6%, Si : 0.4%, Cr : 13.0%, Mn : 0.4%. The number of chemical compositions possible is very large, if not limitless. This is easily understood by considering the following list of elements found in steel: * Aluminum (Al) * Boron (B) * Silicon (Si) * Carbon (C) * Cobalt (Co) * Chromium (Cr) * Manganese (Mn) * Molybdenum (Mo) * Nickel (Ni) * Niobium (Nb) * Titanium (Ti) * Vanadium (V) * Wolfram (W) Etc Steel is a unique material; by adding various alloys to it and performing different treatment on it, materials can be obtained with wide variations in properties such as: - Hardness - Strength - Toughness - Elasticity - Hot strength - Wear resistance

- Forgeability - Machinability - Corrosion resistance Approximately 4000 different steel compositions exit on our planet. The elements' individual effects on steel properties will be discussed further on in the course.

I. ORE-BASED STEELMAKING II. SCRAP-BASED STEELMAKING I. ORE-BASED STEELMAKING The origin of iron and steel is IRON ORE, in which iron, Fe, is bonded with oxygen, O in the form of iron oxide. Most metals are bonded with oxygen, sulphur or arsenic in chemical compounds. In other words, they do not occur as pure metals in the earth's crust. Only gold, silver, platinum and bismuth occur as pure metals, as well as copper in rare cases.

Two common iron ores are magnetite and hematite. magnetite contains less oxygen than does hematie. This is apparent by the chemical formulas for the two oxides: magnetite has the composition Fe3O4 while hematite has the composition Fe2O 3. There are 1.3 oxygen atoms per iron atom in magnetite, while in hematite there are 1.5 oxygen atoms per iron atom.

However, one important fact must be pointed out: the ore is not solely composed of iron oxide! The ore contains as well nonferrous components such as gangue (slag). Example composition: 83% iron oxide, Fe3O4 (i.e. 60% iron metal + 23% oxygen) 17% gangue ("slag") Today man succeeds in removing a larger part of the undesirable gangue before the iron-and steelmaking processes begin. In earlier days, a large part of the gangue was carried along far into the process. The making of iron/steel has been carried out during the past 2000 years at least. In the beginning, the raw material consisted of ore found in bogs (therein its name bog ore) with the chemical formula Fe 2O3 *H2O, iron hydroxide.

This ore differs from hematite in that the oxide is chemically bonded with water. It was relatively easy to dig up. Today ore is mostly mined underground. The processing is a matter of extracting the metal iron, that is, separating the gangue and freeing the iron from the oxygen with which it is bonded. This is easier said than done. By crushing followed by grinding the ore one succeeds in separating a part of the gangue, but far from all of it. The second step -- the removal of oxygen -- is carried out by heating up the crushed ore with a substance that has a stronger affinity to oxygen than the iron does. A suitable such substance is carbon. By mixing the crushed ore of earlier days in pit furnaces with carbon (originally charcoal) and adding heat (by combustion of some of the carbon), a reduction of the iron oxide was achieved; that is the iron surrendered its oxygen to the carbon and then transformed to metal. In the beginning reaction -- that is, the making of iron/steel -- took place in one-meter deep pits in the ground, into which ore was fed together with charcoal. Later, small shafts were built with an initial height above ground corresponding to the depth of the earlier pits, that is, about one meter.

The product of the above reduction was a soft lump of steel, which could be forged into desired form and dimension. Later, the height of the shaft was increased, which resulted in the temperature of the product iron rising to such an extent that the iron melted. As a consequence the carbon dissolved into the iron. The increased carbon content in the iron decreased the metal's melting point, which resulted in a different product: instead of obtaining a soft iron/ steel lump with a melting point of about 1530oC as earlier, a liquid hot metal was now obtained with a carbon content of some 4.3% and melting point of about 1150oC.

In achieving hot metal, the quality of the produced steel could be improved considerably; one could now avoid a large amount of the slag (originating from the gangue) which had been entrapped in the earlier steel lump product. Of course, the process for steelmaking was thus lengthened, as the hot metal had a high carbon content. Iron with such a carbon content is brittle, and cannot be forged. On the other hand, the slags which were less dense that the metal could float up to the liquid iron's surface. The molten metal thereby became practically free of slag. The object was now to make steel out of the hot metal. The carbon content of the hot metal would have to be decreased to a level acceptable for forgeable steel. As mentioned earlier, carbon and oxygen are strongly attracted to each other. The most available method at that time was to blow air -- which contains about 21% oxygen -- against the hot metal. Oxygen from the air reacted with the carbon and formed carbon monoxide gas, which left the system; the melting point increased, which was the aim. As the carbon content decreased, the melting point increased, which meant that the initial hot metal became more and more viscous as the carbon content decreased. In the end a doughy lump of steel was obtained, due to failure in supplying the heat required to match the gradually increasing melting point. What was the point then in this process development leading to the production of a liquid hot metal? The end product was after all in both cases a doughy lump of steel. Well, the advantage was that one now produced a lump of steel containing much less slag, which resulted in a considerably improved quality of the steel product. As the saying goes: appetite comes with eating! Man realized steel's possibilities as a material in an increasing number of applications. Requirements for improved performance increased. Meeting these increased demands meant that the steel would have to be produced in liquid form.

Henry Bessemer's patent opened the door! The gist of his idea was to blow air through the hot metal in pear-shaped vessels, using the "fuel" which exists in the hot metal. Not only is carbon dissolved in the iron, but also silicon, which releases a large amount of heat when it reacts with oxygen. By blowing air through the hot metal, so much heat could be produced that the bath remained molten; that is, the temperature could be gradually increased and thereby continue to exceed the gradually increasing melting point of the steel (which followed its decreasing carbon content).

In the trials performed by G.F. Goransson in Edsken outside of Hofors in Sweden, the Bessemer patent proved to be viable. After an enormous amount of work including many failures, difficulties and "blood, sweat and tears", Goransson and his co-workers developed the Bessemer process into a shining success. Ingot(cast) steel was born!

The heat released at the combustion of carbon, silicon and manganese (elements dissolved in the hot metal) as well as some combusted iron, was sufficient to increase the temperature, melt the slag, make up for heat losses through the walls and openings, and to melt scrap. This "REVOLUTION" occurred in 1858! The liquid steel implied: * Cleaner steel with respect to nonmetallic inclusions and other impurities. * Possibility of reaching low carbon contents at a lower cost. * Possibility of adding other alloying elements, thereby expanding areas of application of the steel. * Possibility of casting the steel into shapes for rolling and forging into desired profiles and dimensions. * Possibility of casting the steel directly into finished product (steel castings). All of this was made possible by the advent of cast steel. The development had by this stage grown into a revolution for steel as a material. The application of steel was enormously expanded from its initial limitation to mostly weapons, farming equipment and tools. Production increased explosively to meet the rising demand. The quality improvement achieved with cast steel was strengthened by the demand for first-class raw materials. Why was this so? The (acid Bessemer) converters, in which the hot metal was transformed (converted) to steel were lined with so-called acidic refractory material -- silica bricks. With such a lining, neither phosphorus nor sulphur in the melt could be affected. Only ores with very low phosphorus levels could therefore be used, and only charcoal, which in contrast to anthracite hardly contains any sulphur, could be considered for making qualified steels. Countries possessing such raw materials, such as Sweden, now obtained a leading position among the world's steel-producing nations. It didn't take long before converters with basic refractory material (magnesite, dolomite) were installed. These were called Thomas (basic Bessemer) converters after their originator Sidney G. Thomas of England. Now steel production really broke loose! The abundant deposits of phosphorous ores and mineral coals containing sulphur came to full use.

THE CONVERTER EPOCH Bessemer introduced the epoch in which we still find ourselves! With the Bessemer converter as a starting point, a historical development has taken place with the converter as the main theme. If we limit ourselves to what happens inside the walls of a steel shop, then we can say that the raw material consists of liquid iron with a carbon content of about 4% (with the exception of point 4 below). 1. In the Bessemer/Thomas process, oxygen (which was to react with carbon) was supplied in the form of air blown through the iron bath. This meant the simultaneous supply of nitrogen (since air contains about 21% oxygen and about 79% nitrogen). This nitrogen partially dissolved into the iron. 2. In the LD(BOF)- and KALDO-converters, the atmospheric oxygen was replaced with pure oxygen gas. The oxygen gas here was blown against the iron bath, improving quality and economy. The nitrogen content undesirable for steel decreased. Considerable amounts of scrap (cheaper raw material) could be melted. 3. OBM/LWS-converters replaced the KALDO and complemented the LD. Here, the oxygen gas is blown through the iron bath in parallel with gas/oil, giving improved economy and to a certain degree improved quality. "Hybrid" of the LD and OBM/LWS have also been brought into use. 4. The AOD/CLU-converters have taken their place in stainless steel production. The raw material here is liquid highcarbon chromium steel. Oxygen gas is blown through the steel bath in parallel with argon/steam, resulting in considerably improved quality and economy. Common to all converters is that all necessary energy is developed inside the converters by the combustion of elements dissolved in the iron/steel. Increased production and increased consumption resulted however in increased scrapping. The need to remelt the scrap (which is a valuable raw material for the production of prime-quality steel) increased. The development of a suitable furnace for this purpose led to the construction of the MARTIN (Open Hearth) furnace. The ore-based steel production which had dominated up until then experienced increasingly tough competition from the scrap-based route; this checked the growth of the pneumatic (Bessemer and Thomas) processes. The ore-based Bessemer/Thomas processes had their golden age during the first forty years of the twentieth century. Constantly increasing requirements on quality and profitability, as always, steered and directed development. The material made by the first cast-steel processes was first-rate in its time for the intended applications. However, it couldn't do the job for ship plates, (car) autobodies, bathtubs, tin cans etc. The reason for this was the high nitrogen levels. Nitrogen can deteriorate steel's properties -- e.g. cause increased brittleness. The Bessemer process required that air be blown through the carbon-rich iron bath. The air contained about 21% oxygen, which oxidized the carbon down to levels permitting forgeable steel. The other main component of air is nitrogen (about 79%). About 3.5 times as large a nitrogen in the steel was therefore unavoidable. It would of course be desirable to blow pure oxygen gas through the bath instead of air. This was however impossible, because the inside temperature of the converter's bottom tuyeres became too high for the ceramic ("refractory") material. As mentioned before, carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorus and other elements in the hot metal bath are to be regarded as fuels which, when oxidized by oxygen (combusted), release heat. In the battle for lower nitrogen levels, the oxygen content in the injected air was first increased to about 30% (from an earlier 21%). That is, the nitrogen content was lowered to about 70%. This was of course a step forward, but it didn't go far enough. The air had to be practically free of nitrogen. In other words, only oxygen gas could be tolerated for the production of a satisfactory steel. As the possibility for blowing through the bath had been given up, there was no other way than to blow against the bath. And so the LD-process was born, where a water-cooled, double-mantled lance is sunk into an upright converter, discharging above the hot metal bath. The oxygen gas was thus blown against the bath surface, and the problem with nitrogen was solved!

We now come to the 1950's. The LD-process (BOF-process) spread like wildfire throughout the world. The Bessemer and Thomas methods gradually disappeared. Compared with the Thomas process though, the LD had an important disadvantage: it couldn't produce a low-phosphorus steel from a high-phosphorus hot metal. This lead a group of processdevelopers in Domnarfvet, Sweden to scratch their thinning scalps, and under the direction of Professor Bo Kalling the KALDO-process (KALLING DOMNARFVET) was developed. Even here, top blowing was utilized as in the LD. The difference was that in KALDO, this top blowing took place in an inclined (170 degrees to the horizontal plane) converter which rotated 30-40 revolutions per minute. The slag's consistency could be controlled through the extra stirring obtained by the rotation. The result was that steel with low phosphorus contents could be made. The story of KALDO was however rather short: 20 years. The reasons for this were: -the high-phosphorus hot metal could be replaced to a greater degree by hot metal low in phosphorus level in the more thoroughly refined iron ore concentrates -the arise of a converter where the problem with oxygen gas through the hot metal bath was solved. The finesse here was the blowing of hydrocarbons (gas/oil) in parallel with oxygen gas. These hydrocarbons were split apart into their basic components. As this splitting requires heat, the hydrocarbons had a cooling effect, which contributed to keeping the temperature at an acceptable level for the refractory lining. Two bottom blown converters are established today: the OBM developed in Germany and the LWS developed in France. Both manage (as opposed to the top blown LD) to make low-phosphorus steel from high-phosphorus hot metal. The steel plants which were still forced to used high-phosphorus hot metal could now liquidate the KALDO, which without a doubt had higher operating costs compared with the newer processes, due to both mechanical and refractory maintenance. However, it must be emphasized here that KALDO played a very important role which no other process could fulfill at that time: the making of low-phosphorus steel from high-phosphorus hot metal. Today the basic oxygen processes prevail for ore-based steelmaking. The initially isolated "top-" and "bottom-" blown converters are today often combined in one and the same process. II. SCRAP-BASED STEELMAKING Scrap melting carried out already in primitive times in crucible steel furnaces. Crucibles loaded with scrap were placed in a reverberatory furnace, where melting took place. The heat was a mere 50kg! It was a remelting furnace, that is, no reactions took place. Just as the Bessemer converter was the opening to ore-based steelmaking, the Open Hearth (OH) furnace was the pioneer for scrap-based steelmaking. This was also a type of reverberatory furnace, but for considerably larger heat sizes. In this furnace, as opposed to the crucible steel furnace, reactions could be carried out, such as decreasing the carbon content and eventually also the phos-phorus content. The OH process was, however, according to today's standards very time-consuming. As well, it had poor heat economy, that is, a relatively small part of the supplied energy was actually used in the process. Most of the heat from the flames went out through the stack! At around the turn of the century, a strong competitor to the open hearth process entered the arena, namely the electric arc furnace (EAF). It can be called "the ruler of the roost" in today's western world. In the 1930's, a counterpart to the earlier crucible steel furnace entered the scene: the high frequency furnace. Its energy

source is electric, just as for the electric arc furnace. The heat size is considerably smaller though, a maximum of 20 tons. No reactions occur in high frequency furnaces, nor in other types of induction furnaces and crucible steel furnaces. So, just as the Basic Oxygen Furnace, BOF, plays the main role in ore-based steelmaking, the electric arc furnace plays a corresponding role in today's scrap-based steelmaking. The main difference between the two (EAF and BOF) is the energy source. In converters, chemical energy is evolved through reactions between oxygen and substances in the hot-metal/steel. The electric arc furnace is supplied with mainly electrical energy externally.

PROCESS ROUTE DETERMINES TYPE OF FURNACE

In an ORE-BASED steel plant, the starting point is liquid hot metal with a carbon content usually above 4%. The carbon content must be lowered by 3-4% to obtain a forgeable or rollable steel. In a SCRAP-BASED steel plant (where the electric arc furnace has for many years replaced the old Martin furnace), the starting point is as the name implies, solid steel scrap (even though cast iron scrap, pig iron and similar highcarbon material can make up part of a heat, steel scrap is the dominating raw material). Before the scrap can be transformed to first-rate steel, it must be melted. The liquid steel obtained often has a carbon content lying only 0.20 0.30% above the carbon content required in the finished steel. THUS, in an ORE-based steel plant about ten times as much carbon must be oxidized out of the melt compared with a SCRAP-based steel plant. This implies that if in both cases one has a heat size of 100 tons, in the ore-based case one must remove about 4 tons carbon, which produce about 50,000 Nm3 carbon monoxide. In the scrap-based case, corresponding amounts are about 300 kilograms carbon and approx. 4000 Nm3 gas. Other differences between the two steelmaking methods are: * Volume of raw material: - 1 ton liquid pig-iron/steel takes up a volume of about 145 liters - 1 ton scrap requires a volume of about 1250 litres or about 1 1/4m 3 * Energy source: - In the converter, energy is evolved inside the metal through the combustion of elements dissolved in the hot metal such as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, etc. In the electric arc furnace the lion's share of the energy is supplied from outside via electric arcs which work inside the furnace. Due to these differences, the two types of furnaces have completely different a appearances and sizes. The converter is "pear-shaped", tall and narrow with a relatively large volume (nearly twice that of the EAF). The reason for this is the large

volumes of gas which are evolved and which cause the slag to foam; a large converter volume decreases the risk for slag overflow. The valuable evolved gas, which contains among other things carbon monoxide (CO) must be utilized: therefore the mouth of the converter is relatively small. The electric arc furnace on the other hand is much wider than tall, for two reasons: - To accommodate coarse scrap in large portions. - A relatively large distance is required between the electric arcs and furnace walls to prevent the high power emanating from the arcs from melting away the refractory lining.

TYPE OF FURNACE DETERMINES TYPE OF STEEL AND VICE VERSA

The process route determines the type of furnace, which determines the type of steel: "The cat takes the mouse, the mouse takes the cheese...." And vice versa! In other words, certain types of steel are best suited for manufacture in the converter while others are better suited for production in the EAF. The production of carbon steel in large amounts is better suited to the converter than to the EAF, due to the higher productivity of the former. Alloy steels are generally better suited for manufacture in the EAF than in the converter because the electrical energy which is supplied externally results in a significantly lower alloy loss. The energy source in the converter is after all combustion of elements in the bath by oxygen gas. Deep-drawing steels can only be made in the converter due to the lower levels of copper and tin in the hot metal. And so on.

STEELMAKING: "PLAYING BACK AND FORTH WITH OXYGEN"

The making of steel can be described as a duel between iron (Fe) and oxygen (O). It starts with the iron which is bound with oxygen. The iron is freed from the oxygen by carbon, which attracts the oxygen more strongly than does the iron. "The duel" takes place in the blast furnace out of which the metallic iron is tapped. This iron, which from the beginning was bound in a compound with 30% oxygen, now contains practically no oxygen. But the carbon doesn't get the oxygen for nothing! It also dissolves into the iron to a level of about 4%. The resulting product is called pig iron - it may not be called steel, as with its high carbon content, it isn't forgeable. A large part of the carbon must then be eliminated. What is to be done? Well, after making a large effort to remove the oxygen from the iron, oxygen gas is then blown against or through the hot metal! As mentioned before, carbon exhibits a stronger attractive force on oxygen than does iron. In blowing the oxygen against the iron, the carbon, not the iron, will be bonded with the oxygen! Carbon and oxygen form carbon monoxide, a gas, which leaves the converter. However, if the truth be known, the hot metal isn't exposed to oxygen without consequences. The price paid is that a part of the oxygen dissolves into the iron. Depending on the carbon content present, the oxygen level is now in the order of about 0.02% - a level which certainly is significantly lower than the original 30%, but still much too high to be accepted. Oxygen in steel is, namely, a POISON. What remains to be done, in order to get an acceptable steel quality, is to lower the oxygen content in the steel when it is tapped out of the converter. Carbon cannot be used at this stage, as the steel has by now reached its specified carbon content. Instead, an element which has an even stronger affinity to oxygen is added: aluminum. So, once oxygen has done its job, it has finally to be removed!

REDUCTION - OXIDATION - EQUILIBRIUM

These are basic chemical concepts which describe what happens in e.g. the blast furnace, the converter, the electric arc furnace and the ladle. For metallurgy is chemistry, at high temperatures. We have already touched on the applications of a few of these concepts. Reduction occurs in the blast furnace when carbon "takes" oxygen from the iron. The process can be described as follows:

iron*oxygen + carbon -> (iron oxide) Chemical formula: Fe2O3 +

iron + carbon*oxygen (metal) (carbon monoxide)

3C -> 2Fe + 3CO

"Reduction" is a reaction where THE AIM is to remove oxygen. Other examples of reduction: * Reduction of phosphorus pentoxide in the slag to phosphorus which re-turns to the steel (not desirable!)

* Reduction of chromium oxide in the slag to chromium which goes back into the steel (desirable!) The oxygen which is removed on reduction is bonded with other elements that have a stronger affinity to the oxygen. "Oxidation" occurs e.g. in the BOF where oxygen combines with carbon in the iron: oxygen + carbon -> carbon monoxide

(dissolved in iron/steel) Chemical formula: O2 + 2C -> 2CO

"Oxidation" is a reaction where THE AIM is to add oxygen. Other examples of oxidation: * Oxidation of phosphorus to phosphorus pentoxide, P 2O5 * Oxidation of silicon to silicon dioxide, SiO2 * Oxidation of manganese to manganese oxide, MnO * Oxidation of iron to iron oxide, FeO * Oxidation of chromium to chromium oxide, Cr2O3 "Equilibrium" occurs when a reaction has stopped (or takes place at the same rate in both directions). Let us observe a steel bath in which oxygen (in the form of FeO) and manganese are dissolved. Mangenese, Mn, exhibits a stronger attractive force on oxygen than does iron, Fe. The manganese will then react with the iron oxide, implying that the manganese reduces the iron oxide, takes over the oxygen from the iron and forms manganese oxide, MnO. The iron is transformed to metal. The manganese oxide formed, MnO, is less dense than the steel bath (5.4 kg/liter compared with 6.9 kg/liter) and will therefore float up and become part of the top slag. One can say that the manganese has been fluxed (oxidized and joined the top slag). Gradually the reaction will come to a halt, which can be concluded by taking a series of samples every few minutes. The levels of Mn, MnO and FeO remain unchanged when the reaction has reached equilibrium. This is noted on the diagram by arrows pointing in both directions: an arrow points toward MnO in the slag, and another arrow points in the opposite direction from MnO towards Mn in the bath. One can also say that at equilibrium, the reaction rate is the same in both directions. All is "calm and quiet". If at this stage oxygen gas is blown in, the equilibrium will be set out of play again! The oxygen level, FeO in the steel bath will increase, and the manganese will again be attracted by the oxygen, combining to form MnO (the iron not being "strong" enough to keep the oxygen). After the blowing of oxygen gas has ceased, the reaction will gradually come to a halt, that is a new equilibrium will be established. Another example is when oxygen gas is blown into a converter and carbon monoxide is formed, which bubbles up through the iron/steel bath. The bath "boils". If the oxygen blowing is stopped, the boiling will continue for a while, and then gradually subside. No carbon monoxide will then be formed, the bath will be quiet. No further reaction will take place. Equilibrium will have been reached. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OXIDATION AND REDUCTION One and the same reaction formula can describe oxidation as well as reduction!

Conditions determine which of the two reactions is in question. sinter iron oxide Fe2O3 + carbon 3C -> iron 2Fe + carbon monoxide 3CO

The above describes both oxidation and reduction: OXIDATION

Sinter is added to a carbon-rich steel bath to lower the carbon content. The sinter's oxygen is bonded with the carbon, which attracts oxygen more strongly then does the iron. The reaction is called OXIDATION, as the aim is to supply oxygen to lower the carbon content.

REDUCTION Sinter is heated up together with carbon (coke). The sinter "hands over" its oxygen to the carbon, which attracts oxygen more strongly than does the iron. The reaction is called REDUCTION, as the aim is to remove oxygen to obtain metallic iron. REACTIONS. General REACTION OCCURS FORMS OF PRODUCT slag TRANSPORT AFFECTS

remains in the melting point oxygen top slag content in the steel floats up and Metal+oxygen slag oxygen content bath joins top slag floats up and in the steel joins top slag oxygen Nonmetal + oxygen slag or gas bath or leaves as content gas in the steel remains in oxygen content Metal is dissolved alloy bath steel bath steel properties remains in the in the steel oxygen content Nonmetal is dissolved solution steel bath steel properties bath In a cases, a heat exchange occurs, either in the form of heat evolution (temperature increases) or in the form of heat consumption (temperature decrease) in the steel. Oxide A+Oxide B form oxide AB in the slag

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS AND IMPURITIES ON STEEL PROPERTIES

As previously stated, pure iron has little practical use. It is first when the iron becomes alloyed with other elements, and is thereby called steel, that it becomes interesting as a material. As opposed to alloying elements which are added to give the steel certain desired properties, the iron metal contains other elements -- impurities -- which have a negative effect on the steel's performance. Metallurgy in the steel shop is in other words all about decreasing the level of impurities and increasing the level of alloying elements. First one, then the other. In the furnaces (converters or electric arc furnaces) a "metallurgical treatment" is carried out, consisting of decreasing the levels of some or all of the following undesirable elements: sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), carbon (C) as well as nonmetallic inclusions: "SPOHNC" + nonmetallic inclusions.

"There is no rule without exceptions". Some of the elements in "SPOHNC" are sometimes desirable. Carbon (C) is no impurity, but rather the most common alloying element. The reason for carbon being referred to in this context is that for quality reasons, it is desirable to allow carbon to participate in the "metallurgical treatment". We will return to this later.

* Sulphur is generally not desirable because it can cause "red shortness" (hot brittleness), where the steel shape shatters on hot rolling (which is carried out when the shape is "red hot"). It can also decrease transverse strength in the steel product. Sulphur is added as an alloy on the other hand to so-called free-cutting steels, as it improves chip removal on machining. * Phosphorus is as a rule not desirable either, as it causes "cold brittleness" that is, brittleness at low temperatures. Even phosphorus is sometimes added as an alloy to make the steel easy to work. * Oxygen is almost always harmful, as it gives rise to nonmetallic inclusions, which in turn cause cracks in the material. * Hydrogen is always harmful because at certain levels it causes cracks,

so-called "flakes". * Nitrogen, finally, is sometimes harmful as it decreases the steel's toughness under certain conditions. It can also cause "blue brittleness" and increase tendency to corrosion. On the other hand, nitrogen is sometimes added as an alloy in steel to increase hardness and other mechanical properties at high temperatures. Nitrogen is also used sometimes to improve surface hardness.

REFINING BY OXIDATION
This is the first stage of the "metallurgical treatment" in the melt shop. This applies to both the converter (where the starting material is hot metal) and the electric arc furnace ( where the starting material is liquid steel, after the scrap has been melted). "Refining by oxidation" is combustion of elements which are dissolved in the liquid "starting material". In principle, it can be said that the elements are organized in a certain order determined by oxygen's varying attraction to the elements. Oxygen first reacts with: Aluminium, al, then Silicon, Si, Carbon, C, Manganese, Mn, Iron, Fe, Phosphorus, P. This is "in theory"; however in practice several of the elements are oxidized more or less simultaneously. It is however important to be clear on this ranking order of the elements with regards to oxygen. Knowledge of this is of essential importance later in the process route. The aim of refining by oxidation is to decrease the levels of carbon and phosphorus. Unfortunately, this must occur at the cost of such elements as silicon and manganese, which are both important alloying elements. But the fluxing of some of these elements cannot be avoided, again depending on the stronger attractive forces that these elements (compared with carbon and oxygen) exhibit on oxygen. The aim of oxidizing refining is not only "chemical", but can be summarized for Converters as: * Decreasing levels of carbon and phosphorus * Generating energy for: - raising the temperature by about 4000C - covering the heat losses to walls, mouth and flue gases - melting burnt lime - melting scrap Electric arc furnaces as: * Decreasing levels of carbon and phosphorus * Degassing: removal of hydrogen and nitrogen, aided by carbon monoxide generation, "boiling" * Stirring, achieved by carbon monoxide generation (the boil), to: - distribute the energy from the electric arcs - ease dephosphorization - homogenize composition and temperature * Contributing chemical energy (besides the existing electrical energy) for the heat requirement.

DEPHOSPHORIZATION
This is an application of oxidation. As already mentioned, the oxidation of

phosphorus is a part of "refining by oxidation". To lower the phosphorus content of hot-metal/steel, it isn't enough just to allow the phosphorus to combine with oxygen to form phosphorus pentoxide, P2O5 ("penta" = "five" in Greek, as in Washington's "Pentagon"). The formed phosphorus pentoxide, which has now become a slag component, must be bound into the top slag. This is one of the reasons for the addition of burnt lime. The main component in the burnt lime is calcium oxide, CaO. CaO bonds with P2O5 to form calcium phosphate, 3CaO*P2O5. (The proportions of CaO and P2O5 may vary) Dephosphorization, that is the transfer of phosphorus from the steel bath to the slag (which floats on top of the steel bath), is favoured by low temperature. The reason for this is that phosphorous pentoxide, P 2O5 risks breaking up into phosphorus and oxygen, "P" and "O". The phosphorus then returns to the steel bath, and there is no dephosphorization! The following is a summary of the factors favouring dephosphorization: 1. High oxygen content. It is the oxygen that binds up phosphorus. 2. Low temperature. Otherwise there is risk for breakup of the formed phosphorus pentoxide = no dephosphorization. 3. "Sufficient" burnt lime, of which the main component CaO (calcium oxide) binds phophorous pentoxide into the slag. The slag must in other words have a sufficiently high basicity! This concept will be explained below. 4. Large slag volume with capacity to accommodate the phosphorus. It is about time we talked a little bit about slags. The making of steel, it has been said, is the making of slag. If the slag doesn't have the right composition, then a satisfactory steel won't be obtained either. One way of determining the slag's suitability for iron- and steelmaking is to determine its basicity. The slag exists in contact with three media: * Liquid steel * Solid refractory lining * Gas, i.e. the atmosphere in the furnace

The liquid medium below the slag, i.e. the metal bath, is dependent on the slag's ability to accommodate the phosphorus and sulphur which are dissolved in the steel.

The solid medium (refractory lining) life depends on the slag's composition and consistency.

In both cases the slag can be described with the term

basicity. The basicity is the ratio of CaO to SiO2, i.e. calcium oxide to silicon dioxide. The value of this ratio should lie at about 3 -- that is, the slag should contain about 3 times as much CaO as SiO2. Why are Cao and SiO2 compared with each other? The explanation is shown in the diagram. The slag components are set up in a row with SiO2 at the left margin and CaO at the right. CaO is the most "basic" component while SiO2 is the least basic, i.e. the most "acidic" of them all. If one goes from CaO and moves to the left, then the farther a component is from CaO in the diagram, the more strongly it is drawn to and chemically bonded with CaO. CaO and SiO2 bond easily with each other and form a relatively easily fusible compound. P2O5, Al2O3 and FeO also combine easily with CaO. MgO, which lies near CaO on the scale, combines with most of the same components as CaO does.

A furnace with basic lining consisting of magnesite or dolomite (CaO and MgO) risks more or less heavy wear on contact with a slag of low basicity (excess of SiO2 or lack of CaO). With such a slag the risk is high that SiO2 in the slag bonds with the CaO or MgO in the refractory lining. It is therefore extremely important that there is an excess of CaO in the slag which can bind up the SiO2 in the slag to hinder it from attacking the refractory lining.

If CaO and SiO2 are allowed to "seesaw" (diagram 28, upper right-hand corner), then SiO2 must "seesaw" on the "light" side so that the refractory lining doesn't take a beating. This means that the "seesaw" must not have the slope shown in diagram 27. The basicity, however, does not say everything about the slag. For the slag to "function", that is, be reactive, it must be relatively fluid. This property is affected by the slag's remaining composition and by the temperature. "Viscosity" is a term used to express the slag's consistency. A viscous slag is a heavy fluid as opposed to a thin fluid. A thinly fluid slag is more reactive than a viscous slag, and therefore desirable for the metallurgical reactions to be cariied out. There are chiefly two components which promote a slag's fluidity: iron oxide (FeO) and fluorspar (CaF2). Both of these lower the slag's melting point and make it more easily fluid at the temperature in question. But the risk here is that the melting point of the "refractory" lining is lowered when the level of these components (FeO and CaF 2) becomes high: just as they lower the slag's melting point, they lower that of the refractory lining! = The lining wear increases. Consequently, e.g. the making of low-carbon steel often implies greater lining wear than when higher-carbon steels are in the program. The explanation for this follows in the next section, where it will be shown that the oxygen content (FeOcontent) increases with decreasing carbon content!

FACTORS AFFECTING THE OXYGEN CONTENT IN STEEL

Oxygen in steel is, as said before, a POISON. The reason for this is that it gives rise to nonmetallic inclusions, which in turn cause cracks in the steel, i.e. they lead to fracture indications. The nonmetallic inclusions decrease the steel's strength, as they themselves have no strength. Liquid steel can dissolve a certain amount of oxygen, while solidified steel

can't absorb oxygen at all. This means that the oxygen present in dissolved form in the liquid steel forms oxides (compounds) at the moment of solidification, i.e. nonmetallic inclusions arise. Thus it is extremely important to press the soluble oxygen content (i.e. the oxygen activity) down to the lowest possible level before the steel is cast. The higher the oxygen activity is in the liquid steel before solidification, the more nonmetallic inclusions the ingot or shape will have. The oxygen content in the liquid steel depends on the following factors: * CARBON content * TEMPERATURE * Oxygen content in the SLAG * Content of OTHER ELEMENTS (other than carbon) * PRESSURE * Type of REFRACTORY material The OXYGEN-CARBON relation implies that the product (carbon x oxygen), %C x %O, is relatively constant for each temperature. At for example 1600 0C the product is about 0.0020, which means that at 1% carbon the soluble oxygen content (the oxygen activity) is 0.0020%. In brief: at high carbon contents the oxygen level is low, and at low carbon contents the oxygen level is high. This is a very important relation with great practical significance. By measuring the oxygen activity (the soluble oxygen content) one can indirectly establish the carbon content. In practice both carbon and oxygen are analyzed, but should failure arise in the laboratory, an oxygen activity measurement can give an indication of the carbon content. This applies at moderate levels of carbon and oxygen, as is clear in the diagram. This may be a good time to mention why the oxygen activity is often given in ppm oxygen while other elements are given in %. In the last example, the oxygen content was 0.0020% at 1% carbon. Instead of 0.0020% one says 20 ppm oxygen to avoid a bunch of zeroes and decimal points. "ppm" is in other words easier to use. "ppm" is an abbreviation of the "parts per million" = one millionth. What is one millionth in %? The following:

"ppm" can also be seen as resulting from the laziness of human nature. It's easier to use fewer digits than many! A practical application of the carbon-oxygen relation can be observed when one ("Heaven forbid!") carburizes steel bath by dipping the electrodes into the bath. It boils around the electrodes. Why? Well, when the steel bath is carburized, the solubility of oxygen in the steel decreases. The carbon that dissolves into the bath from the electrodes reacts with the arisen oxygen surplus to form carbon monoxide, which bubbles up and leaves the bath. TEMPERATURE affects the oxygen activity in steel. Oxygen's solubility in steel increases with rising temperature. For example, the higher the tap temperature in the converter or electric arc furnace, the higher the oxygen content in the steel and the more deoxidation reagent (eg. aluminum) must be added, resulting in a larger amount of nonmetallic inclusions formed. The relation between temperature and oxygen content explains the arise of so-called "cooling boil". Sometimes scrap sticks to the furnace wall. This can be "frozen solid" a long time after the bath has reached the "molten" stage and the raising of bath temperature has begun. Suddenly, however, the piece of scrap can loosen and fall down into the bath. A violent "boil" arises, resulting in steel and slag being thrown out through the slag door. That's a "cooling boil". The explanation for the violent reaction is: when the relatively cold scrap falls down into the bath, it requires heat to melt. Locally around the impact location, the temperature decreases and with it the oxygen's solubility (which as known decreases with temperature). The suddenly liberated excess of oxygen reacts with the carbon in the melt and forms the gas carbon monoxide, CO. A "boil" occurs. A combination of "the oxygen-carbon relation" and "the oxygen-temperature relation" can arise, when in certain situations high-carbon ferromanganese is added. There can then be a more or less vigorous boil caused partly by the alloy's cooling effect (i.e. the temperature decreases) and partly by carburization from the carbon in the FeMn. Oxygen is released due to rising carbon. A boil arises. The sometimes violent "boil" can of course be avoided if the oxygen content is first lowered by the addition of some deoxidation reagent, e.g. aluminum, silicon or other strong oxygen-binders. THE OXYGEN CONTENT IN THE SLAG affects the oxygen activity in the steel.

The oxygen distributes itself in a law-obeying manner between the slag cover and the steel bath. If the oxygen content (FeO-content) in the slag increases, so does the oxygen content in the steel. The opposite also applies: if the oxygen content in the slag is decreased, then the oxygen content in the steel will also decrease. There occurs in other words a transport of oxygen between slag and steel until an equilibrium is reached. In refining by oxidation in the electric arc furnace or converter, the carbon content is of course decreased -- that is part of the goal with refining by oxidation. The decreasing carbon content results in a rising oxygen level in the steel (the carbon-oxygen relation!). This results in an increase in the oxygen content in the slag. If one adds for example ferrosilicon (FeSi), CaSi or some other strong deoxidizer to the slag, then the oxygen content in the steel will also gradually decrease. PRESSURE affects the oxygen content. When carbon reacts with oxygen, a gas (carbon monoxide, CO), is formed. Thst is, C + O -> COgas. Gases change volume with changing pressure. Expressed differently, a certain volume of gas exerts a certain pressure. At the pressure which surrounds us every day, the reaction C + O -> CO is driven to the right until the CO-pressure is so large that there is no room for more CO-molecules. Then the reaction halts, that is, the "boil" stops. The reaction has reached equilibrium. This can be expressed mathematically as C + O -> PCO. (PCO = carbon monoxide pressure). If the pressure PCO is now decreased, then the sum (C + O) must also decrease. Conclusion: the oxygen content in the steel is affected by the surrounding pressure. Other ALLOYING ELEMENTS affect oxygen content. Alloying elements which attract oxygen lower the oxygen activity. The REFRACTORY material affects the oxygen content. This influence can manifest itself in the vacuum treatment of steel. To drive the reaction C + O -> CO to the right the pressure is decreased. If the refractory lining contains SiO2, this component can be split up into silicon and oxygen, the latter of which then dissolves into the steel. TOP

DEOXIDATION
There are greater and smaller amounts of gas dissolved in the liquid steel. The three in question are: oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. Of these, oxygen and hydrogen are almost never desired. Nitrogen plays a positive role in certain steels. For most steels however there is a limit for the nitrogen content which must not be exceeded. The steel's gas content is taken care of in the last stage of the metallurgical treatment, before casting. Lowering of the oxygen content occurs by deoxidation. Three completely different methods for deoxidizing steel are available: 1. Diffusion deoxidation 2. Vacuum deoxidation with carbon 3. Precipitation deoxidation Of these, the last one dominates in today's practice, sometimes complemented by the others. DIFFUSION DEOXIDATION Was used to a large extent in earlier days, when steel was refined completely in the electric arc furnace. To be able to carry out desulphurization in those cases where high alloy steel was made, a low oxygen content was required in the steel and in the slag. By lowering the oxygen content in the slag, the oxygen content in the steel also decreased: the oxygen diffused from the steel to the slag. This transport of oxygen from steel to slag is however a slow procedure and therefore cannot be accepted as the sole way of deoxidation in the productive steel plants of today. VACUUM DEOXIDATION with carbon as a deoxidation reagent has (along with the previous method) the advantage of not resulting in nonmetallic inclusions. The carbon combines with oxygen to form a gas, carbon monoxide (CO), which leaves the steel bath.

However, this method demands expensive vacuum equipment. It should be pointed out that as a rule there is only one aim with vacuum equipment: to lower the hydrogen content, H. PRECIPITATION DEOXIDATION is the most common method used today. It doesn't require any extensive equipment and it is relatively fast. Above all, extremely low oxygen levels can be achieved, which the other methods cannot even come close to. The complication, however, is that this procedure results in nonmetallic inclusions, which must be separated to a great extent from the steel before it solidifies. If most of them aren't removed, they will have a strongly negative effect on the steel's properties. Those who have experienced the enjoyment of a Pernod have certainly observed a white "precipitation" in the glass when the slightest bit of water is added. It looks like an emulsion of white, floating particles. When precipitation deoxidation is applied in steelmaking, elements exhibiting a strong attractive force on oxygen are added to the steel. Aluminum is the most usual deoxidation reagent, but even silicon (less effective), is used. When aluminum is used, it reacts with oxygen and forms aluminum oxide. A precipitation or emulsion is also formed here, but now by nonmetallic inclusions, which must be removed as completely as possible to obtain as clean a steel as possible. The inclusion floatation takes places by two mechanisms: * Part of the inclusions attach to the refractory lining * The initially-formed inclusions are very small. They are lighter (less dense) than the steel and strive therefore upwards towards the surface. Due to temperature differences in the melt, a convective current exists. The small particles thus move in different directions. During these movements they collide with each other and thereby combine and grow in size. The larger the inclusions become, the more quickly they rise, and the greater the chance for further collisions leading to further size-growth and so on. These two mechanisms for inclusion flotation, however, take time, and would take much too much time if the melt was not stirred. Often the stirring is achieved by blowing an inert (nonreactive) gas either through porous plug in the ladle bottom or through a lance immersed in the melt. This gas usually consists of argon. The stirring can also be performed with the help of an inductive stirrer. TOP

DESULPHURIZATION Desulphurization requires a low oxygen content and higher temperature, as opposed to dephosphorization. Otherwise, the conditions for desulpharization are similar to those applying to dephosphorization, i.e. high basicity and relatively large slag volume.
The reaction formula below describes schematically how sulphur is bonded to calcium in the slag: Burnt Lime Aluminum 3(CaO)slag + 3FeSsteel + 2Al 3(CaS)slag + (Al2O3)slag + 3 Festeel For the reaction to go to the right, that is for sulphur to be freed from the iron (FeS) and go over to the slag where it is bonded by calcium to calcium sulphide, (CaS), requires the following: 1. Aluminum, Al, and lime, CaO, must be added. 2. Aluminum combines with the oxygen which is bonded to calcium as CaO. Calcium, Ca, is thereby liberated and can combine with sulphur, S, to form Calcium sulphide, CaS. 3. High temperature 4. Relatively large slag volume Point 1 means in other words that a certain basicity is required of the slag. Point 2 implies that Al is added to combine with the oxygen liberated from CaO. The unbound oxygen (= oxygen activity) must be as low as possible for the calcium to be able to combine with sulphur. The steel and slag must in other words be deoxidized.

VACUUM TREATMENT, HYDROGEN REMOVAL

In section 1.11 DEOXIDATION, vacuum deoxidation with carbon is mentioned as a possible method for lowering the oxygen content in steel.

When a steel plant invests in a vacuum station, the chief aim in using it is to decrease the hydrogen content, not the oxygen content. There are, as mentioned earlier, better ways to lower the oxygen content than to use expensive vacuum equipment. For hydrogen removal however, vacuum treatment is the most effective method that exists. As opposed to other elements existing in other phases in the steel. the gas content is dependent on the surrounding atmospheric pressure. The lower the surrounding pressure, the less gas the steel can dissolve. The relation can be expressed with a simplified formula: % gas = Pgas, where P = pressure of the gas, expressed as atm. T 1atm (760 mm Hg) pressure, the steel can dissolve a certain amount of gas. If the pressure is decreased, the gas' solubility in steel decreases. look at the formula above! (% gas = pressure of the gas). If the value on the right-hand side of the "=" symbol is decreased (the pressure), then the value on the left-hand side must also decrease, otherwise the equality will not exist! Vacuum treatment occurs at a pressure of about 1 millibar, that is about 0.76 mm Hg = 1/1000-ths atmospheres. A number of different vacuum-equipment systems exist: * Ladle degassing, where the whole melt is put under vacuum * Stream degassing, where the steel is either tapped or cast under vacuum * "Pipette" degassing, where the steel is exposed batch-wise to vacuum by the RH- and

DH-methods respectively
Too much hydrogen dissolved in steel can, as mentioned earlier, bring considerable harm to the steel by causing cracks -failure indications in the material. Where does the hydrogen come from? * From the atmosphere! The air which surrounds us contains a certain humidity. The liquid steel picks up hydrogen from the humidity, which is after all water, a combination of hydrogen and oxygen, H2O. The air's humidity, then, is one of the factors affecting the steel's hydrogen content. Consequently, steel dissolves more hydrogen during the warmer periods of the year than during the winter. * From moist ladles * From moist additions, e.g. alloys, slag, etc * From partially slaked lime * From moist stool plates (also called sprue plates) Etc Whether or not the steel plant is equipped for vacuum treatment of liquid steel, it is of extreme importance to eliminate all sources of hydrogen, as it isn't cheap to vacuum treat or hydrogen anneal the steel. Different ways of refining steel have been mentioned. Not all steel produced requires all of the described treatments. The area of application, that is, the requirements placed by the customer on the steel's performance, decides the extent of the metallurgical treatment to be carried out before casting. The casting, and subsequent treatment that may be required by the cast shapes or ingots, are the final stages under the steel plant's responsibility.

CASTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF STEEL

During the 150 years or so that have passed by since cast steel was "born" with the help of Bessemer and Goransson, many processes for the making and refining of steel have seen the light of day. During the first approximately 100 years, though, not much happened in the area of casting. The steel was tapped from the furnace into the ladle, and from the ladle it was teemed into cast-iron moulds. The only significant change, which today represents more than 80% of all casting, began development first in the transition between 1940 and 1950. Still today, certain high-carbon and high-alloy steels must be cast into ingots. As opposed to water, steel shrinks when it solidifies. An expression for this is the difference in the volumetric weight of liquid and solid steel. The volumetric weight of solid steel lies at around 7.9 tons per cubic meter, and at about 7.1 tons per cubic meter for liquid steel. This is even more clear when one turns the figures upside down! How large a volume does 1 ton liquid and solid steel require respectively?

Liquid steel requires 1000 liters for 6.9 tons, that is about 125 liters per ton. Solid steel requires 1000 liters for 7.9 tons, that is about 127 liters per ton. One ton of steel which has solidified (and which finds itself at 20 0C) requires therefore about 18 liters less volume than when it was liquid. The steel can solidify with or without simultaneous gas release. The steel is said to be "unkilled" and "killed" respectively. The killed steel solidifies without gas evolution while the unkilled steel gives off a gas, carbon monoxide (CO). A deciding factor for how the steel solidifies is its dissolved oxygen content. As mentioned earlier, the oxygen content (=oxygen activity) depends on different factors, including: * Carbon content * Temperature * Other alloying elements (other than carbon) If the steel contains carbon and otherwise relatively low contents of other alloying elements, the oxygen/carbon- and oxygen/temperature- relations rule. It is these relations which explain why the steel solidifies during simultaneous gas evolution. If the carbon and oxygen contents are at equilibrium before casting, then this equilibrium will be disturbed during casting due to changing temperature (the temperature decreases). Carbon and oxygen will react with each other and form the gas carbon monoxide, which bubbles up in the yet liquid steel. The product (%C x &O) has a constant value at each temperature. As long as the oxygen and carbon contents do not equal the value of this product, they will react with each other. As the oxygen content also decreases with falling temperature, an equilibrium between carbon and oxygen is never reached during casting. The gas evolution continues right to the end of solidification. A part of the formed gas remains in the end as blowholes/blisters in the solidified steel. The obtained ingot is "unkilled". The only way to prevent gas evolution during solidification is to deoxidize the steel before the casting begins, that is to make the oxygen inactive by binding it with some element other than carbon. In this way, the steel can be made to solidify "killed". It is only carbon with which oxygen forms a gas. If one allows a killed, deoxidized steel to solidify in a mould, a funnel or "pipe" will form, which partly represents the "excess" volume that arises due to shrinkage. The unkilled ingot will not have such a funnel; it obtains instead a "bulgy" upper surface. The "excess" volume is represented here by the sum of all the blow holes that have resulted in the solidified steel. A significantly larger part of the killed ingot must be scrapped as compared to the case of the unkilled ingot. The "pipe", formed in the top of the killed ingot, cannot be rolled or forged together. The reason for this is that its inner walls have been oxidized by the surrounding air. They are covered by iron oxide. The unkilled ingot with all its blow holes has however a significantly better metallic yield because the surfaces in the existing blow holes are free of oxides, as they haven't been exposed to air. They can therefore be welded together during the following working of the ingot. To decrease the amount of killed ingot that must be scrapped due to the formed "pipe", a "hot top" is installed in the mould's upper part. The hot top is made of insulating plates which are wedged onto the inside of the mould. The purpose of the hot top is to maintain the steel at the top of the ingot in a liquid phase for as long as possible, so that it can follow with the successive shrinking. In this way a continual filling occurs, which prevents the formation of a long, unusable cavity in the center of the ingot. The final cavity caused by shrinkage is shifted upwards to the hot top, resulting in a significant decrease in the amount of ingot that must be scrapped. Advantages and disadvantages with unkilled and killed steel: UNKILLED KILLED Advantages Disadvantages * high metallic yield * clean, fine surfaces * tendency to segregation * less risk for segregation * poor surfaces * low metallic yield

Today just about all steel made is killed. The reason for this is partly that the unkilled steel's composition is nonhomogeneous due to segregation, partly that 80-85% of the world's steel production is continuously cast. Unkilled steel cannot be continuously cast. In the beginning of ingot steel's history, the moulds were filled from above. One applied in other words downhill casting. This casting method however resulted in poor ingot surfaces, due to the splashing which the falling steel stream caused when it partly struck the mould bottom and partly struck the steel melt in the mould during casting. During the 1960's, a successive transfer was carried out from downhill casting to so-called uphill casting. Ingot surfaces were thereby improved, and the level of nonmetallic inclusions in the steel decreased. Advantages and disadvantages of the two casting methods can be summarized as follows: DOWNHILL CASTING UPHILL CASTING * lower labour input * good surface Advantages standard * Lower material cost * less oxidation * faster casting * lower mould consumption * splashing, gives poor * higher Disadvantages labour costs surfaces * disturbed upper surface * high mould * risk for breakouts consumption The transition from downhill casting to uphill casting was however a relatively insignificant step in the development chain as compared with the arise of the continuous casting of shapes. The first steps in continuous casting were taken in the 1940's; from the 1950's onwards, it was developed into the dominating technique of today's casting. Currently, continuous casting represents 8085% of steel production. Compared with ingot casting, continuous casting has the following advantages: * About 10-20% higher yield * Shorter process route from liquid steel to shape (implying e.g. the elimination of the cogging mill) * Lower energy consumption * Higher quality Continuous casting is on the other hand considerably more complicated than ingot casting. Continuous casting is more suitable than ingot casting for mass production of a relatively narrow steel assortment. The areas in which continuous casting has not yet taken over are:

* Steel prone to segregation, that is high-carbon and high-alloy steels containing segregation-prone elements.

* Steel containing elements with high oxygen affinity and which are difficult to cast under shrouded conditions (thin dimensions). Continuous casting requires greater precision and is more sensitive than ingot casting. Factors which (besides the composition) are sensitive areas in continuous casting include: * Castability * Temperature * Nonmetallic inclusions * Hydrogen content * Degree of deoxidation * Mould condition * Cooling process * Nozzle condition(SEN) * Aluminum content: As it forms Alumina and gets deposited at every bends. * Reoxidation TOP

SCRAP-BASED STEELMAKING THE MAKING OF HIGHCHROMIUM, "STAINLESS" STEELS

THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE (EAF) REFRACTORY MATERIALS

STEEL RAW MATERIAL SCRAP PURCHASED SCRAP

Purchased scrap comes from steel "consumed" in many different applications, and it therefore has many different dimensions and compositions. To achieve some kind of order, the scrap is divided into classes determined by its size, shape and chemical composition. Each scrap class has its own price tag.

It is important for the steelmaker to choose the most suitable scrap for each steel grade made, considering both compo cost. The process economics begin here! The composition, dimension and price must be chosen to achieve the lowest cost for the steel to be made. The risk for unprofitable steelmaking is large when using scrap which is unsuitable with re any of the mentioned criteria (dimension, chemical composition, price). The above-mentioned classification of scrap varies from country to country. As an example there is In the Nordic count agreement between scrap dealers and steel companies on a scrap classification, documented in "The Scrap Handbook It's not at all a matter of "scrap is scrap"--on the contrary, the scrap is tightly controlled due to its enormous effect on the profitability of steelmaking. The first distinction is made between scrap supplied to merchant steel plants and to plants m

special steels. Therefore "The Scrap Handbook" actually consists of two books:

A. "The Scrap Handbook for Unalloyed and Alloyed Scrap" and B. "The Scrap Handbook for Stainless Steel Scrap".

A. contains 20 different classes: 12 distinguishing size and shape, and 8 distinguishing chemical composition. The largest and most common is class 11, "Prime pieced scrap", which is a "mish-mash" of different types unalloyed scrap. Examples of more definite classes, where the type of scrap can be determined from the name of the class, are: Class 117. Fragmented scrap (e.g. from automobiles) " 142. Prime railway scrap " 22. Turnings " 31. Prime loose sheet scrap " 36. Loose sheet scrap " 37. Bundled scrap (pressed sheet scrap) " 711. Cast iron scrap Other properties can define a class: outer measurements for pieced scrap, thickness for sheet scrap, density for bundle carbon content and phosphorus content for cast iron scrap. * Explosive scrap such as sealed containers, clogged pipes, sealed shock absorbers, etc. * Poisons * Scrap with harmful coatings * Metals, metal alloys * Plastics, wood, rubber, etc. Special precautions are made in avoiding elements in the scrap which can have detrimental effects on steel properties, copper, tin, and metals containing these (e.g. brass, bronze, bearing alloys, etc.) Copper and tin are "poisons" in steel, and their presence is as unchangeable as the cards in poker, where "played card the harsh reality! In contrast to e.g. phosphorus and sulphur, copper and tin cannot be influenced metallurgically once t been introduced into the steel. B. High alloy scrap, suitable for steel plants making special steels, is divided into 8 classes with respect to composition. The three main groups are: * Stainless Cr-scrap * " Cr-Ni-scrap * " Cr-Ni-MO-scrap As in A. there are "shape" classes: 1. Chargeable pieced scrap 2. Turnings 3. Bundled scrap (pressed piece scrap) 4. Unchargeable pieced scrap RECIRCULATED SCRAP Revert/recirculated scrap comes from internal production at the steel plant. It is usually given a higher value than purchased scrap as its composition is known.

Just as purchased scrap must be kept separated in different classes, the recirculated scrap must be sorted into bins ac its composition. This is especially important and relatively complicated in plants producing special steels, where variatio composition span a wide range. Scrap mix-ups here can have serious economic consequences in the form of scrapped replanning and/or reclassifying of the heat, loss of expensive alloying elements, etc. It is not only in the steelshop that s be directed in the proper direction, but even other shops such as the rolling mill must exercise discipline in separating s SLAG FORMERS "The making of steel is the making of slag", is a saying with a lot of truth in it. CaO, calcium oxide, is the dominating and most active component in the slag. In general, it is added in the form of burn (shortened form of "soft burnt lime"). The burnt lime originates from limestone, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3). By heating limestone to about 10000C, the carbonate is broken down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide ( a gas):

CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2 As it is economically important to limit the consumption of electrical energy in the electric arc furnace, the calcination of to burnt lime is done outside of the electric arc furnace. As a rule the calcination is done on-site at the limestone quarry cheaper energy can be used. Dolomite is (as limestone) a carbonate, and must for the same reason be burned (calcined). The burnt dolomite (rough CaO and 38% MgO) complements the burnt lime primarily to limit lining wear. Fluorspar (about 85% CaF2) also contains the element calcium, Ca, but here in combination with fluorine, F, instead of oxygen, O. It is interesting to compare the melting points of the above-mentioned compounds: COMPOUND MELTING POINT (0C) CaF2 1360 CaO 2580 MgO 2800 The purpose of a fluorspar addition is to decrease the slag's melting point to make it more fluid and reactive. Unfortuna addition of fluorspar can also decrease the melting point of the refractory lining, in other words, increase lining wear! It i important for the operator to use fluorspar with care! fluorspar is as well environmentally undesirable, and for that reaso banned in an increasing number of countries. TOP

THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE (EAF)

The EAF is like a "powder magazine" which, if handled improperly, can in itself cause a great deal of lining damage. It is therefore important to understand the electric arc's nature and to be aware of the factors affecting it.

ELECTRICAL RELATIONS Voltage is the product of current and resistance: V = A x O. Power is the product of current and voltage: W = A x V. As V = A x O, the power can also be expressed as: W = A x A x O. or W = A2 x O. 1000 [W] = 1 kilowatt [kW]

1000 [kW] = 1 megawatt [MW] = 1,000,000 W. As power is the product of current and voltage, the same power can be obtained either by high current and low voltage current and high voltage. The electric arc furnace is part of an electric system. the furnace and surrounding equipment are designed to achieve the lowest possible operating costs. The electrical energy supplied to the electric arc furnace is often generated far from the steel plant, in a hydroelectric po nuclear power plant, etc. An example is a hydroelectric power plant generating a voltage of 20,000 volts and a current o amperes. Transport of the power is carried out through high voltage lines of the same type as we see crossing the coun "power-line highways". It is important to transport the power with as little loss as possible. The lines contain a certain am resistance, O. As (heat) loss is proportional to the square of the current, W = A 2 x O, it is important that the transported as low as possible. Therefore, near the power plant the voltage is transformed from 20,000 up to 130,000 volta. The current is thereby lowe 2,600 to 400 amperes. The power is the same: 20,000 x 2,600 = 130,000 x 400, but the power losses along the lines between the power plant and its customer(s) bec about 40 times lower. Close to the steel plant the high voltage is transformed down from 130,000 to 20,000 volts while the current increases f 2,600 amperes. This is the voltage and current which are fed to the EAF's transformer in our example. The arc furnace transformer's primary voltage is in this case 20,000 volts (20 kV). This voltage is transformed down further to 265-884 v electrode current thus increases to about 50,000 amperes, or 50 kA [kiloamperes]. The steel plant purchases a certain power which is fed into the arc furnace transformer. This active power is however not the same as the arc power. In all electrical conductors, losses arise in the form of heat, which in turn give rise to temperature increases. The electrical cord to an iron, for example, becomes warm due to the resistance of the cord. The power you pay for at home is therefore partly the power which goes to heating the iron, and partly the power losses which arise in the cord.

The same applies to the EAF: in the transformer and in the secondary system (which extends from the transformer to th the electrodes), losses arise. The arc power is in other words the difference between the purchased power and the pow in the system's different parts. In the same way, the arc voltage is also lower than the corresponding secondary voltage transformer.

With the help of a so-called tap changer, one can choose the most suitable voltage for each stage of the heat. In this ca can choose voltages between 265 and 884 volts. Why bother with different voltages? Why not be satisfied with one voltage? Because at different stages in the heat, different arc lengths are desired. The arc length depends on the arc voltage, implying that the arc le increases with increasing arc voltage and vice versa. During meltdown, relatively long arcs are desired, which radiate in quickly melt the surrounding scrap. When the scrap is melted, that is, when the arcs radiate towards the bath, then shorter and "fatter" arcs are desired. Th stronger radiation towards the bath to increase its temperature, and less radiation outwards towards the furnace walls, would otherwise be quickly worn away. Short, fat arcs indicate relatively low voltage and relatively high current, while lo imply higher voltage and lower current. Remember that power is the product of voltage and current: W = V x A. The power can in other words indicate either high voltage and low current or low voltage and high current. The ability to choose voltage with the help of the tap changer means that the operator has a flexible tool (the EAF-equipment) which can be adapted to the circumstances. This "flexible tool" is furthermore composed of:

* Furnace transformer * Secondary system, i.e. - flexible, water-cooled cables - electrode arms with conducting bus tubes - electrode holders - electrodes * Electrode masts * Electrode regulating equipment * Furnace shell * Electrode cover ( = furnace roof) * Roof lifting and swinging mechanism * Hydraulic and pneumatic equipment * Instrumentation The furnace shell rests on a cradle which allows for tilting of the furnace in two directions: towards the tapping pit and to charging side.

The electrical relations mentioned above apply to DC-current. However, the EAF is, so far, most often run on AC-current. The power is supplied by arcs. The aim is partly to melt the scrap, and partly to raise the temp the steel bath. As well, the power is used to melt the slag formers and alloying elements. The fact that we're dealing wit "package of dynamite" can be illustrated by the following calculation: assume a 150 ton EAF, equipped with a transform which 100 MW can be supplied. Taking into account losses of different kinds, the electric arc power is about 85 MW. th

corresponds to about 1.4 million 60-watt light bulbs! The power density in an arc is about 25,000 MW per m3. Let's say, for instance, that you have a living room 30 m 2 in area with a height of 3 m.

You have 6 lighting outlets of 40 watts each. The power density in your living room is in other words: 240/(30 x 3) = 2.7 W/m3. The electric arc has then a power that is about 9 billion (9 x 109) times stronger per m3 than what you have in your living no wonder that the scrap melts like butter in sunshine, that the ceramic lining must be partially replaced by water-coole that the operator must have the help of high-speed electronics to be able to handle this "package of dynamite". The three-phase alternating current implies that we must now work with three different power concepts: * Apparent power * Reactive power * Active power Apparent power is the power supplied to the system. It is often expressed in kVA, kiloVolt-Amperes, or in MVA, MegaVolt-Amperes. As is shown in the symbols, it is a product of voltage and current. These must however be multiplied with the square root of three, 3, when the load is symmetrical on the three phases. The formula for calculation of the apparent power is thus: kVA = V x A x 3 x 0.001. Here V = the voltage from phase to phase. Why multiply by 3 ? Let's "go back home"! The voltage at home for lighting, the shaver, etc is 220 volts (the phase voltage) which is taken out from one phase, i.e. it is the voltage between phase and ground. Some "large" appliances such as dishwashers, washing machines etc go on three-phase alternating current. The voltage between the phases is 380 volts (the main voltage), which is 3 x 220 volts! ( 3 = 1.73). 1.73 x 220 = 380. Therefore, in general: the voltage between the phases in a three-phase alternating current network is 1.73 times larger than the one-phase voltage. The same relations apply to main current and phase current.

Reactive power doesn't contribute to the melting; it develops in the conducting system due to its "inductive" resistance. It is expressed as kVAR, kiloVolt-Amperes Reactive, or MVAR, MegaVolt-Amperes-Reactive Active power is the active, "useful" power. It is expressed as kW, kiloWatt or MW, MegaWatt. At the risk of stimulating an unbearable thirst, we can illustrate the relation between the three types of power with a mug of beer! Foam and beer correspond to the apparent power. The foam represents the reactive power while the beer itself is the active power. It is of coarse the beer (the active power) one wants! The relation between the active power and the apparent power is expressed with the power factor, cos cos = kW/kVA or MW/MVA As the active power is always less than the apparent power, the power factor's value is always les than 1. The following relations are for those who wish to engross themselves further in the EAF's functions. The symbols are

internationally established. The symbols used previously in the text were chosen to make understanding of the relations P = Active power from the network [MW] Parc = Electric arc power [MW] Ploss = Power loss in the system [MW] I = Electrode current [kA] x = Reactive impedance, 2.5-5 milliohms / phase r = Active impedance, 0.5-0.8 milliohms / phase cos = Power factor U = Secondary voltage [V] (measured between the phases after the furnace transformer) Uarc = Electric arc voltage [V] Q = Reactive power [MVAR] S = Apparent power [MVA] kA Q = 3. x[ohm].I2[kA] MVAR MW Ploss = 3. r[ohm] . I2[kA] Parc = P - Ploss MW MW V Cos = Power factor = P/S So far we've been talking about power. How does energy come into the picture? POWER, kW << >> ENERGY, kWh, What is the difference? The "h", time, is the difference. Power x Time = Energy That is: Power = Amount of energy per unit time A 60-watt light bulb takes up a power of 60 watts when it is turned on. If it is on for 1/2 hour, it consumes an energy of 30 watt-hours [Wh], 60W x 1/2 h/ [h = hour]. A vacuum cleaner has a power of 1 kW. On vacuum cleaning for an hour, an energy amount of 1 kWh is consumed. Consider two cranes, A and B. They are to lift, in turn, a 100-ton ladle from ground level to the casting platform. Crane A does this in 2.5 minutes while crane B needs 5 minutes for the same maneuver. The reason for this is that crane A has double the power of crane B. Both consume the same amount of energy.

Energy is, once again, power x time. kW x h = kWh, kilowatt-hours. The time, h, is expressed in hours. About 450 kWh is consumed to melt 1 ton scrap and 40 kg burnt lime, raise the temperature of the melted scrap 50 0C a the furnace's heat losses. Say that we have a 100-ton EAF. We want the meltdown time to be 1 hour. How large must the electric arc power be? Simplified: or 45 MW. The time "h" is divided into both the numerator and the denominator, giving: "kW".

The so-called thermal efficiency in an EAF is about 60%, i.e., of the power supplied by the transformer, about 60% is ac used in the process, the rest becomes losses of various types. Therefore, the transformer power in this case must be 4 75 MW. Assuming a power factor of 0.83, this implies a transformer of about 90 MVA [75 / 0.83]. The above calculation is much simplified, with the aim of illustrating the principle. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAF The EAF was before and during the 1960's quite a modest apparatus, in our day's standards. Until as late as the 1960's, a 50-ton furnace had a transformer capacity of about 15 MVA, which corresponds to 300 kVA per The 1970's The constant search for increased productivity brought on a rapid development of the EAF's performance characteristics. In order to decrease meltdown time, the following were installed in many plants: * High-power transformers * Jet burners * Water-cooled panels in furnace walls and roof * Computerized power control The specific transformer capacity increased to about 1000 kVA per ton, i.e. a 50-ton furnace today can be equipped with a 50 MVA transformer! The greater power capacity brought on greater current, which forced EAF-constructors to increase the cooling of the secondary system--e.g. the air-cooled cables were to increase the cooling of the secondary system--e.g. the air-cooled cables were replaced with water-cooled ones. These and several other constructional changes were carried out.

Due to the greater power of the electric arcs, scrap in the periphery of the furnace melted more quickly directly across f electrodes than in the relatively "cooler" spots in between. This resulted in the installation of jet burners, which more or evened out the meltdown around the furnace walls. The high-power transformers brought on faster processing in the furnace, which was of course the aim, but it implied an increasing demand on the operator's (melter's) ability to control the meltdown to minimize wear on the furnace walls. Computer-controlled power-and meltdown programs were constructed as aids. They took over where the human had difficulty keeping up! Short meltdown times however made the EAF all the more inefficient! The greater the transformer capacity, the less of the installed power could be used in the refining (dephosphorization and desulphurization) that followed meltdown. The greater power could only be used for melting. During refining, no more power could be fed into the furnace than in previous practices, in consideration of the refractory lining, which in the absence of scrap was directly exposed to the electric arcs. The installation of transformers with higher and higher power resulted therefore in shorter meltdown times, but unchanged refining times; less and less of the installed transformer capacity was used during refining. Through the advent of the ladle furnace, which was actually developed for other reasons, the EAF was transformed into a "melting machine".

The time-consuming "reducing refining" ("while slag"), deoxidation, desulphurization etc could now be carried out in the ladle instead of in the arc furnace. The heat time in the EAF could now be limited to that required for melting the scrap and raising the temperature of the bath. During the latter stage, contents of carbon and phosphorus could be lowered simultaneously. The ladle furnace (LF) was regarded at the beginning as a kind of "Rolls Royce" suited best to producers of specially steels. However, together with injection technology the LF opened the door to secondary steelmaking, implying a breakdown of steelmaking into two stages: I. The making of crude steel in the EAF or converter ("primary furnaces").

II. Refining in the ladle or converter (stainless steelmaking) to prime-quality steel. The second stage was thus carried out outside of the primary furnace, either in an ordinary ladle ("Volkswagen") or in a furnace ("Rolls Royce"). More on this in Volume 4. The 1980's The development of the EAF and its operation continued. Today the following are employed to an increasing extent: * "Foaming slag" practice * Eccentric bottom tapping * Water-cooled electrodes * Computerized power- and process control * Scrap preheating * Gas stirring * Post-combustion HEAT PROCEDURE

General heat procedures comprise the following possible points. Not all points are applied everywhere due to variations grades, equipment and practice. 1. Furnace charge * scrap * slag formers 2. Power supply 3. Foaming slag 4. Current--Voltage--Arc length--Cos 5. Power control 6. Jet burners 7. Carbon content at meltdown 8. Decarburization, dephosphorization * oxygen gas * sinter/ore 9. Post-combustion 10. Scrap preheating 11. Balck/white slag

12. Impurities 13. Temperature at tap 14. Sampling 15. Bottom stirring 16. Tapping * slag-free * eccentric tap hole * hot liquid heel 17. Ladle additions 18. Relining 19. Electrode adjustment Each of the above points must be described specifically in individual heat instructions. There is always a reason for a heat instruction, that is, how and when a certain action should be carried out. Therefore, heat instructions must be followed to the letter! This is the only way to ensure a high and consistent quality. And it must go quickly, without surrendering the quality! If the heat instructions are not followed "slavishy" (!), then it is difficult afterwards to establish reasons for a heat "running off track". 1. Furnace charge The composition of the furnace charge for each heat should be designed with the requirements of the planned steel grade in mind, while at the same time minimizing the production cost. This implies that one should not consider only the price of the furnace charge without considering the most important of all, the total cost of production. For example, cheap scrap can cause longer treatment times due to its higher sulphur content, which in turn demands larger amounts of lime, which all together can more than well "eat up" the difference between cheaper and more expensive scrap. Scrap loading For scrap to land in the right place in the furnace, it is important for it to be loaded correctly in the scrap basket. "Correctly" means: * Heavy scrap and slag skulls should land in the bottom of the furnace to decrease the risk for electrode breakage. * Thin scrap (plate) loaded on the basket bottom to protect it from the heavy scrap. * Fragmented and finer scrap on the top to ease roof-swinging for an "overfilled" furnace. The number of baskets per heat is determined by: * The scrap basket volume * The scrap's density (volumetric filling) - heavy individual pieces, e.g. end-clippings - finely cut scrap, e.g. fragmented - voluminous scrap, e.g. turnings, plate, etc. Out of time-consideration, it can be more advantageous to use three instead of two baskets in order to avoid overfilled furnaces with time-consuming pressing of the scrap to allow the roof to swing back into place. It is desirable to oxidize a certain amount of carbon for the following reasons: * Stirring for: - promoting dephosphorization - distributing supplied energy - homogenizing temperature and composition - avoiding over-oxidation * Degassing of hydrogen and nitrogen The carbon content in the bath should therefore lie at about 0.20-0.30% above the specified carbon content at tap. Therefore a certain amount of carbon must be included in the furnace charge. Possible carbon carriers are: * Coke * Carbon powder * Pig iron * Cast iron * High-carbon steel scrap The choice depends partly on the phosphorus content required by the finished steel, and partly on the cost per ton produced casting. This is affected not only by the price but also by the carbon recovery. A low price and

low recovery can give a higher total cost than a higher price combined with higher recovery. Cast-iron scrap is in general cheaper than pig iron, but even with the same recovery, the final cost can be higher on use of the cast iron due to its higher phosphorus content. A higher phosphorus content can cause longer processing times in the furnace. This, combined with a higher consumption of burnt lime can weigh more heavily than the lower cast iron price. Compare this with what was noted earlier about different scrap prices and accompanying variation in the requirements desulphurization. Carbon added as pig iron, cast iron and injected carbon powder often achieves a higher recovery tha charged as coke. The choice of carbon carrier is therefore made depending on its price and method of addition. Slag formers The purpose of the slag is to: - bind up phosphorus - bind up sulphur - protect the refractory lining - limit energy consumption. In order to manage these tasks, the slag must have a chemical composition such that it: - can bind up the impurities - doesn't attack the lining - can foam, partly to cover the electric arcs and thereby prevent their direct radiation on the walls and roof, and partly to limit energy consumption. The first two properties mentioned demand a slag with a suitable basicity, i.e. the ratio of CaO to SiO2, CaO/SiO2, should be about 3. This requires sufficient CaO to bind up the SiO 2 in the slag and render it harmless. The SiO2 would otherwise attack the CaO and MgO contained in the refractory lining (and thereby cause intense lining wear). In addition, a surplus of calcium oxide, CaO, is required for the slag to be able to bind up the phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 formed.

The slag must also have a suitable fluidity, so that it can come into contact with the components it is to react with chemically, and so that it has the ability to foam. Thus, it is not enough to specify a certain basicity. A "dry" viscous slag is an inefficient dephosphorizer, even if it has the specified basicity. It lacks furthermore the ability to foam. The slag should neither be too fluid, as it won't foam then either. The slag's fluidity is chiefly affected by the contents of iron oxide, FeO and CaF2.
2. Power supply The power supplied to an EAF comes from: * electric arcs * jet burners (where applicable) * refining under oxidation, the oxidation of carbon dissolved in the steel bath * preheated scrap (where applicable) * post-combustion (where applicable) The electrical energy is always the dominating source, while contributions from the other sources vary from steelshop to steelshop. Example: Heat size: 135 ton Energy supply Electrical ................. 420 kWh/ton Burners ................. 40 kWh/ton Decarburization Other oxidation of iron, silicon, etc Preheated scrap Total energy supplied

................. ................. .................

60 kWh/ton 20 kWh/ton 540 kWh/ton, approximately

The total energy supplied is therefore 540 x 135 = 72,900 kWh. Assume that the net heat process time is 70 minutes, i. hours, then the total power supplied is 72,900/1.17 = 62,300 kW or roughly 62 MW. The "dangerous" power is the electrical, which in this case is about 50 MW. This can be 'dangerous" if not handled corr radiation from the electric arcs is nothing to play around with. On the one hand, it is utilized for melting scrap, and on th hand it may cause the lining to melt! When everything's melted and a steel bath is obtained, it's important to transfer as the energy as possible to the bath, not to the walls. To do this, the power feeding must be controlled. It is a matter of re the electric arc's character so that at each moment they do the most good or the least damage, however one wishes to From the diagram it can be seen that at a certain current, a maximum active power is supplied. It is thus meaningless to exceed this "maximum" current, as the supplied active power then decreases. What's worse, ex this "maximum" current would risk overheating the transformer, with catastrophic consequences! It can also be seen in the diagram how the arc voltage as well as the power factor, cos, decrease with increasing current. IT IS THUS NOT AT ALL CERTAIN THAT MAXIMUM ACTIVE POWER IS ALWAYS PREFERABLE. It is the conditions in the furnace which decide the working points (the chosen voltage and current). 3. Foaming slag Not long ago a practice was developed which in some degree made the furnace less sensitive to the electric arcs, namely the "foaming slag" technique. BY applying this technique, a larger utilization of the supplied power is obtained, that is the energy consumption is limited. A large portion of the supplied energy is utilized in the process at the same time as the lining is protected. Several investigations have shown how important it is to maintain a foaming slag. It is not enough that the slag "partially" foams, i.e. that it only partially hides the electric arcs; it must mask them completely! Otherwise lining wear occurs, which naturally results in time-consuming relining. Further, the rate of increasing temperature decreases with a partially foaming slag, due to the poorer heat transfer from the electric arcs to the bath. Time is lost even for that reason. Foaming slag is in itself nothing new. Everyone who has worked with steelmaking knows that. The supply of oxygen to a carbon-rich iron bath covered with slag often results in the slag foaming. The reason for the foaming is the formation of carbon monoxide bubbles which rise up through the slag. The foaming is often so intense that slag pours out through the slagging door. The "news" is that the foaming slag is utilized as a technique for reaching the above-mentioned aims. By simultaneously blowing oxygen gas and carbon powder into or under the slag, the foaming is controlled so that it occurs just when and for as long as "protection" is needed. It is matter of controlled slag foaming, which is determined by the slag's composition (basicity and FeO-content), as well as by carbon and oxygen. 4. Current--voltage--arc length--cos One and the same power can imply different combinations of current and voltage. As the arc length depends on the arc voltage, it is a matter of adapting this to the conditions in the furnace. The electric arcs may under no circumstances exposed to the lining. If there is no scrap "in the way", or if the foaming slag doesn't function properly, then the arc length (voltage) must be adjusted to minimize damages. At a constant power, this implies as well a change in the current. To utilize as much of the available power as possible, the power factor cos must be as high as the situation allows. 5. Power control In order for meltdown to occur and for the specified temperature to be reached as quickly as possible, the amount of energy must be "dosed" in a correct manner. As a rule, two to three scrap baskets are charged. It is important to supply just enough energy for one basket so that the scrap in the next basket fits exactly into the furnace--no more and no less. If too little energy is supplied, the scrap in the next basket doesn't fit. The scrap piles up, and the roof can't be swung shut until (in the best case) more or less time-consuming scrap-pressing is carried out. On the other hand, if too much energy is supplied, the furnace walls and roof will be exposed to the electric arcs' radiation, as the protecting scrap will have been melted away. Even temperature control requires energy control in order to: * save time * limit energy consumption * prevent excessively high temperatures which can damage the refractory material. Both power- and energy-control are carried out today with computer aid, more often than not. This doesn't however dec importance of an alert operator, who pays attention at every second to what's going on, and who knows what to do whe

the computer breaks down. The high power levels used demand very rapid electrical adjustments in order to avoid dam occurring. It is this, among other things, which forced through the development of electronic process control. 6. Jet burners On increasing transformer power, there is a risk for uneven melting of the scrap in the furnace. The water-cooled panels in the furnace walls strengthen this tendency. Across from the electrodes (the arcs), where the to the wall is the shortest, so-called "hot spots", hot areas, develop. The scrap melts more quickly here than near the w the side of this area. During the time in which the remaining scrap is melted, the furnace walls' unprotected "hot spots" to intense radiation from the arcs; the wear increase. In order to solve this problem, jet burners (oil/oxygen-air or natura gas/oxygen-air-mix burners) are often installed in the furnace walls and in the slagging door. The burners are placed to relatively "cold" parts between the "hot spots". The result is a considerably more even distribution of the supplied energy, i.e. a more even meltdown of the scrap and wear. However, the burners are only effective until the scrap is heated up and partially melted. This means that they are for about 10-15 minutes per basket of scrap. Another limitation of the burner application can be the off-gas cleaner cap Other reasons for the installation of burners are: * Low transformer power. The electrical power is complemented to decrease the meltdown time. * High electrical energy prices. Part of the electrical energy is replaced with cheaper oil. 7. Carbon content at meltdown

Carbon is the most commonly occurring alloying element. Despite this, it is as a rule desirable to oxidize a part of the ca reasons of quality and productivity!

Quality reasons The steel bath has gases dissolved in it, i.e. hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. By achieving a "(carbon monoxide) boil", part of the hydrogen and nitrogen dissolved in the steel bath will "diffuse" into the carbon monoxide bubbles and escape with them out of the bath. Even the oxygen content is prevented from becoming too high, by its coming closer to equilibrium with carbon [remember the (carbon x oxygen) product!]. Through the boil a stirring is achieved, which partly promotes the dephosphorization, i.e. drivers the phosphorus to lower levels, and partly achieves a quicker reaction between oxygen, phosphorus and slag. The interface steel-bath/slag-cover is renewed more quickly by the stirring. Productivity reasons When the scrap has melted, the task then follows of raising the bath's temperature a few hundred degrees to the level required for tapping out of the furnace. In order for the raising of temperature to occur reasonably q stirring is required to assist the bath in accepting and distributing the energy supplied from the electric arcs. Even the dephosphorization occurs more quickly, thanks to the more effective stirring. Thus carbon has many "tasks" besides serving as an important alloying element. Therefore, when the recipe for a furnace charge is determined, one s carbon content which at molten bath state lies 0.20-0.30% above above the level required before tapping. By oxidizing the surplus carbon, one then achieves the above-mentioned aims. 8. Refining by oxidation Decarburization and dephosphorization are really the same as oxidation. It's a matter of adding oxygen to oxidize carbon and phosphorus. Today this generally occurs by blowing oxygen, either down into the bath wi consumable steel tube or against the bath with a water-cooled double-mantled steel tube. Both types are called oxygen Some steelshops combine both of these lance-types. Due to the varying attraction exerted by different elements on oxygen, as described in Volume 1, not only carbon and p will be oxidized, but also silicon, manganese and iron. A certain iron oxide (FeO) content is required in the slag to achie satisfactory dephosphorization. As the oxidation of phosphorus is also favoured by relatively low temperatures, the oxy sometimes also supplied in the form of sinter (or ore), i.e. Fe 2O3. The liberation of oxygen from the sinter requires heat, implies that the sinter has a cooling effect on the bath, i.e. the temperature is held in check! The sinter contributes as w keeping up the slag's iron oxide content (which as mentioned before also favours the oxidation of phosphorus). 9. Post-combustion As mentioned earlier, the heat evolved when elements dissolved in the steel bath are oxidized (combusted by oxygen) to the energy supply. The carbon dissolved in the bath is combusted to carbon monoxide, CO, which bubbles up from t very small portion of the carbon monoxide manages to be combusted to carbon dioxide, CO2 inside the furnace. This is unfortunate, as a complete combustion of carbon dioxide gives off much more heat than combustion to "only" ca

monoxide. Most home-owners with oil-heating are aware of the fact that complete combustion of heating oil inside the furnace is important for the heating economy. This is achieved with an air surplus. If a corresponding oxygen not achieved above the bath in the EAF, then the carbon monoxide that bubbles up from the bath will be combusted ou the furnace in the off-gas ducts. By blowing oxygen over the steel bath, it may be possible to "post-combust" a larger part of the formed carbon monoxid the furnace, with the intention of improving the heating economy. The K-ES process has been developed by Japanese Tokyo Steel Manufacturing Corporation together with German Klo Werke AG. This process is a method for the post-combustion of carbon monoxide in the furnace. The method may be summarized as follows: * Gas stirring through the furnace bottom to increase heat transfer. * Injection of carbon powder into the furnace, partly to replace a portion of the electrical energy, partly to increase the productivity. * Recycling of the off-gas dust. * Blowing of oxygen over the bath to improve the heating economy by post-combustion. Scrap preheating The carbon monoxide (formed on oxidation and together with foaming slag in the furnace) which in the absence of post combustion is sucked out and combusted in the off-gas duct, has long been used for the preheating of scrap. This is a using a part of the fuel developed inside of the furnace. On their way to the filter, where dust-separation occurs, the off-gases pass through the scrap baskets, where a part of t heat content is transferred to the scrap. it is open to discussion whether in fact post-combustion is more or less econom scrap preheating. An extreme application of scrap preheating has been developed by the Danish Steelworks (DDS) and Fuchs. The gist o is a shaft above the EAF where the scrap is more or less continually charged and meets the hot off-gases on its way do the furnace. The carbon monoxide coming from the furnace is thus combusted in the staft and utilized there instead of i furnace (through post-combustion). "Black"/"White" slag. Dephosphorization/Desulphurization Dephosphorization

The oxidation period implies a decrease of carbon and phosphorus contents. Both carbon and Phosphorus are combined with oxygen. Carbon, as mentioned several times before, attracts oxygen more strongly than does phosphorus. The higher the carbon content in the steel bath, the poorer the dephosphorization, as the Oxygen "goes for" the carbon as a first choice. First when the carbon content has become relatively low are the iron and phosphorus oxidized significantly. The iron oxide content in the slag increases, which implies that the phosphorus is surrounded on all sides by oxygen (partly in the form of oxygen gas, partly in the form of iron oxide, FeO) which would like nothing else than to combine with phosphorus. The higher the iron oxide content, the darker the slag becomes, until it approaches black. "Black" slag is consequently strongly oxidizing. Desulphurization One of the conditions favouring desulphurization is a low oxygen content. In earlier steelmaking, desulphurization was a carried out in the EAF, in the so-called refining period. It was then necessary to draw off the "black slag", which contained besides oxygen (FeO) a relatively high level of phosphorus pentoxide, P 2O5. If the deslagging wasn't carried out before a new reducing slag was formed, then a considerable amount of the phosphorus would return from the slag to the steel bath. Why? Because phosphorus' ability to react with oxygen is so weak compared with that of the elements added to reduce the slag(Al, CaSi, etc). Besides the reducing agents, slag formers such as burnt lime, often complemented with fluorspar, are added. The iron oxide content, FeO, must now lie below 1% in order for the desulphurization to be satisfactory. A slag with such a low iron content is light gray to "white". "white" slag is strongly reducing. The refining of steel today is generally carried out in the ladle. This will be covered in more detail in the section Ladle metallurgy in Volume 4. 12. Impurities The levels of carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen can be affected by metallurgical treatments. Unfortunately, there are impurity elements which cannot be treated.

For example copper, Cu, and tin, Sn. For these, "the card is played"! This implies that once these elements have come into the steel, there is no possibility of removing them by oxidation or reduction. The only way to decrease their levels is by diluting the steel bath with "purer" scrap. Because the levels of the mentioned impurities cannot be decreased, there has occurred and continues to occur a continual increase of these elements in the scrap. As Cu and Sn in general have a negative effect on steel's properties, their "unyielding" nature creates material quality problems. For steel grades requiring low contents of the elements in question, a "virgin" (pure) and thereby expensive scrap must be chosen inorder to dilute the "normal" furnace charge. 13. Temperature at tap The EAF is often called a "melting machine". Even though melting is its main job, it has other tasks as well. After the scrap has melted, oxidation of carbon and phosphorus takes place. Simultaneously, the temperature must be raised from the melting to a suitable temperature before tapping. The tap temperature depends on the level of carbon and other elements as well as on the treatment to follow: * Ingot- or continuous casting * Ladle- or ladle furnace treatment * Optional vacuum treatment Etc There is a specified tap temperature for every situation. For steel with a higher carbon content, it is sufficient with a low temperature, and vice versa. If there is a ladle furnace, the tap temperature can be lower, and so on. Depending on con the tap temperature can vary 100-1500C. 14. Sampling The starting point for further treatment is steel sample number 1, taken after a bath is achieved and the temperature has been raised by 40-500C. In order for the sample to represent the entire steel bath, it must not be taken at too

low a temperature, i.e. too close to the melting point. The risk at too low a temperature is that not every piece of scrap w have been melted, resulting in the sample's composition not being representative of the steel bath. The quality of the sample itself also risks being poor if it is taken at too low a temperature. Slag particles and blow holes occur in the sample, which risk the accuracy of the analysis. It is important that the sampler be immersed deeply enoug the slag cover to avoid defects in the sample. Based on the sample's composition, decisions are made as to: * How much carbon shall be oxidized out of the melt. * How much the phosphorus content needs to be decreased. * Whether the planned steel grade can be made, considering the allowed levels of Cu, Sn and other undesired elements (e.g. Cr, Ni, etc.). Before the steel is tapped out of the furnace, a steel sample number 2 is generally taken; this gives information on whe "oxidizing refining" has achieved the required result, and it also gives a basis for the alloying additions required in the n the processing sequence. Should the "oxidizing refining" not achieve the required level(s) of carbon and/or phosphorus extra oxygen gas or sinter and possibly burnt lime must be added. This requires theb another steel sample! And so on. To improve sampling accuracy, and for safety reasons as well, the application of mechanical, remote-controlled samplin equipment is gaining in popularity. With this equipment, the sampler is transported on a carriage into the furnace. Temp can be measured in a similar way. 15. Bottom blowing The stirring achieved by the carbon monoxide "boil" is effective as long as there is sufficient carbon in the bath. At low carbon contents, or when the desired carbon content has been reached, this stirring dies off. replacement for the "boil", the injection of an inert gas through one or several porous plugs in the furnace bottom is bein more and more frequently. The following is obtained with this stirring technique: * A homogenization of temperature and composition: * A more efficient heat transfer from the electric arcs to the steel bath. * Carbon- and oxygen-contents closer to equilibrium, i.e. lower oxygen contents in the slag. * Lower levels of nitrogen and hydrogen in the steel. As a result, the following is achieved: - Lower energy consumption. - Shorter processing times. - Higher steel recovery.

16. Tapping When the levels of carbon and phosphorus, as well as the temperature, have reached specified levels, then the steel is ready for the next stage, outside of the EAF, i.e. ladle refining under reducing conditions. The steel is ready for tapping from the EAF into the ladle.

In order for the refining to be carried out satisfactorily in the ladle, most of the EAF slag must be removed. After all the o blowing in the EAF, the furnace slag contains high levels of oxygen and phosphorus--this would greatly disturb the cont treatment in the ladle. Why? Because. * Phosphorus would partially return to the steel. * The consumption of deoxidation reagents would be high. * The desulphurization would be poorer. * The alloy recovery would be lower. Therefore, it is suitable to aim for "slag-free" tapping, i.e. to prevent the slag from entering the ladle. This can require a rebuilding of the furnace from the original "spout tapping" to "eccentric bottom tapping", with a liquid "heel" remaining after tapping. As the slag is lighter than the steel, and floats on the surface of the steel bath, it can be from entering into the ladle.

Other ways to avoid EAF slag in the ladle treatment include: * deslagging of the EF before tapping * deslagging of the ladle after tapping * tapping into a transport ladle, followed by bottom pouring from the transport ladle into the treatment ladle * suction of the slag from the ladle with vacuum (used by many steel plants in Japan) * tapping via a sliding-gate tap hole in the EAF, which can be quickly closed to minimize carry-over of EAF slag. In general, eccentric bottom tapping (EBT) and vacuum slag-suction are the most efficient of the above methods. 17 Ladle additions Alloys are added in varying amounts in the ladle during tapping. How much, and of what type, depends on: * Steel grade * Following treatments: - Ladle - Ladle furnace - Vacuum treatment, etc For similar reasons, the addition of slag formers varies. In the case of the ladle furnace (LF), there is the possibility of adding the lion's share of alloys in the LF, which is advan for alloy recoveries.

During tapping, a vigorous stirring of the steel occurs, which is an advantage in those cases where relatively large amo alloys are to be added.

The stirring can also be used to achieve a certain degree of desulphurization. By the addition of suitable slag formers a reduction reagents to the ladle before or during tapping, a large contact surface is achieved between the steel and slag favours quick reactions. Tapping from the EAF in itself actually implies a considerable disadvantage. During this stage, pickup of oxygen and ni occurs in the tapping stream as soon as it leaves the furnace, and in the ladle, where the tapping stream draws with it l amounts of air. The time between completed tapping and charging of the first scrap basket of the next heat should be as short as poss should be utilized, if necessary, for repairs of the refractory lining and adjustment of the electrodes. 18. Relining Maintenance of the refractory lining is a sweaty and "awkward" job if suitable equipment is not used. Many rotary fettlin

machines and spray guns have been tested. However, they have either been too slow or have had poor precision, with consumption of gunning mass as a result. Common to all machines have been the more less physically strenuous work operator, the formation of dust, and the risk for safety. As a result, the relining: * is time-consuming * consumes an unnecessarily large amount of fettling/gunning mass * may not being carried out when required * results in shorter lining lives etc. A few years ago, a type of relining equipment was developed which eliminates the above disadvantages to a large degree. Its technical advantages include: * a more homogeneous mixture of the gunning mass, that sticks to the place intended * high precision in application of the gunning mass * ability to reach every point in the furnace without difficulty * shorter relining times * independence of the overhead crane, which instead can charge scrap at the right time * higher quality of the relining = longer operating times * less risk for breakouts due to more frequent linings * "Human advantages" include: * no damming problems * remote-control, implying: - elimination of heavy work - elimination of hazardous work - less exposure to heat. Electrode consumption

The cost for electrodes has been and still is significant in most cases. The consumption of electrodes can be explained

* Oxidation * Breakage Oxidation can be limited by control of the furnace atmosphere, short heat times (high productivity) and the choice of cor operating parameters (current and voltage). Electrode breakage can depend on: * heavy scrap falling down against the electrodes, * insulating material coming between the electrodes and the scrap, * poor handling of the electrodes (from arrival at the steel plant to placement in the electrode holders). The operating crew can minimize all of the above by: * Separating nonconducting material from the scrap. * Loading the scrap in such a way that the electrodes are not insulated from the scrap (by e.g. slag skulls or lime). * Joining the electrodes in a correct manner. * Exercising care in the transportation, handling and storage of the electrodes. During meltdown, the scrap continually shifts and moves. The distance between the electrode and the scrap can sudde large that the arc goes out. The electrode regulator strives then to quickly lower the electrode to the closest available p scrap for re-ignition of the arc; the electrode's movement downwards is then stopped immediately. If, however, there is material in the way, the electrode will continue moving downwards, searching for conducting material with which to ign The downward movement continues then to a dead stop, at which point the electrode breaks! The suppliers of electrodes give detailed specifications on how the joining of electrode parts should be carried out. Non of these specifications can result in an increased electrode consumption. The electrode is, as known, a conductor of cu can bear a certain given current density expressed in amperes/cm 2. The EAF-electrodes are thicker than those in the L the higher current going through them. The electrode joints are a current-sensitive area. It is important that the nipple a threaded electrode parts form a joint with the same density as the rest of the electrode. The contact area between the be so good that the current can't distinguish between the joint and the rest of the electrode column.

If the joining is carried out in such a way that only point-contact exists, then the current will follow the "path of least resi i.e. it will travel through these contact points. The total contact area will then be less, implying an excessive current den joint region of the electrode then becomes red-hot in spots: this is a sign of poor joining. The larger the conducting resi hotter the electrode; electrode breakage can be a consequence. Points to observer on joining: * Cleanliness. Use pressurized air. * On threading, use a lifting nipple with the same threading as the nipple/electrode. Use joining clamp. The electrode must not rest on the nipple-threads during screwing. * If the nipple is threaded on-site, thread to stop, and turn back as much as the electrode supplier specifies. * Use the dynamometric wrench or the force which the supplier specifies for tightening. The distinguish characteristic of stainless steels is the chromium content. Chromium forms a skin of chromium oxide, Cr2O3, with the air's oxygen; this skin prevents corrosion (rusting). The skin's thickness is no more tha

millionths mm, i.e. 25 [ ngstrom]. In other words, comparing the skin's thickness with 1 mm is like comparing an em envelope with a ten-storey building! As opposed to chromium, carbon impairs the corrosion resistance, and therefore several stainless steels require low ca contents. Nickel is added to prevent corrosion even in reducing atmospheres. Molybdenum, on the other hand, increas resistance to acids. In contrast to nickel and molybdenum, both carbon and chromium react with oxygen. The interplay between carbon, chromium and oxygen is central in the making of "stainless" steels. This can be describ following reaction formulae: I. 3 C (carbon) + 3/2 O2 (oxygen) <-> 3 CO (gas, carbon monoxide)

II. 2 Cr (chromium) + 3/2 O2 (oxygen) <-> Cr2O3 (slag) The aim is to drive Reaction I to the right, and Reaction II to the left, in order to lower the carbon content by oxidation w oxidizing/fluxing the chromium. Reactions I and II can be summarized in one reaction formula: III. Cr2O3 + 3 C <-> 2 Cr + 3 CO The aim is to drive this reaction to the right, i.e., it is important to avoid the oxidation of chromium (fluxing of chromium) to achieve a low carbon content, often under 0.03%. Assume that 50 tons of 18/8-steel is to be produced, i.e. it should contain 18% Cr, 8% Ni and 0.03% C. The furnace ch this case is composed of about 70% stainless steel scrap, i.e. about 35 tons.

The heat must be complemented with a chromium-rich material to achieve the desired composition, 18% Cr. As the carbon content may not be higher than about 0.03%, it would (of course) have been desirable to add a chromiumcontaining material with a low carbon content to the furnace charge. This is however impossible for economic reasons, as low-carbon chromium alloys are extremely expensive.

One is therefore forced to add less expensive, high-carbon chromium alloys containing about 7% carbon. This implies instance that when a molten bath is obtained, the carbon content will end up being 1-2%. Therefore, a large amount of must be oxidized. Now the problem arises of decreasing the carbon content without fluxing/oxidizing expensive chromi As the equilibrium diagram shows, it is theoretically possible at a chromium content of 18% and a temperature of 17000C to decrease the carbon content to 0.18% without oxidizing chromium. This applies at 1 atmosph pressure. In order to come down to 0.10% C without losing chromium, the temperature must be raised to almost 1900 0

was the earlier dilemma for steel plants with stainless steels on their product program. The price for stainless steels ha been high compared with carbon- and alloy-steels, with the exception of some high-alloy tool steels. The reason for thi the high costs associated with the production of these high-chromium steels: * High consumption of refractory material due to the high temperatures. * Consumption of expensive, low-carbon chromium alloys. " Cheap" high-carbon alloys would raise the steel's carbon content and therefore do not come into the picture. * High consumption of the reduction agent FeSi, for the reduction of chromium from the slag. * High consumption of energy and electrodes. * Long processing times, i.e. low productivity. Reaction III indicates a way out of these difficulties, since oxidation of carbon, C, produces the gas, carbon monoxide, Gas is influenced by pressure. It can be pressed or "squeezed" together by an increase in pressure; it can be "thinned decrease in pressure. For example, the pressure in a 50-liter oxygen tank is about 200 atmospheres (200 bar). If all of released into the atmosphere where the pressure is 1 atm., the oxygen gas would take up a volume of 10 m 3. If in Rea pressure of carbon monoxide is decreased, then more CO will be formed, i.e. the reaction will go to the right: the carbo will decrease without affecting the chromium content to any great degree. In other words, the decreasing pressure will carbon's attraction to oxygen compared with chromium's. The application of these phenomena in practice completely c character of stainless steelmaking. Two processes have been developed: * AOD [Argon Oxygen Decarburization] * VOD [Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization] In the first case, AOD, the carbon monoxide pressure is decreased by blowing an inert (non-reacting) gas, argon, throu steel bath. As the CO-pressure in the argon bubbles is zero, C and O will react with each other at the interface betwee and steel, where the formed CO is "drawn into" the bubble and follows with it out of the system. A small experiment at home may help to explain the AOD: Pour champagne into a glass. Champagne contains, as known, carbon dioxide, a gas, which is dissolved in the wine. If one now flushes air (another gas) down into the champagne and takes a taste from the glass a intervals, one will find that the carbon dioxide "tingle" gradually subsides until all of the carbon dioxide is gone. The drin been transformed to an ordinary white wine! This demonstrates that: A gas can be removed from a liquid if another gas is flushed through the liquid! This effect is u the AOD! The gas to be removed in the AOD is carbon monoxide, and the flushing gas is argon. In the VOD. the steel bath is exposed to a vacuum while being stirred inductively and/ or with gas (usually argon). It can be seen from the diagram in figure 42 that theoretically, a low CO-pressure enables the achievement of very low contents without excessive oxidation of chromium. Of the two, the AOD is the dominating process. AOD is the dominating proces. AOD (as VOD) is preceded by process EAF, where scrap, alloys and slag formers are melted. After that, the crude steel is transported to the oxidizing-refining (AOD/VOD). THE AOD PROCESS The following is an example of the processing sequence of a heat: Steel grade: 18/8 Heat size: 50 tons The EAF Furnace charge: 35 tons 18/8 scrap 15 tons ferrochromium (approx. 7% C) + nickel (FeNi or NiO) + FeSi 1.8 tons burnt lime 1. Melting During melting, a certain oxidation of chromium occurs, about 0.5% Cr. The formed chromium oxide, Cr 2O3, is reduced however, by the silicon, Si, dissolved in the steel bath; this implies that the earlier oxidized Cr returns to the bath. The s content then decreases roughly from 0.4 to 0.2%. 2. The temperature is raised to about 16000C. 3. The composition before tapping: C: approx. 1% Cr: approx. 18% Ni: approx. 8% Si: approx. 0.2% ( The silicon content should not exceed 0.4% in order to avoid an excessive

heat evolution during oxidation in the converter.) 4. Tapping 5. Deslagging from the transport ladle 6. Steel sample is taken in the ladle. THE AOD CONVERTER (Oxygen gas + inert gas [argon, Ar or nitrogen, N2] are injected through concentric tuyeres in the converter wall just abo bottom). * The crude steel is charged into the converter. * The temperature (about 15500C) is measured. * Burnt lime is added. Target basicity: 1.5-1.7. Knowing the weight of the steel, its composition and temperature, the operator must now make a steel with specified an temperature. The processing sequence in the converter can be divided into three periods: I Oxidation of carbon, where as much carbon and as little chromium as possible is oxidized. II Slag reduction, where chromium and other valuable metals are reduced out of the slag and return to the steel bath. III Refining, desulphurization. The oxidation of carbon usually takes place in four steps, which are characterized by different proportions of oxygen an The carbon content is the deciding factor for the start and duration of these stages. The following generally applies: Carbon content %: 1.2 -> 0.4 -> 0.3 -> 0.1 -> 0.03 Oxygen/argon: 3/1 1/1 1/3 1/5 The total gas flow rate is about 1 Nm3 per ton and minute. For a 50-ton heat this implies 50 Nm3 per minute. At the beg oxidation, when the carbon content is high, a large portion of oxygen is blown in without the risk for chromium oxidation Figure 42). The driving force for the formation of CO must increase with decreasing carbon content, in order to avoid an excessive oxidation of chromium (see Figure 42). This is achieved by a step-wise decrease in CO-pressure, obtained by increasing the portion of argon in relation to the oxygen (see Figure 45). As the oxidation of elements such as C, Si, Cr, etc, is exothermic (releases heat), the bath temperature will rise to abou This is actually beneficial, as the oxidation of carbon is favoured by high temperatures (see Figure 42). The successive decrease in carbon content is indicated by the so-called "CRE" [Carbon Removal Efficiency]-number. T expresses the percent of the supplied oxygen which oxidizes carbon:

The higher the CRE, the better the utilization of supplied oxygen. In the beginning of oxidation CRE is low, as the lion's share of the supplied oxygen goes to bonding with silicon (silicon stronger attractive force on oxygen than does carbon). When the silicon is eliminated, CRE rises, i.e. a larger and large the oxygen oxidised the carbon, which is of course the aim. By increasing the portion of argon step-wise at the cost of t CRE can at intervals be held relatively high, implying that the supplied oxygen occupies itself more with the carbon than chromium. It is unavoidable that CRE decreases with decreasing carbon content, as the oxygen has an increasing difficulty in "find carbon. It is the chromium that in the end "is attacked". CRE is a measure of how one succeeds in juggling with the oxygen/argon proportions in the different oxidizing stages.

The number of blowing stages and the proportions of oxygen and argon vary from plant to plant. The carbon content, th temperature and the CRE-number are factors which decide the blowing procedure in different cases.

Reduction of the slag In spite of all the above-mentioned efforts, the slag after decarburization contains 20-40 % Cr 2O3, which corresponds to 2-3 % Cr. The slag also contains 5-10 % MnO. These elements must be recovered, i.e. the slag must be reduced.

To ensure a basicity of about 1.7, an addition of burnt lime is made, followed in general by ferrosilicon for the reduction exerts as known a stronger attractive force on oxygen than does chromium, implying that it changes place with the chro manganese in the slag. The above mentioned basiciry is necessary in order to bind the fluxed silicon, SiO2, which would otherwise attack the r lining. The reduction is favoured by high temperatures, e.g. about 1700 0C. The reduction is carried out during argon bubbling. As pointed out earlier, reactions between steel and slag, which are t here, require a larger contact area in order to take place quickly. An intensive stirring is necessary -- thus the argon bub reduction period is usually managed in 5-10 minutes. A well-reduced slag contains less than 0.5% Cr 2O3. A well-proces requires no addition of expensive low-carbon ferrochromium!!! The chromium in the melt is sufficient, if the heat is corre processed! At the same time it should be pointed out that a properly processes decarburization requires a minimal amo reduction reagent. Refining The excellent mixing obtained by gas blowing makes the converter an extremely efficient desulphurizer due to the large contact area between steel and slag.

In cases where low sulphur levels are required, the reduction period is followed by deslagging and the addition of a desulphurizing reagent, which is often a blend of burnt lime and fluorspar. When extremely low sulphur levels are requi usual reduction reagent ferrosilicon is replaced with aluminum, which of course exerts an even greater attractive force o For efficiency, the refining also takes place during argon bubbling. The complete processing takes about ten minutes. D on whether silicon or aluminum is used as a reducing reagent, sulphur levels of 0.005 and 0.001%, respectively, can be Processing time in the AOD is usually around 90 minutes. Some plants around the world have reported times of about minutes! When processing is completed in the AOD, the steel is tapped into the ladle for further transport to the casting station, o ladle-treatment station, where final adjustments of temperature and composition are made. The following is a summary of factors which favour each processing period in the converter: I Decarburization * Low carbon monoxide pressure * High temperature * Low MgO-content in the slag II Slag reduction

* High slag basicity

III Refining

* High silicon content in the steel after the reduction

* High temperature

* High slag basicity

* Low oxygen activity in the steel (low content dissolved oxygen) * High temperature

* Low

contents FeO and MnO in the slag

High temperature is, as can be seen, favourable throughout the processing. Productivity
At high carbon contents, the decarburization rate is determined by the oxygen flow rate: The

greater the oxygen flow rate, the greater the decarburization rate. As the gas flow rate through the bottom tuyeres is limited by the splashing which arises at large flows, top blowing with cooled lance (LD-type) is also used by some plants to increase productivity. In this way, one can increase the amount o oxygen and thereby "speed" up the decarburization rate. Two reaction zones are created, one "above" and one "below" reaction surface increases, which also contributes to an increased decarburization rate. The decarburization period can decreased by more than 10 minutes with top blowing.

REFRACTORY MATERIALS

"The making of iron and steel is the making of slag", is a saying with a lot of truth in it. As a rule, the slags used in steelmaking are basic. Both slag and refractory lining are ceramic materials, the former

liquid, the latter solid. The liquid slag has a composition such that its melting point lies below the temperature at which the process is carried furnace or ladle. The refractory lining must have a melting point which lies considerably above the temperature in quest to do live up to its name refractory! The melting point, i.e. the temperature at which a material melts, depends on its che composition. Melting points of some components of slags and refractory materials: Compound Melting point, 0C CaF2, calcium fluoride ("fluorspar") 1360 FeO, iron oxide 1420 SiO2, silicon dioxide 1470 MnO, manganese oxide 1650 Cr2O3, chromium oxide 1990 Al2O3, aluminum oxide ("alumina") 2050 CaO, calcium oxide 2580 MgO, magnesium oxide ("magnesite") 2800

Effective dephosphorization and desulphurization require a fluid and reactive slag as well as refractory lining that remains solid under all conditions! Further, basic slags are required; this also implies that the refractory lining be basic (see section 1.09, Volume 1). Stron components are CaO and MgO, which are part of the slag as well as of the lining. CaO dominates in the slag, while Mg dominates in the refractory lining, with the exception of dolomite, where CaO rules. To obtain fluid slags, fluorspar is sometimes added. The reason for th seen in the above table. Even quartz, SiO2, decreases the slag's melting point as does FeO. Here, it's really a matter of navigation", as the components which lower the slag's melting point also lower the refractory lining's! Refractory materials can be divided into three groups:

1. Fireclay 2. High-alumina 3. Basic A clear dividing line exists between groups 1+2 on the one hand and group 3 on the other hand. Fireclay and high-alumina products have common components--silicon dioxide (SiO 2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3)-- but different proportions. In the basic materials, magnesium oxide (MgO) and calcium (CaO) dominate. [MgO, CaO] <-> [SiO2, Al2O3] form easily-melted compounds with each other. With this in mind, it is in other words impo realize that it isn't a matter of "brick is brick". For example, if high-alumina brick ends up in an area where a basic slag c away" the wall of the furnace or ladle, then there is a high risk for a "splendid" breakout! A refractory lining and slag in contact must contain compounds which do not attack each other at the interface between slag. A BASIC slag must in other words always work with a BASIC refractory lining! In the same way, "ACID" must work with "ACID". The reason for the addition of dolomite as a slag former together with the burnt lime is to decrease the risk for a reaction between the slag and the MgO existing in the refractory lining: in other words, to decrease the risk for lining wear. Instead of allowing the slag to satisfy its need of MgO by "licking away" the lining, MgO is added in the form of dolomite. The joints in brickwork are relatively are relatively weak points. Therefore, these must be leaf-thin, whether the brick is mortar or laid dry.

The time factor plays a large role in the wearing rate of a refractory lining. Consequently, lining life increases with increa productivity!

SCRAP-BASED STEELMAKING THE MAKING OF HIGHCHROMIUM, "STAINLESS" STEELS

THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE (EAF) REFRACTORY MATERIALS

SCRAP-BASED STEELMAKING

Start: Finish: CONDITIONS ENERGY METALLIC FEED STOCKS Purchased scrap and /or Recirculated scrap Clipped/gas-cut to chargeable size. Picked over, sorted. Bulky and sprawling scrap pressed into bundles. STEEL, cast shapes/ingots SLAG FORMERS

STEEL RAW MATERIAL SCRAP PURCHASED SCRAP

Purchased scrap comes from steel "consumed" in many different applications, and it therefore has many different dimensions and compositions. To achieve some kind of order, the scrap is divided into classes determined by its size, shape and chemical composition. Each scrap class has its own price tag.

It is important for the steelmaker to choose the most suitable scrap for each steel grade made, considering both compo cost. The process economics begin here! The composition, dimension and price must be chosen to achieve the lowest cost for the steel to be made. The risk for unprofitable steelmaking is large when using scrap which is unsuitable with re

any of the mentioned criteria (dimension, chemical composition, price). The above-mentioned classification of scrap varies from country to country. As an example there is In the Nordic count agreement between scrap dealers and steel companies on a scrap classification, documented in "The Scrap Handbook It's not at all a matter of "scrap is scrap"--on the contrary, the scrap is tightly controlled due to its enormous effect on the profitability of steelmaking. The first distinction is made between scrap supplied to merchant steel plants and to plants m special steels. Therefore "The Scrap Handbook" actually consists of two books:

A. "The Scrap Handbook for Unalloyed and Alloyed Scrap" and B. "The Scrap Handbook for Stainless Steel Scrap".

A. contains 20 different classes: 12 distinguishing size and shape, and 8 distinguishing chemical composition. The largest and most common is class 11, "Prime pieced scrap", which is a "mish-mash" of different types unalloyed scrap. Examples of more definite classes, where the type of scrap can be determined from the name of the class, are: Class 117. Fragmented scrap (e.g. from automobiles) " 142. Prime railway scrap " 22. Turnings " 31. Prime loose sheet scrap " 36. Loose sheet scrap " 37. Bundled scrap (pressed sheet scrap) " 711. Cast iron scrap Other properties can define a class: outer measurements for pieced scrap, thickness for sheet scrap, density for bundle carbon content and phosphorus content for cast iron scrap. * Explosive scrap such as sealed containers, clogged pipes, sealed shock absorbers, etc. * Poisons * Scrap with harmful coatings * Metals, metal alloys * Plastics, wood, rubber, etc. Special precautions are made in avoiding elements in the scrap which can have detrimental effects on steel properties, copper, tin, and metals containing these (e.g. brass, bronze, bearing alloys, etc.) Copper and tin are "poisons" in steel, and their presence is as unchangeable as the cards in poker, where "played card the harsh reality! In contrast to e.g. phosphorus and sulphur, copper and tin cannot be influenced metallurgically once t been introduced into the steel. B. High alloy scrap, suitable for steel plants making special steels, is divided into 8 classes with respect to composition. The three main groups are: * Stainless Cr-scrap * " Cr-Ni-scrap * " Cr-Ni-MO-scrap As in A. there are "shape" classes: 1. Chargeable pieced scrap 2. Turnings 3. Bundled scrap (pressed piece scrap)

4. Unchargeable pieced scrap RECIRCULATED SCRAP Revert/recirculated scrap comes from internal production at the steel plant. It is usually given a higher value than purchased scrap as its composition is known. Just as purchased scrap must be kept separated in different classes, the recirculated scrap must be sorted into bins ac its composition. This is especially important and relatively complicated in plants producing special steels, where variatio composition span a wide range. Scrap mix-ups here can have serious economic consequences in the form of scrapped replanning and/or reclassifying of the heat, loss of expensive alloying elements, etc. It is not only in the steelshop that s be directed in the proper direction, but even other shops such as the rolling mill must exercise discipline in separating s SLAG FORMERS "The making of steel is the making of slag", is a saying with a lot of truth in it. CaO, calcium oxide, is the dominating and most active component in the slag. In general, it is added in the form of burn (shortened form of "soft burnt lime"). The burnt lime originates from limestone, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3). By heating limestone to about 10000C, the carbonate is broken down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide ( a gas):

CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2 As it is economically important to limit the consumption of electrical energy in the electric arc furnace, the calcination of to burnt lime is done outside of the electric arc furnace. As a rule the calcination is done on-site at the limestone quarry cheaper energy can be used. Dolomite is (as limestone) a carbonate, and must for the same reason be burned (calcined). The burnt dolomite (rough CaO and 38% MgO) complements the burnt lime primarily to limit lining wear. Fluorspar (about 85% CaF2) also contains the element calcium, Ca, but here in combination with fluorine, F, instead of oxygen, O. It is interesting to compare the melting points of the above-mentioned compounds: COMPOUND MELTING POINT (0C) CaF2 1360 CaO 2580 MgO 2800 The purpose of a fluorspar addition is to decrease the slag's melting point to make it more fluid and reactive. Unfortuna addition of fluorspar can also decrease the melting point of the refractory lining, in other words, increase lining wear! It i important for the operator to use fluorspar with care! fluorspar is as well environmentally undesirable, and for that reaso banned in an increasing number of countries.

The EAF is like a "powder magazine" which, if handled improperly, can in itself cause a great deal of lining damage. It is therefore important to understand the electric arc's nature and to be aware of the factors affecting it.

ELECTRICAL RELATIONS Current is measured in amperes, symbolized here by "A". Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized here by "O". Voltage is measured in volts, symbolized here by "V". Power is measured in watts, symbolized here by "W". The internationally applied symbols are given on page 8. Voltage is the product of current and resistance: V = A x O. Power is the product of current and voltage: W = A x V. As V = A x O, the power can also be expressed as:

W = A x A x O. or W = A2 x O.

1000 [W] = 1 kilowatt [kW] 1000 [kW] = 1 megawatt [MW] = 1,000,000 W.

As power is the product of current and voltage, the same power can be obtained either by high current and low voltage current and high voltage. The electric arc furnace is part of an electric system. the furnace and surrounding equipment are designed to achieve the lowest possible operating costs. The electrical energy supplied to the electric arc furnace is often generated far from the steel plant, in a hydroelectric po nuclear power plant, etc. An example is a hydroelectric power plant generating a voltage of 20,000 volts and a current o amperes. Transport of the power is carried out through high voltage lines of the same type as we see crossing the coun "power-line highways". It is important to transport the power with as little loss as possible. The lines contain a certain am resistance, O. As (heat) loss is proportional to the square of the current, W = A 2 x O, it is important that the transported as low as possible. Therefore, near the power plant the voltage is transformed from 20,000 up to 130,000 volta. The current is thereby lowe 2,600 to 400 amperes. The power is the same: 20,000 x 2,600 = 130,000 x 400, but the power losses along the lines between the power plant and its customer(s) bec about 40 times lower. Close to the steel plant the high voltage is transformed down from 130,000 to 20,000 volts while the current increases f 2,600 amperes. This is the voltage and current which are fed to the EAF's transformer in our example. The arc furnace transformer's primary voltage is in this case 20,000 volts (20 kV). This voltage is transformed down further to 265-884 v electrode current thus increases to about 50,000 amperes, or 50 kA [kiloamperes].

The steel plant purchases a certain power which is fed into the arc furnace transformer. This active power is however not the same as the arc power. In all electrical conductors, losses arise in the form of heat, which in turn give rise to temperature increases. The electrical cord to an iron, for example, becomes warm due to the resistance of the cord. The power you pay for at home is therefore partly the power which goes to heating the iron, and partly the power losses which arise in the cord.

The same applies to the EAF: in the transformer and in the secondary system (which extends from the transformer to th the electrodes), losses arise. The arc power is in other words the difference between the purchased power and the pow

in the system's different parts. In the same way, the arc voltage is also lower than the corresponding secondary voltage transformer.

With the help of a so-called tap changer, one can choose the most suitable voltage for each stage of the heat. In this ca can choose voltages between 265 and 884 volts. Why bother with different voltages? Why not be satisfied with one voltage? Because at different stages in the heat, different arc lengths are desired. The arc length depends on the arc voltage, implying that the arc le increases with increasing arc voltage and vice versa. During meltdown, relatively long arcs are desired, which radiate in quickly melt the surrounding scrap. When the scrap is melted, that is, when the arcs radiate towards the bath, then shorter and "fatter" arcs are desired. Th stronger radiation towards the bath to increase its temperature, and less radiation outwards towards the furnace walls, would otherwise be quickly worn away. Short, fat arcs indicate relatively low voltage and relatively high current, while lo imply higher voltage and lower current. Remember that power is the product of voltage and current: W = V x A. The power can in other words indicate either high voltage and low current or low voltage and high current. The ability to choose voltage with the help of the tap changer means that the operator has a flexible tool (the EAF-equipment) which can be adapted to the circumstances. This "flexible tool" is furthermore composed of:

* Furnace transformer * Secondary system, i.e. - flexible, water-cooled cables - electrode arms with conducting bus tubes - electrode holders - electrodes * Electrode masts * Electrode regulating equipment * Furnace shell * Electrode cover ( = furnace roof) * Roof lifting and swinging mechanism * Hydraulic and pneumatic equipment * Instrumentation The furnace shell rests on a cradle which allows for tilting of the furnace in two directions: towards the tapping pit and to charging side.

The electrical relations mentioned above apply to DC-current. However, the EAF is, so far, most often run on AC-current. The power is supplied by arcs. The aim is partly to melt the scrap, and partly to raise the temp the steel bath. As well, the power is used to melt the slag formers and alloying elements. The fact that we're dealing wit "package of dynamite" can be illustrated by the following calculation: assume a 150 ton EAF, equipped with a transform which 100 MW can be supplied. Taking into account losses of different kinds, the electric arc power is about 85 MW. th corresponds to about 1.4 million 60-watt light bulbs! The power density in an arc is about 25,000 MW per m3. Let's say, for instance, that you have a living room 30 m 2 in area with a height of 3 m.

You have 6 lighting outlets of 40 watts each. The power density in your living room is in other words: 240/(30 x 3) = 2.7 W/m3. The electric arc has then a power that is about 9 billion (9 x 109) times stronger per m3 than what you have in your living no wonder that the scrap melts like butter in sunshine, that the ceramic lining must be partially replaced by water-coole that the operator must have the help of high-speed electronics to be able to handle this "package of dynamite". The three-phase alternating current implies that we must now work with three different power concepts: * Apparent power * Reactive power * Active power

The time-consuming "reducing refining" ("while slag"), deoxidation, desulphurization etc could now be carried out in the ladle instead of in the arc furnace. The heat time in the EAF could now be limited to that required for melting the scrap and raising the temperature of the bath. During the latter stage, contents of carbon and phosphorus could be lowered simultaneously. The ladle furnace (LF) was regarded at the beginning as a kind of "Rolls Royce" suited best to producers of specially steels. However, together with injection technology the LF opened the door to secondary steelmaking, implying a breakdown of steelmaking into two stages: I. The making of crude steel in the EAF or converter ("primary furnaces"). II. Refining in the ladle or converter (stainless steelmaking) to prime-quality steel.

The second stage was thus carried out outside of the primary furnace, either in an ordinary ladle ("Volkswagen") or in a furnace ("Rolls Royce"). More on this in Volume 4. The 1980's The development of the EAF and its operation continued. Today the following are employed to an increasing extent: * "Foaming slag" practice * Eccentric bottom tapping * Water-cooled electrodes * Computerized power- and process control * Scrap preheating * Gas stirring * Post-combustion HEAT PROCEDURE

General heat procedures comprise the following possible points. Not all points are applied everywhere due to variations grades, equipment and practice. 1. Furnace charge * scrap * slag formers 2. Power supply 3. Foaming slag 4. Current--Voltage--Arc length--Cos 5. Power control 6. Jet burners 7. Carbon content at meltdown 8. Decarburization, dephosphorization * oxygen gas * sinter/ore 9. Post-combustion

10. Scrap preheating 11. Balck/white slag 12. Impurities 13. Temperature at tap 14. Sampling 15. Bottom stirring 16. Tapping * slag-free * eccentric tap hole * hot liquid heel 17. Ladle additions 18. Relining 19. Electrode adjustment Each of the above points must be described specifically in individual heat instructions. There is always a reason for a heat instruction, that is, how and when a certain action should be carried out. Therefore, heat instructions must be followed to the letter! This is the only way to ensure a high and consistent quality. And it must go quickly, without surrendering the quality! If the heat instructions are not followed "slavishy" (!), then it is difficult afterwards to establish reasons for a heat "runnin track". 1. Furnace charge The composition of the furnace charge for each heat should be designed with the requirements of the planned steel gra mind, while at the same time minimizing the production cost. This implies that one should not consider only the price of furnace charge without considering the most important of all, the total cost of production. For example, cheap scrap can cause longer treatment times due to its higher sulphur content, which in turn demands la amounts of lime, which all together can more than well "eat up" the difference between cheaper and more expensive sc Scrap loading For scrap to land in the right place in the furnace, it is important for it to be loaded correctly in the scrap bas "Correctly" means: * Heavy scrap and slag skulls should land in the bottom of the furnace to decrease the risk for electrode breakage. * Thin scrap (plate) loaded on the basket bottom to protect it from the heavy scrap. * Fragmented and finer scrap on the top to ease roof-swinging for an "overfilled" furnace. The number of baskets per heat is determined by: * The scrap basket volume * The scrap's density (volumetric filling) - heavy individual pieces, e.g. end-clippings - finely cut scrap, e.g. fragmented - voluminous scrap, e.g. turnings, plate, etc. Out of time-consideration, it can be more advantageous to use three instead of two baskets in order to avoid overfilled with time-consuming pressing of the scrap to allow the roof to swing back into place. It is desirable to oxidize a certain amount of carbon for the following reasons: * Stirring for: - promoting dephosphorization - distributing supplied energy - homogenizing temperature and composition - avoiding over-oxidation * Degassing of hydrogen and nitrogen The carbon content in the bath should therefore lie at about 0.20-0.30% above the specified carbon content at tap. The certain amount of carbon must be included in the furnace charge. Possible carbon carriers are: * Coke * Carbon powder * Pig iron * Cast iron * High-carbon steel scrap The choice depends partly on the phosphorus content required by the finished steel, and partly on the cost per ton prod

casting. This is affected not only by the price but also by the carbon recovery. A low price and low recovery can give a h cost than a higher price combined with higher recovery. Cast-iron scrap is in general cheaper than pig iron, but even with the same recovery, the final cost can be higher on use cast iron due to its higher phosphorus content. A higher phosphorus content can cause longer processing times in the f This, combined with a higher consumption of burnt lime can weigh more heavily than the lower cast iron price. Compare this with what was noted earlier about different scrap prices and accompanying variation in the requirements desulphurization. Carbon added as pig iron, cast iron and injected carbon powder often achieves a higher recovery tha charged as coke. The choice of carbon carrier is therefore made depending on its price and method of addition. Slag formers The purpose of the slag is to: - bind up phosphorus - bind up sulphur - protect the refractory lining - limit energy consumption. In order to manage these tasks, the slag must have a chemical composition such that it: - can bind up the impurities - doesn't attack the lining - can foam, partly to cover the electric arcs and thereby prevent their direct radiation on the walls and roof, and partly to limit energy consumption. The first two properties mentioned demand a slag with a suitable basicity, i.e. the ratio of CaO to SiO2, CaO/SiO2, shou 3. This requires sufficient CaO to bind up the SiO 2 in the slag and render it harmless. The SiO2 would otherwise attack and MgO contained in the refractory lining (and thereby cause intense lining wear). In addition, a surplus of calcium oxi is required for the slag to be able to bind up the phosphorus pentoxide (P 2O5) formed. The slag must also have a suitable fluidity, so that it can come into contact with the components it is to react with chem so that it has the ability to foam. Thus, it is not enough to specify a certain basicity. A "dry" viscous slag is an inefficient dephosphorizer, even if it has the specified basicity. It lacks furthermore the ability to foam. The slag should neither be as it won't foam then either. The slag's fluidity is chiefly affected by the contents of iron oxide, FeO and CaF 2. 2. Power supply The power supplied to an EAF comes from: * electric arcs * jet burners (where applicable) * refining under oxidation, the oxidation of carbon dissolved in the steel bath * preheated scrap (where applicable) * post-combustion (where applicable) The electrical energy is always the dominating source, while contributions from the other sources vary from steelshop to steelshop. Example: Heat size: 135 ton Energy supply Electrical ................. 420 kWh/ton Burners ................. 40 kWh/ton Decarburization Other oxidation of iron, silicon, etc Preheated scrap Total energy supplied

................. ................. .................

60 kWh/ton

20 kWh/ton 540 kWh/ton, approximately The total energy supplied is therefore 540 x 135 = 72,900 kWh. Assume that the net heat process time is 70 minutes, i. hours, then the total power supplied is 72,900/1.17 = 62,300 kW or roughly 62 MW. The "dangerous" power is the electrical, which in this case is about 50 MW. This can be 'dangerous" if not handled corr radiation from the electric arcs is nothing to play around with. On the one hand, it is utilized for melting scrap, and on th hand it may cause the lining to melt! When everything's melted and a steel bath is obtained, it's important to transfer as

the energy as possible to the bath, not to the walls. To do this, the power feeding must be controlled. It is a matter of re the electric arc's character so that at each moment they do the most good or the least damage, however one wishes to From the diagram it can be seen that at a certain current, a maximum active power is supplied. It is thus meaningless to exceed this "maximum" current, as the supplied active power then decreases. What's worse, ex this "maximum" current would risk overheating the transformer, with catastrophic consequences! It can also be seen in the diagram how the arc voltage as well as the power factor, cos, decrease with increasing current. IT IS THUS NOT AT ALL CERTAIN THAT MAXIMUM ACTIVE POWER IS ALWAYS PREFERABLE. It is the conditions in the furnace which decide the working points (the chosen voltage and current). 3. Foaming slag Not long ago a practice was developed which in some degree made the furnace less sensitive to the electric arcs, namely the "foaming slag" technique. BY applying this technique, a larger utilization of the supplied power is obtained, that is the energy consumption is limite portion of the supplied energy is utilized in the process at the same time as the lining is protected. Several investigation shown how important it is to maintain a foaming slag. It is not enough that the slag "partially" foams, i.e. that it only part the electric arcs; it must mask them completely! Otherwise lining wear occurs, which naturally results in time-consuming Further, the rate of increasing temperature decreases with a partially foaming slag, due to the poorer heat transfer from electric arcs to the bath. Time is lost even for that reason. Foaming slag is in itself nothing new. Everyone who has worked with steelmaking knows that. The supply of oxygen to rich iron bath covered with slag often results in the slag foaming. The reason for the foaming is the formation of carbon bubbles which rise up through the slag. The foaming is often so intense that slag pours out through the slagging door. The "news" is that the foaming slag is utilized as a technique for reaching the above-mentioned aims. By simultaneousl oxygen gas and carbon powder into or under the slag, the foaming is controlled so that it occurs just when and for as lo "protection" is needed. It is matter of controlled slag foaming, which is determined by the slag's composition (basicity and FeO-content), as we carbon and oxygen. 4. Current--voltage--arc length--cos One and the same power can imply different combinations of current and voltage. As the arc length depends on the arc is a matter of adapting this to the conditions in the furnace. The electric arcs may under no circumstances be exposed t lining. If there is no scrap "in the way", or if the foaming slag doesn't function properly, then the arc length (voltage) mus adjusted to minimize damages. At a constant power, this implies as well a change in the current. To utilize as much of the available power as possible, the power factor cos must be as high as the situation allows. 5. Power control In order for meltdown to occur and for the specified temperature to be reached as quickly as possible, the amount of energy must be "dosed" in a correct manner. As a rule, two to three scrap baskets are charged. It is important to supply just enough energy for one basket so that the scrap in the next basket fits into the furnace--no more and no less. If too little energy is supplied, the scrap in the next basket doesn't fit. The scrap and the roof can't be swung shut until (in the best case) more or less time-consuming scrap-pressing is carried out. On hand, if too much energy is supplied, the furnace walls and roof will be exposed to the electric arcs' radiation, as the pro scrap will have been melted away. Even temperature control requires energy control in order to: * save time * limit energy consumption * prevent excessively high temperatures which can damage the refractory material. Both power- and energy-control are carried out today with computer aid, more often than not. This doesn't however dec importance of an alert operator, who pays attention at every second to what's going on, and who knows what to do whe the computer breaks down. The high power levels used demand very rapid electrical adjustments in order to avoid dam occurring. It is this, among other things, which forced through the development of electronic process control. 6. Jet burners On increasing transformer power, there is a risk for uneven melting of the scrap in the furnace. The water-cooled panels in the furnace walls strengthen this tendency. Across from the electrodes (the arcs), where the to the wall is the shortest, so-called "hot spots", hot areas, develop. The scrap melts more quickly here than near the w the side of this area. During the time in which the remaining scrap is melted, the furnace walls' unprotected "hot spots" to intense radiation from the arcs; the wear increase. In order to solve this problem, jet burners (oil/oxygen-air or natura

gas/oxygen-air-mix burners) are often installed in the furnace walls and in the slagging door. The burners are placed to relatively "cold" parts between the "hot spots". The result is a considerably more even distribution of the supplied energy, i.e. a more even meltdown of the scrap and wear. However, the burners are only effective until the scrap is heated up and partially melted. This means that they are for about 10-15 minutes per basket of scrap. Another limitation of the burner application can be the off-gas cleaner cap Other reasons for the installation of burners are: * Low transformer power. The electrical power is complemented to decrease the meltdown time. * High electrical energy prices. Part of the electrical energy is replaced with cheaper oil. 7. Carbon content at meltdown

Carbon is the most commonly occurring alloying element. Despite this, it is as a rule desirable to oxidize a part of the ca reasons of quality and productivity!

Quality reasons The steel bath has gases dissolved in it, i.e. hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. By achieving a "(carbon monoxide) boil", part of the hydrogen and nitrogen dissolved in the steel bath will "diffuse" into the carbon mon bubbles and escape with them out of the bath. Even the oxygen content is prevented from becoming too high, by its co closer to equilibrium with carbon [remember the (carbon x oxygen) product!]. Through the boil a stirring is achieved, wh promotes the dephosphorization, i.e. drivers the phosphorus to lower levels, and partly achieves a quicker reaction betw oxygen, phosphorus and slag. The interface steel-bath/slag-cover is renewed more quickly by the stirring. Productivity reasons When the scrap has melted, the task then follows of raising the bath's temperature a few hundred degrees to the level required for tapping out of the furnace. In order for the raising of temperature to occur reasonably q stirring is required to assist the bath in accepting and distributing the energy supplied from the electric arcs. Even the dephosphorization occurs more quickly, thanks to the more effective stirring. Thus carbon has many "tasks" b serving as an important alloying element. Therefore, when the recipe for a furnace charge is determined, one strives fo content which at molten bath state lies 0.20-0.30% above above the level required before tapping. By oxidizing the surp carbon, one then achieves the above-mentioned aims. 8. Refining by oxidation Decarburization and dephosphorization are really the same as oxidation. It's a matter of adding oxygen to oxidize carbon and phosphorus. Today this generally occurs by blowing oxygen, either down into the bath wi consumable steel tube or against the bath with a water-cooled double-mantled steel tube. Both types are called oxygen Some steelshops combine both of these lance-types. Due to the varying attraction exerted by different elements on oxygen, as described in Volume 1, not only carbon and p will be oxidized, but also silicon, manganese and iron. A certain iron oxide (FeO) content is required in the slag to achie satisfactory dephosphorization. As the oxidation of phosphorus is also favoured by relatively low temperatures, the oxy sometimes also supplied in the form of sinter (or ore), i.e. Fe 2O3. The liberation of oxygen from the sinter requires heat, implies that the sinter has a cooling effect on the bath, i.e. the temperature is held in check! The sinter contributes as w keeping up the slag's iron oxide content (which as mentioned before also favours the oxidation of phosphorus). 9. Post-combustion As mentioned earlier, the heat evolved when elements dissolved in the steel bath are oxidized (combusted by oxygen) to the energy supply. The carbon dissolved in the bath is combusted to carbon monoxide, CO, which bubbles up from t very small portion of the carbon monoxide manages to be combusted to carbon dioxide, CO2 inside the furnace. This is unfortunate, as a complete combustion of carbon dioxide gives off much more heat than combustion to "only" ca monoxide. Most home-owners with oil-heating are aware of the fact that complete combustion of heating oil inside the furnace is important for the heating economy. This is achieved with an air surplus. If a corresponding oxygen not achieved above the bath in the EAF, then the carbon monoxide that bubbles up from the bath will be combusted ou the furnace in the off-gas ducts. By blowing oxygen over the steel bath, it may be possible to "post-combust" a larger part of the formed carbon monoxid the furnace, with the intention of improving the heating economy. The K-ES process has been developed by Japanese Tokyo Steel Manufacturing Corporation together with German Klo

Werke AG. This process is a method for the post-combustion of carbon monoxide in the furnace. The method may be summarized as follows: * Gas stirring through the furnace bottom to increase heat transfer. * Injection of carbon powder into the furnace, partly to replace a portion of the electrical energy, partly to increase the productivity. * Recycling of the off-gas dust. * Blowing of oxygen over the bath to improve the heating economy by post-combustion. Scrap preheating The carbon monoxide (formed on oxidation and together with foaming slag in the furnace) which in the absence of post combustion is sucked out and combusted in the off-gas duct, has long been used for the preheating of scrap. This is a using a part of the fuel developed inside of the furnace. On their way to the filter, where dust-separation occurs, the off-gases pass through the scrap baskets, where a part of t heat content is transferred to the scrap. it is open to discussion whether in fact post-combustion is more or less econom scrap preheating. An extreme application of scrap preheating has been developed by the Danish Steelworks (DDS) and Fuchs. The gist o is a shaft above the EAF where the scrap is more or less continually charged and meets the hot off-gases on its way do the furnace. The carbon monoxide coming from the furnace is thus combusted in the staft and utilized there instead of i furnace (through post-combustion). "Black"/"White" slag. Dephosphorization/Desulphurization Dephosphorization

The oxidation period implies a decrease of carbon and phosphorus contents. Both carbon and phosphorus are combined with oxygen. Carbon, as mentioned several times before, attracts oxygen more strongly than phosphorus. The higher the carbon content in the steel bath, the poorer the dephosphorization, as the oxygen "goes fo carbon as a first choice. First when the carbon content has become relatively low are the iron and phosphorus oxidized significantly. The iron oxide content in the slag increases, which implies that the phosphorus is surrounded on all sides (partly in the form of oxygen gas, partly in the form of iron oxide, FeO) which would like nothing else than to combine w phosphorus. The higher the iron oxide content, the darker the slag becomes, until it approaches black. "Black" slag is consequently strongly oxidizing. Desulphurization One of the conditions favouring desulphurization is a low oxygen content. In earlier steelmaking, desulphurization was a carried out in the EAF, in the so-called refining period. It was then necessary to draw off the "black slag", which contain oxygen (FeO) a relatively high level of phosphorus pentoxide, P2O5. If the deslagging wasn't carried out before a new re slag was formed, then a considerable amount of the phosphorus would return from the slag to the steel bath. Why? Because phosphorus' ability to react with oxygen is so weak compared with that of the elements added to reduce the sl CaSi, etc). Besides the reducing agents, slag formers such as burnt lime, often complemented with fluorspar, are added. The iron content, FeO, must now lie below 1% in order for the desulphurization to be satisfactory. A slag with such a low iron co light gray to "white". "white" slag is strongly reducing. The refining of steel today is generally carried out in the ladle. This will be covered in more detail in the section Ladle m in Volume 4. 12. Impurities The levels of carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen can be affected by metallurgical treatments. Unfortunately, there are impurity elements which cannot be treated. For example copper, Cu, and tin, Sn. For these, "the card is played"! This implies that once these elements have come steel, there is no possibility of removing them by oxidation or reduction. The only way to decrease their levels is by dilut steel bath with "purer" scrap. Because the levels of the mentioned impurities cannot be decreased, there has occurred continues to occur a continual increase of these elements in the scrap. As Cu and Sn in general have a negative effect properties, their "unyielding" nature creates material quality problems. For steel grades requiring low contents of the ele question, a "virgin" (pure) and thereby expensive scrap must be chosen inorder to dilute the "normal" furnace charge. 13. Temperature at tap The EAF is often called a "melting machine". Even though melting is its main job, it has other tasks as well. After the sc melted, oxidation of carbon and phosphorus takes place. Simultaneously, the temperature must be raised from the mel

suitable temperature before tapping. The tap temperature depends on the level of carbon and other elements as well as on the treatment to follow: * Ingot- or continuous casting * Ladle- or ladle furnace treatment * Optional vacuum treatment Etc There is a specified tap temperature for every situation. For steel with a higher carbon content, it is sufficient with a low temperature, and vice versa. If there is a ladle furnace, the tap temperature can be lower, and so on. Depending on con the tap temperature can vary 100-1500C. 14. Sampling The starting point for further treatment is steel sample number 1, taken after a bath is achieved

and the temperature has been raised by 40-500C. In order for the sample to represent the entire steel bath, it must not too low a temperature, i.e. too close to the melting point. The risk at too low a temperature is that not every piece of scr fact have been melted, resulting in the sample's composition not being representative of the steel bath.

The quality of the sample itself also risks being poor if it is taken at too low a temperature. Slag particles and blow holes occur in the sample, which risk the accuracy of the analysis. It is important that the sampler be immersed deeply enoug the slag cover to avoid defects in the sample. Based on the sample's composition, decisions are made as to: * How much carbon shall be oxidized out of the melt. * How much the phosphorus content needs to be decreased. * Whether the planned steel grade can be made, considering the allowed levels of Cu, Sn and other undesired elements (e.g. Cr, Ni, etc.). Before the steel is tapped out of the furnace, a steel sample number 2 is generally taken; this gives information on whe "oxidizing refining" has achieved the required result, and it also gives a basis for the alloying additions required in the n the processing sequence. Should the "oxidizing refining" not achieve the required level(s) of carbon and/or phosphorus extra oxygen gas or sinter and possibly burnt lime must be added. This requires theb another steel sample! And so on. To improve sampling accuracy, and for safety reasons as well, the application of mechanical, remote-controlled samplin equipment is gaining in popularity. With this equipment, the sampler is transported on a carriage into the furnace. Temp can be measured in a similar way. 15. Bottom blowing The stirring achieved by the carbon monoxide "boil" is effective as long as there is sufficient carbon in the bath. At low carbon contents, or when the desired carbon content has been reached, this stirring dies off. replacement for the "boil", the injection of an inert gas through one or several porous plugs in the furnace bottom is bein more and more frequently. The following is obtained with this stirring technique: * A homogenization of temperature and composition: * A more efficient heat transfer from the electric arcs to the steel bath. * Carbon- and oxygen-contents closer to equilibrium, i.e. lower oxygen contents in the slag. * Lower levels of nitrogen and hydrogen in the steel. As a result, the following is achieved: - Lower energy consumption. - Shorter processing times. - Higher steel recovery. 16. Tapping When the levels of carbon and phosphorus, as well as the temperature, have reached specified levels, then the steel is ready for the next stage, outside of the EAF, i.e. ladle refining under reducing conditions. The steel is ready for tapping from the EAF into the ladle.

In order for the refining to be carried out satisfactorily in the ladle, most of the EAF slag must be removed. After all the o blowing in the EAF, the furnace slag contains high levels of oxygen and phosphorus--this would greatly disturb the cont treatment in the ladle. Why?

Because. * Phosphorus would partially return to the steel. * The consumption of deoxidation reagents would be high. * The desulphurization would be poorer. * The alloy recovery would be lower. Therefore, it is suitable to aim for "slag-free" tapping, i.e. to prevent the slag from entering the ladle. This can require a rebuilding of the furnace from the original "spout tapping" to "eccentric bottom tapping", with a liquid "heel" remaining after tapping. As the slag is lighter than the steel, and floats on the surface of the steel bath, it can be from entering into the ladle.

Other ways to avoid EAF slag in the ladle treatment include: * deslagging of the EF before tapping * deslagging of the ladle after tapping * tapping into a transport ladle, followed by bottom pouring from the transport ladle into the treatment ladle * suction of the slag from the ladle with vacuum (used by many steel plants in Japan) * tapping via a sliding-gate tap hole in the EAF, which can be quickly closed to minimize carry-over of EAF slag. In general, eccentric bottom tapping (EBT) and vacuum slag-suction are the most efficient of the above methods. 17 Ladle additions Alloys are added in varying amounts in the ladle during tapping. How much, and of what type, depends on: * Steel grade * Following treatments: - Ladle - Ladle furnace - Vacuum treatment, etc For similar reasons, the addition of slag formers varies. In the case of the ladle furnace (LF), there is the possibility of adding the lion's share of alloys in the LF, which is advan for alloy recoveries.

During tapping, a vigorous stirring of the steel occurs, which is an advantage in those cases where relatively large amo alloys are to be added.

The stirring can also be used to achieve a certain degree of desulphurization. By the addition of suitable slag formers a reduction reagents to the ladle before or during tapping, a large contact surface is achieved between the steel and slag favours quick reactions. Tapping from the EAF in itself actually implies a considerable disadvantage. During this stage, pickup of oxygen and ni occurs in the tapping stream as soon as it leaves the furnace, and in the ladle, where the tapping stream draws with it l amounts of air. The time between completed tapping and charging of the first scrap basket of the next heat should be as short as poss should be utilized, if necessary, for repairs of the refractory lining and adjustment of the electrodes. 18. Relining Maintenance of the refractory lining is a sweaty and "awkward" job if suitable equipment is not used. Many rotary fettlin machines and spray guns have been tested. However, they have either been too slow or have had poor precision, with consumption of gunning mass as a result. Common to all machines have been the more less physically strenuous work operator, the formation of dust, and the risk for safety. As a result, the relining: * is time-consuming * consumes an unnecessarily large amount of fettling/gunning mass * may not being carried out when required * results in shorter lining lives etc. A few years ago, a type of relining equipment was developed which eliminates the above

disadvantages to a large degree. Its technical advantages include: * a more homogeneous mixture of the gunning mass, that sticks to the place intended * high precision in application of the gunning mass * ability to reach every point in the furnace without difficulty * shorter relining times * independence of the overhead crane, which instead can charge scrap at the right time * higher quality of the relining = longer operating times * less risk for breakouts due to more frequent linings * "Human advantages" include: * no damming problems * remote-control, implying: - elimination of heavy work - elimination of hazardous work - less exposure to heat. Electrode consumption

The cost for electrodes has been and still is significant in most cases. The consumption of electrodes can be explained

* Oxidation * Breakage Oxidation can be limited by control of the furnace atmosphere, short heat times (high productivity) and the choice of cor operating parameters (current and voltage). Electrode breakage can depend on: * heavy scrap falling down against the electrodes, * insulating material coming between the electrodes and the scrap, * poor handling of the electrodes (from arrival at the steel plant to placement in the electrode holders). The operating crew can minimize all of the above by: * Separating nonconducting material from the scrap. * Loading the scrap in such a way that the electrodes are not insulated from the scrap (by e.g. slag skulls or lime). * Joining the electrodes in a correct manner. * Exercising care in the transportation, handling and storage of the electrodes. During meltdown, the scrap continually shifts and moves. The distance between the electrode and the scra suddenly be so large that the arc goes out. The electrode regulator strives then to quickly lower the electrod closest available piece of scrap for re-ignition of the arc; the electrode's movement downwards is then stop immediately. If, however, there is insulating material in the way, the electrode will continue moving downwa searching for conducting material with which to ignite itself. The downward movement continues then to a d at which point the electrode breaks! The suppliers of electrodes give detailed specifications on how the joining of electrode parts should be carr Nonchalance of these specifications can result in an increased electrode consumption. The electrode is, as conductor of current; it can bear a certain given current density expressed in amperes/cm 2. The EAF-electr thicker than those in the LF, due to the higher current going through them. The electrode joints are a curren area. It is important that the nipple and both threaded electrode parts form a joint with the same density as the electrode. The contact area between the parts must be so good that the current can't distinguish betwee and the rest of the electrode column. If the joining is carried out in such a way that only point-contact exists, then the current will follow the "path resistance", i.e. it will travel through these contact points. The total contact area will then be less, implying a excessive current density. The joint region of the electrode then becomes red-hot in spots: this is a sign of p joining. The larger the conducting resistance, the hotter the electrode; electrode breakage can be a conseq Points to observer on joining: * Cleanliness. Use pressurized air. * On threading, use a lifting nipple with the same threading as the nipple/electrode. Use joining clamp.

The electrode must not rest on the nipple-threads during screwing. * If the nipple is threaded on-site, thread to stop, and turn back as much as the electrode supplier specifies. * Use the dynamometric wrench or the force which the supplier specifies for tightening.

THE MAKING OF HIGH-CHROMIUM, "STAINLESS" STEELS

The distinguish characteristic of stainless steels is the chromium content. Chromium forms a skin of chromium oxide, Cr2O3, with the air's oxygen; this skin prevents corrosion (rusting). The skin's thickness is n

than 25 ten-millionths mm, i.e. 25 [ ngstrom]. In other words, comparing the skin's thickness with 1 mm comparing an empty envelope with a ten-storey building! As opposed to chromium, carbon impairs the corrosion resistance, and therefore several stainless steels re carbon contents. Nickel is added to prevent corrosion even in reducing atmospheres. Molybdenum, on the hand, increases the resistance to acids. In contrast to nickel and molybdenum, both carbon and chromium react with oxygen. The interplay between carbon, chromium and oxygen is central in the making of "stainless" steels. This can described with the following reaction formulae: I. 3 C (carbon) + 3/2 O2 (oxygen) <-> 3 CO (gas, carbon monoxide)

II. 2 Cr (chromium) + 3/2 O2 (oxygen) <-> Cr2O3 (slag) The aim is to drive Reaction I to the right, and Reaction II to the left, in order to lower the carbon content by without oxidizing/fluxing the chromium. Reactions I and II can be summarized in one reaction formula: III. Cr2O3 + 3 C <-> 2 Cr + 3 CO The aim is to drive this reaction to the right, i.e., it is important to avoid the oxidation of chromium (fluxing of chromium) as well as to achieve a low carbon content, often under 0.03%. Assume that 50 tons of 18/8-steel is to be produced, i.e. it should contain 18% Cr, 8% Ni and 0.03% C. The charge in this case is composed of about 70% stainless steel scrap, i.e. about 35 tons.

The heat must be complemented with a chromium-rich material to achieve the desired composition, 18% Cr. As the carbon content may not be higher than about 0.03%, it would (of course) have been desirable to add a chromium-containing material with a low carbon content to the furnace charge. This is however impossible for economic reasons, as low-carbon chromium alloys are extremely expensive.

One is therefore forced to add less expensive, high-carbon chromium alloys containing about 7% carbon. T for instance that when a molten bath is obtained, the carbon content will end up being 1-2%. Therefore, a la amount of carbon must be oxidized. Now the problem arises of decreasing the carbon content without fluxing/oxidizing expensive chromium. As the equilibrium diagram shows, it is theoretically possible at a chromium content of 18% and a temperature of 17000C to decrease the carbon content to 0.18% without oxidizing chromium. This applies a atmosphere pressure. In order to come down to 0.10% C without losing chromium, the temperature must be almost 19000C. This was the earlier dilemma for steel plants with stainless steels on their product program. for stainless steels has always been high compared with carbon- and alloy-steels, with the exception of som alloy tool steels. The reason for this has been the high costs associated with the production of these high-c steels: * High consumption of refractory material due to the high temperatures.

* Consumption of expensive, low-carbon chromium alloys. " Cheap" high-carbon alloys would raise the steel's carbon content and therefore do not come into the picture. * High consumption of the reduction agent FeSi, for the reduction of chromium from the slag. * High consumption of energy and electrodes. * Long processing times, i.e. low productivity. Reaction III indicates a way out of these difficulties, since oxidation of carbon, C, produces the gas, carbon CO. Gas is influenced by pressure. It can be pressed or "squeezed" together by an increase in pressure; it can b out" by a decrease in pressure. For example, the pressure in a 50-liter oxygen tank is about 200 atmospher bar). If all of the gas is released into the atmosphere where the pressure is 1 atm., the oxygen gas would ta volume of 10 m3. If in Reaction III the pressure of carbon monoxide is decreased, then more CO will be form the reaction will go to the right: the carbon content will decrease without affecting the chromium content to a degree. In other words, the decreasing pressure will increase carbon's attraction to oxygen compared with chromium's. The application of these phenomena in practice completely change the character of stainless steelmaking. Two processes have been developed: * AOD [Argon Oxygen Decarburization] * VOD [Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization] In the first case, AOD, the carbon monoxide pressure is decreased by blowing an inert (non-reacting) gas, through the steel bath. As the CO-pressure in the argon bubbles is zero, C and O will react with each other interface between bubble and steel, where the formed CO is "drawn into" the bubble and follows with it out system. A small experiment at home may help to explain the AOD: Pour champagne into a glass. Champagne contains, as known, carbon dioxide, a gas, which is dissolved in the wine. If one now flushes air (another gas) down into the champagne and takes a taste from at regular intervals, one will find that the carbon dioxide "tingle" gradually subsides until all of the carbon dio gone. The drink has been transformed to an ordinary white wine! This demonstrates that: A gas can be removed from a liquid if another gas is flushed through the liquid! Thi utilized in the AOD! The gas to be removed in the AOD is carbon monoxide, and the flushing gas is argon. In the VOD. the steel bath is exposed to a vacuum while being stirred inductively and/ or with gas (usually a It can be seen from the diagram in figure 42 that theoretically, a low CO-pressure enables the achievement low carbon contents without excessive oxidation of chromium. Of the two, the AOD is the dominating process. AOD is the dominating proces. AOD (as VOD) is preceded processing in the EAF, where scrap, alloys and slag formers are melted. After that, the crude steel is transp the oxidizing-refining station (AOD/VOD). THE AOD PROCESS The following is an example of the processing sequence of a heat: Steel grade: 18/8 Heat size: 50 tons The EAF Furnace charge: 35 tons 18/8 scrap 15 tons ferrochromium (approx. 7% C) + nickel (FeNi or NiO) + FeSi 1.8 tons burnt lime 1. Melting During melting, a certain oxidation of chromium occurs, about 0.5% Cr. The formed chromium oxide, Cr 2O3 reduced later, however, by the silicon, Si, dissolved in the steel bath; this implies that the earlier oxidized C the bath. The silicon content then decreases roughly from 0.4 to 0.2%. 2. The temperature is raised to about 16000C. 3. The composition before tapping: C: approx. 1% Cr: approx. 18% Ni: approx. 8% Si: approx. 0.2% ( The silicon content should not exceed 0.4% in order to avoid an excessive heat evolution during oxidation in the converter.)

4. Tapping 5. Deslagging from the transport ladle 6. Steel sample is taken in the ladle. THE AOD CONVERTER (Oxygen gas + inert gas [argon, Ar or nitrogen, N2] are injected through concentric tuyeres in the converter wall just abo bottom). * The crude steel is charged into the converter. * The temperature (about 15500C) is measured. * Burnt lime is added. Target basicity: 1.5-1.7. Knowing the weight of the steel, its composition and temperature, the operator must now make a steel with specified an temperature. The processing sequence in the converter can be divided into three periods: I Oxidation of carbon, where as much carbon and as little chromium as possible is oxidized. II Slag reduction, where chromium and other valuable metals are reduced out of the slag and return to the steel bath. III Refining, desulphurization. The oxidation of carbon usually takes place in four steps, which are characterized by different proportions of oxygen an The carbon content is the deciding factor for the start and duration of these stages. The following generally applies: Carbon content %: 1.2 -> 0.4 -> 0.3 -> 0.1 -> 0.03 Oxygen/argon: 3/1 1/1 1/3 1/5 The total gas flow rate is about 1 Nm3 per ton and minute. For a 50-ton heat this implies 50 Nm3 per minute. At the beg oxidation, when the carbon content is high, a large portion of oxygen is blown in without the risk for chromium oxidation Figure 42). The driving force for the formation of CO must increase with decreasing carbon content, in order to avoid an excessive oxidation of chromium (see Figure 42). This is achieved by a step-wise decrease in CO-pressure, obtained by increasing the portion of argon in relation to the oxygen (see Figure 45). As the oxidation of elements such as C, Si, Cr, etc, is exothermic (releases heat), the bath temperature will rise to abou This is actually beneficial, as the oxidation of carbon is favoured by high temperatures (see Figure 42). The successive decrease in carbon content is indicated by the so-called "CRE" [Carbon Removal Efficiency]-number. T expresses the percent of the supplied oxygen which oxidizes carbon: The higher the CRE, the better the utilization of supplied oxygen. In the beginning of oxidation CRE is low, as the lion's share of the supplied oxygen goes to bonding with silicon (silicon stronger attractive force on oxygen than does carbon). When the silicon is eliminated, CRE rises, i.e. a larger and large the oxygen oxidised the carbon, which is of course the aim. By increasing the portion of argon step-wise at the cost of t CRE can at intervals be held relatively high, implying that the supplied oxygen occupies itself more with the carbon than chromium. It is unavoidable that CRE decreases with decreasing carbon content, as the oxygen has an increasing difficulty in "find carbon. It is the chromium that in the end "is attacked". CRE is a measure of how one succeeds in juggling with the oxygen/argon proportions in the different oxidizing stages.

The number of blowing stages and the proportions of oxygen and argon vary from plant to plant. The carbon content, th temperature and the CRE-number are factors which decide the blowing procedure in different cases. Reduction of the slag In spite of all the above-mentioned efforts, the slag after decarburization contains 20-40 % Cr 2O3, which corresponds to 2-3 % Cr. The slag also contains 5-10 % MnO. These elements must be recovered, i.e. the slag must be reduced. To ensure a basicity of about 1.7, an addition of burnt lime is made, followed in general by ferrosilicon for the reduction exerts as known a stronger attractive force on oxygen than does chromium, implying that it changes place with the chro manganese in the slag. The above mentioned basiciry is necessary in order to bind the fluxed silicon, SiO2, which would otherwise attack the r lining. The reduction is favoured by high temperatures, e.g. about 1700 0C. The reduction is carried out during argon bubbling. As pointed out earlier, reactions between steel and slag, which are t here, require a larger contact area in order to take place quickly. An intensive stirring is necessary -- thus the argon bub

reduction period is usually managed in 5-10 minutes. A well-reduced slag contains less than 0.5% Cr 2O3. A well-proces requires no addition of expensive low-carbon ferrochromium!!! The chromium in the melt is sufficient, if the heat is corre processed! At the same time it should be pointed out that a properly processes decarburization requires a minimal amo reduction reagent. Refining The excellent mixing obtained by gas blowing makes the converter an extremely efficient desulphurizer due to the large contact area between steel and slag.

In cases where low sulphur levels are required, the reduction period is followed by deslagging and the addition of a desulphurizing reagent, which is often a blend of burnt lime and fluorspar. When extremely low sulphur levels are requi usual reduction reagent ferrosilicon is replaced with aluminum, which of course exerts an even greater attractive force o For efficiency, the refining also takes place during argon bubbling. The complete processing takes about ten minutes. D on whether silicon or aluminum is used as a reducing reagent, sulphur levels of 0.005 and 0.001%, respectively, can be Processing time in the AOD is usually around 90 minutes. Some plants around the world have reported times of about minutes! When processing is completed in the AOD, the steel is tapped into the ladle for further transport to the casting station, o ladle-treatment station, where final adjustments of temperature and composition are made. The following is a summary of factors which favour each processing period in the converter: I Decarburization * Low carbon monoxide pressure * High temperature * Low MgO-content in the slag II Slag reduction

* High slag basicity

* High silicon content in the steel after the reduction

* High temperature

REFRACTORY MATERIALS

"The making of iron and steel is the making of slag", is a saying with a lot of truth in it.

As a rule, the slags used in steelmaking are basic. Both slag and refractory lining are ceramic materials, the former liqu latter solid. The liquid slag has a composition such that its melting point lies below the temperature at which the process is carried furnace or ladle. The refractory lining must have a melting point which lies considerably above the temperature in quest to do live up to its name refractory! The melting point, i.e. the temperature at which a material melts, depends on its che composition. Melting points of some components of slags and refractory materials: Compound Melting point, 0C CaF2, calcium fluoride ("fluorspar") 1360 FeO, iron oxide 1420 SiO2, silicon dioxide 1470 MnO, manganese oxide 1650 Cr2O3, chromium oxide 1990 Al2O3, aluminum oxide ("alumina") 2050 CaO, calcium oxide 2580

MgO, magnesium oxide ("magnesite")

2800

Effective dephosphorization and desulphurization require a fluid and reactive slag as well as refractory lining that remains solid under all conditions! Further, basic slags are required; this also implies that the refractory lining be basic (see section 1.09, Volume 1). Stron components are CaO and MgO, which are part of the slag as well as of the lining. CaO dominates in the slag, while Mg dominates in the refractory lining, with the exception of dolomite, where CaO rules. To obtain fluid slags, fluorspar is sometimes added. The reason for th seen in the above table. Even quartz, SiO2, decreases the slag's melting point as does FeO. Here, it's really a matter of navigation", as the components which lower the slag's melting point also lower the refractory lining's! Refractory materials can be divided into three groups: 1. Fireclay

2. High-alumina 3. Basic A clear dividing line exists between groups 1+2 on the one hand and group 3 on the other hand. Fireclay and high-alumina products have common components--silicon dioxide (SiO 2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3)-- but different proportions. In the basic materials, magnesium oxide (MgO) and calcium (CaO) dominate. [MgO, CaO] <-> [SiO2, Al2O3] form easily-melted compounds with each other. With this in mind, it is in other words impo realize that it isn't a matter of "brick is brick". For example, if high-alumina brick ends up in an area where a basic slag c away" the wall of the furnace or ladle, then there is a high risk for a "splendid" breakout! A refractory lining and slag in contact must contain compounds which do not attack each other at the interface between slag. A BASIC slag must in other words always work with a BASIC refractory lining! In the same way, "ACID" must work with "ACID".

The reason for the addition of dolomite as a slag former together with the burnt lime is to decrease the risk for a reactio the slag and the MgO existing in the refractory lining: in other words, to decrease the risk for lining wear. Instead of allo slag to satisfy its need of MgO by "licking away" the lining, MgO is added in the form of dolomite. The joints in brickwork are relatively are relatively weak points. Therefore, these must be leaf-thin, whether the brick is mortar or laid dry.

The time factor plays a large role in the wearing rate of a refractory lining. Consequently, lining life increases with increa productivity!

[BACK]

VOLUME 4

LADLE METALLURGY LADLE FURNACES OF VARIOUS TYPES

LADLE FURNACE METALLURGY LADLE METALLURGICAL TOOLS

LADLE TREATMENT

EXAMPLES & DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIOUS STAGES IN LADLE TREATMENT INGOT CASTING

CASTING

CONTINUOUS CASTING

LADLE METALLURGY
From one step to two

The review of various process routes for steelmaking has been limited so far to what happens in one and the same primary furnace, whether it be converter or EAF (Electric Arc Furnace). In the converter, only primary oxidation has taken place, i.e. the removal of carbon and phosphorus during simultaneous increase of steel bath temperature. The intense evolution of heat has also allowed the melting of a considerable amount of scrap. In the more flexible EAF, it has been possible to carry out that which can be done in the converter as well as perform deoxidation, desulphurization and alloying. The latter step is carried out after a change of top slag. In the case of the converter, the composition of the heat must be adjusted outside of the vessel through deoxidation and alloying additions in the ladle during tapping. In other words, a certain amount of metallurgical treatment has already been carried out in the ladle for a long time! During the past 20 years, however, the production of steel has gradually changed character. The term ladle metallurgy established itself, implying the breakdown of steelmaking into at least two stages: 1. The production of crude steel in the primary furnace--converter or EAF. 2. The refining of the crude steel in the ladle or in the converter. The term "secondary steelmaking" became popular. The development does not imply new metallurgy from a chemical point of view, but rather the introduction of new techniques and with them new equipment. This development has been forced through by two causes: * The requirement for increased productivity. * The requirement for improved quality of the produced steel. Constantly increasing wage- and capital costs together with an ever tougher competition has forced steel plants to increase productivity. It is simply a matter of distributing the fixed costs over as many tons as possible in order to make ends meet. At the same time the level of quality must be raised in order for the product to be attractive in the market place.

"Ladle metallurgy" implies the following main features: * in scrap-based steelmaking: - The EAF obtains increased productivity by being limited to scrap melting - The quality of the steel is raised * in ore-based steelmaking:

- The assortment of steel grades is broadened - The quality of the steel is raised By limiting the EAF to scrap melting, oxidizing refining and heating, and by "transferring" the heat into the ladle for final treatment, the primary furnace is transformed into an efficient melting machine with a high production capacity: while the next scrap heat is being melted, the recently tapped heat undergoes final treatment in the ladle. By combining the converter with ladle metallurgy, a wider assortment of steel grades can be produced. In both cases, an improved and more consistent steel quality is obtained. What is meant by "improved quality"? * Tighter compositions * Lower impurity levels * Fewer nonmetallic inclusions * Lower gas contents * Tighter temperature control By "more consistent" quality, we mean that individual heats of the same steel grade resemble each other to a greater degree with respect to composition, cleanliness and other properties. The aim is to reproduce the same high quality from heat to heat. The fact that each heat is assigned its own number indicates that we are not very good at reproducibility. Heats delivered as e.g. tool steel SS 2242 cannot be "bundled together" in one partition, but instead must be kept separated according to heat number, as they are individuals, each with its own unique composition and properties. If you go to a restaurant and order a bottle of Tuborg "Gold", you get a bottle of "Gold". It always tastes the same. The bottle has no number! That's because the brewery can reproduce its beer. Clearly, it is easier to make beer with a consistent quality than it is to make steel with consistent quality. In one case it's a question of chemistry at "room temperature", while in our case it is chemistry at high temperatures. That's where the difficulties lie. Ladle metallurgy has however increased the possibilities for making a better and more consistent quality steel at a lower cost, even though there's still a long way to go before "steel = beer"! Ladle metallurgy has actually been applied "from the beginning of time" in connection with tapping of the furnace or converter, and consisted of one or several of the following operations: * Deoxidation * Desulphurization * Alloying In the beginning of the 1930's the Perrin process came into use--it can be said to be the forefather of today's ladle metallurgy. The Frenchman Perrin developed a method in which premelted slag with a composition suitable for desulphurization or dephosphorization was poured into the ladle before tapping. During tapping, the intense mixing created a large contact area between the steel and slag, which gave a quick and for those days acceptable removal of sulphur and phosphorus, respectively. In the 1950's the vacuum treatment of molten steel was introduced. This could be carried out either during tapping (stream-degassing) or, more commonly, after tapping in a special station.

In the mid- 1970's another star was born--Powder Injection. The main aim of injection metallurgy was to achieve a quick and thorough desulphurization down to 0.0001-0.0010%S. The new technique proved as well to be extremely suitable for e.g. deoxidation and inclusion modification. However, the following factors limited treatments in the ladle: * Short treatment time due to temperature losses. * The amount of alloy additions was limited due to temperature losses. * Insufficient mixing. The overriding limitation was the absence of an energy supply. Mixing can be achieved relatively easily with gas stirring, but it is limited in duration, again because of the heat losses. This can be compensated to a certain degree by overheating the steel in the furnace before tapping. This implies however a higher consumption of energy, electrodes and refractories, as well as an unsatisfactory control of casting temperature. However, this simple form ladle metallurgy was a step in the right direction--just as a Volkswagen is better than a bicycle! But of course, even better than a Volkswagen is a Rolls Royce, i.e. a ladle furnace! This had its beginnings already in 1965, but didn't come into the "swing" of things before well into the 1970's. In the 1980's came a complement and/or alternative to powder injection--that is, "wire feeding". And that's where we stand today! The "tools" included in ladle metallurgy today are equipments for: * Deslagging * Mixing * Arc heating * Powder injection * Wire feeding * Vacuum treatment These, along with high-precision weighing equipment and control of the amount and composition of top slag, are preconditions for a more precise and reproductive steelmaking. The term "ladle metallurgy" has thus been endowed with a richer content, better described by the name:

LADLE FURNACE METALLURGY

The term "ladle furnace" indicates that we have a ladle and a furnace, all in one. "Furnace" implies that energy can be supplied to the steel. "Ladle" implies among other things that the steel is transported in, refined in and cast from the same vessel. Compare this with the EAF, in which refining took place in earlier days, and from which steel was tapped into the ladle for subsequent casting. The tapping procedure itself implied a "dirtying" of the steel with inclusions and air, which were drawn down into the ladle by the tapping stream. Ladle metallurgy is carried out in most cases under reducing conditions. The operations which are well accommodated here are:

* Homogenization of temperature and composition * Alloying * Deoxidation * Desulphurization * Vacuum degassing * Inclusion modification * Inclusion flotation * Fine-grain treatment * Temperature adjustment An assortment of ladle metallurgical equipment is available which can manage all or some of the above operations with varying results. A very important advantage with metallurgy completed in the ladle is, as mentioned earlier, that casting can be carried out directly from the same vessel in which refining is done, i.e. without retapping. This implies: * Considerably less risk for reoxidation, pickup of gas and other impurities into the steel. * Less variation of temperature during casting due to the "temperature equilibrium" between ladle and steel reached during treatment of the steel. * Less risk for reversion of the fluxed, undesirable elements from the top slag back into the steel bath. * Higher alloy recovery. * Lower inclusion content. TOP Common to all ladle furnaces is the supply of energy to the steel, normally carried out by three-phase AC (alternating current)-arcs--in principle just as in EAF:s but with lower power. The heating of molten steel is usually carried out in combination with mixing. In ladle furnaces this is a must due to the high ratio of bath height to bath diameter: the ladle furnace is tall and narrow compared with the EAF. The energy flow supplied by the electric arcs to the relatively small bath area must be continuously distributed into the melt, otherwise an overheated layer of steel and slag forms, which as well as being fatal to the refractory lining, makes a representative temperature measurement impossible to take. Two kinds of mixing are used: * Gas stirring * Inductive stirring

Gas stirring is carried out by blowing an inert gas (also called noble gas) such as argon into bath. This type of gas does not react chemically with its surroundings, nor does it dissolve into the steel. (Thus: oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are not inert gases). The gas is blown in usually through one or several ceramic porous plugs placed in the ladle bottom. Inductive stirring is executed by an electromagnetic coil placed outside of the ladle shell. A wandering magnetic field forms in the coil, which sets the steel bath in motion. In principle, the function is similar to that of an electric motor consisting of a stator and a rotor. A wandering magnetic field is created in the stator, which causes the rotor to spin. The stirring coil corresponds in this case to the stator, while the steel bath corresponds to the rotor. These differences in mixing method have led to the development of three main types of ladle furnace: * Heating with simultaneous inductive stirring under atmospheric pressure. e.g. ASEA-SKF, Sweden. * Heating with simultaneous gas stirring under reduced pressure. e.g. "VAD", Finkl-Mohr, USA. * Heating with simultaneous gas stirring under atmospheric pressure. e.g. Standard Messo, Germany. The third type comes in several different models, supplied by manufacturers in Europe, Japan, etc. The above ladle furnaces are mentioned in the order in which they have come onto the market. The first to operate was the ASEA-SKF; its prototype was brought into production by SKF Hellefors Steel in 1965. At present there are about 350 ladle furnaces in operation around the world. Of these, about 75% are gas stirred while the rest are inductively stirred.

LADLE METALLURGICAL TOOLS

A. DESLAGGER In order for ladle refining to produce an acceptable result, it must be able to start with a "clean slate". In other words the slag from the previous stage (the EAF slag) must be removed. This is achieved either by slag-free tapping of the primary furnace (EAF or converter) or by removal of the slag which has been transferred over into the ladle, before a new slag former is added. Why doesn't the refining tolerate the old furnace slag? Because the old slag contains phosphorus and oxygen, which are taboo from this stage on. The refining takes place under reducing conditions, i.e. "hungry oxygen eaters" are added, which react with the oxygen that lies weaklybonded to iron and phosphorus in the old slag. There is then a risk of the phosphorus being reduced back into the steel, and a larger consumption of expensive deoxidation reagent, which in turn disturbs the desired top slag composition. Many methods are employed for discarding of the despised furnace slag. In some methods, the slag is removed after tapping into the ladle, either with a slag rake or by vacuum suction. B. MIXING Why is mixing so important? One reason has already been given: * Distribution of the supplied energy to avoid overheating of the top region (steel and slag). Others are: * Quick turnover of the contact area: steel << -------- >> slag. The

quickness and efficiency of deoxidation and desulphurization depend on this. * Homogenization of the steel's temperature and composition, in order to quickly obtain representative temperatures and steel samples. * Flotation of inclusions out of the steel bath. But in addition to this, MIXING IS THE MAIN THEME COMMON TO THE WHOLE PROCESS DESLAGGING SLAG FORMATION DEOXIDATION HEATING DESULPHURIZATION ALLOYING TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENT THROUGHOUT: - INCLUSION FLOTATION - HOMOGENIZATION - SAMPLING - TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

MIXING

VACUUM TREATMENT DEGASSING DESULPHURIZATION ALLOYING CARBON REMOVAL WAITING What is it then that speaks for and against the two mixing methods? The answer must take into account: * Metallurgical * Economic and * Operational safety factors

Metallurgical features which distinguish the different mixing methods:

DISTINGUISHING

GAS STIRRING

INDUCTIVE STIRRING

FEATURE - Mixing pattern - Inclusion flotation - Mixing speed - Distribution of turbulent energy - Size of contact area between steel and slag - Exposure of steel surface to the atmosphere - Risk for carbon pickup from electrodes Irregular Mediocre Regular, controlled Good

Relatively low Concentrated towards bath surface Very good

Relatively high Relatively evenly distributed throughout the bath Good

Risk of

Minimal

Risk of

Small

Practical consequences of the above differences are: * A controlled mixing pattern results in more effective inclusion flotation with inductive stirring. * A higher linear flow velocity decreases the time for inclusion flotation and homogenization with inductive stirring. * A more vigorous mixing at the bath surface increases the desulphurization degree with gas stirring, by creating a quicker turnover of the steel/slag interface. * Exposure of the steel surface to vacuum makes degassing more efficient with gas stirring. * A greater turbulence at the bath surface increases the risk for exposure of the steel to the atmosphere, i.e. risk for oxidation with gas stirring. As well, the risk for carbon pickup from electrodes increases with gas stirring. When a more effective desulphurization and vacuum degassing are preferred, while the sensitivity to carbon pickup and steel cleanliness is rather low, then gas stirring is of metallurgical preference. However, metallurgy is one side of the coin, while economy is the other. Economics of stirring

An economic comparison between gas stirring and inductive stirring made in 1990 showed that the cost (including depreciation) was about $1.94* lower per ton steel for the inductive stirrer than for gas stirring. Costs for inductive stirring include (as well as depreciation in the investment value of the inductive stirrer) electrical energy, cooling water and maintenance, which however are relatively small compared with the costs of gas stirring: * Argon * Porous plug * Nozzle, cement etc (refractory material) * Maintenance * Preheating * Higher consumption of: slag formers energy electrodes * U.S. dollars, calculated with the exchange rate of 7.75 Swedish crowns per U.S. dollar, as of April 1993. Operational safety is furthermore greater for the inductive stirrer. Despite so many factors pointing to the advantages of inductive stirring, the lion's share of ladle furnaces are equipped with gas stirring. The explanation for this lies in the difficulty that many companies have in valuing the lower operational costs as compared to the investment cost. This seems remarkable, as the investment cost is relatively quickly compensated by the lower operational costs. C. ARC HEATING In a ladle furnace is in principle the same as in an electric arc furnace. The installed transformer capacity is however only about 1/4 of the EAF:s for the same heat size. After all, in the ladle furnace it's a matter of raising the bath temperature and melting in alloys, while the EAF is a definite "melting machine" for scrap. Another noticeable difference is the dimensions of the furnaces. The distance between electrode and wall in the ladle furnace is about half of that in the EAF. This also limits the power that can be fed into the ladle furnace. D. POWDER INJECTION Desulphurization is based on reactions between steel and slag. Initially and up to the middle of the 1970's, desulphurization was carried out at the interface between steel bath and slag cover. This took time, which is not surprising when considering that the whole steel bath had to pass by the limited slag surface that wetted the top of the steel bath. How could this contact area be increased? Suppose that instead of using a slag cover with a suitable composition for desulphurization, we blew this slag in powder form into the steel bath. The contact area between slag and steel would in this way increase considerably, resulting in a significantly shorter reaction time. This powder injection, i.e. "injection metallurgy" became a reality. It implied not only shorter treatment times, but as well significantly lower sulphur contents at lower costs. The injection technique has a doubleeffect: it both increases the contact area between reagent and steel, and results in an intensive stirring of steel and slag. This new technique opened the door to other areas besides desulphur-ization. The possibility for adding materials to the steel bath without exposing them to air and slag was also utilized for the

alloying of elements which have a high affinity to oxygen, i.e. a strong tendency to forming compounds with oxygen (being oxidized/fluxed). This led to increased recoveries for expensive alloying elements as well as quick homogenization of the steel bath's composition. E. WIRE FEEDING

The desire to protect added materials from air and slag was satisfied as well with "wire feeding". "Wire" is actually incorrect terminology, as it is a name used for tubing filled with powder which is fed into the melt. "The tubing" looks like wire, and is supplied in "wire coils" which are uncoiled for feeding of the wire into the melt. Wire feeding has therefore become a commonly-used term.

F. COMPARISON BETWEEN POWDER INJECTION AND WIRE FEEDING Wire feeding presents the following advantages: * Higher recovery of added material * Greater compositional control * Less nitrogen pickup * More effective inclusion modification * Cleaner steel * Less temperature loss * Less freeboard required * Less refractory wear * Lower operational costs * Lower maintenance costs Powder injection offers: * More effective desulphurization * Shorter treatment times * Lower costs for additions Excepting the above, the two methods are largely equivalent. The choice that a plant makes between the two methods is determined by its own unique set of requirements. G. VACUUM TREATMENT

Varying methods exist for vacuum treatment: Tank degassing / Ladle degassing 1. The ladle is placed in a tank with a tightly-sealed cover. Evacuation of the tank takes place. 2. The ladle is supplied with a tightly-sealed cover. Evacuation of the volume above the bath surface takes place. Stream degassing 1. Carried out during tapping. The steel is tapped from an intermediate ladle down into an evacuated ladle. The steel drops in the tapping stream are vacuum degassed during their fall down into the ladle. 2. The steel flows via a transport ladle down into the evacuated ladle. In principle, the same as number 1. 3. The steel is cast into a mould under vacuum.

"Pipette degassing" 1. The DH-process. The steel is vacuum treated batch-wise in an evacuated vessel, supplied with a tube which is immersed in the steel. The vessel is evacuated, causing the steel to be drawn up to a level equally the the difference between the outer atmospheric pressure and in the vessel. By lowering and raising the "pipette", the steel heat is vacuum treated batch-wise in the evacuated vessel. The function is similar to that of a glass pipette, i.e. a glass tube with a rubber balloon. When the squeezed, "pressure-less" rubber balloon is freed, liquid is drawn up into the glass tube to a level equalling the difference between the surrounding atmospheric pressure and the initial pressure in the rubber balloon.
2. The RH-process. The basic principle is the same as for the DH, i.e. the steel is drawn up into an evacuated vessel. In this case however the "pipette" consists of two tubes which are immersed into the steel bath. Argon is blown into one tube, which makes the molten steel column "lighter" than the one in the other tube. In this way the steel can flow continuously between vessel and ladle. The argon gas also contributes to the removal of hydrogen and nitrogen.

LADLE TREATMENT

The aim is to prepare the steel for the last stage: the casting. The final composition and temperature must now be set according to the processing instructions that apply to the steel grade in question. Adjustment of the composition implies both: - Decreasing the levels of undesired impurity elements and - Raising the levels of desired alloying elements. Both types of adjustment have the aim of giving the steel the properties ordered by the company's customer.

For the producer of liquid steel, however, the casting station itself can be regarded as "the customer"! It fixes requirements on the composition and temperature of the steel before arrival to the casting station. If these requirements are not met, then the heat risks being returned, implying extra treatment costs. Decreasing the levels of impurity elements and other components is a metallurgical treatment. Objects of treatment can include: - Oxygen - Hydrogen (- Nitrogen) - Sulphur - Inclusions Depending on the steel's application, "Secondary steelmaking" can imply everything from: A. Alloying and stirring to complete ladle treatment including: B. Deoxidation C. Desulphurization D. Hydrogen removal E. Temperature control F. Inclusion modification G. Inclusion floatation The requirements on the steel to be made determine its metallurgical treatment. Reinforcing steels require a certain composition and certain casting temperature within relatively wide limits, while e.g. bearing steels demand narrower intervals of composition and a considerably higher cleanliness with respect to inclusions and gases. For some tool steels, extremely low sulphur contents are required, while heavy forging blocks for turbine shafts are more demanding of low hydrogen contents. And so on. Some steel plants, therefore, manage with a relatively simple arrange-ment of "tools", e.g. some form of gas stirring (for homogenization of casting temperature). Others must be equipped with "the works". i.e. equipment for: - Deslagging - Arc heating - Powder injection - Wire feeding - Vacuum treatment

EXAMPLES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIOUS STAGES IN LADLE TREATMENT

1. Tapping from the primary furnace The temperature before tapping is determined by: - The carbon content. The melting point of steel decreases with increasing carbon content, i.e. the higher the carbon content, the lower the tapping temperature can be.

- The amount of alloying additions which require heat for melting and dissolving. - Accessibility to a ladle furnace, i.e. the possibility (if any) for heating. - Weather the ladle treatment station is a bottleneck or not, which affects the waiting time for treatment completion of the preceding heat. The primary furnace slag containing oxygen and phosphorus must not participate in the following ladle treatment. It must either be hindered from coming out of the furnace into the ladle by "slagfree tapping", or removed from the ladle after tapping. Primary furnace slag remaining in the ladle risks the reduction of phosphorus back into the steel as well as lower recoveries of deoxidation and alloying additions. WHY? BECAUSE phosphorus and iron (which are bonded with oxygen in the slag) form much weaker bonds with oxygen than do the deoxidation and alloying additions. Phosphorus loses in the tug-of-war over oxygen against silicon, aluminum and other additions. It can't resist against the strong oxygen-binders. The phosphorus, in other words, lets go of its oxygen and returns in free form to the steel bath. The work done in the primary furnace to dephosphorize the steel is thereby undone if too much furnace slag is carried over and stays in the ladle during ladle treatment. Another consequence, naturally, is that extra (expensive!) deoxidation reagent is required to take over the oxygen bonded to phosphorus and iron in the furnace slag. The furnace slag is in other words a kind of black (slag) devil if it "slips" over into the ladle! Alloy additions can be made at different times in the process, and in different ways. Primary deoxidation is done with aluminum and/or ferrosilicon. The amount is adjusted to the carbon content which dictates the oxygen content! The primary deoxidation aims at avoiding turbulent boil-out of slag and steel when the alloying elements are added. The addition of alloys as a rule decreases the temperature, which in turn decreases the oxygen's solubility in the steel. The liberated oxygen which is "rejected" by the steel, reacts with the carbon dissolved in the steel. This reaction is further reinforced by the addition of carbon-rich ferroalloys, eg. ferromanganese and ferrochromium. The carbon added in this manner, as well as that added with carburizers, will also disturb the carbon-oxygen equilibrium. The sudden temperature decrease and the sudden carbon addition would together cause a violent reaction, if the oxygen content were not first lowered by deoxidation. The amount of alloying additions, including cardurizers, is calculated so that the lower limit in the steel grade specification is met. Trimming of the composition takes place later in the ladle treatment. Slag former in the form of burnt lime is added after the alloys. Alternative: Access to ladle furnace I. "Slag-free tapping" In principle, the procedure is the same as described above. II. The slag is carried over into the ladle and is drawn off there. In this case, the above-described measures are not carried out during tapping, but rather after the deslagging, in the ladle station. Otherwise the same applies.

2. Ladle station It is assumed that the furnace slag has been removed according to I. or II. The starting point is:

The composition and temperature of the heat, based on: Steel sample and temperature measurement, which are taken suitably after about 5 minutes of stirring in order to ensure that the heat is homogeneous with respect to temperature and composition. It is important to be sure that these samples and measurements represent the whole heat. A. The simplest case; No special requirements of: - low sulphur content - low hydrogen content - low inclusion content - First knowing the planned steel grade's prescribed composition and casting temperature, then weighing up and addition of deoxidation reagent, alloying material and cooling scrap is performed. - Stirring with the prescribed gas flow rate and/or current (inductive stirrer) for the prescribed length of time is performed to ensure a homogeneous composition and temperature. It is important that all measures are carried out by each shift crew in exactly the same prescribed way. Differences in performance cause one and the same steel grade to differ from heat to heat. The shift crew must in other words not experiment independently in the belief that they can make a better steel than the others. No individual stunts are accepted! Although this doesn't mean that good ideas are not appreciated--on the contrary! But they must be included in the systemized manufacturing instructions before they can be applied in production! - Optional adjustment of temperature and composition. - The heat is ready for transport to the casting station. B. Desulphurization requires: a) Low oxygen content: < 20 ppm O in steel, about 0.1% FeO in slag b) High basicity: CaO/SiO2 greater than 3 c) Large slag volume for a high ratio of sulphur in the slag to sulphur in the steel, i.e. (S)/S d) Large contact area between steel and slag, or quick renewal of contact area. The mechanism for sulphurization involves the bonding of sulphur with calcium. The calcium must be "freed" from the oxygen so that it can instead combine with sulphur. A strong oxygen-binder (deoxidation reagent) must be added to take care of the oxygen which is freed from the calcium. The whole reaction can be described by the following formula: (CaO)slag + Ssteel (CaS)slag + Osteel

In other words, it's an exchange of oxygen and sulphur between steel and slag. Different ways of describing elements in steel and in slag Example Sulphur in steel in slag

can be expressed as or as or as Oxygen can be expressed as or as or as or as

[S] S aS, (sulphur activity)

(S)

[O] [FeO] O aO, (oxygen activity)

(O) (FeO)

In order for desulphurization to occur, the reaction given above must go to the right. That is, CaO (burnt lime) must be present. Further, the oxygen content must be kept at a low level. This is done by fulfilling the requirements (a), (b) and (c) above. For requirement (d), the contact area between steel and slag can be continually renewed with an effective stirring combined with a fluid slag. A high basicity [as required in (b)] implies a relatively high CaO-content, which makes the slag viscous i.e. less fluid. In order to counteract CaO's high melting point, a relatively fluid component such as fluorspar or bauxite must be added. For desulphurization, mixing by gas stirring is preferable to inductive stirring due to its creation of a greater turbulence at the contact surface. However, care must be taken so that the steel surface is not exposed to air and thereby oxidized! The oxygen content must be low!!! Even better than a continuous renewal of the contact surface is making it as large as possible. The solution to this is powder injection (page 13). IN SUMMARY: Desulphurization is promoted by: * Low oxygen content, which can be achieved by - Deoxidation with e.g. Al, Si, CaSi The oxygen content in both slag and steel must be held continuously at a low level. - Stirring with argon combined with good sealing between ladle and electrode roof. Less risk for oxidation from the air through an inert atmosphere above the bath surface. - Vacuum treatment. low oxygen content above the bath surface. * Reactive, (fluid) highly basic slag, which is achieved with - burnt lime + fluidizing component (fluorspar/bauxite) - arc heating - basic ladle lining (dolomite/magnesite) * Large slag volume * Large contact area between steel and slag, which can be achieved by - gas stirring - vacuum degassing - injection * High temperature, achieved by - arc heating

As a low oxygen content in the steel is necessary even for quality reasons, deoxidation and desulphurization actually go hand in hand. In this section however, the only duty of deoxidation has been to keep the dissolved oxygen, i.e. the oxygen activity, at the lowest possible level. C. Deoxidation (for quality reasons) can be carried out by three principally different methods: * Precipitation ** Diffusion *** Vacuum Of these, the first is the most common. The second occurs more or less in combination with the first. The third is applied in special cases for extremely low-carbon steel grades, where the primary aim is to achieve low carbon contents, (although at the same time the oxygen content is also lowered). Chemical reactions producing gases are affected by the surrounding atmospheric pressure. When carbon is oxidized, carbon monoxide is produced according to the formula C + O =CO. An equilibrium equation for the carbon/oxygen reaction can be written as follows:

%C . %O = k .

=K

This indicates that the product (carbon oxygen) decreases when the carbon monoxide pressure decreases. At 1 torr (1 mm Hg), K = 1/760 of the corresponding value at one atmosphere (760 mm Hg). This implies that if carbon and oxygen are at equilibrium at atmospheric pressure, then once the press dropped in vacuum treatment, a "boil" will take place. The reaction C + O starts to go to the right. CO then

Result: the contents of carbon and oxygen decrease. It should be pointed out here that only in exceptional cases is vacuum equipment installed with the aim of decreasing the oxygen content. In certain quite rare cases where there is concern for the contents of aluminum and inclusions, vacuum treatment is also used to decrease the need for precipitation deoxidation. Precipitation deoxidation implies that addition of materials which strongly attract oxygen. E.g. aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), calcium-silicon (Casi). The deoxidation process occurs as follows: - Melting and dissolving of the deoxidation reagent into the steel bath. - The deoxidation reagent, e.g. Al, combines with the available oxygen in the steel into an oxide (inclusion), i.e. a "precipitation" of aluminum oxide, Al2O3. Depending on the way you look at it, there is an oxidation of the Al or a reduction of the iron, i.e. deoxidation. The interesting result is however that the dissolved oxygen content has decreased, due to the oxygen combining with aluminum. Expressed in chemical terms: 3O + 2Al >> Al2O3 - The deoxidation products (i.e. the inclusions) grow by moving (diffusing)

and colliding with each other in the steel bath.

- Inclusions are removed from the steel bath by floating up and bonding with the top slag. The more collisions, the larger the inclusions become, and the more quickly they float up. (If you hold a swimming float and a bottle cork in each fist 1 meter below the water surface, which cork will reach the surface the fastest? Bravo, you're right, the answer is of course the larger cork). - Inclusions are removed from the steel bath by being transported to the refractory ladle lining and to the top slag, where they are entrapped. Even though precipitation deoxidation is the dominating method for decreasing the oxygen level. a diffusion (transport) of oxygen also occurs from the steel bath to the slag (see Volume 1, Figure 30). Both of these processes--precipitation deoxidation and diffusion deoxidation-would occur very slowly if they weren't accompanied by vigorous mixing. Even if mixing is carried out, a certain period of time is required for the inclusion removal to be sufficient. In other words, the task of deoxidizing the steel is far from complete when the additions are made. After the last addition, stirring must be carried out for so many minutes that maximal inclusion removal is effected. If not, one obtains a dirty steel, and the one responsible risks being "hung at sunrise"! D. Hydrogen removal Of all the elements dissolved in molten steel, it is the oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen (all gases) which are affected by the atmospheric pressure. Of these, hydrogen requires special efforts to be held in check. Its solubility (as for other gases) decreases with decreasing pressure and temperature. This means that hydrogen has a much higher solubility in molten steel than in solidified steel. Certain steels in solid state can absorb more hydrogen than others. This ability is determined by the chemical composition, the structure and the cast product's dimensions. The advent of continuous casting has brought on increased sensitivity to hydrogen. The formation of so-called "pin-holes" in the surface of the casting occurs often at lower hydrogen contents for continuous casting than for ingot casting. The relationship between a gas' solubility in steel and its surrounding partial pressure can be described with the following formula (using hydrogen as an example): FH %H = KH . PH2 Where F = a factor dependent on the steel's composition K = a factor determined by the steel's temperature P = the (partial) pressure (in atmospheres) of hydrogen. Let us look at %H, i.e. the hydrogen dissolved in the steel, and P, the surrounding hydrogen pressure (atmospheres). They show the hydrogen's pressure-dependency. At a certain pressure, x, the hydrogen content is y%. If the pressure x is now lowered, then the hydrogen content y must also be lowered in order for the "=" sign to hold!

An example calculation: Suppose that at a temperature of 16000C, KH = 0.0027, that fH = 1 and that the hydrogen pressure is 0.01 atm. Then the solubility of hydrogen is 0.00027% at equilibrium (according to the formula), i.e. 2.7 ppm. Gases can occur only as atoms in steel. In other words, they dissolve atomically in the steel. The solid steel's inner structure is built up of crystals, which have atoms as "building blocks". Compared with the iron atoms, the gas atoms are small. They can therefore fit between the iron atoms. This implies that the gas atoms can move in the steel mass. As soon as the hydrogen reaches a space in the steel mass, e.g. near an inclusion, a transformation from atomic to molecular hydrogen occurs. The atoms join together in pairs to form molecules; this can be expressed with the following formula: H + H -> H2 The volume of hydrogen is suddenly doubled in the small void and therefore develops a pressure of thousands of atmospheres. This can lead to cracks ("flakes") and ruptures in the material. It is therefore extremely important to ensure that the hydrogen content is as low as possible before solidification. This can be achieved in two ways: I. By avoiding hydrogen pickup in the molten steel, i.e. by using only dry materials and protection of the molten steel from the surrounding air. II. By removing carbon through oxidation before tapping. The formed carbon monoxide "draws" hydrogen to itself. Once hydrogen has found its way into steel, the most effective and least costly method for decreasing the hydrogen content to harmless levels is "vacuum" degassing of the molten steel. By exposure to a low pressure, the steel's content of dissolved hydrogen can be decreased. An alternative to the above is hydrogen annealing, in which the hydrogen is diffused out of the solidified steel. This is however a very expensive method, from which the steel plant must strive to spare its "customers". The result of a vacuum-degassing treatment depends on the initial hydrogen content and on how the degassing is carried out. The hydrogen content before vacuum treatment depends largely on "hygiene", i.e. how well the steel is protected from moisture in additions and in the atmosphere. The result of vacuum degassing depends as well on: * Mixing method - Gas stirring. Flow rate. - Inductive stirring. - Combination of both. * Lowest pressure above the steel bath * Oxygen content, i.e. the degree of deoxidation: Utilization of the carbon-oxygen reaction. * Treatment time Least, but not least, it is important that after vacuum treatment, the result is not ruined due to clumsy handling leading to hydrogen pickup in the steel by:

* moist materials * moist stool/sprue plates * moist moulds * unshrouded casting etc. It doesn't take much moisture at all to ruin a heat. Consider a 82-ton heat. How much water does it take for the hydrogen content to rise by a dangerous 0.5 ppm? Answer: the volume in a beer bottle, i.e. about 37 cl!! Even lime can be a source of hydrogen, if care is not taken. Burnt lime is a "perishable" material. Why? First a little about its origin, limestone (see Figure 16, Volume 2, and Figure 6, Volume 3). Limestone can be found in various areas of bedrock. Its chemical term is calcium carbonate, CaCO 3. It can also be described as a compound of calcium oxide, CaO and carbon dioxide, CO 2, i.e. CaO-CO2. By heating up the limestone to about 10000C, the carbon dioxide is released as a gas. Remaining is calcium oxide, CaO, i.e. burnt lime. The burnt lime is however strongly hygroscopic, i.e. it has a strong tendency to combine with water and thereby become slaked lime. The air contains a certain amount of moisture. It's enough that burnt lime is exposed "for too long" in the open air for it to absorb water and become slaked: CaO + H 2O Ca(OH)2 [or CaO-H2O]. If slaked lime comes into contact with the steel bath, it splits up into calcium oxide, CaO, and water, H2O. The water then breaks down, due to the heat, into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen dissolves into the steel. The question can now be asked: how much burnt lime would have to be slaked in order for the hydrogen content in the steel to rise with 0.5 ppm? Answer: about 1 kg. It is clearly important that the burnt lime be handled hygienically! E. Temperature control The steel temperature at different stages in the processing of a heat (starting with tapping from the furnace to transport of the ladle to the continuous-casting station) is determined by the steel temperature required in the tundish. Steel plants equipped with a ladle furnace have an easier time controlling temperature than those lacking one. Without a ladle furnace, the steel must be tapped out of the primary furnace at a high enough temperature such that the temperature later in the tundish lies at the correct level for a successful casting. Between these two points, heat losses occur: - During tapping. The relatively "cold" ladle absorbs heat. - Due to allowing additions, which require heat for melting. - Due to the addition of slag formers, which require heat for melting. - On powder injection. The powder cools the bath (except for CaSi, which generates heat). The carrier gas cools the bath. - During vacuum treatment. The relatively cold vacuum cover cools the bath. - During the final stirring for homogenization and inclusion removal. - During all steps there is a continual heat leakage. To avoid a failed casting, which leads to scrapping or return of the heat to the furnace, the heat must often be tapped with a "superheat" which is later adjusted downwards to the prescribed casting temperature by the addition of cooling scrap!! This "super-heat" often results in tapping temperatures of 1750-18000 C! Costly consumption of energy, electrodes and refractory material follows.

In terms of added operational costs, a 100C superheat of the steel implies the following: - Energy: - Electrodes: - Refractories: TOTAL + 4 kWh/ton @ 3.9 cents/kWh: + 0.04 kg/ton @ $1.94/kg: + 0.12 kg/ton @ 77 cents/kg: $ 0.15 / ton $ 0.08 / ton $ 0.09 / ton $ 0.32 / ton

(This calculation is based on the exchange rate of 7.75 Swedish crowns per U.S. dollar, as of April 1993.) With a production of 500,000 tons per year, this equals an increased cost of about $160,000 per year! As well, there is the cost of lost valuable production time. The temperature control achieved by passing the heat via a ladle furnace implies improvements in the following: - Operational costs and as well, raised - Steel quality - Precision - Productivity As in the case of the EAF, the operator of the ladle furnace must handle the supplied power in the correct way: - Adjustment of arc length by adjustment of voltage, current and amount of slag, so that the least possible refractory wear occurs. The foaming slag practice cannot be applied in the ladle furnace as in the EAF. However the slag amount can be adjusted so that its thickness suffices to shield the ladle walls from the electric arcs. - In the beginning of the heating period, the temperature decreases, despite the fact that power is supplied. This is due to the ladle being "cold" compared with the steel; the ladle therefore draws a large amount of heat to itself. Gradually a sort of equilibrium is reached between the ladle and steel, called "steady state", after which heat losses and heating rates are practically constant. - It is better to heat with power during a shorter period of time than with low power during a longer period, due to the lining suffering greater wear in the latter case. The time factor can, within certain limits, have a larger influence than the effect. 23 With a knowledge of - the steel weight - the final temperature - weight and cooling effect of additions - weight and cooling effect of slag formers - heat losses - electric arc effect

it is relatively easy to set up material- and heat balances to calculate the energy and time required to reach specified composition and temperature--manually or with computer aid.

F. Inclusion modification With today's techniques, "inclusion-free" steels cannot be produced on a large scale. A certain minimal level of inclusions can be reached, and it's the job of the steelmaker to come as close to this level as possible. 24 As inclusions cannot be completely avoided, one must instead ensure that the inclusions have a composition that causes the least possible harm. This can be achieved in some cases by the addition of calcium silicon, CaSi. Inclusions consisting of aluminum oxides can be especially unpleasant due to their sharp edges and hardness. Aluminum may be a good deoxidation reagent in that it eagerly binds up oxygen, but the result of this compound between Al and O, Al2O3, may be less beneficial to the steel. By transforming these aluminum oxides to compounds with calcium oxide (CaO), round "globular" inclusions are obtained, which are considerably softer and therefore usually cause less damage. Other factors such as the size and distribution of inclusions tolerated by the steel can also determine whether CaSi-addition is advantageous or not. CaSi is added either by injection or by wire feeding. LADLE LADLE FURNACE

When a steel plant invests in a ladle furnace, it is important that this change in the process brings with it a changed view of the ladle. The transformation is from a "simple" transport- and casting ladle to a ladle FURNACE. Completely different requirements must now be placed on the quality of the refractory material and its installation into the ladle. The long treatment time and exposure of the brick lining to electric arcs requires more refractory material and more careful installation of the material, with thinner joints, etc than earlier. 25 Choice of refractory type depends on the individual conditions of the steel plant. Different combinations can come into question here. Common to most, however, is the slag line, which must be basic if desulphurization is to be done in the ladle. In the other parts of the ladle, either high-alumina brick or basic material can be used. Inside of the "wear lining" is a "safety lining". As a rule this consists of high-alumina brick, which is cheaper but insulates better than the basic brick. however, it is very important that the safety lining at the slag line is basic. The reason for this is that if the wear lining should be worn right down to the "bare skin", i.e. the safety lining, then the basic slag, if it came into contact with high-alumina brick there, would quickly

eat right through the brick, with a breakout as a result! Therefore: a basic wear lining at the slag line requires as well, and unconditionally, a basic safety lining.

CASTING
Steelmaking deals with mainly two states: a) When the steel is molten, and its temperature and composition of alloying- and impurity elements are regulated. (Volumes 1, 2, 3 and 4). b) When the steel transforms from molten to solid, i.e. is cast to ingots or shapes. (Volume 4, i.e. this volume). In both of these states, the steel's properties are established. In part a) treatment is carried out with the aim of lowering levels of undesirable elements, "SPOHN", and increasing levels of the alloying elements. In part b), it's a matter of preserving the results achieved in a), and as well affecting the solidification in such a way that the castings obtain the most favourable internal and external quality. Consequently it is the structure, impurities, composition and surface condition which contribute to the finished product satisfying the stated specifications. Even if the steel in the ladle compiles with the manufacturing specifications, the subsequent casting can more or less sabotage the end result, if it is not carried out in the correct way. 4.201 Structure When looking at different materials under the microscope, one finds that their makeup varies to a large degree. The material's "smallest" components are made up of atoms. These atoms are made up of even smaller elementary particles: electrons, protons, neutrons. But the atoms are the units which retain their individuality throughout all "chemical" changes. Solid materials, as opposed to molten, have a structure. By this we mean that they have a continuous internal makeup. In metals, the atoms are ordered in regular, three-dimensional x) patterns called crystals, while in glass, the atoms are arranged "randomly". Glass is in other words formless or amorphous. In ceramic materials (e.g. refractory brick) and compounds such as plastics, the atoms are arranged both regularly (crystalline structure) and irregularly (amorphous structure). The different atomic arrangements explain the different materials' properties and areas of application.
x)

Note: The square is two-dimensional while the cube is three-dimensional.

The crystalline structures characteristic of metals can be affected in different ways. As long as the metal is molten, randomness is total. It's first when the metal solidifies that the atoms arrange themselves in a decided pattern. Structures are formed consisting of crystals, made of cubic or hexagonal units, where the atoms are located in the corners, and can also be found in the centers or surfaces of "the units". Steel's crystal lattice is cubic. There are two main structures: ferrite and austenite. In the ferritic crystal structure, there is an atom at the cube's center as well as at the corners. The ferrite has in other words a body-centered cubic crystal lattice. Austenite, on the other hand, has no center atom, but rather an atom at each face of the cube. It has in other words a face-centered cubic crystal lattice. 4.202 "Phase" In a chemical process such as steelmaking, there are different "phases". The steel is one liquid phase, and the slag is another liquid phase. Above the slag is a gas phase. The refractory lining is a solid phase, etc. That which characterizes a "homogeneous" phase is that it has the same state and composition throughout.

EXAMPLE Phase Water Ice Slag Steel state liquid solid liquid liquid composition H2O H2O Oxides Metal

Water and ice have the same composition, but are different phases--one is liquid, the other solid. Slag and steel are both liquid, but are different due to different compositions. A system is a region which consists of different phases that can be chemically and/or physically changed. "Whisky on the rocks" is a system consisting of two phases: one liquid, one solid. Steelmaking can be divided into different systems. In ladle treatment, for example, the system steel-slag-gas-refractory is an object of change. There is an interaction within and between the four named phases. Phases' changes in composition and state at different temperatures can be shown with the aid of so-called phase diagrams. Let us look at the system water-glycol. What happens when glycol is added to water? The freezing point drops. That is of course why we add glycol to the car's cooling water in the winter. The more glycol that is added to the water, the lower the temperature at which the mixture freezes. Well, that wasn't exactly anything new!? But what can be news for many is that the freezing point can only be lowered to a certain lower limit, -50 0C, after which it rises again!! This can be seen in the binary phase diagram for the water-glycol system. One can't be at all certain of being on the safe side by filling the car cooler with only glycol, as it freezes at -12 0C. By studying the phase diagram for the water-glycol system, one can determine which mix is the right one for avoiding freezing in a certain weather condition. The phase diagram also reveals other information. Four areas are marked in this example. Area 1 (dark blue) consists of only a liquid phase, area 4 (white) of only a solid phase. Areas 2 and 3 (light blue) consist of both solid and liquid phases. These are called two-phase regions. Suppose that 40% glycol is added to the cooling water--there is now one liquid phase in the cooler. It is +10 0C outside, but the forecast is for colder weather. The temperature decreases, and when it has crept down to -20 0C, ice crystals start to form in the cooler. This corresponds to point A on the liquids curve in the phase diagram. The glycol content of the liquid mixture is still about 40%, while that of the solid phase, point B on the solidus curve, is a little less than 20%. We now come across the segregation phenomenon, which implies that the composition has shifted. The material's composition is in other words no longer the same, neither in the liquid nor in the formed ice. This becomes more noticeable as the temperature continues to decrease. The glycol content in the liquid phase changes continually along the liquidus line, while at the same time, the composition of the solid phase (the ice) follows along the solidus curve.

When the temperature has decreased to -30 0C (point C in the phase diagram), the glycol content has increased to 50% in the coolant (point D) and to 30% in the ice (point E). Once the coolant has begun to solidify, its composition ceases to be homogeneous. Dipping the finger into the cooler, one notices that a sludge of ice and liquid has formed. The finger is submerged in a two-phase region. When the temperature has decreased to about -38 0C (point F), the cooler has frozen (and that's not funny!). The cooler's contents, i.e. the ice, now contains the initial 40% glycol. What has the motorist learned from this? I. that with 40% glycol in the cooler, the motor tolerates a temperature of about - 30 0C without bursting apart due to ice-formation. An ice sludge exists at this temperature, but it has no explosive effect. If the motorist however lets the car stand outside at 37 or 38 celsius degrees below zero, then he/she runs the risk of ruining the motor, as the coolant will have frozen through completely. As we know, water expands when it freezes. It can be seen in the phase diagram that to avoid complete freezing of the coolant at, say, -40 0C, there must be at least 50% glycol in it.

II.

that the coolant has a freezing interval, implying that the solidification takes place successively within a temperature region for a mixture of solid and liquid phase. This is the opposite of pure water, where the transition from liquid to solid phase is instant. The same thing applies for pure metals. Anyone who has cast tin soldiers knows this - there are no freezing intervals!

Let's go back to the fundamental subject. When pure iron solidifies at 1536 0C, a ferrite phase is first formed. At 1392 0C a phase transformation occurs, i.e. the ferrite transforms into austenite, which later at 911 0C finally transforms back to ferrite. the behaviour of carbon-alloyed iron as it transforms from liquid to solid phase can be seen in the iron-carbon diagram. As we are now dealing with a compound phase, i.e. a phase made of more than one substance (in this case iron, Fe, and carbon, C) the transformation from liquid to solid phase will, as in the case of the water-glycol mixture, occur successively. In other words, here also we're dealing with a solidi-fication interval! Suppose that a steel has a carbon content of 1%. It is liquid. The temperature is 1600 0C. The steel is poured into a cast-iron mould. The temperature decreases quickly and reaches the liquidus curve, point "a" at about 1460 0C. Out of the liquid solidify a few austenite crystals. These however do not have the liquid's carbon content, but instead the content which can be read on the solidus line at point "b": 0.4 % carbon. The continuing solidification, which occurs as the temperature decreases, reminds us of the water-glycol mixture. Let's stop and see what it looks like when the temperature has decreased to about 1433 0C (point "c"). We now find ourselves in the middle of the two-phase region consisting of liquid and austenite. The carbon content in the liquid has increased along the liquidus curve and is now 1.5% (point "d"), while the carbon content in the solid phase, austenite, moves along the solidus curve to 0.5% (point "e"). The solid phase portion, austenite, is now: [1.5-1]/[1.5-0.5] = 0.5/1 = 0.5, i.e. the ratio of liquid to solid phase is "fifty/fifty". When the temperature has decreased to 1340 0C, i.e. reached the solidus line (point "f"), then all of the liquid has solidified. The average composition is the same as in the initial liquid, i.e. 1% C. But due to little "freedom of movement" during solidification, segregations form, which show up (in this case) as a higher carbon content in the center of the casting. The carbon content doesn't manage to even out before solidification is complete. 4.203 Solidifixcation phenomena During casting and solidification, several phenomena take place:

- The steel shrinks with decreasing temperature. This applies to both the liquid and the solid phases. The most intensive shrinkage occurs on solidification. - The steel mass moves in a definite pattern within the mould. - The steel's solidification structure varies within the casting. - The structure's appearance is affected by the casting temperature. - Segregations form. The composition varies within the casting. - Gas voids can appear. - Inclusions are entrapped into the solidifying steel. Shrinkage Volume change can be described as a change in density. One cubic meter(m3) of liquid steel weighs about 6.9 tons, while solidified steel at room temperature weighs about 7.9 tons. That is to say, more solidified steel than liquid steel can fit into the same volume. Shrinkage can be explained even more clearly if one takes the inverse of the density: one ton of liquid steel takes up a volume of 145 liters (1 m3, i.e. 1000 liters divided by 6.9 tons), while one ton of solidified steel fills only 127 liters (1000/7.9). The difference, 18 liters, is the steel's volume decrease on transition from liquid to solid phase. Depending on the conditions during solidification, the "excess" volume's placement in the casting will vary: 1. If the mould is cooled from the bottom and from the sides, which is the usual, the remaining volume will form a funnel (sink head") at the top of the casting. 2. If the cooling is done only from the bottom, then the excess volume will end up as a level layer at the top. 3. On cooling of all sides, including bottom at top, the excess volume will be entrapped in the steel mass. 4. If solidified takes place during simultaneous gas evolution, the volume will be distributed as numerous pores in the steel mass. The total "excess" volume is in all cases the same, whether divided up into a number of pores or collected in a "pipe" at the top of the casting.

Currents Due to density variations in the melt, the steel flows around in the mould. As pointed out earlier, the melt's density increases with decreasing temperature; seen from another angle, the warmer the steel, the lighter it is. The steel flows therefore downwards inside the mould's relatively cold walls and upwards in the centre, where the temperature is higher: the "smokestack" effect Solidification structure

When the steel solidifies, the "untamed" atoms start moving to their respective positions to form a crystalline structure. The crystals' (grains') form and size depend on: - Temperature - Cooling rate - Casting rate At a certain casting temperature, the following three different zones of solidification structure can be observed (b): I. Surface zone with equiaxed crystals II. Intermediate zone with columnar crystals, dendrites III. Center zone with equiaxed crystals At excessively high temperatures, a structure resembling that in (a) can be obtained. At sufficiently low temperatures, the other extreme can be reached, i.e. the formation of completely equiaxed crystals (c). However, this schematic way of describing the different possible structures in solidified steel doesn't reveal the complication of mechanisms which causes them. I. Arise of surface crystal zone the mould walls are cold in comparison to the liquid steel. Therefore the temperature of the liquid steel closest to the mould walls drops quickly below the liquidus temperature. Numerous small nuclei of solid phase (solidified steel) form. Due to rapid heat loss, the nuclei are prevented from growing, as newly solidified nuclei keep forming, which prevent the initially solidified "seeds" from growing in size. The result of often a zone right inside of the mould wall which consists of crystal grains of approximately the same size. As the crystal grains release heat on solidification, the temperature rises. An air gap forms between the solidified shell and the mould wall, due to the steel shrinking as it solidifies. the heat losses decrease, as the gap acts as insulation (air conducts heat poorly compared with metal). These two phenomena: 1. Poorer heat extraction, and 2. Heat of solidification result in the temperature now decreasing much more slowly, which causes a stop in the nuclei formation. II. The arise of columnar crystal zone The solidification continues now at a slower tempo, as the formed nuclei grow. They follow "the path of least resistance" and grow in towards the center. Each crystal takes the form of several parallel dendrite stems which reach out by about the same distance into the liquid. Outgrowths form at right angles to these stems, making the crystals look like "Christmas trees". The branches on the dendrite stems don't spread out as far sideways as those stems which grow in towards the centre, due to competition from neighbouring branches. In other words, the branches prevent each other from growing sideways. III. The arise of equiaxed center zone is seen as resulting from: - the dendrite points loosening and floating around in the melt. These prevent the continued spreading out of columnar crystals, due to their own growth in different directions.

- the liquid's temperature lying below the liquidus temperature (see I. above). Other phenomena during solidification are the arise of - Micro- and macrosegregations - Pores and "pipe" - Slag inclusions Segregation The term "segregation" is used to describe some communities, implying a division into different demographic groups, e.g. racial segregation between blacks and whites. This term has a similar meaning in describing steel's transformation from liquid to solid phase. In the solidification of steel, segregation often occurs, expressed as a variation in composition between different parts of the solidified steel mass. Two types of segregation appear: - Microsegregations - Macrosegregations Microsegregations arise when the dendrites grow. Liquid with higher alloy content collects in the regions which solidify last (see pages 33-34). This phenomenon gives rise to microsegregation, i.e. the alloy content is higher here than the casting's average composition. Macrosegregations apply to larger distances, i.e. differences in composition within larger regions. Macrosegregation arises in general due to currents in the liquid. The reason for these movements is the density difference (i.e. differences in specific weights) in the various regions of the liquid. Other reasons for segregation can be: - Shrinkage of solidification - Variations in cooling, which in turn affect the extensions and shrinkages at the solidification front. Due to these phenomena, the transport of liquid phase between the dendrite arms will sometimes be checked, sometimes facilitated. The result is that the composition of the solidified steel varies in different parts of the casting. Segregation can appear at the center of the casting as concentrations of elements which are higher or lower than the average contents for the casting. The reason for carbon segregation, for example, has been explained on pages 33 and 34 with the aid of the iron-carbon diagram. Gas voids As mentioned earlier, steel can absorb the gases nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in varying degrees. The solubility decreases with decreasing temperature, which means that there is a large difference between the liquid steel's ability to absorb gas and the solidified steel's modest inclination to absorbing gases. Hydrogen distinguishes itself from oxygen and nitrogen by not combining with any other element. Hydrogen appears in other words as a gas from start to finish. Both oxygen and nitrogen, on the other hand, are bounded by other elements and form solid compounds. Oxygen in turn distinguishes itself from nitrogen by being able to combine with carbon to form the gas carbon monoxide. This is what happens in a steel which contains, besides carbon, relatively weak oxygen-binders, as the temperature in the liquid phase decreases and it successively transforms to solid phase (solidifies). In this phenomena, oxygen, due to its decreasing solubility in the cooling steel, is liberated and

combines with the carbon dissolved in the steel. The formed carbon monoxide bubbles up out of the melt. Eventually, all the steel has solidified, and the carbon monoxide which hasn't managed to leave the steel is frozen in and appears in the solidified steel as gas voids. The hydrogen that doesn't manage to escape the steel before all is solidified appears also as gas voids, often at the casting's surface where they appear as "pin-holes". Even nitrogen can, to a lesser degree, be found as gas voids in the solidified steel. Steel which solidifies during simultaneous carbon monoxide formation is called unkilled steel. See the section "Shrinkage". In order to avoid gas voids caused by the carbon-oxygen reaction, the dissolved oxygen content in the liquid steel is first lowered by the addition of elements which attract oxygen more strongly than does carbon. The steel must in other words be deoxidized in order to solidify as killed.

Gas voids caused by hydrogen (and nitrogen) can be avoided by measures which decrease solution of the gases into the steel (shrouded casting, dry additions, etc.) and by degassing (intensive decarburization in the primary furnace, vacuum treatment).

Inclusions are in general not desirable. They can cause cracks and thereby deteriorate the steel's mechanical properties. The villains in this respect are oxygen and sulphur. The deoxidation mentioned above results in compounds between oxygen and other elements: oxides or nonmetallic inlcusions. These must be removed from the melt in the ladle as completely as possible before casting begins. This requires time and stirring. (See sections "Ladle metallurgy" and "Deoxidation"). The shorter the period of time after the last addition, the greater the risk for "infrozen" inclusions. The removal of deoxidation products must be allowed to take its time!!! One can also turn the whole thing around: - The later the formation of inclusions takes places through addition of oxygen and/or deoxidation reagents (e.g. aluminum), the greater the risk for infrozen inclusions in the cast steel. - This implies that the steel must be protected from exposure to the air's oxygen during casting. - The addition of materials a short time before casting must be avoided! Sulphur is the other culprit. It forms the compound iron sulphide together with iron. This is also an inclusion, i.e. an enemy to the steel's properties. Other impurities containing sulphur are less dangerous, e.g. manganese sulphide, which can be lived with in most cases. The most radical measure is naturally to decrease the sulphur content to such low levels that on the whole, only minimal amounts of sulphides can form. TOP

INGOT CASTING
began with the introduction of the Bessemer method, which allowed the making of liquid steel. Here, the steel is cast into forms (moulds) made of cast iron. Today uphill teeming (where the moulds are filled from the bottom upwards) is used almost exclusively. The moulds are placed on plates of cast iron, so-called stool plates (or sprue plates), in which refractory channels open out at the moulds. A "trumpet" is placed in the middle of the stool plate and fed with steel from the ladle. The steel runs down through the trumpet and is distributed to the moulds through the refractory channels. Ingot casting is an application of the first case (killed steel) in Figure 36, i.e. cooling from the bottom and sides. In more exceptional cases unkilled steel is made, i.e. case 4 where the steel solidifies during simultaneous gas evolution. Going back to the first case: the top part of the casting containing "pipe" must be scrapped. This is because the surface of the pipe has been exposed to the surrounding air and thereby oxidized" oxide scale" has formed. The pipe therefore cann't be welded together during the following working of the ingot, be it rolling or forging. In cases 3 and 4, (figure 36) however, where the gas voids(s) are sealed into the steel mass (i.e. the inner surfaces are clean of oxides), welding together of the voids can take place. To decrease the depth of the pipe (also called "sink head"), the top of the mould is equipped with a so-called "hot top". This "hot top" consists of heat-insulating plates that are wedged into place in the form of a box on the inside of the mould. By keeping the steel liquidified in this "box" at the top of the mould after casting, a refilling of the "funnel" will take place along with the shrinkage. The result is a shallow "bowl" instead of a pointed funnel. The volume is naturally the same in both cases, but the difference is that a considerably larger part of the ingot can now be used. To further decrease heat losses from the top, an insulating and often exothermic (heat-releasing) material is used to cover the top surface of the ingot. The teeming stream The temperature decreases during teeming from ladle to mould, partly due to heat radiation from the teeming stream, partly due to the mould being cold compared with the steel and therefore "drawing" a large amount of heat to itself. A teeming stream exposed to the air risks picking up oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. The meeting stream's length andappearance in general plays a very large role. A sprawling, "umbrella-like" stream picks up more gases than a collected stream. Even the stream's length between ladle and mould plays a large role in this regard.

Model experiments have shown the following: - A smooth stream draws with it relatively little gas down into the mould, even with a large drop height. - The appearance of the nozzle affects the stream's appearance to a large degree. - Air is drawn along with irregularities in the stream (irregularities which arise due to a defective nozzle!) - Bubbles arising in the steel can, due to current whirls (vortex), be prevented from rising up and leaving the melt. - The bubbles can be drawn down right to the bottom of the mould. In summary, heat losses and gas pickup depend to a large degree on the appearance of the teeming stream. Gas pickup is also dependent on the degree of deoxidation, i.e. the higher the aluminum content, the larger the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed by the stream. The amount of inclusions formed is correspondingly larger. Casting powder is placed in each mould at the beginning of teeming in order to decrease friction between the mould wall and the steel rising in the mould. This is a type of slag which covers the rising steel surface. The layer closest to the steel surface melts and forms a thin film between the mould wall and the liquid steel. In this way, the steel glides upwards without sticking and causing surface defects on the ingot. The teeming powder's task is also: - to decrease the heat losses from the steel surface - to protect the steel from oxidation by oxygen in the air - to bind up the inclusions that float out during casting. TOP

CONTINUOUS CASTING
is a process where a heat is cast into shapes without interruptions. Ingot casting, on the other hand, is done piece-wise, with interruptions between each stool plate. Other characteristics of continuous casting distinguishing it from ingot casting: - The yield of liquid steel casting is 10-20% higher - The energy consumption is lower - The quality is higher - The processing path is shorter. Rolling of ingots to shapes is eliminated however - The assortment of steel grades which can be continuously cast is limited - Only fully-killed steels can be continuously cast - Steel especially inclined to segregation are as of present not possible to continuously cast. Continuous-casting machines of different types exist. The following models can be found today: - Vertical type. The section is cast vertically and is cut before dropping down to the horizontal plane. - Vertical type with bending. The cast section is curved and cut in the horizontal plane. - Circular arc type with straight vertical mould. The cast sections begins curving below the mould. - Circular arc type with curved mould. The curving begins already in the mould. - Horizontal casting The continuous-casting machine's height affects the constructional cost, the casting procedure and the quality of the casting. The higher the machine, the larger the investment. The solidification and distribution of inclusions in the casting differ for the vertical and curved machines. About 85% of the world's production is continuously cast at present. The

sections which are continuously cast can be divided into four main groups according to dimension: Name Dimensions (mm) - Billet 100 x 100 - 180 x 180 -- Bloom 200 x 200 - 250 x 250 --- Slab 240 x 400 - 250 x 900-2200 ---- Rounds 175 - 325 As well, such shapes as I-beam profiles can be continuously cast. Continuous casting machines are made up of the following parts: - Tundish - Water-cooled copper mould - Secondary cooling zone - Dummy bar system - Shrouding of casting stream Shroud tube between ladle and tundish, and (often) between tundish and mould. - Drive- and straightener rollers (pinch rolls) - Shears or torch-cutter - Number identification of cast product (heat/piece) The casting operation in general takes place as follows: - The mould bottom (starting head) is driven upwards by the dummy bar. - The ladle containing refined steel is placed above the tundish on a trestle or ladle turnet. - A ceramic shrouding tube is attached to the ladle's nozzle. In some cases an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen is connected the shrouding tube. The tube's task is to screen off the steel stream from the surrounding air. Inert gas can further decrease the risk for contact between air and steel. - The noazzle is opened and steel pours into the tundish. - When the steel has reached a certain level in the tundish, the nozzle of the tundish is opened, and steel runs down into the water-cooled copper mould. - The casting stream between the tundish and mould is generally shrouded from the surrounding air. - When the prescribed level has been reached in the mould, the dummy bar starts to draw out the section which has solidified around the starter head (mould bottom). - The dummy bas is drawn out by the pinch rolls. - The cast section is cooled by the water-cooled copper mould and by the water-sprays in the secondary cooling zone below the mould. - When the starter head with the initial hot strand has passed by the shears/torch-cutter, it can be cut off. The dummy bar is removed from the continuing-casting line and "parked" in its designated place at the side. - The pinch rolls continue to draw out the cast section. - The mould oscillates (moves up and down) during casting to decrease friction between the mould walls and the initially thin solid shell of the cast section. The mould movement is necessary to avoid tearing of the shell and accompanying breakouts of the liquid steel. - The cast section is cut up into ordered lengths, which are then marked, inspected and in some cases surface- conditioned before being transported for further treatment in the rolling mills.

PARTS OF THE CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINE Tundish As opposed to the casting of ingots, continuous casting takes place via a container, the tundish, between ladle and mould. The task of the tundish is to: - ease control of steel flow down into the mould - ease aim of the steel stream precisely into the mould - distributed the melt into several strands (in those cases where more than one strand exists) - function as an inclusion remover - function as a buffer in sequence casting (continuous casting of several heats, one after the other) - ease shrouding of the casting The flow of steel down into the mould is determined by: - the diameter of the nozzle - a stopper or sliding gate (when such equipment exists) - the steel level in the tundish--this is the only possibility for controlling a "freely-running stream" when equipment such as a stopper or sliding gate do not exist. In the tundish, the steel has its last chance for inclusion removal. Even if the ladle metallurgy has been satisfactory, the removal of inclusions floating around in the steel bath continues during casting. It is, naturally, important that the steel is as clean as possible before solidification. The longer the steel's residence time in the tundish, the greater the chance for inclusion removal. As a rule of thumb, the residence time in the tundish should be at least 4 minutes. The bath level in the tundish is extremely important. Increased bath depth increases the melt's residence time. By adjusting the bath height, the rate of discharge can be held within "reasonable" limits. However, caution must be taken to avoid sinking the level too low, as there is then the risk of vortex formation. This is the formation of a suction down into the nozzle, similar to the flow in a bathtub when the last of the water runs out. In this way, inclusions which were earlier floated out into the top slag can be drawn into the mould and ruin the steel. The tundish's geometry must be designed such that the steel does not run directly from the point of impact to the tundish's outlet without taking a detour. This eases inclusion floatation, partly because the bath movements become quieter near the outlet, and partly because the interfacial area between steel, refractory and slag cover becomes larger. It is namely at this interfacial area that most of the inclusion removal occurs. The tundish's outlet nozzle is a sensitive point. The ideal is to maintain a constant nozzle diameter suring the casting process, as a constant flow of steel down into the mould is desired. Factors which influence casting through and plugging up of the nozzle are: - the refractory material - the steel grade - the types of inclusions. As the steel grade is fixed, we have the refractory material and the slag composition to "ball around" with. Each steel mill must "play its own tune "with the" instruments" and preconditions available. It's a matter of preventing the creation of inclusions with high melting points. which fasten to the nozzle and more or less plug it up. The villain in this scenario is often aluminum dissolved in the steel. When it is oxidized, either by oxygen in the steel or in the surrounding air, aluminum oxides are formed, which have a high melting point. These stick to the nozzle walls and thereby decrease its diameter, leading in the worst case to a stoppage in the casting of the corresponding strand. By the addition of CaSi, the clogging up of the nozzle can be checked and even stopped,

due to the formation of relatively easily-melted calcium aluminum-oxides (calcium aluminates). Titanium can also cause problems similar to those with aluminum. Even the correct choice of refractory material for the nozzle can decrease the above-mentioned problem. Mould The moulds are made of copper. The inner surface is often plated chromium (0.08 mm thick layer) for wear resistance and for the prevention of copper pickup. One of the requirements for successful continuous casting is that the steel must manage to form a sufficiently even thickness in its solidified shell during its short residence time in the mould. Otherwise, the cast section can burst, and a breakout occurs. The cooling must therefore be very quick. That's the reason for the copper, which is a good conductor of heat. This would however begin to melt if it weren't cooled by water. There are two main types of moulds: - Tube moulds: Seamless, i.e. without welds. The cast section's dimension is fixed in this case. - Block moulds: Pieced. With and without possibility for adjustment of section width by shifting of the gables. Tube moulds are used as a rule for sectional dimensions of up to about 200 mm square. Block moulds are considered for larger, rectangular cross sections. The water-cooling has in general two main tasks: - Remove heat without too large an increase in water temperature. Under no conditions may the water's boiling point be reached! - Prevent the temperature at the mould surface from becoming higher than what the mould material tolerates. The mould housing is the "seat" of the mould. In order for continuous casting to be carried out, the mould must move in the vertical direction. The first trials made in a stationary mould, where casting was done while continuously drawing out the section during simultaneous solidification, resulted in failure. The solidified shell fastened very quickly to the mould wall, burst, and a breakout under the mould resulted. Continuous casting in a stationary mould works only at such low speeds of the cast section that it is practically solidified all the way through when it leaves the mould. Such a low productivity is naturally not acceptable. Siegfried Junghans and Irving Rossi showed how the mould movements should occur. Their idea, on which the success of continuous casting rests, was that the mould should follow along with the section a bit downwards at the same speed as the section. This gives the shell time to consolidate. Then the mould should return to its top position with a speed 3 times greater than the downward movement. Ian Halliday modified Junghans-Rossi's idea and introduced "negative strip", implying that the mould movement downwards was given a greater speed than the section's. This further decreases the risk for sticking and bursting of the thin shell. If, despite all precautions, the skin is ripped apart, it then has the chance of repairing itself by being pressed together. The secondary cooling zone The mould length lies between 500 and 900 mm. The casting speed varies with the dimension of the section and steel grade; it can therefore lie between 1 and 4 metres per minute. This means that the steel's residence time in the mould is about 1/2 minute. During this time, the shell must manage to become sufficiently thick to resist the bulging force (resulting from ferrostatic pressure)

of the liquid steel existing inside. It is about as fragile as a paper bag filled with water! I.e. the section is in a sensitive state when it leaves the mould. The continued solidification occurs by direct water-spraying of the section. The water-spraying has three tasks: - Control of the solidification speed so that the section is completely solid before it reaches the pinch rolls. - Control of the surface temperature. - Cooling of the machine foundation. Dummy bar system When the casting begins, the mould must have a bottom, otherwise the steel would run right through. A bottom piece ("dummy-bar head") is therefore driven up with a "dummy bar" along the same path that the cast section will then be drawn out. The bottom piece is similar to a hook around which the first liquid steel solidifies. The gap between the bottom piece and the mould wall is sealed with a ceramic material. To achieve quick solidification around the bottom piece, it is often complemented with small pieces of cooling scrap, e.g. clipped construc-tional steel. When the steel level has reached the prescribed height in the mould, the pinch rolls draw out the dummy bar with the attached cast section. When the dummy-bar head has passed the shears/torch-cutter, it is cut free from the cast section. The dummy bar is them removed from the continuous-casting line, and the dummy-bar head is prepared for the next casting. The pinch rolls continue to draw forth the continuously-cast section, which is clipped up into ordered lengths. These are numbered and transported to cooling beds, then inspected, possibly surface-conditioned and finally rolled to their final dimensions. Shrouding Three gases--oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen--can cause problems in casting. As all three gases exist in the surrounding atmosphere, the steel must be protected from the absorption of these gases on its way from the ladle to the mould. Between ladle and tundish, the steel stream can be protected with a ceramic shrouding tube, tightly sealed to the ladle and opening out under the bath surface in the tundish. By blowing an inert gas--argon or nitrogen--into the shrouding tube, the steel stream can be completely protected from gas pickup. To avoid the pickup of oxygen and hydrogen, nitrogen can be used as shrouding gas, if this doesn't disturb the steel grade in question. In other cases, argon is used; argon doesn't dissolve into the steel at all, but it is more expensive than nitrogen. For thicker sections, the same arrangement can be set up between tundish and mould. For thinner sections, lack of space usually prevents the use of shrouding tubes. In such cases, the stream must be surrounded by a "muffle" where air is "flushes out" by argon or nitrogen. Unfortunately, this is not as effective as shrouding tubes. The protection is improved with rapeseed oil as a lubricant (instead of casting powder). Rapeseed oil splits due to the high temperature and is combusted by the oxygen in the air, which is thereby hindered from reacting with the steel. Pinch rolls consist of three to four rollers, installed to exert a pressure on the cast section. The functions of the pinch rolls can be summarized as follows: - driving up the dummy bar with the dummy-bar head into the mould - drawing out the dummy bar with attached cast section at the start of casting - straightening out the cast section - driving the section forward - contributing to the control of the casting process. At full length, the cast section has such a large weight that the pinch rolls do more checking than

drawing out of the strand. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CASTING Continuous casting can be managed and controlled to a completely different degree than is the case for ingot casting. Factors which have influence on the quality of the casting: - Steel temperature in the tundish - The mould's conicity movement - frequency (strokes/minute) - stroke length (amplitude) - Contact between the cast section and the mould - Flow of cooling water - Levels in the tundish and mould - Casting speed The steel temperature in the tundish is affected by the steel's composition and section dimension. Each steel grade has a certain liquidus temperature, which can be calculated knowing the contents of the various alloying elements. The temperature in the tundish should as a rule lie at least 30 0C above the liquidus temperature. As the casting time is relatively long, the heat losses must be kept in check so that the casting progresses satisfactorily right to the end of the heat. Ladle- and tundish-lining must be heat insulating, as well as the cover material on the steel bath surfaces in ladle and tundish. The temperature control is considerably eased in those cases where a ladle furnace is installed. Ladle metallurgy in combination with arc heating gives the ladle possibility to reach "temperature equilibrium" with the steel. A "steady state" is reached. Without the possibility of heating steel in the ladle, the temperature will decrease faster from the beginning of primaryfurnace tapping to the end of casting. In the beginning of this period, the temperature drop is sharp due to the ladle being relatively cold and thereby drawing a great deal of heat to itself. To avoid rejection of the heat by the casting personnel due to too low temperature, the furnace personnel perform tapping with a superheat, which often results in cooling scrap addition in order to lower the casting temperature to the prescribed level. This procedure is altogether uneconomical and implies as well an unsatisfactory control of the temperature. Growth of shell in the mould The steel begins immediately to solidify when it has come down into the mould. The point where the steel first solidifies is called the meniscus. From there on the shell grows gradually until the whole section is thoroughly solidified. The distance from the meniscus to the point where all liquid has transformed to solid phase is called the metallurgical length. This is the length at which a liquid steel core (pool) is found left in the strand. The distance between the meniscus and the pool tip is in other words equal to the metallurgical length. The shell growth is dependent on heat transport from the solidification front through the strand's shell to the surroundings. The more effective the cooling, the quicker the shell growth. A general formula for the calculation of the shell thickness can be written:

Shell thickness in mm = Example: Suppose:

- Dimension of section = 150 mm - Casting speed = 1 m/minute - Metallurgical length = 24 m - Mould length = 0.8 m Question: How thick is the shell when the strand leaves the mould? Solution: 0.8 / 1 = 0.8 minutes, Shell thickness = 25 x 0.8 = 22 mm. The shell doesn't grow at an even rate everywhere in the mould. In the mould's upper part the contact between steel and mould wall is "intimate". Even if the formed shell strives to draw itself away from the mould wall during shrinkage, it doesn't manage this, as the pressure from the liquid steel core presses the (yet) thin shell out against the wall. The shell growth here takes place quickly, due to intimate contact and effective cooling. During the strand's voyage downwards, it doesn't take long before the thicker shell becomes so strong that the shrinkage can overweigh the pressure from the liquid core. It is surely known to most that e.g. a steel bar increases in length when the temperature increases, or vice-versa shrinks when the temperature decreases. Look closely at a steel bridge and notice the joints in the driving lane--the purpose of there is to accommodate the changes in length that occur due to temperature differences between summer and winter. Who hasn't heard of train derailments due to the rails' "buckling in the sun"? In such cases, the train tracks haven't been built with a sufficient amount of expansion seams, or constructed in such a way that they can resist the forces that arise when the rails tend to lengthen or shorten due to changes in temperature. The same mechanisms lie behind the shrinkage of the strand's shell thickness. The heat transport from the liquid steel to the flowing cooling water has many resistances to overcome, namely: - Heat transfer from the liquid to the solidified steel shell. - Heat conduction through the solidified shell. - Heat conduction through the slag film formed by the casting powder on the mould wall. - Heat transfer from the solidified shell to the mould wall. - Heat conduction through the mould wall. - Heat transfer from the mould wall to the cooling water. The resistances in the mould wall and in the boundary area mould-wall/cooling-water are relatively small in comparison to the resistances between strand and mould wall. The largest resistance to heat transport is the air gap between strand and mould. Calculations show that the wider the air gap, the thinner the strand's shell below the mould, as the cooling is poorer. Air is a poorer conductor of heat than is metal. Another consequence of the air gap's poor heat conducting ability is that the shell's surface temperature increases with increasing gap width. Measurements have shown as well that the temperature can vary considerably at one and the same level around the section. The reason for this is that the shell loosens at different points in time after formation of the meniscus. "Play" arises between mould wall and shell. This has a double effect. Locally the cooling decreases and the shell heats up again. Both lead to a thinner shell and thereby increased risk for breakout. To decrease the risk of unnecessarily wide air gaps between the strand's shell and the mould wall, the mould's are conical from the beginning. This implies that they become narrower in the lower

region to "match" the shrinking of the section during successive solidification. The difference in inner measurements between the mould's top and bottom are e.g. 0.7-0.8 mm for the section dimension of 115 mm square. As a consequence, it is important to change the mould in time. When the mould has been worn so much that the conicity has disappeared or even become negative, a larger "play" arises between shell and mould wall = thinner shell = risk for breakout! The water cooling of the mould must be evenly distributed. This doesn't present any great difficulties for block moulds, as the water in these is steered through bored channels. In tube moulds, however, the copper is surrounded by a continuous gap in which the water flows. In order to achieve an even cooling, the copper must be centred in the surrounding mantle tube with great precision. If not, uneven shell growth will be obtained, which can lead to defects in the shape and/or to breakout below the mould. To obtain an even shell growth in casting billets in tube moulds, it is therefore important to control the following factors: - the cooling water's linear speed (expresses e.g. in m/second), which depends on a combination of - the width of cooling water channel and - the water flow (expresses e.g. in liters/minute), which in turn is affected by - the cooling water's quality. For a given width of the cooling water channel, the speed of the water is controlled by the water flow. This implies an accurate control of the rotational speed of the pump motors. However, as recently pointed out, the condition for the same water speed around the mould is also that the channel's thickness is really the same all the way around! This implies that: - The mould manufacturer must deliver his mould with very narrow tolerances in the water gap encompassing the mould. - The water quality must be high to avoid the formation of deposits in the gap. The casting speed is limited mainly by the diameter of the nozzle installed in the tundish. It can however be changed within relatively narrow limits during casting by controlling the pinch rolls in combination with the steel level in the tundish. Decisive for the casting process is the levels in the tundish and in the mould. Especially the level in the mould must be held constant. If the strand's speed is increased with the pinch rolls, then the steel flow from the tundish is increased accordingly in order for the level in the mould to remain constant. The flow through the tundish's nozzle can be regulated with a stopper or sliding gate, or if this equipment is lacking, by changing the bath level in the tundish. However, care must be taken to avoid letting the level sink too low, as this can be ruinous to the quality of the casting due to the drawing down of inclusions [by vortex formation] or due to the casting temperature sinking too low. Friction between mould and steel shell mould movement, lubricant. It's a matter of preventing the shape from "being glued stuck" onto the mould wall. Measures against this include suitable mould movement and suitable lubricating material. The mould's movements up and down are described with the expression negative strip, which means that the speed downwards is greater than the section's downward movement. In this way the section is "stripped" from the mould--bare strip-tease! The lubrication has the same aim in this context as in others: to decrease the friction. Negative strip and casting powder (as other lubricants) work for the same cause: to decrease the risk for tearing

of the shell by the mould wall. The casting powder's composition and amount play a large role in obtaining the lubricating film between mould and solidified shell that is necessary for a satisfactory continuous casting. During the casting process, inclusions are removed from the steel. These are trapped by the casting powder slag which covers the steel surface. In this way, the initial composition of the casting powder is changed, which can result in its properties changing in the wrong direction--the casting powder slag can have a more difficult time performing its task of decreasing the friction between mould and cast section. The casting powder must therefore sometimes be renewed during the casting process. The conicity of the mould also affects the friction (i.e., not only the shell growth, see page 51). The greater the conicity, the greater the risk for the sides of the shape being squeezed together, i.e. the greater the risk for increasing friction. Continuous casting is, compared with ingot casting, largely a matter of precision. It's like comparing fine mechanics with rough-hewing! In ingot casting it is important to check that moulds, stool plates, casting nozzle and sliding gate are in acceptable condition before the casting is begun. The steel must have a certain prescribed temperature. Then the result is what it is! The casting process can hardly be affected once it has been started. Continuous casting is something completely different. Here, all parts of the machine must function as a whole, like clockwork. The machine adjustment must be perfect. No "play", no twitches. The water cooling must function precisely, i.e. the water's quality, flow and spraying nozzles must meet up to specifications. The personnel must be alert during the whole casting process, observing and watching everything to unsure cast sections with high quality. The defects which can arise in the cast sections, and causes for these, are many! Even if it is the casters who are the last to release the castings, it is the personnel of the whole steel mill who are responsible for the result. It is a matter of a process chain where each link affects the final product, for better or for worse. SURFACE DEFECTS Oscillation marks The mould's upward- and downward movement is, as has been explained, one of the requirements of continuous casting. The disadvantage with this movement is that it causes regularly recurring marks on the cast sections. The mechanism for this the following: The cast section moves continuously in the same direction (downwards) while the mould "oscillates" up and down. The meniscus, i.e. the first formed shell point, which is leaf-thin, is pressed inward towards the liquid steel when the mould moves downwards at a greater speed than the section (negative strip). That which forces the meniscus to bend inward is partly the steel, partly the slag. When the mould in the next moment moves upwards, an even thinner shell will be drawn in towards the mould wall. The mould moves again downwards, at which the earlier formed meniscus, which is now a thin shell, will bend inward towards the liquid steel, precisely as before. An oscillation mark has in this way been formed. The width, depth and distance between oscillation marks depends on the mould movement's stroke length and movement pattern as well as on the casting speed, i.e. the cast section's speed. The width of oscillation marks lies often at about 3 mm, depth 1-2 mm. The distance between the marks varies from machine to machine within the region of 5-20 mm. The disadvantage with oscillation marks is that they cause uneven heat extraction, which can cause crack formation in the cast sections. Surface cracks on cast sections can be derived from: - The mould - Tensions arise in the solidified shell due to variations in temperature. - Friction between the oscillating mould and the strand give rise to tensions

in the shell. - Support rolls Pressure from the liquid core builds up tensions in the shell, which press out the shell between the support rolls (bulging). - Secondary cooling Uneven spray-cooling gives rise to tensions in the shell. - Straightening Straightening of the strand builds up tensions in the shell. All of the above points concern tensions, which arise for different reasons. In order for these to result in cracks, the material's local strength must be so low that it can't resist the arisen tension. In figure 52, a examples are shown of different types and positions of cracks. Reasons for crack formation can be one or several of the following: - Large variations of the steel level in the mould. - Unsuitable stroke length and mould oscillation frequency. - Worn mould. - Unsuitable casting powder. - Copper pickup from the mould. - Uneven distribution of casting-powder/rapeseed-oil. - Local air gaps between shell and mould wall. - Uneven shell thickness depending on unfavourable flow patterns in the mould. - Sensitive steel grade. - Incorrect mould conicity. - Insufficient support from the support rolls. - Intensive cooling in the secondary cooling zone. - Uneven cooling. - High temperature in the tundish. - High casting speed. - Inaccurate machine alignment, e.g. incorrect radius. Surface cracks Possible causes. Measure for minimizing the risks. The numbers within [ ] refer to the respective defect-types in Figure 52. TYPE OF CRACK Longitudinal midface cracks [1] CAUSES INFLUENCING FACTORS

Tensile strain generated in the mould crack frequency increased by: and upper spray zones (zone 1) - carbon levels of 0.12% - increasing S and decreasing Mn/S - varying or increasing casting speed - high casting temperatures - casting wide slabs - mould conditions:

* improper water cooling * insufficient taper * irregular mould oscillation * improper mould powder * worn moulds - overcooling in zone 1 - improper adjustment of foot rolls - poor alignment between mould and submould support system CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Adjust mould conditions to ensure uniform cooling >Reduce cooling in zone 1 >Check and straighten submould support system TYPE OF CRACK Longitudinal corner cracks [2] CAUSES Nonuniform cooling in corner region INFLUENCING FACTORS Cracking associated with: -insufficient mould taper due to wear -large corner gaps (for slabs) -high casting speed -high tundish temperature -incorrect foot roller settings -steel containing: 0.17-0.25%C, > 0.035%S, > 0.0355P

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS >Reface the mould >Check alignment and lubrication for uniformity

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Transverse, midface [3] and corner [4] cracks Large surface temperature gradients in the spray zone, straightening within Steel composition: Al, V, Nb, Mn > 1% being the most important

unfavourable range temperature: 700-900 0C CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Reduce spray cooling >Make spray cooling as uniform as possible to minimize cooling/reheating cycles >Maintain surface temperature above 900 0C through to straightener

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Star cracks [5] Scraping of copper from mould Secondary cooling

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Plate mould walls with chromium >Adjust machine alignment Other external defects 54 Rhombic sections can arise due to uneven cooling in the mould. The uneven cooling can lead to the shell in two opposite corners "drawing away" and forming a rhombic cross section. If as well the foot rolls are inaccurately aligned, the shape can become even more rhombic, and diagonal cracks can form. Surface inclusions can be caused by: - impure steel from the ladle - poor inclusion removal in the tundish and mould - reoxidation from air and slag during casting - level variations in the mould. Surface pin-holes depend on one or several of the gases oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, caused by: - insufficient primary oxidation (applies to the electric arc furnace) - incomplete deoxidation - moist material, refractory, insulating material, alloys, slag formers - unshrouded casting. 55 Bulging can be caused by: - excessive distance between the support rolls - inaccurate mould taper which in combination with a shell that's too thin and pressure from the liquid core, causes the shell to push out between the rolls. Internal cracks TYPE OF CRACK Midway cracks CAUSES Surface reheating in INFLUENCING FACTORS - High casting

(between surface [6]

or below spray chamber

temperature - P and S >0.02% increase crack formation

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS >Adjust spray system to minimize reheating >Lower the casting temperature >Lower the P- and S-contents

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Triple-point cracks [7] Bulging of the wide face of slabs Cracking increases with: - Mn < 0.9% - Mn/S <30

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Decrease distance between the rolls TYPE OF CRACK Centerline cracks (slabs) [8] CAUSES Bulging of the wide face INFLUENCING FACTORS - Spray water intensity - Casting speed - Roll alignment low in the strand

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Decrease distance between the rolls >Decrease casting speed or >Increase spray cooling

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Centerline cracks (billets) [8] Rapid cooling of center region below pool Severe secondary cooling and high casting temperature

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Adjust secondary cooling near bottom of pool

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Diagonal cracks [9] Uneven cooling in mould or sprays - Smaller billet sizes - High casting temperature

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Install corner rolls at bottom of the mould >Check alignment between mould and roller apron >Check for plugged spray nozzles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Straightening/ bending cracks [10]

Excessive deformation near solidification front due to straightening or bending

- Bending on liquid center

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Lower casting speed >Reduce tensile strain at solidification front to <0.3%

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pinch roll cracks [11] CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: >Reduce pinch roll pressure 56 To further improve the quality of an already good product, the following complementary equipment can be used: Inductive stirrers: - Mould stirrer [MEMS] Aim: * Reduce surface inclusions * Reduce pin-holes * Improved structure * Reduce internal cracking * Reduce center segregation * Reduce center porosity * Reduce V-segregation * Reduce corner cracking * Inclusions Excessive pinch roll pressure - Squeezing on a liquid center

- Strand stirrer [SEMS]

Aim:

- Final stirrer [FEMS] - Magnetic brake [EMBR]

Aim: Aim:

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------"Soft reduction" TOP Aim: * Reduce center segregation

[BACK]

VOLUME 5

OPERATING ECONOMICS

MAINTENANCE

ENERGY

ENVIRONMENT

OPERATING ECONOMICS

The making of prime steel, whether it be merchant steel or special steel, presents no great difficulty--almost anyone can do it. The difficulty lies in making steel which meets high quality specifications in a profitable way! If one doesn't succeed in making good steel at a cost low enough to ensure an "acceptable" profit, then one had better not be in the business!

Steelmaking economics depend on: * Handling and utilization of the equipment * The process carried out in and with the equipment Within the economic context, terms are used such as * Productivity, which is affected by - Availability of the equipment - Processing times - Delay times - Environment * Material yields

Operating costs can be grouped into the above main groups, and are affected by a number of different factors, which will be discussed.

COST Definitions I. Material costs (Raw materials: scrap, pig iron, alloys, slag formers, etc) II Refining costs a. Variable (quantity-dependent) costs. There are in general constant, expressed in $/ton (cast product). This implies that the costs vary along with the production: High annual production = high annual variable costs--and vice versa. b. Fixed (time-dependent) costs. These are constant, expresses in $ per man-hour

(on established shift schedule), i.e. they are independent of production--the cost is there whether there is production or not.

All costs can be affected by the operating personnel! MATERIAL costs

The raw material prices are often given, and therefore cannot be affected by the operating personnel, who however can influence the costs, as these depend on how the raw materials are utilized, i.e. on their recovery (yield).

VARIABLE refining costs are represented by consumption material such as: energy electrodes refractories oxygen oil etc The consumption of these varies along with the production. Suppose that the cost for refractories is $6.50/ton*. The annual cost for refractories will vary with the annual production, i.e. at 300,000 annual tons there will be a cost of $1.95 million for refractories, at 600,000 annual tons the refractory cost will be $3.9 million, and so on.

FIXED refining costs are represented by e.g. wages, depreciation, administration. These costs are relatively static, i.e. they are hardly affected by the production. (Excepting work at piece-rates and other types of wage agreements which can have changed the picture during the year). However, the "fixed: costs, expressed in $/ton, decrease as the production increases. The larger the tonnage over which the fixed costs ca be distributed, then naturally the lower will be the costs per ton.

Key factors which affect the operating costs are: - Productivity - Yield Both are expressions of utilization - of equipment - of raw materials. Implied is the aim to achieve as high a tonnage of prime castings for as low a cost as possible. It is in other words fatal to have eyes for nothing else but TONS!!!

Product prices are controlled in general by the market, They cannot usually be influenced by the producing company. The only way then to increase the profit margin is to decrease the costs. This is the operating personnel's most important task.

It can be fitting here to cite the founder of a successful department store chain: "One doesn't become rich by increasing income, but by lowering costs!" This applies not only to one's private finances but also to industrial business. It is important to realize that seemingly insignificant changes i certain key figures have an enormous effect on the annual operative result! PRODUCTIVITY'S effect on economic results.

Steelmaking is to a large extent a series of transports between stations where various treatments are carried out. It's important to keep to the time schedule: arrival time and departure time! Delays between stations are not tolerated. The time spent at each "stop" must be as short as possible. We must be better than certain railway companies, who often don't respect their given time schedules very well! A steel mill should also have a time schedule, but should follow it in a better way than certain railways do! Delays are not good, for time is money!

There are two types of delay: positive and negative. If delays are at all permitted, then the positive are to be preferred, while the negative are forbidden! Positive delay implies production is pushing, i.e. the station "downstream" feels pressure from the previous one. E.g.: * The hot metal ladle waits for charging into the converter * The scrap basket waits to be charged into the EAF * The ladle waits for tapping from the EAF * The steel-filled ladle waits for the ladle furnace * The ladle furnace waits for the continuous casting machine Negative delay implies on the other hand that production describes a "suction" along the process line. This is not as positive as it might

sound, as it means idle waiting for the previous stage to be ready. E.g.: * The converter waits for the hot metal ladle * The EAF/BOF waits for the scrap basket * The ladle furnace waits for tapping from the EAF/BOF. * The continuous-casting machine waits for the ladle furnace.

To achieve maximum production with existing equipment, stops in production must be minimal. This implies that the equipment's availability must be maximal, and that this availability must be utilized fully for production. In plain languages: Maintenance must be carried so that the equipment can be in operation continuously, i.e. that no unplanned stops in production (due to breakdowns) occur. This means also that the production must utilize the available time a proper maintenance provides. If this is realized, then the money will come "pouring in".

HOW MUCH MONEY CAN BE SCRAMBLED TOGETHER? By " " " " "

increasing production with 1 ton per net hour? increasing the availability by 1%? decreasing the time for each heat by 1 minute? increasing the yield of charged material to steel in the ladle by 1%? increasing the yield of steel in the ladle to cast products by 1%? decreasing the consumption of alloying elements? burnt lime?

energy? electrodes? What is 1 minute worth? What does a scrapped heat cost? These are questions which the personnel in each steel mill must know the answers to based on the mill's own economical and technical conditions. Examples of data required: Consumption and prices of e.g

hot metal scrap pig iron alloys burnt lime oxygen argon electricity oil electrodes refractories etc

The calculations depend also on what the steel mill in question consists of i.e.: Does it have continuous casting " ingot casting " ladle furnace " injection equipment Which steel grades are produced What are the heat sizes in tons What is the production of cast products in tons/hour Which shift schedule is applied What is the production time in % of annual man-hours (i.e. availability) Number of workers/shift Number of daytime workers Number of foremen etc

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Even though the conditions are different from plant to plant, the refining costs in scrap-based and ore-based steelmaking are similar enoug that they can indicate how much money is at play on relatively small changes in production. Improvement in the annual operative result, expressed in numbers of Mercedes 600 SL ($130,000): Below are numbers chosen to roughly indicate the relative sizes of values at play.

Scrap-based steelmaking 1. Increase in production by 1 ton per net hour Merchant steel mill Special steel mill 2. Increase in availability by 1% 3. Decrease in heat time by 1 minute 4. Increase in yield of iron bearer -> cast product by 1% 5. - Increase in the yield in connection with desulphurization of hot metal by 0.5 % - Increase in yield BOF -> steel in the ladle by 0.5% - Increase in yield of steel in the ladle -> castings by 1% 6. 1 minute is worth about $130 10

Ore-based steelmaking

4 7

4 5 10

It can be surprising to those working "on the floor" how small separate changes in time and yield can have very large consequences when accumulated effect is regarded as an annual figure. If one has this "annual" perspective, it is soon realized that everyone can affect the operative result, both individually and as a shift crew. It can be repeated here: "There is no great difficulty in making prime steel. The difficulty lies in making t in a profitable manner!" TOP

MAINTENANCE

The name continuous casting describes a flow, something in motion without interruptions. Continuous casting, i.e. sequence casting, assumes that there is also a "go" in the whole steel plant.

Apart from the casting method, it is naturally important that the heats under all circumstances are made in rapid succession, without delays. For this is to occur, there must be a high availability of the equipment (i.e. it must function), short heat times and a minimum of delays. the first-named is often the responsibility of maintenance, while the other two are up to the operating personnel.

In the steel branch, the word maintenance has been a bit over-emphasized and misunderstood. When availability has been the topic, "the maintenance" has been given a disproportionately large role. It can therefore be suitable to compare the connections productionmaintenance-availability in steel plants with other branches outside of the metallurgical industry. But wait! What do we mean by "availability"? Availability consists of two parts: I. The equipment functions. It is available. II. The equipment is not blocked. It does not cause delays. It is available.

The chemical industry, which is also a process industry, is applied research. Here, instrumentally-controlled equipment directs the human a every stage. The same thing applies to the engineering industry, where the human being also has more of a checking/inspecting function th a controlling one.

Steelmaking, however, builds an experience, which among other things means that it is the human being who controls the process. Here it is to a large degree teamwork, where several people must cooperate so that a continuous production of prime steel is achieved.

The consequence of these differences between types of industries is among other things that the production time in the chemical and the engineering industries to a much higher degree than in the steel industry, depend on the function of the equipment. In the steel plant, a larg role is played as well by the operating personnel's ability to utilize the time during which the equipment is functioning.

In other words: In the above-mentioned industries, the maintenance activity has a dominating influence on the availability, while in the steel industry the operating personnel besides the maintenance have a dominating influence on the availability and its utilization.

The term maintenance has a bit of a Janus *) look over it, as it is present many disguises: - Preventive maintenance - Acute/repairing maintenance - Improving maintenance - Condition-controlling maintenance Common to these maintenance activities is that they are carried out by a maintenance department, either centrally organized in the compa or placed out in the steel mill. cheque *) Ancient Roman God symbolizing split personality in the form of a head with two faces turned away from each other. It is in other words a question of dividing up the activities between operation and maintenance. This is not good, as it easily leads to the attitude of operating personnel: "my job is to produce, yours is to service the equipment. Do your job, and I'll do mine!" It is important to realize that in reality: Maintenance of production isn't only a maintenance's job!!! The fact is that the lion's share of operational stops doesn't depend on insufficient maintenance efforts, but rather on the operating personnel's ignorance during production. The efforts of operating and maintenance personnel must lie in the same pot! an all-encompassing term would then be: Total Productive Maintenance, TPM, which includes all personnel. The aim is for operators, machine attendants, casters, melters, blowers to be responsible for their respective equipment's maintenance, naturally in close cooperation with the specialists in electrical, electronic, hydraulic and other systems. In other words, there must not exist fences between "operation" and "maintenance". It can be questioned here why it seems more obvious for operating personnel to continually maintain the refractories in furnaces, ladles and tundishes, than that the same people also work towards maintaining the mechanical equipment. Or vice versa, why not let the maintenance department look after the refractory area as well? Why have the present division?

TPM's fundamental aim is: NO BREAKDOWNS! That is, no unplanned operational stops. Each need for acute repairs is a sign of failure in the maintenance system! To "drive 'til it dies" is forbidden. Statistics show that breakdowns cause 3-4 times longer stops in operation than planned stops. The reason being that at breakdowns, it takes time to:

- discover, report and search for the fault - bring forth the appropriate drawings, wiring layouts, etc - find parts - repair - test run

It is a question of having a high degree of efficiency in the whole organization. It isn't sufficient to "only" have an effective maintenance of "only" have an effective process (short heat times). Both must function effectively together! Having quick-footed, wiry Tarzans who carry ou quick repairs doesn't solve any problems if the operating personnel "drag their feet". The same applies if only the operation is efficient, whi the maintenance doesn't function. High availability achieved by effective maintenance must be utilized by effective processing.

On the other hand, the maintenance mustn't be driven too far. An example of this is Swedish Car Inspection, which calls in "almost new" ca for inspection. Here, time and money are laid down on preventative maintenance for often defect-free cars, which are far from the risk zone for breakdowns. This is no practice to adopt! Total Productive Maintenance implies: - That the operating personnel are maintenance's extended arm ! No one else works with the equipment as much and as closely as the operators. They can sense when something deviates from the normal, report it, and in many cases, correct it. - That operators and maintenance-people are given opportunities to speak their mind when changes are to be made. - That information and instruction is given on how the equipment works. - That continuous inspection of the operating equipment is carried out by two, an electrician and a mechanic, according to a PM (Preventative Maintenance) list. This increases the chances of finding faults and symptoms of faults in time = minimal work effort and time loss. - That tools and simple spare parts / consumable materials are placed within easy access of the equipment. - That aid for condition checks is available and used. - That the attitude towards the equipment is about the same as that towards one's own car! Carefulness! Investment in functioning maintenance can be a better alternative than the investment in new equipment in order to reach a desired production level. For example, to increase the production in a plant which only utilizes 75% by investing in new equipment to manage the remaining 25% is clearly wrong! Instead, the availability of the existing equipment should be

increased and utilized.

Tip-top equipment demands tip-top personnel in order to be utilized maximally. However, tip-top personnel don't necessarily require tip-top equipment in order to achieve good results!!! Conclusion: Capable personnel in all categories in the precondition for an efficient operation, independent of the equipment's condition.

To "save" on skill in maintenance and processing as well as on spare parts is about as senseless as stopping the clock and believing that one saves time! MAINTENANCE IS A PRODUCTION FACTOR!!!

TOP

ENERGY
- Source - Quality

- Form

What is energy? Every day we run into the word energy, or other terms related to energy. It may be through mass media or in advertisements. Energy supply, energy consumption, fuel consumption, liquidation of the nuclear industry, alternate energy sources, etc. The word energy comes from the Greek energeia = work. All work requires energ

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only changed from one form to another. Regardless of the purpos for which the energy is used, the final product will be heat. The heat energy flows spontaneously from a higher a lower temperature. In order to transport heat from a lower temperature to a higher one, work is required, i.e. energy must be supplied! This is because of energy losses arising in the form of heat when energy is transform and transferred. ENERGY FROM THE STONE AGE TO TODAY - Muscle power. During a greater part of human history, man has used his own muscle power as an energy source. - Domestic animals. When man began to cultivate the earth, he used oxen and horses. - Firewood. Ever since man learned to use fire, firewood has functioned as an energy source for the heating of homes. Before coal was brought into use on a large scale, firewood also played an important role in the industry.

- Water power. Water/hydro power has played an important role in industrial development. In earlier days, factories were located by rapids and waterfalls. These kept the water wheels going, and in this way man obtained energy for e.g. grain mills, saw mills and forges. Today, hydro power is used chiefly for the production of electricity.

- Wind power. Wind power was used in early days for sea transport and for running pumps, windmills, etc. - Coal. Coal achieved importance when the steam machine was invented. It was fired with coal and used in factories, steamships and railway locomotives, etc. The demand for coal has decreased in many countries during the 1900's as other energy sources have been brought into use. In recent times however, coal has achieved renewed importance. - Oil. Oil's big breakthrough came with the combustion engine and the car. Oil is today the most important and most sought energy source. It is used mainly for the heating of buildings, as engine fuel and for the production of electricity. - Nuclear power. During the 1960's and the beginning of the 1970's nuclear power was seen as the new energy source which would produce the electricity that hydro power wasn't sufficient to produce. During recent years, the safety of nuclear power has been increasingly questioned. Even the treatment and storage of radioactive waste is disputed.

- Sun and wind are subjects of development as alternative energy sources. How is energy measured? Length is measured in e.g. meters, weight in e.g. kilograms. Energy can be measured in different units: joule, J, or wattseconds, Ws. 1 J = 1 Ws. Electrical energy is measured often in Wh, where h stands for hours. 1 Wh = 3600 Ws. When considering large amounts of energy, kWh, kilowatt-hours, is used instead. 1 kWh = 1000 Wh. kWh is a handier unit. The largest unit of energy is terawatt-hours. 1 terawatt-hour [tWh] =1,000,000,000 kWh. An older measure of energy is the kilocalorie, kcal, which is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 liter [kg] of water by 1 0C. 1 kcal = 4.2 kJ 1 kWh = 860 kcal, i.e. the energy required to raise the temperature of 8.6 liters of water by 100 0C. 1 mcal = 1000 kcal 1 mcal = 1.16kWh On fuel combustion, energy is released in the form of heat. 1 m3 heating oil no. 1 has an effective heating value of 10,000 kWh or 10 MWh. This amount of oil equals roughly 1.315 kg black coal, 1.280 kg coke or 8.1 m 3 firewood.

The transformation of one energy form to another doesn't take place free of charge! Only a part of the supplied energy is useful energy, due to the losses incurred along the way. For e.g., only half of the energy that is supplied to a ladle furnace is actually used in the process--the rest is lost by heat extraction through walls and roof, and by heating of the secondary system between transformer and arcs.

The conversion efficiency in this case is said to be 50%. In oil-heating of a house with its own furnace, the conversion efficiency is 60-70%, i.e. 30-40% of the supplied energy is lost to smoke and warm chimney air. If the energy is instead obtained from a district (central) heating plant, then the conversion efficiency is about 90%! This is in other words a more profitable alternative. In the production of electricity from hydro power, the conversion efficiency is about 85%. The conversion efficiency of a nuclear power plant is roughly 32%! Heat losses are caught up by the cooling water. A certain recycling can be done by leading the cooling water in loops below streets and squares in the

nearby town: freedom from snow and ice lowers the costs for snow-plowing. The transfer losses in power lines about 10%. This means that only 90% of the energy coming from the nuclear power plant can be used by the consumer. Simple arithmetic shows as well that only about 29% of the uranium's energy content is left at the en for useful purposes.

A comparison with our own private little world may be of interest here: The car engine's conversion efficiency is about 30%, i.e. only 30% of the consumed fuel is used for movement, while the rest is lost in the form of heat! Equally simple arithmetic can clarify the connection between conversion-efficiency and energy-consumption / energy-cost.

Suppose that the heat requirement of a house is 24,000 kWh and that the price of oil is $0.40 per liter or $400 p cubic meter. Own furnace If the heat requirement is produced in one's own furnace with a conversion efficiency of 65%, then the oil consumption will be:

= 3.7 m3 corresponding to

$ 1480 / year

Electrical heating If the heat requirement is produced in a condensing power plant with a conversion efficiency of 47% and transf losses of 11%, then the oil consumption will be:

= 5.7 m3 corresponding to

$ 2280 / year.

Central heating Finally, if the heat requirement is produced in a district (central) heating plant with an annual conversion efficien of 90%, and with 11% transmission loss, then the oil consumption will be:

= 3.0 m3 corresponding to

$ 1200 / year.

THAT WHICH APPLIES AT HOME ALSO APPLIES AT THE STEEL PLANT!!! Which are the forms of energy here? Where, when, how are they used? What does the energy cost? How can energy be saved? Energy forms. Where, when, how are they used?

Ore-based steelmaking The converter * "Chemical" energy from oxygen combustion of elements in the hot metal * Gas/oil combustion in the converter Other equipment Oil/gasoline for * Ground transport Electrical energy for * "Air-borne" transport * Other engines * Hydraulics * Pressurized air * Lighting * Offices and sanitary space etc Scrap-based steelmaking The electric arc furnace Electrical energy for * Melting of scrap, slag formers and other additions * Raising of temperature * Compensation of heat losses Chemical energy from jet burners for Scrap preheating Chemical energy from oxygen combustion of elements in the charged scrap, including added carbon (for slag foaming) for * Raising of temperature * Compensation of heat losses Other equipment Oil/gasoline for * Ground transport Electrical energy for * "Air-borne" transport * Other engines * Hydraulics * Pressurized air * Lighting * Offices and sanitary space etc Existing energy sources: Black coal * Brown coal * Oil

* Natural gas * Uranium

All of the above have a limited life span, i.e. if one used up the same amount each year as is used today, then t oil, the natural gas, and the uranium would only last a further 50 years each! Coal would last a further approximately 240 years. It should be emphasized again, however, that this doesn't mean that the fossil fuels w "run out" in the near future. The established reserves are those which are known today, discovered and developed for extraction. The reserves can be "topped up" by prospecting and/or by high prices making new an more expensive extraction techniques profitable. An example of this is so-called horizontal drilling, which makes cheaper to refine oil out of small fields--as those in the North Sea which were earlier over-looked, but which now can be counted as part of the reserves. An important conclusion of this, however, is that the present energy sources are limited!!! Alternative energy sources are still needed and lacking!

What can we do to limit energy consumption? In this context, it is important to remember the saying that "many small creeks run into a large river"! Each measure can in itself seem to have an insignificant effect on the whole but the accumulated effect can be very significant. If each and every one notes and makes sure that: * Cooling is not carried out with compressed air * Correct blow-off nozzles are used for hole-cleaning * Correct operational alternatives are chosen * The heats' temperature levels during processing are not higher than necessary * The melting of each charged scrap load takes place with the correct amount of energy, neither more nor less * The doors are opened only for transport * All types of leaks in e.g. connections for pressurized air and water are repaired * Unnecessary lighting is avoided * Engine idling is avoided where possible * The pressure of compresses air isn't higher than necessary * Leakage of cylinders, tools and other compressed air devices is corrected * Worn compressed air devices are repaired and maintained Compressed-air tools or moving devices are replaced with electrical operation if this conserves energy * Room temperature is not higher than necessary * Hot water is saved * Airing is done in moderation * Windows and doors are sealed * The temperature is lowered nights, weekends and holidays * Ventilation is suitably designed. E.g. heat under the roof can be recirculated down to the working level, instead of having heating fans or heating elements installed etc ............then there is money left over!!!! Time is money! Energy is money! The less we use of these two, the more profitable the company!

TOP

ENVIRONMENT
["Without environmental control we've got hell, but with environmental control, at least we've got pure hell" (Rune Larsson, AB Sandvik Steel)]. Comprehensive view of the term environment

The steel industry isn't always "God's best child"; however, where environmental control is concerned, it makes large contribution through the recycling of scrap, which is an important raw material in steelmaking. If this wasn done, the environment would be overfilled with twisted steel skeletons, scrapped cars, etc. The environment can, however, also be divided up into several specific areas: natural-, city-, country-, disco-, restaurant-, factory-environment, etc. This section will deal mainly with WORKING ENVIRONMENT, which includes both

Physical (from floor to roof) * Noise * Dust * Light * Draft * Ergonomics (how the body functions under workloads) (The National Board of Occupational Safety and Health specifies, while Occupational Inspectorate, Regional an Civic Boards, etc supervise application of the specifications) Mental * Work satisfaction * Maslow's pyramid of human needs Social

* Team spirit * Relation to the surroundings and EXTERNAL * Noise * Dust ( The National Department of Environmental Affairs, Regional and Civic Environmental Offices etc supervise application of the specifications) If one begins with the internal environment, the three parts * the physical * the mental * the social are all affected in turn by three areas, namely Technology Work content Work organization The unifying frame around these areas includes * The work-environment laws * The environmental protection laws * Laws for chemical products which are all drawn up by the government, which bases its decisions on proposals by * The National Board of Occupational Safety and Health * Chemical Inspectorate Control (and supervision) that the laws are being obeyed is done by * Occupational Inspectorate * Chemical Inspectorate * The regional boards * The companies The work environment, in the first instance the physical, is regulated by laws, specifications and recommendations, all of which have the welfare of the employee as their concern. Everyone must cooperate in order that the result be good, not the least the employee him/herself!!! The applied technology must be designed such that the employee is not harmed either in body or soul. It can be a matter of safety, i.e. protection from accidents work method, which must be designed so that wear-and-tear-injuries and other bodily defects due to improper working positions are avoided risks, which despite safety devices, can cause fear besides physical injuries isolation from workmates due to the type of work (e.g. computer operators, crane operators).

Most agree that the most important parts of the work environment are the mental and social sides. In order for these to be satisfactory, the work place must be safe and well-organized. Even more important, however, is the work's content and organization. The goal of a good work environment has been reached first when these measure up to expectations.

The ideal is that everyone on his/her way to work looks forward to working. Some tasks in the process path from raw materials to cast product are however not stimulating by nature. This can however be compensated by a feeling of being on the way to friends in the team. One participates in teamwork, which has a meaningful task. "The team" can be seen both as the shift-crew and as the company.

THE WORK'S ORGANIZATION should provide: * Possibilities for affecting the results * Degree of self-management * Degree of responsibility * Degree of variation

Each person in a company must be given the possibility to nurture his/her motivation for the work to be done. It not only the general manager, supervisors, white-collar workers, constructors, inventors etc who have the right be motivated for what they have to do, but all "on the floor" have also the right to demand motivation. That whic feeds the motivational level is knowledge, responsibility and fellowship with workmates and other employees of the company, including the general manager (G.M.). It is a good idea for the G.M. to now and then should step down from the "throne: and talk with friends on the floor.

Obtaining skilled personnel demands investment on the part of the company. In order to carry out an investmen in equipment, a calculation/estimate is required which shows that the investment in profitable, i.e. pays itself off An estimate which shows that it "pays itself" to educate personnel is however impossible to make. Despite this, is a must to invest in education. A simple diagram can illustrate what Investment in personnel results in:

Safety-controllers are the workers' representatives in dealing with the work environment. These shall, among other things, ensure that the safety specifications are followed. He or she shall also show a good example for workmates of how to observe and follow the safety specifications.

Conclusion: A safe place of work, skill and teamwork are the foundations for our motivation in the working life.

Non-Metallic Inclusions in Steel

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Survey by Jan Uggla, Inferno AB Inclusion Assessment conscience Types Concentrations Sizes Methods Standards

Background Clean Steel is a debatable concept, which has gradually changed over the years. It has indeed been true to say that "the cleanness of steel, like beauty, is very much in the eye of the beholder". The clean steel of yesterday is not a clean steel today, and a steel which is considered to be a clean steel for one specific use is not clean for an other use. Thus iron which has an impurity content of only 1 ppm seems to be very clean from most users' points of view but is not very clean to the physical metallurgist. Every gram of such an iron contains about 10 16 atoms of other elements. Even with very sophisticated extracting methods the number of impurity atoms remaining, will still be large. On the other hand, extremely pure iron is not attractive to most steel consumers because it has a very low tensile strength. The development of new steelmaking methods has meant a continuous decrease of undesirable elements in steel. The increasing knowledge of the effect of different elements on the steel properties and the use of more impure raw materials has resulted in a steel, which is both cleaner and cheaper. Types, sizes, and concentrations of inclusions In the past, the cleaness has been focused on the elements oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus and hydrogen. Oxygen and sulphur are present in the steels as oxides and sulphides respectively, forming non-metallic inclusions. For a long time it has been evident that the cleaness of steel is associated with the presence of such non-metallic inclusions. The size and frequency of these particles have a strong influence on the steel quality. The inclusions are an integrated part of the steel, being a result of the steelmaking process. There are possibilities to reduce their size and quantity as well as to modify their shape, but they will always, to a certain extent, be present! The influences of phosphorous and hydrogen are fairly well known. The phosphorus level of a clean steel is in the order of 0.035% or lower (for deep-drawing sheet it should, as an example, not be higher than 0.015%), while the hydrogen content is limited to abt 1 ppm, i.e. 0.0001%. Generally speaking, present knowledge of the effect of phosphorus and hydrogen on the properties of steel is such that it is possible to specify the acceptable level of these elements for most steels where their intended use is known.

The phosphorus level can be lowered by oxidation and by using a basic slag which binds the formed phosphorus pentoxide. There are then different ways of eliminating the phosphorus rich slag before the further refining process takes place. The hydrogen can be lowered by vacuum degassing of the liquid steel. It can also, in a less scale, be affected during the decarburisation, when the flush of carbon mono-oxide to a certain extent reduces the partial pressure of hydrogen, promoting the diffusion of the hydrogen out of the system.

Influence on steel properties.

Phosphorus, P, is generally regarded as a steel parasite as it produces both primary segregation on solidification of the melt and secondary segregation in solid state due to the restriction of the gamma phase. Due to the relatively low rate of diffusion in the alpha as well as in the gamma crystal, segregation, which has occurred, can only be corrected with difficulty. As it is hardly possible to achieve homogenous distribution of the P, this element has to be kept below an upper level of 0.035-0.050%. Even at the smallest quantities, P increases proneness to temper embrittlement. The embrittlement increases by increasing C content, increasing hardening temperature, increasing grain size and by decreasing ratio of reduction by forging. Embrittlement occurs as cold shortness and sensitivity to impact stress (tendency to brittle fracture). On the other hand P of abt 0.1% increases strength and decreases corrosion by atmospheric influence. Also Cu assists the improvement of corrosion resistance (non-corrosive steels). Further more, in austenitic Cr-Ni steels, addition of P can lead to an increase of the yield point. Hydrogen, H, is always a parasite in the steel, because it causes embrittlement through reduction of ductility, without increasing yield point and tensile strength. It is the cause of undesirable flaking (cracks) and promotes the occurrence of ghost lines. Atomic hydrogen occurring during pickling penetrates into the steel, forming pitting. The cleaness specification regarding these two elements, P and H, is an economic question depending on what the user is willing to pay for a steel with specified levels of the elements in question. Oxygen and Sulphur Commercial steels always contain a certain amount of oxygen and sulphur, which depend on the metallurgical steelmaking practice. These elements are dissolved in the liquid steel and their concentrations are routinely recorded on the charge composition certificate. A clean steel is usually considered to have a low amount of these elements, whatever this means. The demand

for low levels of these elements is getting more and more tough. This has lead the steelmaker to focus on methods decreasing their contents. The following table illustrates in broad outline example of the difference between "now and then": High Carbon Steels ppm Sulphur, ppm "then" "now" "then" 30-50 5-10 10-100 200400

Oxygentotal' "now" Steel Process EAF EAF + LF

Although the total amount of oxygen and sulphur reflects the general cleannes of a steel, it does not completely characterize its internal state. Oxygen and sulphur have a very low, if any, solubility in solid steel. What is dissolved in liquid steel at the moment of solidification will therefore form oxides and sulphides in the solid state, then being present as inclusions. These oxides and sulphides have an influence on the steel properties. Inclusions also enter the steel from different exogenus sources like slags and ceramics. The number, size and size distribution of the inclusions as well as their position in the steel are of great importance. It is evident that not only the quantity but also the size of the inclusions are important factors determining the steel cleaness. Size of inclusions In commercial steels, the inclusions are of all sizes. As an example, in a 6 ton bloom which was examined, the total number of inclusions (oxides) was estimated to be about 3 X 10 13. 98 % of all these inclusions were smaller than 0.2 m, but these particles represented only 1-2 % of the total oxygen content. It is obvious that it will never be possible to remove all the oxide inclusions. A steel with only 1 ppm of oxygen and sulphur still contains 1010 - 1012 inclusions per tonne, most of them being too small to resolve in the optical microscope. Regarding cleanness, the aim of different steelmaking methods, in addition to lowering the amount of oxygen and sulphur, must therefore be to influence the size distribution of the inclusions and especially to avoid the largest ones which obviously are the most harmful in terms of physical properties. The size distribution of oxide and sulphide inclusions in steel grade 316 remelted in different ways, is given in Fig. 1. A problem is that the size at which a given inclusion becomes harmful for a given steel property is not fully known. If a critical inclusion size could be defined, this would be an important step forward in the attempt to characterize the cleanness of steel. It would mean that for a given steel property only inclusions larger than this critical size would be of importance. A steel with inclusions larger than this size would not be clean while a steel with smaller inclusions would be regarded as clean. The total number of inclusions would thus be of less importance. The amount of oxygen and sulphur is always of importance as an indication of the general cleanness level but is not sufficient when characterizing the cleanness. The main problem in inclusion counting is not to determine the mean inclusion content in the steel but rather the number of inclusions that are harmful to the steel. In general this means determination of the number of inclusions exceeding a given size. Figure 2 shows two size distribution curves from inclusion counting. The mean value of steel A is lower than that of steel

B. Steel B is, however, the cleanest of the two because the probability of finding a large inclusion in this steel is smaller than in steel A. Sources of inclusions Primary furnace Furnace Slags Furnace Refractories Ferro Alloys Tapping Primary Furnace > Ladle Spout Oxidation Ladle(Furnace) Deoxidation Ladle Slag Ladle Refractories Teeming Nozzle, Stopper rod Oxidation Deoxidation Ingot Mould Refractories Deoxidation Surface oxidation Casting Powder Continuous Casting Tundish Shrouds Casting Powder Key elements

Ca Ca, Mg Cr, Al, Si

Mg, Ti, K FeO

Al, Si Ca, Mg Mg, Ca, Ti, K

Mg, Ti, K FeO Al, Si

Mg, ti, K Al, Si FeO Al, Si, Ca, Mg, K

Mg, Ti, K Al, Mg, Ti, K Al, Si, Ca, Mg, K

The composition of the inclusions depend on the type of steelmaking process applied from Raw Material to (including) Cast Product. They consist of compounds between metal and oxygen and metal sulphur respectively. Oxides MnO SiO2 Al2O3 FeO Cr2O3

Sulphides FeS MnS Calcium Aluminates 3CaO*Al2O3 12CaO*7Al2O3 5CaO*3Al2O3 CaO*Al2O3 CaO*2Al2O3 CaO*6Al2O3 Melting points, 0C 1535 1455 1605 1750 1850

Summary of oxygen and sulphur 1. The oxygen content of the steel should be "as low as possible". A low oxygen content reduces the probability of large, unwanted oxide inclusions. With todays' refining technique, it is possible to obtain oxygen contents of less than 6 ppm. 2. The steel should, generally, also have relatively low sulphur content. For exclusive applications 1 - 10 ppm is demanded, while for others 20 - 150 ppm are to be preferred. The latter levels favours fatigue strength and deformability. 3. The oxygen and sulphur contents give a useful general picture of the steel cleanness but they do not completely characterize the steel quality. Both size and size distribution play also an important role. For different mechanical properties there are critical inclusion sizes which should not be exceeded. The automatic video image technique offers possibilities of treating the inclusion population as a probability problem on an accurate statistical analysis. However, the main problem remains. The failure of a steel component is usually caused by one signal large inclusion out of an inclusion population of 10 10 - 1012 inclusions per tonne. How can the probability of the existence of such as inclusion at a critical point in the steel component be predicted by statistical methods? 4. The shape and the position of the inclusions in the steel are also of importance to its mechanical properties, whereas their composition and physical properties are of less direct significance, even if they do have an influence on the shape. 5. Other properties, however, such as corrosion and machinability, are very much depending on inclusion composition and physical properties. This area of research is large and much has been published in this field. Several minor elements are also present in the steel in amounts of around 0.01% and less. They are usually not deliberately added but carried into the steelmaking process by raw materials used (ore, ceramics, alloying elements and scrap). They may be classified as impurities or minor amounts of alloying elements. They are not always subject to analysing. Different terms are used for these elements, such as: Tramp or impurity elements This term implies that the elements are unwanted, i.e. not deliberately added. They have mostly adverse effects on the steel properties. Residual elements

ASTM has suggested that a residual element is a specified or unspecified element, not intentionally added, originating in raw materials, refractories or air. The term is mainly applied to those elements which are intrinsically residual in that they are not volatile and not to any significant extent removed during the steelmaking process. Of thermodynamics reasons they are not oxidized in the presence of iron. The most important of these elements is copper, which has gradually increased in most steels due to the recirculation of scrap. The problem of copper is specific and differs from the general concept of steel cleanness. It will not be dealt with further in this survey, the simple reason being that it is not a non-metallic inclusion! Incedental elements This term emphasizes the fact that the elements are not deliberately added. Trace elements This term implies that the mean content of the elements in the steel is low, without indicating whether they have positive or negative effect on the steel properties or whether they have been deliberately added to the steel or are impurities. (ASTM suggests that a trace element is a residual element which may occur in very low concentrations, generally less than 0.01%). Slag inclusions may have an influence on the following steel properties Corrosion Welding Fatigue Ductility Machinibility Resistance against hydrogen embrittlement Strength Resistance(electrical) Polishibility Surface finish

Critical inclusion size From all inclusion research it is evident that there is a difference between the effects of "large" inclusions, macroinclusions, and "small", microinclusions. The former are disadvantageous to the steel, often disastrous, whereas the latter are unavoidable, usually not dangerous, on the contrary they can sometimes even be used to enhance certain steel properties. The general aim should be to have the unavoidable inclusion population present as evenly distributed "small" inclusions. The critical border between "small" and "large", the critical inclusion size, is still in most cases neither theoretically known nor experimentally established. Corrosion

Pitting is generally regarded initiated by sulphide inclusions. The sulphide particle composition and shape influence the susceptibility to pitting. The MnS content is important in controlling the susceptibility to pitting attack. There are also many microstructural features of a steel which affect corrosion behaviour in specific environment, including the state of internal stress, segregation and the precence of carbide and nitride particles. However, again, sulphides are the dominating cause of pitting corrosion. Wranglen reached to the conclusion that sulphides play a key role and that dissolution of sulphide inclusions produces a "shower" of HS- ions, which cause breakdown of the oxide film on adjacent steel surface, thus initiating the formation of micropits. Against this theory stands another one promoted by Gainer et al. They considered that pitting depended on direct contact of the sulphides, their size and density determining the pitting tendency. Welding Inclusions are particularly important in controlling the properties of both weld metals and welded joints. They may act as both ductile and brittle fracture initiation sites. Critical particle sizes may be as low as 1-2 m and smaller than those for wrought steels. Smaller inclusion particles i.e. below 1-2 m are also are also of importance. They can be used to control the microstructure of the weld metal and HAZ (Heat-affected Zone) regions by their beneficial effects in restricting austenite grain growth and influencing the nucleation of ferrite. A controlled population of inclusions is, in other words, necessary in both weld metals and parent steels for optimum properties. Detrimental effects have, on the other hand, been observed at extremely low O and S levels. Traditionally, the role of inclusions has been reported as detrimental in relation to weldability. The welding area, however, is one where later developments have shown the dual role of the unavoidable inclusions. Thus the trend towards lower inclusion contents (and lower residual elements) in modern steels has provided significant improvements in weldability - but also unwanted side-effects have appeared as a consequence of very low S and O contents in steels. Small oxide and sulphide inclusions (< 0.1 m - 0.2 m) are considered to play two important but opposing roles in determining the microstructure and toughness of the weld: The inclusions influence the microstructual transformation products by aiding nucleation of AF (Acicular Ferrite), reducing the grain size, and also suppressing the formation of brittle bainitic structures. The inclusions also have a detrimental effect on the toughness of the weld metal in the ductile fracture regim, because they are potential sites for void nucleation. Hence an increase of their number and size will reduce the toughness of the materials and provide potential sources for crack formation.

Larger inclusions (1 ->2 m) have, in principle, the same effect on weld metal properties as on all other types of microstructures. Large inclusions are more dangerous than small. The inclusion chemistry is here of no importance. Inclusions of 1-2 m give such high fracture stresses that brittle fracture may occur.

Fatigue Dangerous inclusions are single phase Al2O3, spinels, and Ca-aluminates with a size more than 10 m. The least harmful are MnS inclusions. In multiphase inclusions, the presence of a phase with high index of deformability, such as MnS, modifies the dangerous properties of one with a low deformability index. The following is a summary of the present situation: The main effect of inclusions related to fatigue is on crack initiation, but they also have an effect on fatigue crack growth rate. In the high cycle range, > 10 5 (stress cycles), nearly all cracks originate from inclusions. Failure begins at inclusions in highly stressed regions generally at or near external surfaces. Inclusion orientation with respect to applied stress is of some importance and anisotropy in fatigue growth rate has been observed, as inclusions can act as crack deflectors. Large inclusions are more dangerous as initiation sites than smaller ones. The presence of elongated inclusions cause anisotropy of fatigue life. Inclusion shape control is important for avoiding anisotropy. Fatigue cracks often initiate at cracked or debonded inclusions or in slip bands emanating form inclusions. The critical inclusion size for fatigue failure in rotary bending of a bearing steel is about 10 m if the inclusion is just below the surface. About 100 m below the surface the critical size is about 30 m. The chemical composition of inclusions is of importance, especially in rolling contact fatigue. Calcium aluminates are most dangerous for this type of fatigue. Oxides and silicates (and TiN) are intermediate while MnS is relatively harmless. Manganese sulphide envelopes also reduce the detrimental effect of oxide inclusions. In bearing steels, there is a correlation between the damaging effect of inclusions and the thermal expansion coefficients. Figure 3.

The adverse effect of Ca aluminates on the rotating bending fatigue limit of steels is illustrated in Figure 4. Failure analyses of roll bearing steel samples have shown that D-type (globular) inclusions. i.e. Ca aluminates are far more harmful than B-type alumina and T-type inclusions. Ductility

It has been known since long that the inclusions play a very decisive role in ductile fracture. In fact the fibrous mode of this fracture is entirely due to the presence of inclusions in the material. The fracture process starts by the initiation of voids at the inclusions, either by decohesion of the matrix-inclusion or by cracking of the inclusion. This requires a certain deformation of the material. Durining continued straining these voids grow and develop to cavities elongated in the straining direction. Eventually the voids coalesce by localized deformation of the bridges between the voids and final fracture occurs.

Hence three stages of the fracture can be distinguished: Void initiation - void growth - void coalescence. From a number of experiments it has been clear that the inclusions effect ductile fracture in the following ways: The voids formed in ductile fracture originate completely from inclusions and other second phase particals in the materials. The fracture strain decreases strongly with increasing volume fraction of inclusions or, which is equivalent, content of oxygen and sulphur. (Fig. 5) The shape of the inclusions has a large impact on the fracture. The elongation of inclusions during the hot working, which takes place for many types of inclusions, has proven to be of particular significance. Thus, inclusions elongated in the tensile direction are far less harmful for the ductility than plate-or-rod-shaped inclusions oriented perpendicular to the tensile direction as shown on figures 6 and 7.

Machinibility Non-metallic inclusions have a strong influence on the machinibility of steels. The inherent properties of the inclusions thus affect the machinibility strongly. as a result free-cutting or freemachinining steel grades have been developed where advantage has been taken by the effect of special additions. The resulphurized steels with sulphur contents up to 0.35 % are the classical example, containing a substantial amount of manganese sulphides. The non-metallic inclusions affect machinibility in a complex manner and they do so in a number of ways. The conditions which the inclusions should meet in order to improve the machinibility have been summarized by Kiessling as follows: The inclusions should act as stress raisers in the shear plane of the swarf so initiating crack formation and embrittling chips. The chip-tool contact length then decreases which is of advantage. They should not, however, be such strong stress-raisers that the work piece cracks.

The inclusions should participate in the flow of metal in the flow zone, increasing the shear of the metal, but should not cut through the plastic flow of metal, damaging the tool surface. The inclusions should form a diffusion barrier on the rake face of the tool at the temperature of the tool/chip interface. This temperature depends on several variables, especially the cutting speed. The inclusions should give a smooth work piece surface and not act as abrasives on the flank face of the tool.

Two major developments have allowed large increases in cutting speeds: Metal removal rates Tool life in machining operations

This is a result of Development of steelmaking technology (ladle metallurgy) Coating of tool materials, Control of inclusion chemistry and morphology

The application of modern metallurgical examination methods to studies of tool wear in single point turning, the dominant machining operation, has shown that there are three principal mechanisms controlling wear: Abrasion by hard inclusion particles Reactions between tool coatings and inclusions Diffusion barrier effects

A delicate balance between the deoxidation elements used, the resulting inclusion population and the choice of tool coatings is required to achieve the optimum combination of machinability and tool wear. It also seems as if the inclusion behaviour in the contact zone tool-swarf is as important as their plastic behaviour in the flow zone of the swarf. Hydrogen The interfaces between sulphide inclusions and the matrix provide sinks at which H present in the steel may be trapped. The presence of sulphide inclusions may be beneficial in reducing the risk of H cracking in large sections during processing, under conditions where control of the H level on solidification has been inadequate. However, where steels are exposed to hydrogen in service, as in some process plants and sour oil and gas environments, pressurization by H around elongated

sulphides leads to cracking and blistering. Under such conditions, sulphide shape control and low S contents are required to give H-induced cracking (HIC) resistance. In worked steels the harmful inclusions which increase the steel susceptibility to blistering are the undeformable types. However, requirements for improved toughness in many steels limit the S content which can be used. The primary method for avoiding HIC is to vacuum degas the liquid steel before casting. The ultimate and much more costly method is annealing the solid pieces. Slag-modification With today's techniques, "inclusion-free" steels cannot be produced on a large scale. In some cases this is not even wanted. As inclusions cannot be completely avoided, one must instead ensure that they have a composition that causes the least possible harm. This can be achieved in some cases by the addition of calcium-silicon, CaSi. Inclusions consisting of aluminium oxides are especially unpleasant due to their sharp edges and hardness. Aluminium may be a good deoxidation element in that it eagerly binds up oxygen, thus lowering the oxygen activity, but the result of this compound between Al and O, Al2O3, may be less beneficial to the steel. By transforming these aluminium oxides to compounds with calcium oxide, CaO, round, "gobular", inclusions are obtained, which cause considerably less damage to the steel. Other factors such as the size and distribution of inclusions tolerated by the steel can also determine whether CaSiaddition advantageous or not. Inclusion assessment Ways for assessing the volume fraction, size range and morphology of inclusions (Fig. 8) have relied mainly on optical methods involving comparisons with idealized fields in the various charts systems. Although quantitative image analysis by automatic methods have advanced, manual chart-based methods are still widely used. The Jernkontoret Qualitative Comparative Charts (JQCC) which is equal to ASTM, have been drawn up to describe the morphologies (Fig. 9) of the inclusions in modern steels with a logical progression of the field ratings. These fields allow a more accurate description of the inclusion population and can be used to provide size-frequency, as well as worst-field data. Size-frequency distribution are important as they provide a means of estimating the probability of finding the larger inclusion particles which can be critical for the performance of the steel. When, on the other hand, the steelmaking process is well defined, the O content provides a useful indication of oxide inclusion content which is of a certain advantage compared to chart-based methods. Summary It needs being repeated, "Clean Steel" is a debatable concept. "Clean Steel" leads one to believe, that steel with lowest possible amount of inclusions and trace elements will be a superior steel. This is, however, not always true, which has been demonstrated in this paper. Some impurities, as hydrogen and large slag inclusions are no doubt always disadvantageous. On the other hand do sizes, compositions and distribution of inclusions decide whether they are acceptable or not. No doubt, should a more balanced approach to what is permissible regarding inclusions and trace elements be of great technical and economical advantage to both producers and consumers of steel.