Algebra Verbal to algebraic equivalent

Addition Expressions that can be translated to addition, ( + ): sum, plus, added to, in addition, increased by, and more than. Verbal expression the sum of x and y x plus y x increased by y x added to y x in addition to y x more than y x + y or y + x x+y x+y y+x y+x y+x Algebraic equivalent

Subtraction Expressions that can be translated to subtraction, ( - ): difference, minus, subtract, subtract from, less, less than, decreased by, diminished by, lowered by, and exceed. Verbal expression the difference between x and y x minus y x decreased by y x diminished by y x lowered by y x exceeds y x less y x less than y subtract x from y x-y x-y x-y x-y x-y x-y x-y y-x y-x Algebraic equivalent

Multiplication Expressions that can be translated to multiplication, ( ): product, times, and of. Expressions in multiple of a number are also worth noting: double, twice, triple, thrice, quadruple, four times, etcetera. Verbal expression the product of x and y x times y x of y double a number x twice a number y xy xy xy 2x 2y Algebraic equivalent

Division Expressions that can be translated to division, ( ): quotient of, divided by, and over. Verbal expression the quotient of x and y x divided by y x over y x/y x/y x/y Algebraic equivalent

Equality The words is and by denotes equality, ( = ). Verbal expression the sum of x and y is z x exceeds y by z x+y=z x-y=z Algebraic equivalent

Other expressions

The reciprocal of x is 1/x and the reciprocal of x/y is y/x. Divide 100 into two parts, if x is one part, the other part is (100 - x) For two consecutive numbers, if one is x then the other number is (x + 1) For two consecutive even or odd numbers, if one is x then the other number is (x + 2) The square of a number x is x2 The cube of a number x is x3 The ratio of x to y is x/y

Age problem
If x = present age of a person x 3 = age of the person 3 years ago x + 5 = age of the person 5 years from now or 5 years hence Note: The difference of the ages of two persons is constant at any time. If A = present age of Albert and B = present age of Bryan Sum of their ages 4 years ago = (A - 4) + (B - 4) Sum of their ages 2 years hence = (A + 2) + (B + 2) Difference of their ages = A - B Example Six years ago, Romel was five times as old as Lejon. In five years, Romel will be three times as old as Lejon. What is the present age of Lejon?

Solution Let = present age of Romel = present age of Lejon Six years ago

Five years from now (in five years)

Substitute R = 5L - 24

answer

Digit related problem

For any three digit number. Let x = the hundreds digit y = the tens digit and z = the units digit The number = 100x + 10y + z The number with digits reversed = 100z + 10y + x The sum of digits = x + y + z The product of digits = xyz Example In a three digit number, the hundreds digit is twice the units digit. If 396 be subtracted from the number, the order of the digits will be reversed. Find the number if the sum of the digits is 17.

Let x = hundreds digit = tens digit = units digit

= the number The hundreds digit is twice the units digit equation (1) The sum of the digits is 17 equation (2) 396 be subtracted from the number

equation (3) Substitute x = 2z to equation (3)

From equation (1)

From equation (2)

The number is answer

Clock problem
There are 12 dial units in the clock. Every time the minute hand completes 12 dials, the hour hand moves 1 dial. Thus, if the minute hand moves by x the hour hand moves by x/12.

Key equations: = distance traveled by the minute hand (in minutes) = distance traveled by the hour hand (in minutes)

There are three common questions in clock problems; (1) time when the hands of the clock are together, (2) time when the hands of the clock are perpendicular to each other, and (3) time when the hands of the clock form a straight line. The following are the distances between the hands of the clock: (1) Together = 0 (2) Perpendicular (90 to each other) = 15 minutes (3) Straight line (opposite each other) = 30 minutes The table below is provided for the sake of completeness of this post. Dial position 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 No. of minutes 0 minute 5 minutes 10 minutes 15 minutes 20 minutes 25 minutes 30 minutes 35 minutes 40 minutes 45 minutes 50 minutes 55 minutes 60 minutes

Problem What time between 2 and 3 oclock will the angle between the hands of the clock be bisected by the line connecting the center of the clock and the 3 oclock mark? A. 2:18:27.6 B. 2:16:00.0 C. 2:17:56.3 D. 2:19:03.1

Solution

answer - A

Mixture related problem

There are four common types of mixture in verbal problems of Algebra. Solutions Solution is a homogeneous mixture formed by dissolving a substance (solute) in another substance (solvent). A common example is the salt as solute and water as solvent forming into one phase called brine or saline water. Alloys An alloy is a solid solution formed by fusing two or more metallic elements. A common alloy is bronze which is the product of fusing iron and copper. Blends Blended product is a result of mixing two or more grades of items of the same class. Example is a coffee of grade A mixed to coffee of grade B which will result to a blended coffee. Assortments Assorted mixture is a combination of distinct items which can be resorted easily back to its original components. Example is assorted candies in a pack. Solving mixture-related problems The following example will illustrate how to solve mixture problems.

Problem How many liters of 10% salt solution must be added to 20% salt solution in order to obtain 10 liters of 12% salt solution?

answer

Work related problems

Case 1: Workers has different rates Work rate Time to finish the job = 1 job done Work rate = (1 job done) / (Time to finish the job) Time of doing the job = (1 job done) / (Work rate)

For example Albert can finish a job in A days Bryan can finish the same job in B days Carlo can undo the job in C days 1/A = rate of Albert 1/B = rate of Bryan 1/C = rate of Carlo Albert and Bryan work together until the job is done: (1/A + 1/B)t = 1 Albert is doing the job while Carlo is undoing it until the job is done: (1/A - 1/C)t = 1 Problem Lejon can finish a job in 6 hours while Romel can do the same job in 3 hours. Working together, how many hours can they finish the job? Solution Rate of Lejon = 1/6 Rate of Romel = 1/3

answer Case 2: Workers has equal rates Work load = no. of workers time to finish the job Work done = no. of workers time of doing the job

To finish the job Work done = Work load

If a job can be done by 10 workers in 5 hours, the work load is 10(5) = 50 man-hours. If 4 workers is doing the job for 6 hours, the work done is 4(6) = 24 man-hours. A remaining of 50 - 24 = 26 man-hours of work still needs to be done. Problem Eleven men could finish the job in 15 days. Five men started the job and four men were added at the beginning of the sixth day. How many days will it take them to finish the job? Solution Work load = 11(15) = 165 man-days Work done in 5 days = 5(5) = 25 man-days Let = no. of days for them to finish the job

answer

Motion related problem

Motion with constant velocity The distance traveled is the product of velocity and time.

were, s = distance v = velocity t = time It follows that and

Motion in a current of water or air Let x = velocity of the (boat/airplane) in still (water/air) and y = velocity of the (water/air), then x + y = velocity when going (downstream/with the wind) x y = velocity when going (upstream/against the wind)

Motion in a circle or any closed circuit Consider two objects, one is a faster and the other is slower, moves from the same point and starting at the same time. When going in the same the direction, the difference of the distances traveled every time the faster overtakes the slower is one circuit.

When going in opposite directions, the total distance traveled every time the two meet each other is one circuit.

Differential calculus
Time rates
If a quantity x is a function of time t, the time rate of change of x is given by dx/dt. When two or more quantities, all functions of t, are related by an equation, the relation between their rates of change may be obtained by differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to t. Basic Time Rates

Velocity, Acceleration, Discharge,

, where

is the distance. , where , where , where is velocity and is the distance.

is the volume at any time. is the angle at any time.

Angular Speed,

Steps in Solving Time Rates Problem 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify what are changing and what are fixed. Assign variables to those that are changing and appropriate value (constant) to those that are fixed. Create an equation relating all the variables and constants in Step 2. Differentiate the equation with respect to time.

01-02 Water flowing into cylindrical tank

Problem 01 3 Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank at the rate of 24 ft /min. If the radius of the tank is 4 ft, how fast is the surface rising? Solution 01 Volume of water:

answer

Problem 02 3 Water flows into a vertical cylindrical tank at 12 ft /min, the surface rises 6 in/min. Find the radius of the tank. Solution 02 Volume of water:

answer

03 Water flowing into rectangular trough

Problem 03 A rectangular trough is 10 ft long and 3 ft wide. Find how fast the surface rises, if water flows in at the rate 3 of 12 ft /min. Solution 03

Volume of water:

answer

04-05 Water flowing into triangular trough

Problem 04 3 A triangular trough 10 ft long is 4 ft across the top, and 4 ft deep. If water flows in at the rate of 3 ft /min, find how fast the surface is rising when the water is 6 in deep. Solution 04

Volume of water: By similar triangle:

when y = 6 in or 0.5 ft

answer

Problem 05 A triangular trough is 10 ft long, 6 ft wide across the top, and 3 ft deep. If water flows in at the rate of 12 3 ft /min, find how fast the surface is rising when the water is 6 in deep. Solution 05

Volume of water:

By similar triangle:

when y = 6 in or 0.5 ft

answer

06-07 Ladder slides down the wall

Problem 06 A ladder 20 ft long leans against a vertical wall. If the top slides downward at the rate of 2 ft/sec, find how fast the lower end is moving when it is 16 ft from the wall. Solution 06

when x = 16 ft

answer

Problem 7 In Problem 6, find the rate of change of the slope of the ladder. Solution 07 From the figure in Solution 6 above

where x = 16 ft y = 12 ft dx/dt = 1.5 ft/sec dy/dt = -2 ft/sec

answer

08-09 Rate of movement of shadow on the ground Problem 08 A man 6 ft tall walks away from a lamp post 16 ft high at the rate of 5 miles per hour. How fast does the end of his shadow move? Solution 08

answer

Problem 09 In Problem 08, how fast does the shadow lengthen? Solution 09

answer

10 - A boy on a bike

Problem 10 mi, then turns east (Fig. 47). If he rides 10 mi/hr, at what starting point S changing 2 hour after he left that point? Solution 10

A boy on a bike rides north 5 rate does his distance to the

For 5 miles:

when t = 2 hrs

answer

11-12 Two trains; one going to east, and the other is heading north Problem 11 A train starting at noon, travels north at 40 miles per hour. Another train starting from the same point at 2 PM travels east at 50 miles per hour. Find, to the nearest mile per hour, how fast the two trains are separating at 3 PM.

Solution 11

at 3 PM, t = 3

answer

Problem 12 In Problem 11, how fast the trains are separating after along time? Solution 12 After a long time, t =

answer

13-14 Water flowing into trapezoidal trough

Problem 13 A trapezoidal trough is 10 ft long, 4 ft wide at the top, 2 ft wide at the bottom and 2 ft deep. If water flows 3 in at 10 ft /min, find how fast the surface is rising, when the water is 6 in deep. Solution 13 Volume of water:

From the figure:

when y = 6 in or 0.5 ft

answer

Problem 14 For the trough in Problem 13, how fast the water surface is rising when the water is 1 foot deep. Solution 14 From the Solution 13

When y = 1 ft

answer

15-16 Movement of shadow from light at eye level Problem 15 A light at eye level stands 20 ft from a house and 15 ft from the path leading from the house to the street. A man walks along the path at 6 ft per sec. How fast does his shadow move along the wall when he is 5 ft from the house? Solution 15 From the figure:

when y = 5 ft

answer

Problem 16 In Problem 15, when the man is 5 ft from the house, find the time-rate of change of that portion of his shadow which lies on the ground. Solution 16 By Pythagorean Theorem:

From Solution 15, when y = 5 ft dx/dt = 8 ft/sec and x = 15(5)/(20 - 5) = 5 ft, then 2 2 2 2 s = (x + y ) = (5 + 5 ) = 52 ft

Thus,

answer

17-18 Rate of shadow in the wall of a building

Problem 17 A light is placed on the ground 30 ft from a building. A man 6 ft tall walks from the light toward the building at the rate of 5 ft/sec. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow is changing when he is 15 ft from the building. Solution 17 By similar triangle:

when x = 30 - 15 = 15 ft

answer The negative sign in the answer indicates that the length of the shadow is shortening.

Problem 18 Solve Problem 17, if the light is 10 ft above the ground. Solution 18 By similar triangle:

when x = 30 - 15 = 15 ft

answer 19-21 Two cars driving in parallel roads

Problem 19 One city A, is 30 mi north and 55 mi east of another city, B. At noon, a car starts west from A at 40 mi/hr, at 12:10 PM, another car starts east from B at 60 mi/hr. Find, in two ways, when the cars will be nearest together. Solution 19 1st Solution (Specific): The figure to the right shows the position of the cars when they are nearest to each other.

Time: 12:39 PM

answer

2nd Solution (General): From the figure shown in the right:

where:

Thus,

when ds/dt = 0

Time: 12:39 PM

answer

Problem 20 For the condition of Problem 19, draw the appropriate figures for times before 12:39 PM and after that time. Show that in terms of time after noon, the formula for distance between the two cars (one formula associated with each figure) are equivalent. Solution 20 For time before 12:39 PM, see the figure in the general solution of Solution 20.

For time after 12:39 PM, there are three conditions that worth noting. Each is thoroughly illustrated below. First condition: (after 12:39 PM but before 1:05 PM)

okay

Second condition: (after 1:05 PM but before 1:22:30 PM)

okay Third condition: (after 1:22:30 PM)

okay

Problem 21 For Problem 19, compute the time-rate of change of the distance between the cars at (a) 12:15 PM; (b) 12:30 PM; (c) 1:15 PM Solution 21 From Solution 20, at any time after noon. From Solution 19,

(a) at 12:15 PM, t = 15/60 = 0.25 hr

answer (b) at 12:30 PM, t = 30/60 = 0.5 hr

answer (c) at 1:15 PM, t = 1 + 15/60 = 1.25 hr

answer

22-24 One car from a city starts north, another car from nearby city starts east

Problem 22 One city C, is 30 miles north and 35 miles east from another city, D. At noon, a car starts north from C at

40 miles per hour, at 12:10 PM, another car starts east from D at 60 miles per hour. Find when the cars will be nearest together. Solution 22

where:

Time = 12.2885 PM or 12:17:18 PM

answer

Problem 23 For the condition of Problem 22, draw the appropriate figure for times before 12:45 PM and after that time. Show that in terms of time after noon, the formulas for distance between the two cars (one formula associated with each figure) are equivalent.

Solution 23 Before 12:45 PM For time before 12:45 PM, see the figure in Solution 22.

After 12:45 PM

where:

Thus, (okay!)

Problem 24 For Problem 22, compute the time-rate of change of the distance between the cars at (a) 12:15 PM, (b) 12:45 PM. Solution 24 Solution 23 above shows that the distance s at any time after noon is given by

See Solution 22

(a) at 12:15 PM, t = 15/60 = 0.25 hr

answer (b) at 12:45 PM, t = 45/60 = 0.75 hr

answer

25 Two cars that may collide at 12:30 PM

Problem 25 One city E, is 20 miles north and 20 miles east of another city, F. At noon a car starts south from E at 40 mi/hr, at 12:10 PM, another car starts east from F at 60 mi/hr. Find the rate at which the cars approach each other between 12:10 PM and 12:30 PM. What happens at 12:30 PM?

Solution 25 Velocity of approach, answer At 12:30 PM Distance traveled by car from E = 40(30/60) = 20 miles Distance traveled by car from F = 60 [(30 - 10)/60] = 20 miles The cars may/will collide at this time. answer

26-27 Time Rates: Kite moving horizontally

Problem 26 A kite is 40 ft high with 50 ft cord out. If the kite moves horizontally at 5 miles per hour directly away from the boy flying it, how fast is the cord being paid out? Solution 26

when s = 50 ft 2 2 2 50 = x + 40 x = 30 ft

Thus,

answer

Problem 27 In Problem 26, find the rate at which the slope of the cord is decreasing.

Solution 27 Slope

From Solution 26, x = 30 ft when s = 50 ft

answer

28-29 Time Rates: Two cars driving on roads that intersects at 60 degree

Problem 28 At noon a car drives from A (Fig. 48) toward C at 60 miles per hour. Another car starting from B at the same time drives toward A at 30 miles per hour. If AB = 42 miles, find when the cars will be nearest each other.

Solution 28 By cosine law:

Time = 12:24 PM

answer

Problem 29 Solve Problem 28 if the car from B leaves at noon but the car from A leaves at 12:07 PM. Solution 29 By cosine law:

Time: 12:29 PM

answer

30 - Two trains in perpendicular railroad tracks

Problem 30 Two railroad tracks intersect at right angles, at noon there is a train on each track approaching the crossing at 40 mi/hr, one being 100 mi, the other 200 mi distant. Find (a) when they will be nearest together, and (b) what will be their minimum distance apart. Solution 30 By Pythagorean Theorem:

Set ds/dt = 0

Time: 3:45 PM

answer

Minimum distance will occur at t = 3.75, answer

31-32 Train in an elevated track and car in perpendicular road

Problem 31 An elevated train on a track 30 ft above the ground crosses a street at the rate of 20 ft/sec at the instant that a car, approaching at the rate of 30 ft/sec, is 40 ft up the street. Find how fast the train and the car separating 1 second later. Solution 31 From the isometric box:

where: 2 2 2 x = (20t) + (40 - 30t) 2 2 2 x = 400t + 1600 - 2400t + 900t 2 2 x = 1300t - 2400t + 1600

after 1 sec, t = 1

answer

Problem 32 In Problem 31, find when the train and the car are nearest together. Solution 32 From Solution 31,

the train and the car are nearest together if ds/dt = 0

answer

33-34 Time Rates: A car traveling east and airplane traveling north

Problem 33 From a car traveling east at 40 miles per hour, an airplane traveling horizontally north at 100 miles per hour is visible 1 mile east, 2 miles south, and 2 miles up. Find when this two will be nearest together. Solution 33 From the figure:

where: 2 2 2 x = (1 - 40t) + (2 - 100t) 2 2 2 x = (1 - 80t + 1600t ) + (4 - 400t + 10000t ) 2 2 x = 5 - 480t + 11600t Thus,

answer

Problem 34 In Problem 33, find how fast the two will be separating after along time. Solution 34 From the Solution 33,

after a long time,

answer

35-36 Time Rates: Lengthening of shadow and movement of its tip in 3D space

Problem 35 An arc light hangs at the height of 30 ft above the center of a street 60 ft wide. A man 6 ft tall walks along the sidewalk at the rate of 4 ft/sec. How fast is his shadow lengthening when he is 40 ft up the street? Solution 35 From the figure:

when 4t = 40; t = 10 sec

answer

Problem 36 In Problem 35, how fast is the tip of the shadow moving? Solution 36 Triangle LAB,

Triangle ABC,

answer

37-38 How fast a ship leaving from its starting point

Problem 37 A ship sails east 20 miles and then turns N 30 W. If the ship's speed is 10 mi/hr, find how fast it will be leaving the starting point 6 hr after the start. Solution 37 By cosine law,

after 6 hrs from start, t = 6 - 2 = 4 hrs

answer

Problem 38 Solve Problem 37, if the ship turns N 30 E. Solution 38 By cosine law,

after 6 hrs from start, t = 6 - 2 = 4 hrs

answer

Maxima and Minima | Applications

Graph of the Function y = f(x) The graph of a function y = f(x) may be plotted using Differential Calculus. Consider the graph shown below.

As x increases, the curve rises if the slope is positive, as of arc AB; it falls if the slope is negative, as of arc BC. Relative Maximum and Minimum Points At a point such as B, where the function is algebraically greater than that of any neighboring point, the point is said to have a maximum value, and the point is called a maximum point (relative to adjacent points). Similarly at D, the function has a minimum value (relative to adjacent points). At maximum or minimum points, the tangent is horizontal or the slope is zero.

This does not necessarily mean that at these points the function is maximum or minimum. It does only mean that the tangent is parallel to the x-axis, or the curve is either concave up or concave down. The points at which dy/dx = 0 are called critical points, and the corresponding values of x are critical values. The second derivative of a function is the rate of change of the first derivative or the rate of change of the slope. It follows that as x increases and y" is positive, y' is increasing and the tangent turns in a counterclockwise direction and the curve is concave upward. When y" is negative, y' decreases and the tangent turns in the clockwise direction and the curve is concave downward.

If y' = 0 and y" is negative (i.e. y" < 0), the point is a maximum point (concave downward).

If y' = 0 and y" is positive (i.e. y" > 0), the point is a minimum point (concave upward). Points of Inflection A point of inflection is a point at which the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or vice versa (see point E from the figure). At these points the tangent changes its rotation from clockwise to counterclockwise or vice versa. At points of inflection, the second derivative of y is zero (y" = 0).

Application of Maxima and Minima As an example, the area of a rectangular lot, expressed in terms of its length and width, may also be expressed in terms of the cost of fencing. Thus the area can be expressed as A = f(x). The common task here is to find the value of x that will give a maximum value of A. To find this value, we set dA/dx = 0. Steps in Solving Maxima and Minima Problems 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify the constant, say cost of fencing. Identify the variable to be maximized or minimized, say area A. Express this variable in terms of the other relevant variable(s), say A = f(x, y). If the function shall consist of more than one variable, expressed it in terms of one variable (if possible and practical) using the conditions in the problem, say A = f(x). 5. Differentiate and equate to zero, dA/dx = 0.

01 - 08 Number Problems in Maxima and Minima

Problem 1 What number exceeds its square by the maximum amount? Solution 1 Let x = the number and 2 x = the square of the number 2 y = the difference between x and x

answer

Problem 2 What positive number added to its reciprocal gives the minimum sum?

Solution 2 Let x = the required positive number and 1/x = the reciprocal of the number y = sum of x and 1/x

answer

Problem 3 The sum of two numbers is k. Find the minimum value of the sum of their squares. Solution 3 Let x and y = the numbers z = sum of their squares

Problem 4 The sum of two numbers is k. Find the minimum value of the sum of their cubes. Solution 3 Let x and y = the numbers z = sum of their cubes

Problem 5 The sum of two positive numbers is 2. Find the smallest value possible for the sum of the cube of one number and the square of the other. Solution 5 Let x and y = the numbers
Equation (1)

Equation (2)

From Equation (1)

Use

answer

Problem 6 Find two numbers whose sum is a, if the product of one to the square of the other is to be a minimum. Solution: Let x and y = the numbers

The numbers are 1/3 a, and 2/3 a.

answer

Problem 7 Find two numbers whose sum is a, if the product of one by the cube of the other is to be a maximum. Solution: Let x and y the numbers

The numbers are 1/4 a and 3/4 a.

answer

Problem 8 Find two numbers whose sum is a, if the product of the square of one by the cube of the other is to be a maximum. Solution: Let x and y the numbers

The numbers are 2/5 a and 3/5 a.

answer

09 - 11 Rectangular Lot Problems in Maxima and Minima

Problem 9 What should be the shape of a rectangular field of a given area, if it is to be enclosed by the least amount of fencing?

Solution: Area:

Perimeter:

(a square)

answer

Problem 10 A rectangular field of given area is to be fenced off along the bank of a river. If no fence is needed along the river, what is the shape of the rectangle requiring the least amount of fencing? Solution: Area:

Perimeter:

width = length

answer

Problem 11 A rectangular lot is to be fenced off along a highway. If the fence on the highway costs m dollars per yard, on the other sides n dollars per yard, find the area of the largest lot that can be fenced off for k dollars. Solution: Total cost:

Area:

answer

12 - 14 Rectangular Lot Problems in Maxima and Minima

Problem 12 A rectangular field of fixed area is to be enclosed and divided into three lots by parallels to one of the sides. What should be the relative dimensions of the field to make the amount of fencing minimum? Solution Area:

Fence:

width = length

answer

Problem 13 Do Ex. 12 with the words "three lots" replaced by "five lots". Solution Area:

Fence:

answer

Problem 14 A rectangular lot is bounded at the back by a river. No fence is needed along the river and there is to be 24-ft opening in front. If the fence along the front costs $1.50 per foot, along the sides $1 per foot, find the dimensions of the largest lot which can be thus fenced in for $300. Solution Total cost:

Area:

Dimensions: 84 ft 112 ft

answer

15 - 17 Box open at the top in maxima and minima

Problem 15 A box is to be made of a piece of cardboard 9 inches square by cutting equal squares out of the corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made in this way. Solution:

Using quadratic formula

Use x = 1.5 inches Maximum volume: answer

Problem 16 Find the volume of the largest box that can be made by cutting equal squares out of the corners of a piece of cardboard of dimensions 15 inches by 24 inches, and then turning up the sides. Solution:

answer

Problem 17 Find the depth of the largest box that can be made by cutting equal squares of side x out of the corners of a piece of cardboard of dimensions 6a, 6b, (b a), and then turning up the sides. To select that value of x which yields a maximum volume, show that

Solution:

and

If a = b: From

(x is equal to of 6b - meaningless) From

okay

Use

answer

18 - 20 Rectangular beam in maxima and minima problems

Problem 18 The strength of a rectangular beam is proportional to the breadth and the square of the depth. Find the shape of the largest beam that can be cut from a log of given size.

Solution: Diameter is given (log of given size), thus D is constant

Strength:

answer

Problem 19 The stiffness of a rectangular beam is proportional to the breadth and the cube of the depth. Find the shape of the stiffest beam that can be cut from a log of given size. Solution: Diameter is given (log of given size), thus D is constant

Stiffness:

answer

Problem 20 Compare for strength and stiffness both edgewise and sidewise thrust, two beams of equal length, 2 inches by 8 inches and the other 4 inches by 6 inches (See Problem 18 and Problem 19 above). Which shape is more often used for floor joist? Why? Solution: Strength, S = bd 3 Stiffness, k = bd For 2" 8": Oriented such that the breadth is 2" 2 3 S = 8(2 ) = 32 in 3 4 k = 8(2 ) = 64 in Oriented such that the breadth is 8" 2 3 S = 2(8 ) = 128 in 3 4 k = 2(8 ) = 1024 in For 4" 6": Oriented such that the breadth is 6" 2 3 S = 6(4 ) = 96 in 3 4 k = 6(4 ) = 384 in Oriented such that the breadth is 4" 2 3 S = 4(6 ) = 144 in 3 4 k = 4(6 ) = 864 in 2" x 8" is stiffer than 4" x 6" and it is the commonly used size for floor joists. In fact, some local codes required a minimum depth of 8".
2

21 - 24 Solved problems in maxima and minima

Problem 21 Find the rectangle of maximum perimeter inscribed in a given circle. Solution: Diameter D is constant (circle is given)

Perimeter

The largest rectangle is a square.

answer

See also the solution using trigonometric function.

Problem 22 If the hypotenuse of the right triangle is given, show that the area is maximum when the triangle is isosceles. Solution:

Area:

The triangle is an isosceles right triangle.

answer

Problem 23 Find the most economical proportions for a covered box of fixed volume whose base is a rectangle with one side three times as long as the other. Solution: Given Volume:

Total Area:

Altitude = 3/2 shorter side of base.

answer

Problem 24 Solve Problem 23 if the box has an open top. Solution: Given Volume:

Area:

Altitude = 3/4 shorter side of base.

answer

25 - 27 Solved problems in maxima and minima

Problem 25 Find the most economical proportions of a quart can.

Solution: Volume:

Total area (closed both ends):

Diameter = height

answer

Problem 26 Find the most economical proportions for a cylindrical cup. Solution: Volume:

Area (open one end):

Radius = height

answer

Problem 27 Find the most economical proportions for a box with an open top and a square base. Solution: Volume:

Area:

Aide of base = 2 altitude

answer

28 - Solved problem in maxima and minima

Problem 28 The perimeter of an isosceles triangle is P inches. Find the maximum area. Solution: Perimeter:

Area:

From the figure:

Thus,

multiply both sides of the equation by

Solving for y by quadratic formula: a = 2; b = -x; c = -x

y = - x is absurd, thus use y = x Therefore

answer

29 - 31 Solved problems in maxima and minima

Problem 29 The sum of the length and girth of a container of square cross section is a inches. Find the maximum volume. Solution:

Volume

For 2x = 0; x = 0 (meaningless) For a - 6x = 0; x = 1/6 a Use x = 1/6 a

answer

Problem 30 Find the proportion of the circular cylinder of largest volume that can be inscribed in a given sphere. Solution: From the figure:

Volume of cylinder:

answer

Problem 31 In Problem 30 above, find the shape of the circular cylinder if its convex surface area is to be a maximum. Solution: Convex surface area (shaded area):

From Solution to Problem 30 above, dh/dd = -d/h

answer

32 - 34 Maxima and minima problems of a rectangle inscribed in a triangle

Problem 32 Find the dimension of the largest rectangular building that can be placed on a right-triangular lot, facing one of the perpendicular sides. Solution: Area:

From the figure:

Dimensions: a b

answer

Problem 33 A lot has the form of a right triangle, with perpendicular sides 60 and 80 feet long. Find the length and width of the largest rectangular building that can be erected, facing the hypotenuse of the triangle. Solution:

Area:

By similar triangle:

Thus,

Dimensions: 50 ft 24 ft

answer

Problem 34 Solve Problem 34 above if the lengths of the perpendicular sides are a, b. Solution: Area:

By similar triangle:

Thus,

Dimensions: answer

35 - 37 Solved problems in maxima and minima

Problem 35 A page is to contain 24 sq. in. of print. The margins at top and bottom are 1.5 in., at the sides 1 in. Find the most economical dimensions of the page. Solution: Print Area:

Page area:

Dimensions: 6 in 9 in

answer

Problem 36 A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. What shape gives the most light for the given perimeter? Solution: Given perimeter:

Where:

Thus,

Light is most if area is maximum:

breadth = height

answer

Problem 37 Solve Problem 36 above if the semicircle is stained glass admitting only half the normal amount of light.

Solution: From Solution of Problem 36

Half amount of light is equivalent to half of the area.

answer

38 - 40 Solved problems in maxima and minima

Problem 38 A cylindrical glass jar has a plastic top. If the plastic is half as expensive as glass, per unit area, find the most economical proportion of the jar. Solution: Volume:

Let m = price per unit area of glass m = price per unit area of plastic k = total material cost per jar

Height = 3/2 radius of base

answer

Problem 39 A trapezoidal gutter is to be made from a strip of tin by bending up the edges. If the cross-section has the form shown in Fig. 38, what width across the top gives maximum carrying capacity?

Solution:

Capacity is maximum if area is maximum:

(take note that 'a' is constant)

For b + a = 0; b = -a (meaningless) For b - 2a = 0; b = 2a (ok) Use b = 2a answer

41 - 42 Maxima and Minima Problems Involving Trapezoidal Gutter Problem 41 In Problem 39, if the strip is L in. wide, and the width across the top is T in. (T < L), what base width gives the maximum capacity?

Solution:

Area:

(note that L and T are constant)

Base = 1/3 length of strip

answer

Problem 42 From a strip of tin 14 inches a trapezoidal gutter is to be made by bending up the sides at an angle of 45. Find the width of the base for greatest carrying capacity.

Solution:

Area:

answer

43 - 45 Solved problems in maxima and minima

Problem 43 A ship lies 6 miles from shore, and opposite a point 10 miles farther along the shore another ship lies 18 miles offshore. A boat from the first ship is to land a passenger and then proceed to the other ship. What is the least distance the boat can travel? Solution:

Total Distance:

For 2x - 5 = 0; x = 5/2 For x + 5 = 0; x = -5 (meaningless) Use x = 5/2 = 2.5 mi

answer

Problem 44 Two posts, one 8 feet high and the other 12 feet high, stand 15 ft apart. They are to be supported by wires attached to a single stake at ground level. The wires running to the tops of the posts. Where should the stake be placed, to use the least amount of wire? Solution:

Total length of wire:

For x + 30 = 0; x = -30 (meaningless) For x - 6 = 0; x = 6 (ok) use x = 6 ft Location of stake is 6 ft from the shorter post. answer

Problem 45 A ray of light travels, as in Fig. 39, from A to B via the point P on the mirror CD. Prove that the length (AP + PB) will be a minimum if and only if = .

Solution:

Total distance traveled by light:

By Quadratic Formula: 2 2 2 2 2 A = a - b ; B = -2a c; C = a c

For

meaningless if a > b For

okay Use

when S is minimum:

tan = tan , thus, =

(okay!)

46 - 47 Solved Problems in Maxima and Minima

Problem 46 Given point on the conjugate axis of an equilateral hyperbola, find the shortest distance to the curve. Solution: Standard equation:

For equilateral hyperbola, b = a.

Thus,

Distance d:

Nearest Distance:

answer

Problem 47 2 3 Find the point on the curve a y = x that is nearest the point (4a, 0). Solution:

from

by trial and error:

The nearest point is (a, a).

answer

48 - 49 Shortest distance from a point to a curve by maxima and minima Problem 48 2 3 Find the shortest distance from the point (5, 0) to the curve 2y = x . Solution:

from

For For Use . ,

, (okay)

(meaningless)

answer Another Solution: Differentiate

slope of tangent at any point Thus, the slope of normal at any point is

Equation of normal:

the same equation as above (okay)

Problem 49 2 3 Find the shortest distance from the point (0, 8a) to the curve ax = y .

Solution:

From

is meaningless, use

answer

50 - 52 Nearest distance from a given point to a given curve Problem 50 2 2 Find the shortest distance from the point (4, 2) to the ellipse x + 3y = 12.

Solution:

from

By trial and error

The nearest point is (3, 1) Nearest distance:

answer Another Solution:

slope of tangent at any point Thus, slope of normal at any point is

Equation of normal:

the same equation as above (okay)

Problem 51 n Find the shortest distance from the point (1 + n, 0) to the curve y = x , n > 0. Solution:

by inspection: x = 1

1 raise to any positive number is 1 answer

Problem 52 2 3 Find the shortest distance from the point (0, 5) to the ellipse 3y = x . Solution:

slope of tangent at any point Thus, slope of normal at any point is

Equation of normal:

By trial and error

Nearest point on the curve is (3, 3) Shortest distance

answer For similar problem, see Problem 48 and its solution.

Integral calculus
Indefinite Integrals If F(x) is a function whose derivative F'(x) = f(x) on certain interval of the x-axis, then F(x) is called the anti-derivative of indefinite integral f(x). When we integrate the differential of a function we get that function plus an arbitrary constant. In symbols we write

where the symbol , called the integral sign, specifies the operation of integration upon f(x) dx; that is, we are to find a function whose derivative is f(x) or whose differential is f(x) dx. The dx tells us that the variable of integration is x. Integration Formulas In these formulas, u and v denote differentiable functions of some independent variable (say x) and a, n, and C are constants.

1. The integral of the differential of a function u is u plus an arbitrary constant C (the definition of an integral).

2. The integral of a constant times the differential of the function. (A constant may be written before the integral sign but not a variable factor).

3. The integral of the sum of a finite number of differentials is the sum of their integrals.

4. If n is not equal to minus one, the integral of u du is obtained by adding one to the exponent and divided by the new exponent. This is called the General Power Formula.

1 - 3 Examples | Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate the following integrals: Example 1:

Example 2:

Example 3: Solution to Example 1:

answer

Solution to Example 2:

This is the form by the differential

. If we let

, then

is raised to a power 4 and is multiplied

of the function corresponding to , the integral can be

evaluated as follows: answer It should be pointed out that no integral can be evaluated directly unless it contains, in addition to the expression identified with , the exact differential of the function corresponding to .

Solution to Example 3:

answer

4 - 6 Examples | Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate the following:

Example 4:

Example 5:

Example 6: Solution to Example 4

This is not of the form

because of the missing constant factor 3 in the integrand.

Identifying , , then the differential . We must then insert 3 in the integrand and to compensate for it, we place the reciprocal 1/3 before the integral sign. This in effect multiplying by one does not affect the value of the function. Let , then

answer

Solution to Example 5

Let 3 u = 2x + 2x + 1 2 2 du = (6x + 2) dx = 2(3x + 1) dx n = -2/3

answer

Solution to Example 6

If we let and , then . But there is no in the given integrand. It is easy to insert -4 in the integrand and offset this by placing -1/4 before the integral sign but nothing can be done about the missing factor . We therefore expand and integrate term by term.

answer

Definite Integral

The definite integral of f(x) is the difference between two values of the integral of f(x) for two distinct values of the variable x. If the integral of f(x) dx = F(x) + C, the definite integral is denoted by the symbol

The quantity F(b) - F(a) is called the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b or simply the definite integral from a to b. It is called the definite integral because the result involves neither x nor the constant C and therefore has a definite value. The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration, a being the lower limit and b the upper limit. General Properties of Definite Integral 1. The sign of the integral changes if the limits are interchanged.

2. The interval of integration may be broken up into any number of subintervals, and integrate over each interval separately.

3. The definite integral of a given integrand is independent of the variable of integration. Hence, it makes no difference what letter is used for the variable of integration.

Techniques in integration
Integration by Parts When and are differentiable functions of , this is integrated we have or . When

The expression to be integrated must be separated into two parts, one part being and the other part, together with , being . The factor corresponding to must obviously contain the differential of the variable of integration.

Integration by Substitution Algebraic Substitution

In algebraic substitution we replace the variable of integration by a function of a new variable. A change in the variable on integration often reduces an integrand to an easier integrable form. 1 - 3 Examples

Evaluate the following integrals: Example 1:

Example 2:

Example 3: Solution to Example 1

Let

answer

Solution to Example 2

Let

answer

Solution to Example 3

Let

answer

Trigonometric Substitution Trigonometric substitution is employed to integrate expressions involving functions of (a u ), (a + u ), 2 2 and (u a ) where "a" is a constant and "u" is any algebraic function. Substitutions convert the respective functions to expressions in terms of trigonometric functions. The substitution is more useful but not limited to functions involving radicals. Use the following suggestions: When the integrand involves... (a u ), try u = a sin 2 2 (a + u ), try u = a tan 2 2 (u a ), try u = a sec
2 2 2 2 2 2

The substitution may be represented geometrically by constructing a right triangle.

Integration of Rational Fractions

Partial Fraction Functions of x that can be expressed in the form P(x)/Q(x), where both P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials of x, is known as rational fraction. A rational fraction is known to be a proper fraction if the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x). Example of proper fraction is...

A rational fraction is said to be an improper fraction if the degree of P(x) is greater than or equal to the degree of Q(x). Examples are...

and Improper fraction may be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction. For example:

Proper fraction such as denominator will factorized.

can be expressed as the sum of partial fraction, provided that the

Integration of any rational fraction depends essentially on the integration of a proper fraction by expressing it into a sum of partial fractions. There are four cases that may arise in dealing with integrand involving proper fraction.

Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates | Applications of Integration

There are two methods for finding the area bounded by curves in rectangular coordinates. These are... 1. by using a horizontal element (called strip) of area, and 2. by using a vertical strip of area. The strip is in the form of a rectangle with area equal to length width, with width equal to the differential element. To find the total area enclosed by specified curves, it is necessary to sum up a series of rectangles defined by the strip. Using Horizontal Strip

From the figure, the area of the strip is running this strip starting from going to

, where . The total area can be found by . Our formula for integration is...

Note that is the right end of the strip and is always on the curve and is always on the curve . We therefore substitute

and and

is the left end of the strip prior to integration.

Using Vertical Strip We apply the same principle of using horizontal strip to the vertical strip. Consider the figure below.

The total area is...

Where = upper end of the strip = = lower end of the strip = The steps in finding the area can be outlined as follows: 1. Sketch the curve 2. Decide what strip to use and define its limits 3. Apply the appropriate formula based on the strip then integrate. Browse for some examples that illustrate the two methods.

Example 1 | Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates

Example 1 2 Find the area bounded by the curve y = 9 - x and the x-axis. Solution Step 1: Sketch the curve.

downward parabola; vertex at (0, 9); latus rectum = 1

The required area is symmetrical with respect to the y-axis, in this case, integrate the half of the area then double the result to get the total area. The use of symmetry will greatly simplify our solution most especially to curves inpolar coordinates.

Using Horizontal Strip Step 2: Determine the limits of the strip. The strip shown will start from y = 0 and end to y = 9

Step 3: Apply the appropriate formula then integrate.

Where

answer

Using Vertical Strip Step 2: Determine the limits of the strip. In this case the limits are not defined; we need to solve the points of intersection of the curves.

when y = 0, x = &pm; 3. The strip will swipe from x = 0 to x = 3.

Step 3: Apply the appropriate formula then integrate.

Where

okay!

Example 2 2 3 Find the area bounded by the curve a y = x , the x-axis and the line x = 2a. Solution

when when points of intersection: (0, 0) and (2a, 8a) Using vertical strip:

answer

Example 3 2 Find the area bounded by the curve x = y + 2y and the line x = 3. Solution

rightward parabola, vertex at (-1, -1), LR = 1

when

Using Horizontal Strip

answer

Example 4 2 Solve the area bounded by the curve y = 4x - x and the lines x = -2 and y = 4. Solution

downward parabola, vertex at (2, 4), LR = 1

answer

Example 5 2 Find the area between the curves 2x + 4x + y = 0 and y = 2x. Solution

downward parabola, vertex at (-1, 2), LR = 1/2 Points of intersection

when x = 0, y = 2(0) = 0 when x = -3, y = 2(-3) = -6 points of intersection: (0, 0) and (-3, -6)

answer

Example 6 3 2 Find each of the two areas bounded by the curves y = x - 4x and y = x + 2x. Solution

 upward parabola, vertex at (-1, -1), LR = 1

(approximate - for graphing purposes only) Maximum and minimum points of y = x - 4x when x = 1.15, y = 1.153 - 4(1.15) = -3.08 when x = -1.15, y = (-1.15)3 - 4(-1.15) = 3.08 Maxima: (-1.15, 3.08) Minima: (1.15, -3.08) Points of intersection:
3

when x = 0, y = 0 when x = 3, y = 3^3 - 4(3) = 15 when x = -2, y = (-2)^3 - 4(-2) y = 0 Points of intersection: (0, 0), (3, 15) and (-2, 0)

answer

answer

Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates | Applications of Integration

The fundamental equation for finding the area enclosed by a curve whose equation is in polar coordinates is...

Where 1 and 2 are the angles made by the bounding radii.

The formula above is based on a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle d. Note that r is a polar function or r = f(). See figure above.

Example 1 2 Find the area enclosed by r = 2a sin . Solution

answer

Example 2 2 2 Find the area bounded by the lemniscate of Bernoulli r = a cos 2. Solution

The curve is symmetrical with respect to the origin, and occurs only with values of from -45 to 45 ( to ).

The area in polar coordinates is:

answer