Article Title Page

Daughter Succession: A Predominance of Human Issues Author Details Margaret M.C. Humphreys Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

Corresponding author: Margaret M.C. Humphreys Corresponding Authors Email: Margaret@watermark.pro

Acknowledgments (if applicable): An acknowledgement of gratitude is extended to the reviewers of this article: Your thoughtful and detailed comments contributed greatly to the final version. Thank-you.

Biographical Details: Dr. Humphreys career focus is change in complex systems and leadership transition. Raised in an entrepreneurial family, her special interest is management and succession of the family enterprise. Margaret has worked extensively with business families and consulted to private and public organizations in most sectors. She has worked throughout Canada, in the U.S.A., Europe, Latin America and Asia. Margarets PhD from Fielding Graduate University in Santa Barbara CA is in Human and Organizational Systems, specializing in Family Business Studies. She has taught and guest lectured in Canada and the US.

Structured Abstract: Purpose:The research asked: How do daughters take the lead in their family businesses? What are the relevant issues that characterize the succession process for daughters, what are the attributes of daughter successors, and what, if any, features distinguish their leadership style? Methodology: Qualitative research: reflective interviews with 14 daughter successors. Thematic data analysis (Roulston, 2010) was used to analyze data, build models and link to previous research. Findings: The shifting landscape of womens roles in family businesses is evidenced through the experiences of daughters who have taken over the top leadership positions in their family firms. Skill and commitment override gender in successor selection. The women were intrinsically motivated to take over their family businesses and owned significant shares in their firms. The findings confirm the centrality of the successorincumbent relationship and reveal mentoring, frequently by the incumbent, as the principal vehicle for the transfer of business leadership. Emotional competence emerged as a key successor quality. Research Limitations: This research is based on a single perspective, that of the successor. The accounts may include elements of performance, that is, selection of content based on the audience and the participants desired results. Originality/Value:Provides an alternate view to female invisibility in the family business, and the practice of primogeniture. New research on succession, womens roles in family business. Key Words: Daughter successors; successor-incumbent relationship; successor qualities Article Classification: Research paper

Type header information here

For internal production use only Running Heads:

Type footer information here

Daughter Successions: A Predominance of Human Issues

The shifting landscape of womens roles in family businesses is evidenced through the experiences of daughters who have taken over the top leadership positions in their family firms. An increasing number of daughters are taking over their family firms (Alfano & Langowitz, 2002). The number has increased five-fold since 1997 according to the 2007 American Family Business Survey. Family businesses appear to be incorporating women into leadership roles at a rate 4 times higher than non-family firms (Barrett & Moores, 2009). This papers focus on daughters as successors addresses the lack of research attention given to a growing demographic. The role of women in family businesses is one of the leastpursued research topics in the field of study (Sharma, 2004; Wang, 2010). The lack of research on womens professional participation in the family firm is particularly noted (Dumas, Dupuis, Richer, & St.-Cyr, 1995; Jimenez, 2009; Sharma, 2004; Sonfield & Lussier, 2005). A mere five studies focusing exclusively on the experiences of daughter successors were found for this literature, with none post 2005. In total, only 13 studies were found that gave explicit and noteworthy attention to daughter succession. The studies were published between 1989 and 2007. Considering the trend of daughter succession, the literature to date on women in family businesses presents two problems. One is the tendency for studies to look at women as a group rather than women in defined roles. The second is the propensity of researchers to document barriers to womens participation in leadership rather than illuminating elements that contribute to their success. Successors, regardless of gender, face many challenges (Barrett & Moores, 2009; Cole, 1997; Dumas, 1989, 1992, Vera & Dean, 2005). A deeper understanding of daughter

succession is needed given the changing times and the aspiration of the field of family business studies to help family businesses and business families. Succession is reported by family businesses as their number one concern (Casillas & Acedo, 2007; Sharma, 2004; Zahra & Sharma, 2004). Most of what is known about succession and successors arises from research conducted with men. Barrett and Moores (2009) state there are potential broad gains to the field of family business studies from focusing exclusively on the female experience of leadership and succession. Nicholson and Bjornberg of the London Business School noted that, Family businesses are creating diversity and a broader set of leadership skills by including women leaders in the top management teams. The fact that family businesses do this to a greater extent than nonfamily firms could be because they have access to talented women through different networks and are not pressurised by public shareholders to be conventional in terms of board selection. It may also be a sign that the traditionally invisible influence of women in family firms has always been there but is now beginning to take a modern shape: as officially recognised positions of leadership. (Evens 2005, p. 11 in Barrett & Moores, 2009, p. 2) This research addresses a gap in knowledge by examining an emerging role of daughters in family businesses: that of the business leader. The research asked: How do daughters take the lead in their family businesses? What are the relevant issues that characterize the succession process for daughters, what are the attributes of daughter successors, and what, if any, features distinguish their leadership style? In individual interviews 14 women told their succession stories. Their accounts, as suggested in the title of this article, predominately revolved around the human issues: relationships, motivations, family involvement, and the significant impact of emotional content. The qualitative design of this research brings the voices of daughters as family business leaders to the forefront as they take this critical role. Inquiries that are deeply rooted in qualitative methods have been called for in family business research, (Astrachan, 2003; Zahra & Sharma, 2

2004). The design of this research was deliberately set to allow participants to reflect, and select content relevant to themselves and their experiences. When asked the question Please, tell me the story of how you came to take over your family business? Isabelle quipped, First of all, I was born in the family business. Fiona began her tale by saying Its been tough. Lane started with I began to work in the business when I was in grade 8, and Kim began by saying I had no intention of going into the business. The diversity of these statements, from 4 of the 14 daughter-successors who participated in the study, foretold the diversity of their experiences. Beyond the multiplicity of the womens circumstances striking similarities were found in their accounts. This research provides an alternate view to female invisibility in the family business, and the practice of primogeniture. It shows skill and commitment overriding gender in successor selection. The women were intrinsically motivated to take over their family businesses and owned significant shares in their firms. The findings confirm the centrality of the successor incumbent relationship and reveal mentoring, frequently by the incumbent, as the principal vehicle for the transfer of business leadership. Emotional competence emerged as a key successor quality, apparent when dealing with family related matters, managing the incumbent relationship and the ambiguities that come with family business succession. Literature Review This literature review includes studies on the role of women in family business, and family business succession, as well as related leadership material from the broader business context. Material on the study of emotions in the work place is introduced in the findings section to frame related themes.

Womens Participation in Family Business Overall, the research on women in family business seems to divide into two streams: the first, more populated stream, is the traditional participation of women; the next, less studied arena, is the professional participation of women in family business. Traditional Roles of Women in Family Business The themes of the invisible woman, and the emotional caregiver dominate the literature on womens traditional participation in the family business. Studies in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s found women involved in the daily operations of the family firm did not receive recognition, in terms of a formal position, salary or status, equal to their contributions (Cole, 1997; Hollander & Bukowitz, 1990; Salganicoff, 1990b). While the womens contributions were found to be critical and substantial they were unsupported in the visible hierarchies of business and family(Galiano & Vinturella, 1995; Lyman, 1988; Nelton, 1998; Rowe & Hong, 2000), hence the construct of invisibility. Iannanellis (1992) finding that consultants, families, and the women themselves often contribute to female invisibility by underestimating womens contributions, illustrates in part, how the phenomena of invisibility is socially constructed. The second traditional role, that of the emotional care giver, is captured in the terms chief trust officer (Poza & Messer, 2001), emotional leadership and chief emotional officer (Lyman, 1988; Salganicoff, 1990b; Ward, 1987). A composite description of this invisible role includes a combination of conflict mediation, family values perpetuation (Dugan, et al., 2008), and general communication, support, and confident services (Lyman, Salganicoff, & Hollander, 1985). The role of the emotional peace keeper is seen as crucial during succession and could be more difficult to replace than that of the chief executive officer (Jimenez, 2009).

Professional Participation of Women in Family Business As previously noted, the number of studies found that comment on parentdaughter succession is smallonly 13. The research is definitive that women normally took roles of assistants, informal advisors, or mediators between family members who run the business (GillisDonovan & Moynihan-Bradt, 1990). A modest five studies were found that focus solely on succession experiences of daughters: Dumas (1989, 1990, 1992), using 1988 U.S. based data, Curimbaba (2002) with data gathered in South Western Brazil, and Vera and Dean (2005) with U.S. daughter successors. The considerable obstacles daughters face to gain organizational power dominate the findings (Barnes & Kaftan, 1990; Dumas, 1989, 1990, 1992; Nelton, 1998; Vera & Dean, 2005) These include opposition from family members and senior men in the organization (Dumas, 1992; Rosenblatt, de Mik, Anderson, & Johnson, 1985; Salganicoff, 1990b); the perceived juxtaposition of daddys little girl (Dumas, 1989, p.37) and company CEO and that the novelty of a daughter in senior management challenged cultural norms, familial expectations beyond the learned coping strategies of all involved (Barnes, 1988; Lyman, et al., 1985; Rowe & Hong, 2000). To a lesser extent, the authors offer strategies to mitigate the challenges. Dumas (1989, 1990) generated advice to daughters and their families related to integrating daughters into the family business. Themes included being aware of the daughters visibility as potential successor, finding appropriate modalities of conflict resolution, acknowledging developmental needs, working out triangulation processes, modifying traditional views of human motivation, and the need for empowerment. Dumas (1998) and Iannarelli (1992) highlighted the importance of positive childhood experiences with the business, the womans self-perception, and development and assessment of her leadership abilities. 5

Vera and Dean (2005) show that daughters join the family business to help out, and must make considerable effort to prove their capability and competence to family and nonfamily members, workers, and managers. Vera and Dean (2005) updated Dumas (1989, 1990, 1992) in that they found no role conflict between fathers and daughters, no mother jealousy of daughter working closely with the father and no sibling rivalry when is came to managing the company. Both Vera and Dean (2005) and Dumas (1989, 1992) found that women do not aspire to ownership, rather they come to family business to help the family, especially in a crisis or because other options are less attractive. The evidence of women having satisfying careers in family businesses is existent, though overshadowed by the focus on barriers. However, Cole (1997), Galiano and Vinturella (1995), Jaffe (1990), and Lyman (1988) all interviewed woman who reported having satisfying careers in their family businesses and not being held back by gender. Succession Related Literature In family business literature succession is considered a long-term process (Barnes & Hershon, 1989; Cabrera-Surez, 2005; Chrisman, Chua, Sharma, & Yoder, 2009; Handler, 1990) that refers to the actions and events that lead to the transition of leadership from one family member to another in family firms (Sharma, Chrisman, Paplo, & Chua, 2001, p. 21). This section considers literature on successor selection, preparation, and attributes as well as the successor incumbent relationship. Successor Selection Regarding successor candidacy, the recorded history of family firms shows a strong preference for first-born sons (Hollander & Bukowitz, 1990; Keating & Little, 1997; Salganicoff, 1990a, 1990b; Wang, 2010). Women were rarely considered serious candidates for leadership in

the family business, except during a crisis or when the founder had no son (Curimbaba, 2002; Dumas, 1992, 1998; Hollander & Bukowitz, 1990). There is also evidence that primogeniture may be on the decline (Ayres, 1990; Drozdow, 1989; Kaye, 1992), with successor selection being driven by more objective selection criteria such as education, technological and managerial skills (Brockhaus, 2004; Chrisman, Chua, & Sharma, 1998; Salganicoff, 1990b; Vera & Dean, 2005). Successor Preparation In the context of the family business, preparation of the successor is seen as sometimes beginning in childhood through socialization and a positive introduction to the family business (Grote, 2003; Iannarelli, 1992). Similarly leadership scholars have found evidence that early childhood experiences are predictors of adult leadership behaviors (Schneider, Paul, White, & Holcombe, 1999). Towler (2005) found emergent adults, ages 18 to 25, who have secure relationships (appropriate attachment) with their parents are more likely to display charismatic leadership qualities while those with psychologically controlling fathers were less likely to be seen as charismatic leaders. Gaining experience outside the family business has been recommended as valuable to successor development (Brockhaus, 2004; Nelton, 1998) as it helps develop confidence, a sense of identity and creditability (Barnes & Hershon, 1989; Correll, 1989; Vera & Dean, 2005). Management indicate that mentoring, usually formal, is a widespread and overall positive component of a successful career, especially for high achieving women, and an effective vehicle for leadership development (Monserrat, et al., 2009; Tolar, 2012)Boyd, Upton, and Wircenski (1999), in a study of mentoring in family firms found those who were mentored believed it was vital to their success (Boyd et al., 1999). Grote (2003) and Lansberg (1999) proposed mentoring as a family business succession strategy. 7

Successor Attributes Qualities of an effective successor include the capacity to lead, managerial skills, and competence, and willingness, and commitment to take over the role of business leader (Ibrahim, Soufani, Poutziouris, & Lam, 2004). Additionally, integrity and commitment (Chrisman, et al., 1998; Sharma & Rao, 2000), having the trust of family members business (Goldberg & Wooldridge, 1993; Gomez-Mejia, Nunez-Nickel, & Gutierrez, 2001; Lansberg & Astrachan, 1994) and the capacity to develop relationships within the company, understand the culture and intricacies of the business (Lansberg & Astrachan, 1994) are considered important. IncumbentSuccessor Relationship The incumbentsuccessor relationship is at the heart of all inter-generational successions (Chrisman, et al., 1998; Dumas, 1990; Lansberg, 1988; Venter, Boshoff, & Maas, 2005). The quality of that relationship is a critical determinant of the succession (Brockhaus, 2004). A quality relationship between founder and successor is characterized by a high level of trust, mutual support, open communications, a willingness to acknowledge each others achievements, feedback, and mutual learning (Venter, et al., 2005). A smooth succession requires cooperation between the two (Handler, 1992; Hollander & Elman, 1988).

Methods This research asked: How do daughters take the lead in their family businesses? What are the relevant issues that characterize the succession process for daughters, what are the attributes of daughter successors, and what, if any, features distinguish their leadership style? Reflective, semi-structured interviews (Roulston, 2010) allowed participants to share, in their own words, their perceptions and understandings of their experiences that led to their current positions of leadership in their family businesses. The first interview question asked 8

participants to tell the story of their succession. Participants were encouraged to say as much as they wanted before probing questions were asked (see Appendix A). Participants, daughters who had assumed the leadership of their family business within the previous 10 years were recruited through a convenient professional network and family business associations. This resulted in 12 participants from Canada and 2 from Scotland. One-onone interviews lasting 45 and 90 minutes were conducted between February 2010 and February 2011. Personal and business background information was collected (see Appendix B), and post interview contact included follow-up regarding participant after thoughts, and verification of transcripts, case time lines and individual vignettes. By design, all participants in this study were female, by happenstance all took over from incumbent fathers. Assumptions about gender underlying the treatment of data this study are located within three concepts. The first is of social feminism, which espouses the value of exploring the female experience in its own right, without seeking comparison with an assumed norm (Barrett & Moores, 2009). The second is postmodern feminism that cautions against polarizing behavior as gender specific (Cole, 1997)hence, the findings are not automatically assumed to be gender specific. The third is gender-organization-system theory (Fagenson, 1990) that encourages looking at the many contextual levels that can potentially impact experience and behavior. Data Analysis The qualitative paradigm of research as fundamentally interpretative (Creswell, 2003). Qualitative analysis typically involves both inductive and deductive reasoning, given that researchers generate findings through close examination of data and consider multiple theoretical explanations in search of the most plausible explanation (Roulston 2010, p.150) for

phenomenon that occur in the data. Analytical methods employed in this study allow for both theory generation and theory linking. The primary direction for treatment of the data is thematic analysis, as conceptualized by Roulston (2010).This creative process required multiple reexaminations of the data to develop ideas into assertions that were supported by the data. The data analysis was driven by the content of the transcripts and took into account all related utterances. The experiences of study participants were analyzed individually and collectively. The detailed steps of the data analysis are outlined in Table 1, Data Analysis. Insert Table 1 For the purposes of this study, the definition of family business that determined inclusion was modeled on Rosenblatt et al. (1985) and Venter et al. (2005): A family business is one owned by members of the same family to shape and/or pursue the formal or implicit vision of the business, with decisions about future direction of the business influenced by the family, family members being employed and actively participating in the management or governance of the business, and the business leadership position has passed, or is in the process of passing from one generation to the next.

Findings While details and time frames varied greatly from one participant to the next, there were striking thematic similarities among the participants and their experiences. The key themes of successor participation in the business, incumbent successor relationship, and successor attributes are discussed in this paper. Participation in the Family Business

10

A composite story of the successors participation in the business is depicted in Figure 1, Evolution of Successor Participation.

Figure 1. Evolution of Successor Participation

The evolution of the daughters participation in the family business could be traced from early life developmental experiences. All of the participants whose families were in businesses during the womens at-home years, recalled positive memories of the family business and placed the existence of the business as a central aspect of family life. Many recounted fond memories of time with father in the business. Catherine, My father used to have [an advisory board] and brought us in, all the kids once in a while, just to listen in when we were younger. Two of the daughters were groomed from childhood to take over the family business. Isabelle was one of them: As a little girl [my father and I] spent quality time together in the business. He would often bring me to work. [Our product] became part of my world. Despite the centrality of the business to family life, and the easy access to summer work, most of the participants, said they had not considered the family business as a career or life path.

11

Nor were they encouraged towards the business. This reflects previous research findings (Hollander & Bukowitz, 1990; Wang, 2010). Sals experience was typical: Business wasnt really something that I had even considered [after university] and there certainly werent any discussions with my family in terms of, we need you or want you to come back. It was all left to me and my pursuits and whatever I was interested in they would support. All of the successors completed undergraduate degrees immediately after high school. Most left the confines of the family to work and settle elsewhere. Many of the women travelled abroad after university: Lane: I backpacked around Asia alone. I dont know how my mother took it. Five of the women settled in other regions or countries. Thematically, circumstances surrounding the daughters entry into the business often revolved around incumbent circumstances, business needs, and daughter availability. Most participants indicated they joined the family business on a trial or temporary basis. Also reflecting previous research findings (Dumas, 1989; Iannarelli, 1992; Salganicoff, 1990b) The details varied greatly from one situation to the next. Clare, for example said, I joined to help out part time. I ended up helping a lot with other areas. Sal had returned to her hometown after the dissolution of her marriage. Her father offered her a job in the family business. Katie indicated, the summer after university I said Id help my dad out I never intended to stay. Mos desire for a career change coincided with her fathers illness and his need to leave the business. The impetus to join the business sometimes came from the daughter, other times it was incumbent initiated. Before joining the business many of the women had conversations with their incumbent fathers about having a trial period to determine fit and then, potentially, staying on or taking over the business.

12

The period of time named determination of fit varied widely from one participant to the next. However, during this period the women discovered they had affinity for the business: they liked the work, and the people. All of the participants were passionate about their businesses. Catherine commented, I love our company. I love what we do. Sal stated: I found I liked it and stayed. Fionas declaration I love this business I cant see myself doing anything else. reflected the sentiments of many. The alignment between individual and organization was consistent in the successor accounts. The time frame from entering the family business to the point of commitment and the commencement of most successions varied. The point of commitment was explicit, setting a succession process into motion. Again sometimes the successions were incumbent initiated, as with Clare: Basically he liked what I was doing and said, Would you be interested in taking over the company? Other times the successors pushed the issue or took circumstances into their own hands. This was the case with Kim: I was lobbying hard [for changes], and with Fiona: I knew I had to step up and take charge. The SuccessorIncumbent Relationship Many of the interviews revolved around the incumbentsuccessor relationship. Most, not all, of the relationships were described as close. All the women reported holding their incumbent fathers in high regard expressing admiration for his abilities, accomplishments, and values. Incumbents were perceived as dedicated to the business and having superior business acumen. For example Katie: I was so impressed with Dad and really respect him as a businessman. Hes so ethical. Roles were clearly defined while working together. For example Rita: He was always in charge of the finances. My baby was the day-to-day running of the business. And Katie: We

13

always conversed about each project we were working on. We figured out quite quicklyyou look after that end and Ill take this end. Over the course of the succession, daughters and fathers often encountered challenges, disagreements and conflict. The successors depicted a preference for open, honest communications. Other notable characteristics of the successorincumbent relationship were shared values towards the business and family, and accommodation for differences in management style. Clare: To carry on in his footsteps was important, but also to have him realize that I have a totally different style, but have the same goals. Ingrid: I think generally we share the same values but we go about business very differently. A high degree of satisfaction from working in the business, high regard for the health of the business and the desire to pass a healthy business entity to leadership within the family were often perceived by the successors as common ground between themselves and their incumbent fathers. Isabelle observed that: Were on the same page because ultimately our goal is to make the company better. Figure 2, SuccessorIncumbent Relationship conceptualizes the successor incumbent relationship as having three components: the successor who had a passion for the business and relevant skills and abilities, the incumbent who wanted the business to stay in the family hands, and was often still reluctant to let go, and the intangible ingredient of shared values regarding commitment to the business and the family. Together, these components result in a solid working relationship between successor and incumbent. Clear roles, trust, mutual respect and accommodation for each others styles and life stage were characteristic of the relationship.

14

Figure 2. SuccessorIncumbent Relationship

Most participants referred directly to their incumbent fathers as mentor or role model and their greatest support. However, the tenor of the relationships was spirited and not always smooth, most had their rough spots and a few were down right difficult. Mo and Fiona described the extremes of harmony and turbulence in the successorincumbent relationship. Mos relationship with her father was close throughout her life and succession: I am very, very, very, close to my father. I considered [succeeding him] an opportunity to learn from the best. Fiona, while she respected her father, had a turbulent relationship with him: theres been a fair amount of butting heads. Annes description of the scope of the relationship reflects the experience of many participants:

15

He was a great mentor. I was able to talk to him more on a personal level There was a lot more [to our conversations] than what we did in revenues last week. There was that too, but it was a little bit more it was a different relationship.

The tenor of the successor-incumbent relationship often mirrored the participants felt experience of the succession. This was especially true for participants who described extremes of harmony or discord. For example, Katie who described her relationship with father-incumbent as were in the same head space experienced the succession as It just sort of happened and it was easy, gradual. At the extreme of difficult successions, Lane, who described her father as either unwilling or unable to enunciate, described her succession as a bit of mental torture. The majority of successorincumbent relationships, and the successions, were characterized as challenging or demanding as the pair transferred the leadership of the business. Drews example is typical of the midrange discord between successor and incumbent: We used to clash a bit. . His management skills are very different than mine and I would challenge him about the way to manage people. We had our differences for a number of years working together. Once he actually retired, he and I get along absolutely brilliantly. I can approach him if Ive got a problem. Any real conflict I had with my Dad was in the early days Successor Attributes. The findings indicate the womens journey to leadership relied on having the right skills and the education to manage and lead their family firms. Isabelles experience was typical: My father chose me for CEO because I bring more skills and I am better educated. Kim was chosen over her older brothers based on her abilities, the [advisor] said, I think Kim should be your successor, she has the skill set.

16

A pattern of self-awareness and insightful and delicate handling of the human side of events was remarkable throughout the data. Efforts to understand and frame this finding led to literature on emotions and caring in organizational settings and the assertion of emotional intelligence (EI) as a successor attribute. The section below begins with a brief review of related literature and concludes with presentation of the data supporting the emergence of emotional competence in the data. Research on emotion in organizational behavior has developed into a major field over the past 15 years (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011). Among other elements the research field includes the discourse on forms of care as a managerial strategy and emotional intelligence in leadership, an area where considerable research has been done in the last decade (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011). Mayer and Salovey (1997) defined emotional intelligence (EI) in terms of four basic abilities: (a) ability to perceive emotions in self and others; (b) ability to assimilate the information in cognitive functioning; (c) ability to understand the role of emotions; and (d) ability to use and to manage emotions in decision-making. Goleman (1998) identified on-the-job behaviors of emotional competence, which he defined as a learned capability based on emotional intelligence (p. 24). Emotional intelligence has five elements of emotional competence: three personal- self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation and two social, empathy and social skills or adeptness in relationships (Goleman 1998). Fambrough and Kaye (2008) provide a robust critique of EI as a strategy for leadership development by examining differences in approaches to measuring EI and assessing its connection to and usefulness for leadership effectiveness and job performance. The authors advise caution in the use of EI for leadership development. However, they conclude that leaders who have a discriminating understanding of their own emotions and the ability to express 17

emotions in nonthreatening ways, have an advantage. Thought specific measures of EI vary, EI is considered a scientifically legitimate intelligence best studied with ability measures of perceiving, assimilating, understanding and managing emotions (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000). The reference to emotional content in the successor accounts is outstanding. While the successors acknowledged operational issues, most of the interviews revolved around interpersonal relationship issues and the feeling aspects of personal adjustments. Attention to the technicalities of the job was secondary and often scant. Technical competence was a given, the spotlight was on handling human dynamics. It has been found that emotionally intelligent leaders pay greater attention to the interpersonal aspects of organizational life as opposed to the technical (Condren, Martin, & Hutchinson, 2006). Further, measures of emotional intelligence correlate with self-reported empathy, which involves a view of one-self as emotionally responsive and concerned about the feelings of others (Mayer et al, 2000 p. 293). EI provides a best-fit interpretation given the successor accounts. Selected examples of emotional competence evidenced in this study are presented in Table 2. For illustrative purposed the examples are categorized using Golemans (1998) interpretation of emotional competencies, however, individual examples often apply to more than one category.

Insert Table 2 Conclusions This research updates, challenges, and deepens some of the conventional thinking around daughters participation in family businesses. If the research field is to remain close to its intention of helping family businesses, making advances visible and providing alternate interpretations of surface behaviors is critical. At the macro level this research points to a shifting

18

landscape in womens roles in family businesses. The vibrant daughter successor is a stark contrast to the attribution of female invisibility in the family business. This study contributes to the discourse on the visibility of daughters as successors by raising several points. Many of the participants had explicit discussions and intentions regarding the possibility of succession prior to entering the company on a full time basis. This finding indicates the recognition of the leadership potential of daughtersby both the incumbent and the daughter herselfcountering the well-established theme of the invisible heir. In cases where sons worked in the business, either alongside of or prior to the daughters arrival, it appeared that the presence of the son had not stimulated succession discussions or activities. The questions arise: was the son any more visible as a successor? What role does across-the-board reluctance of the incumbent to let go play in the phenomena of daughter invisibility? The findings indicate the womens journey to leadership relied on having the right skills and education to manage and lead their family firms. Many had brothers who had worked or were currently working in the business. Invisibility is a potent construct. The broad issue of female visibility in business environments is complex and multilayered. The findings in this research suggest the need to keep examining the issue from multiple perspectives, including social and cultural trends. This study is a reminder that the construct of invisibility is not stable and selfexisting; rather it is co-constructed at a moment in time. At the micro level, the findings update and extend existing research literature about women in family business in the areas of ownership, motivation, and use of power. This study updates the notion that women do not participate in ownership (Dumas, 1989, 1992; Vera & Dean, 2005) of the family business, with the finding that all but one participant owned all or significant shares of the businesses.

19

The womens motivation for participation in the firm changed after joining the business: from helping out (Jimenez, 2009) to being intrinsically inspired to lead the business. This evolution in motivation acknowledges the progression from keeper of the kings gold (Dumas, 1989) to spinner of ones own gold, and the development of the CEO within the daughter. This study contributes to understanding women and power by examining situations in which women exercise their power. The women tended to work collaboratively, with transparency and a sense of fairness. Under these circumstances, they appeared to have no difficulty in exercising their power, whether or not it was supported with an official position. Many previous findings about succession and successor qualities, from research with mostly male successors, are confirmed in this study (see Table 2). This shows the demands and requirements for successfully passing the leadership of the family firm from one generation to the next are perceived and responded to in a similar manner by both sexes. As reflected by the gender-neutral succession language commonly used in the field, it appears that regardless of the successors gender, the basic lay-of-the-land of the succession process is the same. Insert T2 Previous findings of trustworthiness and integrity as successor qualities (Chrisman, et al., 1998; Sharma & Rao, 2000), and collaboration between incumbent and successor as critical during succession (Chrisman, et al., 1998; Dumas, 1990; Lansberg, 1988; Venter, et al., 2005) arguably fall within the theoretical lens of emotional intelligence. However, in this study accounts relating to emotional content were outstanding, leading to the assertion of emotional intelligence as a successor quality. This could suggest the traditionally identified roles of women in family business; those of emotional caregiver, peacekeeper, and purveyor of family values are combined with concern for the business, as the daughters ascend to leadership. It could also suggest a gender difference favoring a womans ability to recognize, articulate, and handle 20

emotions. Mayer (2000) found women are somewhat better at emotional intelligence than men and Rosenthal et al, (1979) found women are slightly better at perceiving emotion through tests of nonverbal perception. This studys finding of the fathers mentoring support of their successor daughters inadvertently contributes to literature that examines the modification of traditional gender roles and the role men play among women who seek to change their status. The finding adds evidence to the role of the patriarch as ally in feminist pursuits (Weiner-Levy, 2011) and contributes to the discourse on the mechanisms of social change. Limitations and Indications for Further Research This research is based on a single perspective, that of the successor. The accounts may include elements of performance, that is, selection of content based on the audience and the participants desired results. Further, this research indicates the need for more research attention to daughter successors as a group. The high number of mentoring relationships between daughter successors and their incumbent fathers warrants future research attention to mentoring as a succession strategy. The close and positive father daughter relationship suggests attachment theory could be examined in the context of successor development. This research indicates the management of emotions in organizational life as an area ripe for investigation in family businesses. Finally, further investigation into emotional intelligence as a successor quality is required.

21

References

Alfano, S., & Langowitz, N. (2002). Women in family-owned businesses. Springfield, MA: Babson College/MassMutual Financial Group. Ashkanasy, N., & Humphrey, R. (2011). Current emotion research in organizational behavior. Emotion Review, 3(2), 214-224. Astrachan, J. (2003). Commentary on the special issue: the emergence of a field. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 567-572. Ayres, G. (1990). Rough family justice: Equity in family business succession planning. Family Business Review, 3(1), 3-22. Barnes, L. (1988). Incongruent hierarchies: Daughters and younger sons as company CEOs. Family Business Review, 1(1). Barnes, L., & Hershon, S. (1989). Transferring power in the family business. Family Business Review, 2(2), 187-202. Barnes, L., & Kaftan, C. (1990). Organizational transitions for individuals, families and work groups. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Barrett, M., & Moores, K. (2009). Women in family business leadership roles: Daughters on the stage. Northhampton, MA: Edward Elgar. Boyd, J., Upton, N., & Wircenski, M. (1999). Mentoring in family firms: A reflective analysis of senior executives perceptions. Family Business Review, XII(4). Brockhaus, R. (2004). Family business succession: Suggestions for future research. Family Business Review, 17(2). Cabrera-Surez, K. (2005). Leadership transfer and the successors development in the family firm. Leadership Quarterly, 16(1), 71-96.

22

Chrisman, J., Chua, J., & Sharma, P. (1998). Important attributes of successors in family businesses: An exploratory study. Family Business Review, XI(1). Chrisman, J., Chua, J., Sharma, P., & Yoder, T. (2009). Guiding family businesses through the succession process. The CPA Journal, 79, 48-51. Cole, P. (1997). Women in family business. Family Business Review, 10(4), 353-371. Condren, T., Martin, B. N., & Hutchinson, S. (2006). What does emotional intelligence and gender have to do with leadership effectiveness .... or does it. Advancing Women in Leadership Online Journal, 21. Correll, R. (1989). Facing up to moving forward: A third-generation successor's reflections. Family Business Review, 2(1), 17-29. Creswell, J. (2003). Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage. Curimbaba, F. (2002). The dynamics of women's roles as family business managers. Family Business Review, 15(3), 239-252. Drozdow, N. (1989). A conversation with Tory and Victor Kiam. Family Business Review, 2(3), 277-292. Dugan, A., Krone, S., LeCouvie, K., Pendergast, J., Kenyon- Rouvinez, D., & Schuman, A. (2008). A womans place: The crucial roles of women in family business. Marietta, GA: Family Business Consulting Group. Dumas, C. (1989). Understanding of father-daughter and father-son dyads in family-owned businesses. Family Business Review, 2(1), 31-46. Dumas, C. (1990). Preparing the new CEO: Managing the father-daughter succession process in family businesses. Family Business Review, 3(2), 169-181. Dumas, C. (1992). Integrating the daughter into family business management. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 16(4), 41-55.

23

Dumas, C. (1998). Women's pathways to participation and leadership in the family-owned firm. Family Business Review, 11(3), 219-228. Dumas, C., Dupuis, J. P., Richer, F., & St.-Cyr, L. (1995). Factors that influence the next generation's decision to take over the family farm. Family Business Review, 8(2), 99-120. Fagenson, E. (1990). At the heart of women in management research: Theoretical and methodological approaches and their biases. Journal of Business Ethics, 9(4/5), 267. Fambrough, M., & Kaye, H. R. (2008). Emotions in leadership development: A critique of emotional intelligence. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(5), 740-758. Galiano, A., & Vinturella, J. (1995). Implications of gender bias in the family business. Family Business Review, 8(3), 177-188. Gillis-Donovan, J., & Moynihan-Bradt, C. (1990). The power of invisible women in the family business. Family Business Review, 3(2), 153-167. Goldberg, S., & Wooldridge, B. (1993). Self-confidence and managerial autonomy: Successor characteristics critical to succession in family firms. Family Business Review, 6(1), 55-73. Goleman, D. (1998). Working With Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Gomez-Mejia, L., Nunez-Nickel, M., & Gutierrez, L. (2001). The role of family ties in agency contracts. The Academy of Management Journal, 44(1), 81-95. Grote, J. (2003). Conflicting generations: A new theory of family business rivalry. Family Business Review, 16. Handler, W. (1990). Succession in family firms: A mutual role adjustment between entrepreneur and next-generation family members. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 15(1). Handler, W. (1992). The succession experience of the next generation. Family Business Review, 5(3), 283-307. Hollander, B., & Bukowitz, W. (1990). Women, family culture, and family business. Family Business Review, 3(2), 139-151.

24

Hollander, B., & Elman, N. (1988). Family-owned businesses: An emerging field of inquiry. Family Business Review, 1(2), 145-164. Iannarelli, C. (1992). The socialization of leaders in family business: An exploratory study of gender. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA. Ibrahim, A., Soufani, K., Poutziouris, P., & Lam, J. (2004). Qualities of an effective successor: The role of education and training. Education & Training, 46(8/9). Jimenez, M. R. (2009). Research on women in family firms: Current status and future directions. Family Business Review, 22. Kaye, K. (1992). The kid brother. Family Business Review, 5(3), 237-256. Keating, N., & Little, H. (1997). Choosing the successor in New Zealand family farms. Family Business Review, 10(2), 157-171. Kets de Vries, M. (1985). The dark side of entrepreneurship. [Article]. Harvard Business Review, 63(6), 160-167. Korabik, K. (1990). Androgyny and leadership style. Journal of Business Ethics, 9(4,5), 283. Lansberg, I. (1988). The succession conspiracy. Family Business Review, 1(2), 119-143. Lansberg, I., & Astrachan, J. (1994). Influence of family relationships on succession planning and training: The importance of mediating factors. Family Business Review, 7(1), 39-59. Lyman, A. (1988). Life in the family circle. Family Business Review, 1(4), 383-398. Lyman, A., Salganicoff, M., & Hollander, B. (1985). Women in family business: An untapped resource. SAM Advanced Management Journal 50. Mayer, J., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (2000). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligance. Intelligence, 27(4), 267-298.

25

Mayer, J., & Salovey, P. (1997). Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators. In P. Salovey & D. Sluyte (Eds.), What is emotional intelligence? (pp. 3-31). NY: Basic Books. Monserrat, S., Duffy, J., M., O.-L. n., J., M., A., G., S., F., et al. (2009). Mentoring experiences of successful women across the Americas. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 24(6), 455-476. Nelton, S. (1998). The rise of women in family firms: A call for research now. Family Business Review, 11(3), 215-218. Poza, E., & Messer, T. (2001). Spousal leadership and continuity in the family firm. Family Business Review, 14(1), 25-36. Rosenblatt, P., de Mik, L., Anderson, R., & Johnson, P. (1985). The family in business. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Roulston, K. (2010). Reflective interviewing: A guide to theory and practice. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Rowe, B., & Hong, G.-S. (2000). The role of wives in family businesses: The paid and unpaid work of women. Family Business Review, 13(1), 1-13. Salganicoff, M. (1990a). Clarifying the present and creating options for the future. Family Business Review, 3(2), 121-124. Salganicoff, M. (1990b). Women in family businesses: Challenges and opportunities. Family Business Review, 3(2), 125-137. Schneider, B., Paul, M., White, S., & Holcombe, K. (1999). Understanding high school student leaders, I: Predicting teacher ratings of leader behavior. Leadership Quarterly., 10, 609636. Sharma, P. (2004). An overview of the field of family business studies: Current status and directions for the future. Family Business Review, 17(1).

26

Sharma, P., Chrisman, J., Paplo, A., & Chua, J. (2001). Determinants of initial satisfaction with the succession process in family firms: A conceptual model. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice(Spring). Sharma, P., & Rao, A. (2000). Successor attributes in Indian and Canadian family firms: A comparative study. Family Business Review, XIII(4). Sonfield, M., & Lussier, R. (2005). Family business ownership and management: A gender comparison. Journal of Small Business Strategy, 15(2), 59-75. Tolar, M. H. (2012). Mentoring experiences of high-achieving women. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(2), 172-187. Towler, A. (2005). Charismatic leadership development: Role of parental attachment style and parental psychological control. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11(4), 15-25. Venter, E., Boshoff, C., & Maas, G. (2005). The influence of successor-related factors on the succession process in small and medium-sized family businesses Family Business Review, 18. Vera, C., & Dean, M. (2005). An examination of the challenges daughters face in family business succession. Family Business Review, 18. Wang, C. (2010). Daughter exclusion in family business succession: A review of the literature. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 31, 475-484. Ward, J. (1987). Keeping the family business healthy. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Weiner-Levy, N. (2011). Patriarchs or feminists? Relations between fathers and trailblazing daughters in druze society. Journal of Family Communication, 11, 126-147. Zahra, S., & Sharma, P. (2004). Family business research: A strategic reflection. Family Business Review, 17.

APPENDIX A

27

The interview questions: a. Please tell me the story of how you came to take over the leadership of your family business. Related probes: i. What aspects of your leadership transition were most critical? ii. What aspects of the succession do you think are unique to your situation, for example influenced by your family heritage, family values or type of business? iii. What was the most difficult part of the succession for you? iv. What/who helped or supported you?

b. Can you identify a beginning and end to the leadership succession? Related probes: i. Were there any pivotal events around communications, transfer of power, relationships, etc.? ii. Was there conflict at any particular point? iii. Would you discuss your interactions with family members? iv. Would you discuss your interactions with business members?

c. What advice would you have for a daughter considering assuming the leadership of her family business?

28

APPENDIX B

29

Appendix C
Code Name Advice Approach Incumbent Approach Successor Conflict Entry- Reason for Joining # Quotes 38 66 Brief Description Succession advice to those entering the process, in particular daughters Perceptions on incumbent's stance re holding on, letting go or gone; end role; preferences re successor and stance re mentor or adversary Stance towards business, self in business and relationship with incumbent, self report style Situations beyond challenge Personal life space and/or business situation that factored into reason for joining the family business Initial steps as a full time employee, through the first few months or years. This includes expectations re succession (if any) upon entry, whether a job was created or vacant, reactions from family, co-workers etc. Comments regarding siblings working in the family business day-to-day, either past or present Accounts of family life

82

33 17

Entry: situation on 13 entry

Family - Siblings in Business Family Cultural, Background & Values Family/Business Paradox Family/business relationships Key Triad

77

27

60

Day-to-day examples when simultaneous membership in family and business systems creates conflicting demands and emotions. Examples of negotiating/managing the family/business boundary and its impact on relationships References to any combination of successor/business/incumbent relationship Elements identified as difficult about succession or working in FB in general Statements describing succession, including felt experience.

95

66

Most difficult

25

Nature of succession On being Female

40

19

Perceptions of the impact of gender re the business

On Working in FB Pre Entry: early socialization

22 14

Felt experience of working in a family business Early memories and feelings related to the family business. Indicates a stance or attitude towards the FB formed in or held from childhood and adolescence (0-17 years approx.)

30

Pre entry: life plan Pre entry: work prior Prodigal Daughter Relationship: Successor, Incumbent, Business Role of Mother Succession Process: Start Succession Process: General Succession Process: Pivotal Events Succession "plan"

14

Plans/aspirations to enter &/or lead the family business or not, prior to commencing the early adult transition or as part of first adult life structure Work prior

2 67

Identifies participants who left home with no intension of returning Styles re management, closeness, relationship qualities, managing the family/business boundary

24 29

References to relationship, communication with Mother Time frames and, or events around start of the process including who initiates and drives the process Overview statements including time lines, formality, felt experience

67

51

Identifiable turning points in the succession process occurring in either the family or the business system

32

Approach (formal, informal), activities undertaken, use of outside advisors etc Specific training or on the job activities undertaken by the successor to prepare for leading the business Self-descriptions: self as leader, stance re business, self in business and towards the incumbent Helpful people and structures Relationships with employees, customers or suppliers etc

Successor Development Successor: on self

23

43

Supports/Advisors 49 Work Relationships Work/life Balance 42

15

Comments on own work/life balance

31

Appendix D Example of Code Grouping (Early Schema) Family Group Name Successor Pre-Entry Data Included for the following codes Early socialization toward business Work Prior Life plans re career Prodigal Daughter Life space at joining Entry- Reason for joining Situation on entry Successor approach Stance toward the situation Stance toward the business Work Relationships Approach Successor Approach Incumbent Relationship with Incumbent Family Business Paradox Family/Business Relationships Supports and Advisors Key Triad Successor Incumbent Relationship Successor Approach On being Female On working in Family Business Work Life Balance Nature of Key Triad Planning General comments Pivotal events Conflict Most Difficult Supports/Advisors Family Business Paradox Culture, Background and Values Relationship to Business Siblings in Business Role of Mother

Successor in Business

SuccessorIncumbent Relationship

Successor Development

Successor On self

Succession

Family

32

Table 1 Data Analysis Data treatment Step 1 Initial Coding Process Details Listened to each interview one to two times Read transcripts through one to two times Noted like utterances, phrases, and words to develop broad codes Topics began to emerge. Organized each succession story in step-by-step chronology Included dates, matched with significant events, thoughts, and/or feelings This enabled close analysis of each intact succession story Recorded each participants experience on 10 elements that had emerged as commonalities in the data early life experiences, other business experience, education, tailored training, family dynamics, use of advisors, business conditions, relationship with the incumbent, use of emotional intelligence and feelings towards the business This microanalysis enabled specific statements to be made with confidence and became a building block for the categorization of succession experiences. Code data in Atlas.ti Added, split, and combined codes (see Appendix C) Began arranging code families and high-level themes. (see Appendix D) This step allowed for theory and schema testing. Description, analysis and interpretation of data were utilized to in constructing themes. Trustworthiness supported by triangulation between time lines, elements and codes The end result of the thematic analysis of the data is an emergent schema that is connected to existing theory and knowledge at various junctures.

Step 2 Data Categorization: Succession Time Lines Step 3 Data Categorization: Salient Elements

Step 4 Electronic Coding

Step 5 Thematic Representation

33

Table 2 Examples of Emotional Competence Personal Competence Self Awareness includes recognizing ones emotions, knowing ones capabilities and having a strong sense of self-confidence Fiona: Im up for a good scrap every once in a while, a good challenge. Kim, upon entering the business: When I got into it I realized why they were having so many problems, there were just so many things to be done. I started taking a little bit of control. The hierarchy was [each of my two brothers were running a company and my dad was above them] I was coming in as a marketing manager. I definitely didnt have any autonomy at the time. We were missing lots of financial reporting and we were missing a skill set that most businesses would have at that senior level. I went to my dad and said, You know, I think you need to have outside help. I think you should hire an outside CEO and put an end to the bleeding, or youre going to be bankrupt soon. It took a lot of convincing. Mo, on her role in the business: When I took over the business there were very few systems. The business went from quite small to, for a small business, relatively large in a relatively short period of time [Dad and my brother] were not really capable of developing a system. I came in and spent years just developing systems. Self-Regulation Includes self-control, operating with honesty and integrity, being flexible with changes or delays and taking responsibility for your personal performance. Drew, regarding the long succession process: We all needed time to adjust. Isabelle on fairness: I think they realize that I am a very fair person and treat everybody with the utmost respect. I dont do things in my own self-interest, and they realize that. Dad realized that and Mum realized that, because I look at the family as a family unit. Kim, when negotiating for majority shareholdings over her brother: He was my brother and I loved him but I knew I would be doing the bulk of the work and wouldnt be satisfied with a 50/50 split. Lane on dealing with her aging father: His tolerance for risk is not as high as mine so its been a bit of a slog. youre making progress and then the brakes get put on a bit. I just keep working through and thinking about [the goal]. So, Im starting to make some of those changes. I couldnt make a change to the Board of Directors without his approval, but he didnt

34

say I couldnt start an advisory board which is what I wanted anyway which I did and thats been great. Motivation Includes striving for improvement or excellence, and being persistent Fiona: I saw we needed to change how we were doing business. I realized I had to step up, make changes, and take charge. Lane: I saw things I wasnt comfortable with. I felt that I had what it took to run the business and Im stubborn, Im competitive. I want to do things well. I thought, well, one day Ill make queen and this is what Id like to do. Now I have the opportunity to do some of those things. Its gratifying and Im learning a lot. Rita: Im quite determined, Im quite focused, I know what I want and what Ive got to achieve. Youve got to be very resilient. Im quite good when things go wrong. Social Competence Empathy Includes actively understanding and taking an interest in others, having a service orientation, and reading group emotional currents. Fiona had worked alongside her father for 17 years before succession began; she described her fathers reluctance and her response. It has been difficult for him because he feels I am taking the company from him, even though that was the general intent... I understand his frustrations [at not wanting to let go] I dont take it personally. I try to be very conscientious and aware that he still needs to feel that he is needed here. Lane, while frustrated with lack of movement on a succession plan, could understand her fathers position: I cant speak directly for my father, but I would suspect that part of it has to do with mortality issues. Hed had the job since he was 27 and now hes 83. He doesnt have any hobbies, doesnt really have a lot of friends who are alive anymore and hes really a very shy gentleman. He took over when his father died, for him succession means death. Drews understanding of her father: I understand why he was so hard on me [in the beginning] he wanted me to really know this business. Regarding his reluctance to let go: I think, having worked in the business and it having taken up so much of his time over all of those years, he wasnt sure what else he would do then. Clare on establishing her credentials, saw the benefits to the business as well as herself: For me it was important that everyone who worked with us feel that I deserved to get this job. It was important to me that I earn it and that it not just be handed to me. So for the succession to work I think the way that we dragged it out for as long as we did

35

was important to build peoples confidence in my ability to lead. Social Skills Include the ability to induce desired responses in others, open communications, conflict management and collaboration on shared goals. Ingrid on communications and conflict resolution Id make a decision and then hed change it, or give an indication that it wasnt that way or make decisions without me. I was like, whoah, Im now a part of the company. Ive now bought into this company. You cant disregard what I think. I go and talk to him directly, right away usually. I dont like to wait on it. I go, I talk, we close the door, and we get it out. I let him know how I feel and, then hell either have the self-realization and understand, most of the time thats the case, sometimes hell [say] youre overreacting or whatever. So, we try to talk it through. Clare eased tensions between her father and brother: My father was pulling his hair out, what are we going to do with your brother? I became a sort of coach to my father and brother. Kim, on relations with her brother: We talked every day, at least at the end of the day for half an hour and Id tell him about things and decisions that needed to be made. [And ask] What do you think? Are you in agreement? We didnt have any kind of actual arrangement together that we had to agree all the time, but I tried to, with collaboration, I wanted him to feel part of it. Isabelle, on dealing with a traditionally thinking uncle in the business: Hes posed some challenges for me over the years. Because even though he respects what I say and I do, he has a hard time with it because Im a woman. So, Ive learned to deal with it differently than I would of in the past. In the past I would have approached him directly, now sometimes I use my brothers to approach him. So it makes it easier.

36

Table 3 Confirmation of Previous Research Previous findings about succession confirmed thematically: Successorincumbent relationship is a key determinant in succession (Brockhaus, 2004; Handler, 1990; Hollander & Elman, 1988) Incumbents have difficulty letting go (Kets de Vries, 1985; Lansberg, 1988) Successor qualities include relevant skills and abilities, availability, and commitment to the business (Ibrahim, et al., 2004; Venter, et al., 2005) Successor development can begin in childhood (Grote, 2003; Iannarelli, 1992) Positive introduction to the business in childhood bodes well for a career in family business (Iannarelli, 1992) Importance of developing relationships within the business, and understanding its culture and operations (Lansberg & Astrachan, 1994) Mentoring is beneficial for successor development (Boyd, et al., 1999)

37