1 Q1. Describe half wave rectification with diagram.

This type of single-phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below. The Diode Bridge Rectifier

When a single rectifier unit is placed in series with the load across an ac supply, it converts alternating voltage into uni-directional pulsating voltage, using one half cycles of the applied voltage, the other half cycles being suppressed because it conducts only in one direction. Unless there is an inductance or battery in the circuit, the current will be zero, therefore, for half the time. This is called half-wave rectification. The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier is:

The four diodes labeledD1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below. The Positive Half-cycle

Working of a Half wave rectifier The ac voltage across the secondary winding changes polarities after every half cycle. During the positive half-cycles of the input ac voltage i.e. when upper end of the secondary winding is positive w.r.t. its lower end, the diode is forward biased and therefore conducts current. The input voltage during the positive half-cycles is directly applied to the load resistance RL, making its upper end positive w.r.t. its lower end. During the negative half cycles of the input ac voltage i.e. when the lower end of the secondary winding is positive w.r.t. its upper end, the diode is reverse biased and so does not conduct.

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before. The Negative Half-cycle

Q2. Describe full wave bridge rectification with diagram.

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. Description of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

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As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode fullwave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).

Q3. What do you mean by peak inverse voltage(PIV) of a rectifying diode?

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse direction without breaking down or avalanching. If this voltage is exceeded the diode may be destroyed. Diodes must have a peak inverse voltage rating that is higher than the maximum voltage that will be applied to them in a given application. for half wave rectifier Idc = Im / Where Imis the maximum value of load current. The r.m.s. value of the load current for a half-wave rectifier may be found by using calculation and its value, Irms = Im / 2 Substituting these values of Idc and Irmsin the equation (1) for ripple factor Efficiency :I 2dc * RL = ------------------ ------------(2) I 2rms( Rf + RL ) Substituting the values of Idc and Irms in equation (2) ( Im / ) 2 * RL 4 RL = ------------------------------ = ------ * ------------( Im / 2)2 * ( Rf + RL ) 2 ( Rf + RL ) 0.406 = --------------1 + Rf / RL now efficiency will be maximum , if RL >>Rf thus max = 0.406 or 40.6 %

Q4. What do you mean by ripple factor?

The output voltage or load current of a rectifier consists of two components namely d.c.component and a.c. component. The a.c. component present in the output is called aripple. As a matter of fact, the ripple is undesirable and accounts for pulsations in therectifier output. The effectiveness of a rectifier depends up on the magnitude of theripple in the output. Smaller the ripple, more effective will be the rectifier. Mathematically the ripple factor, The r.m.s. value of a.c. component of output voltage. = ------------------------------------------------------------------The d.c. component of output voltage Vr (rms) Ir (rms) Or = -----------------Vdc Idc Where Vrms = the r.m.s. value of the a.c. component of the output voltage Vdc = The average or d.c. value of the output voltage. Ir (rms) = Ther.m.s. value of the a.c. component of current. Idc = The average value or d.c. value of the load current.

Q6. Describe choke input filter with diagram.

A filter is used in power supplies to eliminate the AC fluctuation present in the Rectification process of a Power Supply. This filter may be a choke input filter or capacitor input filter.

Q5. Find out the efficiency of half wave rectifier.

The ratio of d.c. power output to the applied input a.c. power is known as rectifier efficiency. It is generally expressed in percentage. We know that the r.m.s. value of the rectified load current, Irms = I 2dc + I 2r(rms) Dividing the above equation on both sides by Idc The LC choke-input filter is used primarily in power supplies where voltage regulation is important and where the output current is relatively high and subject to varying load conditions. This filter consists of an input inductor (L1), or filter choke, and an output filter capacitor (C1). Inductor L1 is placed at the input to the filter and is in series with the output of the rectifier circuit. Since the action of an inductor is to oppose any change in current flow, the inductor tends to keep a constant current flowing to the load

squaring and rearranging the above expression

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throughout the complete cycle of the applied voltage. The reactance of the inductor (XL) reduces the amplitude of ripple voltage without reducing the dc output voltage by an appreciable amount. The shunt capacitor (C1) charges and discharges at the ripple frequency rate, but the amplitude of the ripple voltage (Er) is relatively small because the inductor (L1) tends to keep a constant current flowing from the rectifier circuit to the load. In addition, the reactance of the shunt capacitor (XC) presents a lowimpedance to the ripple component existing at the output of the filter, and thus shunts the ripple component around the load. The capacitor attempts to hold the output voltage relatively constant at the average value of the voltage. increases AC power dissipation is zero in a purely inductive circuit. Exhibits minimum reactance at DC. Stores energy in an electromagnetic field. decreases AC power dissipation is zero in a purely capacitive circuit. Exhibits maximum reactance at DC. Stores energy in an electrostatic field.

Q9. What is AC/DC converter and battery eliminator?

AN AC/DC converter is something that turns outlet-type electricity into battery type electricity. A battery eliminator is a device powered by an electrical source other than a battery, which then converts the source to a suitable DC voltage that may be used by a second device designed to be powered by batteries. A battery eliminator eliminates the need to replace batteries but may remove the advantage of portability. The battery eliminator operates through the use of power conversion, and can step voltages up or down in addition to converting alternating current to direct current. The device should include specifications that provide information about its capacity and the type of power it can handle. It also shows the types of conversions it does; a nine volt battery eliminator, for example, may just replace nine volt batteries, while others may have adjustable settings for different voltages.

Q7. Describe Capacitor input filter.

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a reservoir capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier output, an inductor L, in series and another filter or smoothing capacitor, C2, connected across the load, RL. A filter of this sort is designed for use at a particular frequency, generally fixed by the AC line frequency and rectifier configuration. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while it offers infinite resistance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey to the inductor L 1. 2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero resistance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the inductor while the AC component is blocked. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.

Q10. What is zener diode?

Zener doide is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the damage that occurs in the case of a pn junction diode when the reverse bias exceeds the breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid rate. Applying a negative potential to the anode and positive potential to the cathode reverse biases the zener diode. As the reverse bias increases the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of the positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs. It occurs because there is a strong electric field in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and generate carriers. The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. For a heavily doped diode depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage and the breakdown voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage.

Advantages: More output voltage & Ripple less output Disadvantages: Large in size and weight & High cost

Q11. State the special characteristics of zener diode. Some special characteristics of zener diode are:
a) b) c) d) e) A zener diode is like an ordinary diode except that it is properly doped so as to have a sharp breakdown voltage. A zener diode is always reverse connected i.e. it is always reverse biased. A zener diode has sharp breakdown voltage, called zener voltage Vz. When forward biased, its characteristics are just that of ordinary diode. The zener diode is not immediately burnt just because it has entered the breakdown region. As long as the external circuit connected to the diode limits the diode current to less than burnt out value, the diode will not burnt out.

Q8. Compare Capacitive reactance and Inductive reactance.

Inductance Voltage leads the current. Tries to maintain a constant current. Time constant _ L/R. As frequency increases, reactance Capacitance Voltage lags the current. Tries to maintain a constant voltage. Time constant _ RC. As frequency increases, reactance

4 Q12. State the principle of zener diode?

The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, its depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.

Q16. What are the types of voltage regulations. Explain.

Voltage regulation is of two types: I. Load regulation: In load regulation type output voltage nearly constant when load changes. Load regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is able to maintain the dc output voltage between no load and full load with the input voltage constant. Load regulation can be expressed as a percentage change in load voltage. Load Regulation =((VO(NL)- VO(FL))/ VO(FL))x100% II. Line regulation : In line regulation the output voltage nearly constant when line voltage changes. Line regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is able to maintain the dc output voltage for a change in the ac input line voltage. When the dc input (line) voltage changes, the voltage regulator must maintain a nearly constant output voltages. Line regulation can be expressed as: Line regulation=(Vo/Vi)x100%

Q13. What is Zener break down?

When a diode is heavily doped, its depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.

Q14. What is the break down voltage of Zener diode?

It is the reverse voltage at which break down of PN junction occurs

Q15. Draw characteristic curve of zener diode and explain.

The below figure shows the current versus voltage curve for a Zener diode is shown. Observe the nearly constant voltage in the breakdown region.

Q17. Draw a simple voltage regulator circuit using zener diode and explain.
The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of variations in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zener diode shunt regulator is shown in Figure 3. The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at VIN(min) and the load current is at IL(max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least Iz(min). Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load current is the highest and it conducts the most current when the load current is the lowest.

Zener diode characteristic curve The forward bias region of a Zener diode is identical to that of a regular diode. The typical forward voltage at room temperature with a current of around 1 mA is around 0.6 volts. In the reverse bias condition the Zener diode is an open circuit and only a small leakage current is flowing as shown on the exaggerated plot. As the breakdown voltage is approached the current will begin to avalanche. The initial transition from leakage to breakdown is soft but then the current rapidly increases as shown on the plot. The voltage across the Zener diode in the breakdown region is very nearly constant with only a small increase in voltage with increasing current. At some high current level the power dissipation of the diode becomes excessive and the part is destroyed. There is a minimum Zener current, Iz(min), that places the operating point in the desired breakdown. There is a maximum Zener current, Iz(max), at which the power dissipation drives the junction temperature to the maximum allowed. Beyond that current the diode can be damaged.

Zener diode shunt regulator If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to dissipate total power through the series resistance and the Zener diode. Shunt regulators have an inherent current limiting advantage under load fault conditions because the series resistor limits excess current. A zener diode of break down voltage Vz is reverse connected to an input voltage source Vi across a load resistance RL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down voltage VZ for all the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down region. Hence a

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regulated DC output voltage V0 = VZ is obtained across RL ,whenever the input voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage. Calculating voltage and current The total current drawn from the source is the same as that through the series resistor so an inverter is necessary to convert the power into a usable form. For example, when a cell phone is plugged into a car cigarette lighter to recharge, it supplies DC power; this must be converted to the required AC power by a power inverter to charge the phone.

Q19. What is a Voltage Converter?

A voltage converter is a common device that lowers the voltage of an electric current. A device of this type is essential travel gear for any North American traveler who intends to take an electronic device abroad, as foreign outlets operate at a higher voltage. Using your electronics abroad with a mere socket adapter could result in destroying them.

The current through the load resistor is

Q20. What is bleeder resistor?

and the zener diode current is This is a large value resistor that is placed directly across the terminals of the power supply filter capacitor; typical values range from 100k to several Mega ohms. The purpose is to gradually drain ("bleed") the charge from the filter capacitor when the amplifier is powered down. This lessens the chance of electrical shock when the amplifier chassis is opened for adjustment or modification.

If the voltage source is greater than Vz and If the voltage source is less than Vz

Q21. What do you mean by Regulated Linear Power Supply?

A regulated linear power supply is identical to the unregulated linear power supply except that a 3-terminal regulator is used in place of the bleeder resistor.

and For example, if our diode has a zener voltage of 5V and can handle 1W, and our voltage source has a maximum voltage of 20V: The largest amount of current our diode ever has to handle is the current through the diode when there is no external load. Therefore:

The regulated linear power supply solves all of the problems of the unregulated supply, but is not as efficient because the 3-terminal regulator will dissipate the excess power in the form of heat which must be accommodated in the design of the supply. The output voltage has negligible ripple, very small load regulation, and high reliability, thus making it an ideal choice for use in low power electronic applications.

This means that we need at least 75 to protect our diode.

Q22. Explain briefly block diagram of Switch Mode Power Supplies.

Q18. What is power inverter?

A power inverter is a device that converts DC power to standard AC power. Inverters are used to operate electrical equipment from the power produced by a car or boat battery or renewable energy sources, like solar panels or wind turbines. DC power is what batteries store, while AC power is what most electrical appliances need to run

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The block diagram of (SMPS) is shown here.

Here, the primary power received from AC main is rectified and filtered as high voltage DC. It is then switched at a huge rate of speed approximately 15 kHz to 50 kHz and fed to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The step-down transformer is only a fraction of the size of a comparable 50 Hz unit thus reliving the size and weight problems. The output at the secondary side of the transformer is rectified and filtered. Then it is sent to the output of the power supply. A sample of this output is sent back to the switch to control the output voltage. SMPS rely on PWM to control the average value of the output voltage. The average value of the repetitive pulse waveform depends on the area under the waveform. As load increases, output voltage tends to fall. Most switching power supplies regulate their output using the method called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The power switch which feeds the primary of the step-down transformer is driven by the PWM oscillator. When the duty cycle is at 50%, then the maximum amount of energy will be passed through the step-down transformer. As the duty cycle decreases the power transmitted is less hence low power dissipation. The Pulse Width signal given to the switch is inversely proportional to the output voltage. The width or the ON time of the oscillator is controlled by the voltage feedback from the secondary of the rectifier output and forms a closed loop regulator

Q25. Describe VHF FM transmitter with block diagram.

The following figure is a block diagram of an FM transmitter showing waveforms found at various test points. In frequency modulation (FM) the modulating signal combines with the carrier to cause the frequency of the resultant wave to vary with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. The modulating signal applied to a varicap causes the reactance to vary. The varicap is connected across the tank circuit of the oscillator. With no modulation, the oscillator generates a steady center frequency. With modulation applied, the varicap causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary around the center frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. The oscillator output is then fed to a frequency multiplier to increase the frequency and then to a power amplifier to increase the amplitude to the desired level for transmission.

Q23. What are the advantages of SMPS over linear power supply regulators?

The advantages of SMPS over linear power supply regulators are: a) It is more efficient. b) Power dissipation in the circuit is very low and in ideal condition it is zero. c) When higher load is required, SMPS is better than linear power supply. d) As it works at higher frequency, transformer size is reduced very much.

Q24. Describe Frequency-shift keying(FSK).

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a couple of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency.

Block diagram of an FM transmitter and waveforms.

Q26. What do you mean by modulation.

It is defined as the process of alternating some of the characteristics such as amplitude, frequency or phase angle of the carrier signal of higher frequency in accordance with the low frequency modulating signal. Modulation occurs at the transmitting end of the system.

7 Q27. What is the necessity for modulation?

Low frequency signals cant be transmitted over long distances if radiated directly in space because of interference with similar frequency range waveforms . We require modulation because of following reasons a) Short operating range:- The energy of any wave depends upon its frequency so larger the frequency of the wave the greater the energy associated with it. For small signal frequency power is lower so it can be transmitted over large distances. Poor radiation efficiency :-At audible frequency the radiation efficiency is poor so we require to increase the frequency of the wave to be radiated in order to increase the radiation efficiency. To overcome hardware limitation because transmitting such lower frequencies require antennas with miles in wavelength Modulation is to reduce noise which result in the optimization of signal to noise ratio, SNR To minimize the effects of interference In amplitude modulation the instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating signal. The carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process, but its amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal. An increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the amplitude of the carrier to increase. Both the positive and the negative peaks of the carrier wave vary with the modulating signal. An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks and negative peaks of the carrier waveform gives the exact shape of the modulating information signal. This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope. Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, new signals at different frequencies are generated as part of the process. These new frequencies, which are called side frequencies, or sidebands, occur in the frequency spectrum directly above and directly below the carrier frequency. More specifically, the sidebands occur at frequencies that are the sum and difference of the carrier and modulating frequencies. The upper sideband fUSB and lower sideband fLSB are computed as fUSB = fc - fm and fLSB _=fc -fm. Therefore AM wave contain three frequencies fc, fc+fs and fc-fs.

b) c) d) e)

Q28. What is modulating index (m)?

It is the ratio of the extent by which the amplitude, frequency or phase angle of the carrier wave is varied to its original amplitude, frequency or phase angle when the carrier waveform is unmodulated. It is also called the modulating factor or coefficient, or the degree of modulation. It is expressed in percentage. Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation. For example, if the carrier voltage is 9 V and the modulating signal voltage is 7.5 V, the modulation factor is 0.8333 and the percentage of modulation is 0.833 X 100 = 83.33.

m =((mmmm mmmm )/ (Vmax +Vmin))X100% 0r

m = Em/Ec Where m = Modulation coefficient Em = Peak change in the amplitude of the output waveform voltage. Ec = Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier voltage. m = value is usually between 0 and 1 When m < 1, we call this as under modulation By ensuring the amplitude of modulating signal to be less than the carrier amplitude, message signal can comfortably be retrieved from the envelope waveform of modulated signal . When m = 1, this is the best modulation where to ensure successful retrieval of the original transmitted information at the receiver end. The ideal condition for amplitude modulation (AM) is when m = 1. When m > 1, we call this as over modulation. If the amplitude of the modulating signal is higher than the carrier amplitude, this will cause severe distortion to the modulated signal.

In general, the amplitude of the modulating signal should be less than the amplitude of the carrier. When the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater than the amplitude of the carrier, distortion will occur, causing incorrect information to be transmitted. Consider the carrier signal, ec=Ec cost ct ------(I)

where c = 2fc or angular velocity at carrier frequency fc, ec=instantaneous voltage of carrier, Ec=Amplitude of carrier. Suppose the modulating factor is m. It means the signal produces a maximum change of mEc in the carrier amplitude. Obviously the amplitude of signal is mE c. The modulating signal (information signal is , es=mEc cost st Then, the amplitude of modulated signal is =Ec + m Ec cost st =Ec(1+ m cost

st )

Q29. Explain amplitude modulation (AM).

Putting this value in place of Ec in equation (I), we get ec= Ec(1+ m cost st ) cost ct

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=Ec cost ct+mEccosst cosct = Ec cost ct+mEc/2(2cosst cosct) = Ec cost ct+mEc/2[cos(c+s)t + cos(c-

Advantages

s)t]

= Ec cost ct+mEc[cos(c+s)t]/2 + mEc[cos(c-s)t]/2

Disadvantages is amplitude based and obviously AM detectors are sensitive to it.

Q32. What will be the bandwidth of AM wave if the carrier frequency is fc and modulating signal frequency is fs? Q30. Explain the power distribution in AM wave.
The power carried by a voltage wave is propotional to the square of its amplitude. In the equation of AM wave has three components of amplitude E c, mEc/2 and mEc/2. Therefore, the total power Pt carried by the AM wave is given by; Pt ( Ec/2)2+( mEc/22)2+( mEc/22)2 The bandwidth is from fc-fs to fc+fs. Thus bandwidth is fc+fs-fc+fs=2fs

Q33. What are the disadvantages of conventional (or) double side band full carrier system?
In conventional AM , carrier power constitutes two third or more of the total transmitted power. This is a major drawback because the carrier contains no information; the sidebands contain the information . Second , conventional AM systems utilize twice as much bandwidth as needed with single sideband systems.

Ec2/2+ m2Ec2/8+m2Ec2/8 Ec2/2(1+m2/4+m2/4) Ec2/2(1+m2/2)----------(I)

Power carried by the sidebands is given by; Ps ( mEc/22)2+( mEc/22)2

m2Ec2/8+m2Ec2/8 m2Ec2/4 Ec2/2(m2/2)-----------(II) fraction of total power carried by sidebands

Ps/ Pt=Exp. I/Exp.II =m2/(2+m2) Hence the greater the value of m, the greater is the useful power carried by the sidebands.

Q34. What is the power carried by sidebands and total power of the AM wave.
Power carried by the sidebands=(m2/(2+m2)) x Total power Total power of AM wave=P c(1+m2/2)

Q35. Define Single sideband suppressed carrier AM.

In DSB transmission, since the sidebands are the sum and difference of the carrier and modulating signals, the information is contained in both sidebands. As it turns out, there is no reason to transmit both sidebands in order to convey the information. One sideband can be suppressed; the remaining sideband is called a single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSSC or SSB) signal.

Q31. Amplitude modulation advantages & disadvantages

Like any other system of modulation, amplitude modulation has several advantages and disadvantages. These mean that it is used in particular circumstances where its advantages can be used to good effect..

Q36. What are the advantages of single sideband transmission?

The advantages of SSBSC are a) Power conservation: Normally ,with single side band transmission ,only one sideband is transmitted and the carrier is suppressed. So less power is required to produce essentially the same quality signal. b) Bandwidth conservation: Single sideband transmission requires half as much bandwidth as conventional AM double side band transmission. c) Noise reduction: Because a single side band system utilizes half as much bandwidth as conventional AM, the thermal noise power is reduced to half that of a double side band system.

Advantages

Disadvantages

It is simple to implement It can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components AM receivers are very cheap as no specialised components are needed.

An amplitude modulation signal is not efficient in terms of its power usage It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to twice that of the highest audio frequency An amplitude modulation signal is prone to high levels of noise because most noise

Q37. What are the disadvantages of single side band transmission?

a) b) Complex receivers: Single side band systems require more complex and expensive receivers than conventional AM transmission . Tuning Difficulties: Single side band receivers require more complex and precise tuning than conventional AM receivers.

9 Q38. Define AM Vestigial sideband.

AM vestigial sideband is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier and one complete sideband are transmitted but only part of the second sideband is transmitted.

Q42. Define Heterodyning.

Heterodyning is a method for transferring a broadcast signal from its carrier to a fixed local intermediate frequency in the receiver so that most of the receiver does not have to be retuned when we change channels. The interference of any two waves will produce a beat frequency, and this technique provides for the tuning of a radio by forcing it to produce a specific beat frequency called the "intermediate frequency" or IF..

Q39. What is Frequency Modulation?

When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal, it is called frequency modulation. In frequency modulation the variation in frequency of the carrier wave happens due to the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage. In this case the amplitude is made constant. The equation of the wave before modulation is shown below:

Q43. What are the advantages of using heterodyning in radio receivers?

Superheterodyne receivers reduce the signal frequency by mixing it with a signal from a local oscillator to produce the intermediate frequency (IF). All we have accomplished is to reduce the frequency to the IF value. We still must process the signal as before. There are three main advantages of Superheterodyne receivers. It reduces the signal from very high frequency sources where ordinary components wouldn't work (like in a radar receiver). It allows many components to operate at a fixed frequency (IF section) and therefore they can be optimized or made more inexpensively. It can be used to improve signal isolation by arithmetic selectivity

x, A, , represents the angular frequency, maximum current or voltage, phase angle and instantaneous value of the voltage which the modulation is made proportional to the change in frequency. The change in frequency is equal to the modulating frequency.

Q44. What are the advantages of FM over AM?

The advantages of FM over AM are: a) It gives noiseless reception. b) The operating range is quite large. c) It gives high fidelity reception. d) The efficiency of transmission is very high.

Q45. What are the disadvantages of conventional (or) double side band full carrier system?
In part (a) of the diagram a low frequency modulating signal is shown. In part (b) a high frequency carrier signal is shown. Part(c) shows an overstated view of a Fm signal. In conventional AM ,carrier power constitutes two thirds or more of the total transmitted power. This is a major drawback because the carrier contains no information ;the sidebands contain the information . Second ,conventional AM systems utilize twice as much bandwidth as needed with single sideband systems.

Q46. What is intermediate frequency?

Intermediate frequency (IF) is a frequency to which a carrier frequency is shifted as an intermediate step in radio signal reception in superheterodyne receivers. The intermediate frequency is created by mixing the carrier signal with a local oscillator signal in a process called heterodyning, resulting in a signal at the difference or beat frequency. Intermediate frequencies are used in superheterodyne radio receivers, in which an incoming signal is shifted to an IF for amplification before final detection is done.

Q40. Define frequency deviation.

Frequency deviation is the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier when it is acted on by a modulating signal frequency. Frequency deviation is typically given as a peak frequency shift in Hertz(Df).The peak to peak frequency deviation (2Df) is sometimes called carrier swing. The peak frequency deviation is simply the product of the deviation sensitivity and the peak modulating signal voltage and is expressed mathematically as Df=K1 Vm Hz

Q41. Define image frequency.

An image frequency is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that ,if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator ,will produce a cross product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency. Image Frequency=2 X Intermediate Frequency

Q46(a) What is cross modulation?

It is a type of radio-frequency interference (RFI) between two strong stations that are close in frequency. The desired carrier is modulated by the interfering signal. Cross modulation of a desired signal by an undesired signal is caused by amplitude modulation on the undesired signal and appears as amplitude modulation of the desired signal.

10 Q52. What is decibel?

A listener cannot give a reliable estimate of the loudness of sound, but he can distinguish the difference in loudness between two sounds. The ears sensitivity to a change in sound power follows a logarithmic rather than a linear scale, and the dB (decibel) has become the unit of this change. It is measured by dB=10log(P2/P1) where P2/P1 represents the power ratio. dB yields a relative value i.e a relative size of the numerator compared with the denominator. dBm is the dB in reference to 1mW. dBm is a measure of absolute power.

Q71. Describe superhetrodyne receiver with block diagram.

The conventional heterodyne radio receiver, has been in use for nearly a century. First the RF signal from the antenna is amplified, typically with a tuned RF stage, that amplifies a region of the frequency band of interest. This amplified RF signal is then fed into a mixer stage. The other input to the mixer comes from the local oscillator (LO) whose frequency is controlled by the tuning knob on the radio.

SWR= Vmax/Vmin

Q63. Define ground wave propagation.

A ground wave is an electromagnetic wave that travels along the surface of earth. Therefore ground waves are sometimes called surface waves. Ground waves must be vertically polarized.

Q64. What are the disadvantages of ground wave propagation?

a) b)

Q65. What are the advantages of ground wave propagation?

a) b)

Ground waves require relatively high transmission power. Ground waves are limited to very low, low, and medium frequencies, requiring large antennas.

Q66. Define space wave propagation.

Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric conditions. If the transmitted power is large enough, then ground wave propagation can be used to communicate between any two points in the world.

Space wave propagation of electromagnetic energy includes radiated energy that travels in the lower few miles of earths atmosphere. Space waves include both direct and ground reflected waves. Direct waves travel essentially in a straight line between the transmit and receive antennas. space wave propagation with direct waves is commonly called line of sight transmission.

The mixer translates the desired input signal to the intermediate frequency (IF). The IF stage is a bandpass amplifier that only lets one signal or radio station through. Common center frequencies for IF stages are 455 kHz and 10.7 MHz for commercial AM and FM broadcasts. The demodulator recovers the original modulating signal from the IF output using one of several different schemes. Once the signals have passed through the IF stages of the superheterodyne receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different demodulators are required for different types of transmission, and as a result some receivers may have a variety of demodulators that can be switched in to accommodate the different types of transmission that are to be encountered. The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is passed into the audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the headphones or loudspeaker.

Typical analog receiver block diagram.

Q72. Define sensitivity of radio receiver.

Q67. Define sky waves.

Electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon level are called sky waves.

Q68. Define critical frequency.

The critical frequency is defined as the highest frequency that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned to earth by the ionosphere.

Sensitivity refers to the level of input signal required to produce a usable output signal (variously defined). Sensitivity is a measure of the receivers ability to pick up (detect) signals, often specified in microvolts (mV). The sensitivity number in microvolts is meaningless unless the test conditions are specified. For most commercial receivers, the usual test condition is the sensitivity required to produce a 10 dB signal-plus-noise-to-noise ratio in the mode of interest.

Q69. Define virtual height in sky wave propagation.

Virtual height is the height above earths surface from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected.

Q73. Define selectivity of radio receiver.

Q70. Define maximum usable frequency.

Selectivity is the measure of a receivers ability to reject adjacent channel interference. Or, to put another way, it is the ability to reject interference from signals on frequencies close to the desired signal frequency.

Maximum usable frequency is the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation between two specific points on earths surface.

Q74. Explain Fidelity.

11
Fidelty is a quality of a receiver to reproduce all frequency components present in the input signal correctly. Mid Band: FM Radio Broadcast High Band: TV Band 2 - Channels 7-13 Super Band (mobile/fixed radio & TV) Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) Channels 14-70 L-band: 88 174 216 300 470 500 MHz to 174 MHz to 216 MHz to 600 MHz to 300 0 150 0 199 0 193 0 MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz

Q75. What is image frequency rejection ratio and what is its importance?
The Image frequency rejection ratio can be defined as a ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the image frequency. This gives the degree of image frequency rejection.

Q76. What is image frequency rejection?

Normally there is chance of producing same IF frequency from two incoming signals in a superheterodyne radio receiver. The two signals are normal tuned frequency and the image of the desired signal. But this is not allowed by using tuned circuit in the RF amplifier section. The ability of the radio receiver to reject the image frequency is called image rejection of the radio receiver.

MHz to 806 MHz to MHz to MHz to

Q77. What is signal to noise ratio and its significance?

Signal-to-noise ratio, or SNR, is a measurement that describes how much noise is in the output of a device, in relation to the signal level.

Personal Communications Services 185 (PCS) 0 Unlicensed PCS Devices Superhigh Frequencies (SHF) (Microwave) C-band X-band: Ku-band Ka-band Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) (Millimeter Wave Signals) Additional Fixed Satellite Infrared Radiation Visible Light Ultraviolet Radiation X-Rays Gamma Rays 191 0 3 360 0

Every device has some amount of noise at its output. The question is, How much is too much? The answer is, its all relative. A small amount of noise may not objectionable if the output signal is very strong. In many cases, the noise may not be audible at all. But if the signal level is very small, even a very low noise level can have an adverse effect. It is used to measure sensitivity of radio receiver.

GHz to 30.0 GHz MHz to 702 5 MHz GHz

7.25 GHz to 8.4

10.7 GHz to 14.5 GHz 17.3 GHz to 31.0 GHz 30.0 GHz to 300 38.6 GHz to 275 300 430 30 30 GHz to 430 THz to 750 PHz to 30 EHz to 300 0 GHz GHz THz THz PHz EHz EHz

Q78. Describe the frequency spectrum.

Radio Frequency Bandwidth The Allocated Radio Spectrum is located between 9 KHz and 300 GHz BANDwidth DESCRIPTION Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Very Low Frequency (VLF) Radio Navigation & maritime/aeronautical mobile Low Frequency (LF) Medium Frequency (MF) AM Radio Broadcast Travellers Information Service High Frequency (HF) Shortwave Broadcast Radio Very High Frequency (VHF) Low Band: TV Band 1 - Channels 2-6 FREQUENCY RANGE 0 3 9 30 300 540 161 0 3 30 54 to 3 KHz to 30 KHz to 540 KHz to 300 KHz to 300 0 KHz KHz KHz KHz KHz KHz

1.62 PHz to 30

It is used to speed up the computer.

163 KHz to 0 KHz MHz to 30 MHz to 300 MHz to 88

ROM is not used to boost the speed of computer.

Q82. What is UPS?

MHz MHz MHz UPS stands for Uninterrupted Power Supply. It is the type of electronic device that protects other electrical or electronic equipments from power uncertainties. It enables the connected electrical devices to be switched to emergency power or stand-by power in case of main power problems. There are two basic types UPS: 1. Stand-by UPS 2. On-line UPS

5.95 MHz to 26.1 MHz

12
These are also known as Stand-by Power System (SPS) and Continuously Delay UPS respectively. Stand-By UPS: Stand-by UPS are such systems which are connected to the load through a STS (static Transfer Switch). When main supply is live, the voltage from main supply is used to charge the battery and main supply is directly connected to the load.

Rectifier is used to to convert the AC voltage into DC to re-charge the battery. The battery is used to store back up energy. The inverter is used to invert back the DC, coming from battery, to AC according to desired or rating voltage of load. Importance and Uses of UPS: 1. In homes as Back-Up power ic case of electricity load shedding. 2. It is used as emergency Power. 3. Used in Hospitals for backup energy and emergency. 4. In telecommunication Exchanges. 5. Used in stadiums for score counting & lightning. 6. CNG stations and Petrol Pumps for cash management and calculations. 7. In Computer systems, Software production and Data Banks. 8. Used in Industry. 9. Security Systems. 10. Home Appliances. 11. Radio & TV Broadcasting. 12. Power Stations, Grid Stations, Control Systems.

When main power fails, the static transfer switch shifts the connected load on UPS system. STS operates in milliseconds. The Rectifier Unit converts the main AC supply into DC voltage (Usually 12 Volts DC), which are used to re-charge the batteries. The Filter circuit & Regulator circuit are used to filter and regulates the DC voltage for smooth charging of battery. The Inverter Unit converts back the DC voltages, coming from battery, into AC. The Oscillator circuit generates the desired frequency (usually 50 Hertz) and then supply to load through Static Transfer Switch. Static Transfer Switch: The main operation of Stand-by UPS depends upon STS. Static Transfer Switch is also known as relay. STS allows switching from main supply to UPS Supply. In normal condition sts connects the main supply directly to the load, during and breakdown or power failure in main supply it shifts the load to the UPS without any interuption because it operates in milliseconds. When the main supply COMES BACK sts shifts back the load on main supply. On-Line UPS: On-live UPS, also called Continuously Delay UPS, are always connected in series between the load and the source. It consist of Rectifier, Battery and Inverter.

Q84. What are the types of wave propagation?

Propagation of Radio waves takes place by different modes, the mechanism being different in each case. Based on that, it can be classified as: a) Ground (Surface) waves b) Space (Tropospheric) waves c) Sky (Ionospheric) waves Ground (Surface) Waves:

Illustration of ground-wave propagation.

13
Ground-wave propagation is the dominant mode of propagation for frequencies in the MF band (0.33 MHz). This is the frequency band used for AM broadcasting and maritime radio broadcasting. In AM broadcast, the range with ground-wave propagation of even the more powerful radio stations is limited to about 100 miles. Atmospheric noise, man-made noise, and thermal noise from electronic components at the receiver are dominant disturbances for signal transmission of MF. Sky Wave Propagation: The simplest and most easily understood way in which a signal travels from one antenna to another is by 'line-of-sight' propagation. Line-of-sight propagation requires a path where both antennas are visible to one another and there are no obstructions. VHF and UHF communication typically use this path. The distance that LOS communication can cover is limited due to the curvature of earth. LOS communication can travel upto the radio horizon. So we use repeaters to expand the coverage area. The line-of-sight range can be found from the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas by: D=2hr+2ht where ht and hr are the heights of the antennas in feet, and R will be in miles.

Q85. Explain the structure of ionosphere on the surface of the earth ?

Illustration of sky-wave propagation. Sky wave propagation is practically important at frequencies between 2 to 30 MHz Here the electromagnetic waves reach the receiving point after reflection from an atmospheric layer known as ionosphere. Hence, sky wave propagation is also known as 'ionospheric wave propagation'. It can provide communication over long distances. Hence, it is also known as pointto-point propagation or point-to-point communication. Disadvantage Sky wave propagation suffers, from fading due to reflections from earth surface, fading can be reduced with the help of diversity reception. Applications 1. It can provide communication over long distances. 2. Global communication is possible. Space wave or Line of sight (LOS) propagation:

Structure of the ionosphere

The upper stratosphere parts of the earths atmosphere absorb large quantities of radiant energy from the sun. This not only heats up the atmosphere, but also produces some ionization in the form of free electrons, positive and negative ions. This part of the atmosphere where the ionization is appreciable, is known as the ionosphere. The ionization tends to be stratified due to the differences in the physical properties of the atmosphere at different heights and also because various kinds of radiation are involved. The levels, at which the electron density reaches maximum, are called as layers. The three principal day time maxima are called E, F1, and F2 layers. In addition to these three regular layers, there is a region (below E) responsible for much of the day time attenuations of HF radio waves, called D region. It lies between the heights of 50 and 90 Km. The heights of maximum density of regular layers E and F1are relatively constant at about 110 Km and 220Km respectively. These have little or no diurnal variation, whereas the F2 layer is more variable, with heights in the range of 250 to 350 Km.

14
At night F1 and F2 layers combine to form a single night time F2 layer. The E layer is governed closely by the amount of UV light from the sun and at night tends to decay uniformly with time. The D layer ionization is largely absent during night. Skip distance is the distance when the surface wave become very small and the distance at which the first wave of the ionospheric wave is reflected back to the earth, the zone not covered by any of the wave is called as the skip zone and the distance across the skip zone is known as the skip distance.

Q86. What is fading?

Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver and may be rapid or slow, general or frequency-selective. In each case it is due to interference between two waves, which left the same source but arrived at the destination by different paths. The fluctuation is more likely with smaller wavelengths, i.e., at higher frequencies. There are two types of fading: Selective Fading: This type of fading produces serious distortion in modulated signal. Selective fading is important at higher frequencies. Selective fading generally occurs in amplitude modulated signals. SSB signals become less distorted compared to the AM signals due to selective fading. Interference Fading Interference fading occurs due to the variation in different layers of ionospheric region. This type of fading is very serious and produces interference between the upper and lower rays of sky wave propagation. Interference fading can be reduced with the help of frequency and space diversity reception.

Q90. What is radio horizon?

Radio waves go in different paths i.e. ground wave, sky wave and space wave as per the frequencies of the waves. In ground wave, radio wave follow the Earth's curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. Frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 MHz, can be reflected by the F1/F2 Layer, thus giving radio transmissions can go beyond visual horizon. Thus, the farthest possible point of radio propagation is referred to as the "radio horizon".

Q91. What is optimum working frequency?

The actual frequency for satisfactory reception of signal shall be less than the MUF and also the absorption of the wave in the ionosphere should be small as possible. The absorption is dependent upon the inverse of the frequency and hence it is preferred to work closely to the MUF. An optimum frequency is selected which is around 85% of the MUF.

Q87. Define critical frequency of an ionized layer of ionosphere.

Critical frequency is defined as the highest frequency which can be reflected by the ionosphere layer at vertical incidence of the radio

Q92. Differentiate between Critical frequency and Maximum usable frequency.

Maximum possible value of frequency for which the sky wave propagation can take place is called maximum usable frequency whereas the critical frequency is the highest frequency which can be reflected by the ionospheric layer. The maximum usable frequency or MUF is a limiting frequency for some specific angle of incidence other than the normal. In fact, if the angle of incidence is , it follows that

Q88. What do you mean by maximum usable frequency (MUF)?

Although the critical frequency for any layer represents the highest frequency that will be reflected back from that layer at vertical incidence, it is not the highest frequency that can be reflected from the layer. The highest frequency that can be reflected depends also upon the angle of incidence, and hence, for a given layer height, upon the distance between the transmitting and receiving points. The maximum, frequency that can be reflected back for a given distance of transmission is called the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that distance. It is seen that the MUF is related to the critical frequency and the angle of incidence by the simple expression. If the angle of incidence is , it follows that

This is the so-called secant law, and it is very useful in making preliminary calculations for a specific MUF.

Q93. What do you mean by Skip Distance.

The skip distance is the shortest distance from a transmitter, measured along the surface of the Earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency (more than fc) will be returned to Earth. Within this distance, no sky-wave reception is possible. For a given frequency, the skip distance varies with the time of day and the season of the year.

This is the so-called secant law, and it is very useful in making preliminary calculations for a specific MUF.

Q89. Give the significance of skip distance?

15 Q. Define characteristic impedance for a transmission line.

Characteristic impedance is defined as the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line or the impedance seen looking into a finite length of line that is terminated in a purely resistive load equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. It is also called as surge impedance. It is denoted by Zo.

OR

Transmission Line:
With higher frequencies, power is considered to be in electric and magnetic fields that are guided from place to place by some physical structure. Any physical structure that will guide an electromagnetic wave place to place is called a Transmission Line.

The characteristic impedance (Z0) of a transmission line is the resistance it would exhibit if it were infinite in length. This is entirely different from leakage resistance of the dielectric separating the two conductors, and the metallic resistance of the wires themselves. Characteristic impedance is purely a function of the capacitance and inductance distributed along the line's length, and would exist even if the dielectric were perfect (infinite parallel resistance) and the wires superconducting (zero series resistance).

Q. Define balanced transmission line.

In balanced transmission line, both conductors carry current; one conductor carries the signal and the other is the return. This type of transmission is called differential or balanced signal transmission. Example: Flat cable of TV antenna

Q. State some characteristics of electromagnetic wave.

Some characteristics of electromagnetic wave are as follow: 1. There are two fields of the electromagnetic waves Electric Field Magnetic Field 2. In the electromagnetic waves, the angle between the electric field and magnetic field is 90 degree. 3. The electric field and magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. 4. The Electromagnetic wave is having the characteristics of reflection just like the light waves. It means that when electromagnetic waves strike to the surface of conducting material, they are reflected. 5. The electromagnetic waves also have the characteristics of refraction. It means that when the electromagnetic waves inters from one medium to another, it bends towards the normal or away from the normal while traveling in the next medium. When the electromagnetic waves inter form rare medium to dense medium, it bends towards the normal and when the electromagnetic inter from dense to rare medium it bends away from the normal.

Q. Define unbalanced transmission line.

In unbalanced transmission line, one wire is at ground potential where as the other wire is at signal potential. This type of transmission is called single ended or unbalanced signal transmission. Example: Co-axial cable of wireless set antenna.

Q. Define Open wire transmission line.

An open wire transmission line is a two wire parallel conductor. It consists simply of two parallel wires, closely spaced and separated by air. Nonconductive spacers are placed at periodic intervals for support and to keep the dielectric between the conductors constant. The dielectric is simply the air between and around the two conductors in which the TEM wave propagates.

Q. Discuss the types of transmission line.

Q. What are the advantages of open wire transmission line?

a) b) c) d) Simple in construction very low losses, even at high frequencies highest velocity factor of any transmission line balanced line does not require a balun to feed balanced antennae.

Q. Describe the electrical and physical properties of a transmission line.

The electrical properties of a transmission line are wire conductivity and insulator dielectric constant. The physical properties are wire diameter and conductor spacing.

The types of transmission lines are PARALLEL-LINE, TWISTED PAIR, SHIELDED PAIR, COAXIAL LINE, and WAVEGUIDES. The use of a particular line depends, among other things, on the applied frequency, the power-handling capabilities, and the type of installation. PARALLEL-LINE : (a) Two-Wire Open Line (b) Two-wire ribbon type line Two-Wire Open Line :- One type of parallel line is the TWO-WIRE OPEN LINE illustrated in figure. This line consists of two wires that are generally spaced from 2 to 6 inches apart by insulating spacers. This type of line is most often used for power lines, rural telephone lines, and telegraph lines. It is sometimes used as a transmission line between a transmitter and an antenna or between an antenna and a receiver. An advantage of this type of line is its simple construction. The principal disadvantages of this type of line are the high radiation losses and electrical noise pickup because of the lack of shielding. Radiation losses are produced by the changing fields created by the changing current in each conductor.

16
Coaxial Lines: Coaxial line contains two concentric conductors. One is central, insulated wire (inner conductor) mounted inside a tubular outer conductor. This line is shown in figure. In some applications, the inner conductor is also tubular. The inner conductor is insulated from the outer conductor by insulating spacers. The spacers are made of pyrex, polystyrene, or some other material that has good insulating characteristics and low dielectric losses at high frequencies.

Two-wire ribbon (Twin Lead) :-Another type of parallel line is the TWO-WIRE RIBBON (TWIN LEAD) illustrated in figure. This type of transmission line is commonly used to connect a television receiving antenna to a home television set. This line is essentially the same as the two-wire open line except that uniform spacing is assured by embedding the two wires in a low-loss dielectric, usually polyethylene. Since the wires are embedded in the thin ribbon of polyethylene, the dielectric space is partly air and partly polyethylene.

Advantages:

Twisted Pair : The TWISTED PAIR transmission line consists of two insulated wires twisted together to form a flexible line without the use of spacers. It is not used for transmitting high frequency because of the high dielectric losses that occur in the rubber insulation. When the line is wet, the losses increase greatly.

(a) The chief advantage of the rigid line is its ability to minimize radiation losses. The electric and magnetic fields in a two-wire parallel line extend into space for relatively great distances and radiation losses occur. However, in a coaxial line no electric or magnetic fields extend outside of the outer conductor. The fields are confined to the space between the two conductors, resulting in a perfectly shielded coaxial line. (b) Another advantage is that interference from other lines is reduced. Disadvantages: (a) It is expensive to construct; (b) It must be kept dry to prevent excessive leakage between the two conductors; (c) Although high-frequency losses are somewhat less than in previously mentioned lines, they are still excessive enough to limit the practical length of the line. Because of the high-frequency losses associated with rubber insulators, polyethylene plastic was developed to replace rubber and eliminate these losses. Polyethylene plastic is a solid substance that remains flexible over a wide range of temperatures. It is unaffected by seawater, gasoline, oil, and most other liquids that may be found aboard ship. The use of polyethylene as an insulator results in greater high-frequency losses than the use of air as an insulator. However, these losses are still lower than the losses associated with most other solid dielectric materials. Waveguides

Shielded Pair : The SHIELDED PAIR consists of parallel conductors separated from each other and surrounded by a solid dielectric. The conductors are contained within a braided copper tubing that acts as an electrical shield. The assembly is covered with a rubber or flexible composition coating that protects the line from moisture and mechanical damage. Outwardly, it looks much like the power cord of a washing machine or refrigerator.

Q. Define propagation constant.

Propagation constant is used to express the attenuation (signal loss) and the phase shift per unit length of a transmission line. It is also called as propagation coefficient. As a wave propagates down a transmission line, its amplitude decreases with distance travelled. The propagation consatant is used to determine the reduction in voltage or current with distance as the wave propagates down a line.

The principal advantage of the shielded pair is that the conductors are balanced to ground; that is, the capacitance between the wires is uniform throughout the length of the line. This balance is due to the uniform spacing of the grounded shield that surrounds the wires along their entire length. The braided copper shield isolates the conductors from stray magnetic fields.

Q. List and describe five types of transmission line losses.

Transmission line losses are conductor loss, radiation loss, dielectric heating loss, coupling loss, and corona Conductor loss: It is because current flows through a transmission line and a line has has a finite resistance so there is an unavoidavle power loss. To reduce

17
conductor loss simply shorten the transmission line or use a larger diameter wire. Conductor loss depends somewhat on frequency because of a phenomenon called the skin effect. Dielectric heating loss: A difference of potential between two conductors of a metallic transmission line causes dielectric heating. Heat is a form of energy and must be taken from the energy propagating down the line. For air dielectric transmission line the heating is negligible. For solid core transmission lines dielectric heating loss increases with frequency. Radiation loss: If the separation between conductors in a metallic transmission line is appreciable fraction of wavelength, the electroststic and electromagnetic fields that surround the conductor cause the line to act as if it were an antenna and transfer energy to any nearby conductive material. The energy radiated is called radiation loss and depends on dielectric material conductor spacing and length of transmission line.. It can be reduced by properly shielding the cable. Coupling loss: Coupling loss occurs whenever a connection is made to or from transmission or when two sections of transmission line are connected together. Mechanical connections are discontinuities which are locations where dissimilar materials meet. Discontinuities tend to heat up, radiate energy, and dissipate power. Corona: Corona is luminous discharge that occurs between the two conductors of a transmission line. When difference of potential between them exceeds the breakdown voltage of the dielectric insulator. Generally when corona occurs the transmission line is destroyed. opposite direction present on the line at the same time. The two traveling waves setup an interference pattern known as standing wave.

Q. Define standing wave ratio.

The standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage (or) the maximum current to the minimum current of a standing wave on a transmission line. SWR is often called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). The SWR on a transmission line is mathematically related to (but not the same as) the ratio of reflected power to forward power. SWR is used as an efficiency measure for transmission lines, electrical cables that conduct radio frequency signals, used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, and distributing cable television signals.For an ideal transmission line SWR is 1. When characteristic impedance of transmission line is equal to load impedance, VSWR=1.

Q. What is BALUN?

Q. List and describe five types of transmission line losses.

Transmission line losses are conductor loss, radiation loss, dielectric heating loss, coupling loss, and corona.

A circuit device used to connect a balance transmission line to an unbalance load is called a balloon. An unbalanced transmission line, such as a coaxial cable can be connected to a balanced load such as an antenna using a special transformer with an unbalanced primary and a centre-tapped secondary winding. The outer conductor of an unbalanced coaxial transmission line is generally connected to ground.

Q. Define resonant line.

A transmission line with no reflected power is called a flat or resonant line.

Q. Define nonresonant transmission line.

A transmission line is nonresonant if it is of finite length or if it is terminated with a resistive load equal in ohmic value to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

Q. Define matched line.

When Zo=ZL, all the incident power is absorbed by the load .This is called a matched line. Where Zo=characteristic impedance , ZL= load impedance

Q. Define unmatched line.

When Zo ZL, some of the incident power is absorbed by the load and some is returned to the source. This is called an unmatched or mismatched line. Where Zo=characteristic impedance ZL= load impedance Q. What is reflection co-efficient? The reflection co-efficient is a vector quantity that represents the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage or reflected current to incident current. Mathematically, the reflection co-efficient is gamma defined by

Q. What is reflection coefficient in transmission line?

The ratio of the reflected voltage amplitude to that of the forward voltage amplitude is the voltage reflection coefficient.

Q. Define standing wave.

In unmatched line, some of the incident power is absorbed by the load and some is returned to the source. So there are two electromagnetic waves, traveling in

18
The reflection coefficient is usually denoted by the symbol gamma. Note that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient does not depend on the length of the line, only the load impedance and the impedance of the transmission line.

Q. Why is impedance matching so important?

a. b. Maximum power is delivered to a load when the TL is matched at both the load and source ends. With a properly matched TL more signal power is transferred to the load which increases the sensitivity of the device. Some equipment can be damaged when too much power is reflected to the source. Zo =(138/Sqr Where Zo = characteristic impedance _r = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material D = inside diameter of the outer conductor (shield) d = outside diameter of the center conductor This equation differs from open-wire primarily because it takes into account dielectric constants. If the coax is air dielectric the equation can be simplified to Zo = 138log(D/r) since

r)log(D/r)

c.

Characteristic impedance of different transmission lines:

Open-Wire Transmission Line Open-wire calculations are pretty straight forward. The following equation sums up the characteristic impedance of open wire transmission lines (with air as the dielectric). The dielectric constant of air (1.0006) has been factored out of this equation because it is a square root function in the denominator of a fraction resulting in 276/Sqr(1.0006 ) This is very negligible and need not be included for the purpose of estimation. Zo = 276log(D/r)

the open wire equation.

r would be near 1. With an air dielectric the equation begins to resemble

Impedance matching
There are various impedance matching techniques which are discussed in the following :

Quarter Wavelength Transformer

This technique is generally used for matching a resistive load to a transmission line (a), for matching two resistive loads(b),or for matching two transmission lines with unequal characteristic impedances (c) (see Figure). All cases are identical in principle as all require matching between two purely resistive impedances

Where Zo = characteristic impedance D = distance between conductors r = radius of one conductor Coaxial Cable Transmission Line The math behind coaxial characteristic impedance is one step harder because we are dealing with a dielectric that is based on something other than air. It could be any number of non-conductive materials. A vacuum has a dielectric constant of 1.0 whereas Teflon is 2.0. Generally the dielectric constant for commonly used materials in coax is between 1.2 and 2.8. The following is the equation to determine the characteristic impedance of coaxial cable. well notice a slight change to the equation as well as an additional variable to compensate for the dielectric material.

Principle:
a) Introduce a section of a transmission line(called transformer) between two resistances to be matched, such that the transformed impedances perfectly match at either end of the transformer section. That is, the

19
We make use of Smith chart for this purpose impedance seen towards right at A should be , and impedance seen towards left at B should be R. So when seen from transmission line side it appears to be terminated in , and when seen from load resistance side it appears to be connected to a conjugately matched load R. Similar is true for Figure (b,c). For the transformer we have two parameters to control, characteristic impedance of the transformer section, and the length of the transformer section. Let us assume that the characteristic impedance of the transformer section is . For length, the transformer inverts the normalized impedance. Therefore the impedance seen at A towards right in Figure (a) would be Since we have a parallel connection of transmission lines, it is more convenient to solve the problem using admittances rather than impedances. To convert the impedance into admittance also we make use of the Smith chart and avoid any analytical calculation. Now onwards treat the Smith chart as the admittance chart

b)

c)

Advantage:
d) For matching at A, should be equal to , i.e The single-stub matching technique is superior to the quarter wavelength transformer as it makes use of only one type of transmission line for the main line as well as the stub. This technique also in principle is capable of matching any complex load to the characteristic impedance/admittance. The single stub matching technique is quite popular in matching fixed impedances at microwave frequencies.

Drawback: Single-Stub Matching Technique

A stub is a short-circuited section of a transmission line connected in parallel to the main transmission line. A stub of appropriate length is placed at some distance from the load such that the impedance seen beyond the stub is equal to the characteristic impedance. The single stub matching technique although has overcome the drawback of the quarter wavelength transformer technique, it still is not suitable for matching variable impedances. A change in load impedance results in a change in the length as well as the location of the stub. Even if changing length of a stub is a simpler task, changing the location of a stub may not be easy in certain transmission line configurations. For example, if the transmission line is a co-axial cable, the connection of a stub would need drilling of a hole in the outer conductor.

Suppose we have a load impedance

connected to a transmission line with

Electrical length in transmission line

In practice, transmission lines are not infinitely long. However, if a resistance numerically equal to the characteristic line impedance is connected across the output end of a transmission line of finite length, the line will act at its input end exactly like one of infinite length. A wave which has traveled the length of the line will be completely absorbed in the terminating impedance. No reflection will occur at the output end. The line is said to be non-resonant. The length of a line can be expressed in feet, meters, or other units. Because of the vital importance of the relative length of the line and the length of the radio wave, it is often given in terms of the number of wave-lengths which, laid end to end, would

characteristic impedance . The objective here is that no reflection should be seen by the generator. In other words, even if there are standing waves in the vicinity of the load from the load. , the standing waves must vanish beyond certain distance

Conceptually this can be achieved by adding a stub to the main line such that the reflected wave from the short-circuit end of the stub and the reflected wave from the load on the main line completely cancel each other at point B to give no net reflected wave beyond point B towards the generator.

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reach from the input to the output terminals. A little care is needed here, because the wavelength of the waves along the line (') is somewhat shorter than that of the waves radiated outwards into free space (). If l stands for the actual length of the line in feet, and f for the frequency of the generator in MHz, then the number n of free-space waves (each of length ) which could be used end to end to measure l is given by n = lf/984. In other words, the physical length of the line is l = 984/f. A line 984 feet long would be 10 wave-lengths long if used with an oscillator whose frequency was 107 Hz ( = 30 m.) and it would be 100 wave-lengths long for a frequency of 108 ( = 3m.). Because the wave-length along the line is not that in free space, but somewhat less, the " electrical " length is sometimes used. OR LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE A transmission line is considered to be electrically short when its physical length is short compared to a quarter-wavelength 1/4 l) of the energy it is to carry. NOTE: In this module, for ease of reading, the value of the wavelength will be spelled out in some cases, and in other cases, the numerical value will be used. A transmission line is electrically long when its physical length is long compared to a quarter-wavelength of the energy it is to carry. You must understand that the terms "short" and "long" are relative ones. For example, a line that has a physical length of 3 meters (approximately 10 feet) is considered quite short electrically if it transmits a radio frequency of 30 kilohertz. On the other hand, the same transmission line is considered electrically long if it transmits a frequency of 30,000 megahertz. To show the difference in physical and electrical lengths of the lines mentioned above, compute the wavelength of the two frequencies, taking the 30-kilohertz example first:

Fig. 35 F. The actual or physical length of the line is 1, whereas 1' is its " electrical length " Referring to Fig. 35 F, we see in the lower part an imaginary line of such length that the same number (n = 4) of shortened (') waves will fit along it as the number of free-space waves () fit along the actual line l. The electrical length of a line, in feet, is given by

where f is the frequency of the generator in MHz, v is the velocity of the waves along the wires, and c is the velocity in free space. The energy lost along a line can be expressed in decibels per unit length (mile, meter, or free-space wave-length). The values given here will be in db. per wavelength. For a transmission line we wish to lose as little energy as possible, whereas with an antenna the radiation " loss " must be as great as we can make it. The following losses are for transmission lines: non-resonant parallel wires, about 0.14; rubber insulated twisted-pair or coaxial, about 1.00; dry lamp-cord, 1.4; dry airinsulated coaxial, very small. Losses are directly proportional to the length of the line. Thus a dry lamp-cord 3 wave-lengths long will have a loss of 3 1.4 = 4.2 db.

Now, computing the wavelength for the line carrying 30,000 megahertz:

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apply to all transmission lines. We will explain the theories using LUMPED CONSTANTS and DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS to further simplify these principles. LUMPED CONSTANTS A transmission line has the properties of inductance, capacitance, and resistance just as the more conventional circuits have. Usually, however, the constants in conventional circuits are lumped into a single device or component. For example, a coil of wire has the property of inductance. When a certain amount of inductance is needed in a circuit, a coil of the proper dimensions is inserted. The inductance of the circuit is lumped into the one component. Two metal plates separated by a small space, can be used to supply the required capacitance for a circuit. In such a case, most of the capacitance of the circuit is lumped into this one component. Similarly, a fixed resistor can be used to supply a certain value of circuit resistance as a lumped sum. Ideally, a transmission line would also have its constants of inductance, capacitance, and resistance lumped together, as shown in figure 3-9. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Transmission line constants are distributed, as described below. Figure 3-9. - Equivalent circuit of a two-wire transmission line.

Thus, you can see that a 3-meter line is electrically very short for a frequency of 30 kilohertz. Also, the 3-meter line is electrically very long for a frequency of 30,000 megahertz. When power is applied to a very short transmission line, practically all of it reaches the load at the output end of the line. This very short transmission line is usually considered to have practically no electrical properties of its own, except for a small amount of resistance. However, the picture changes considerably when a long line is used. Since most transmission lines are electrically long (because of the distance from transmitter to antenna), the properties of such lines must be considered. Frequently, the voltage necessary to drive a current through a long line is considerably greater than the amount that can be accounted for by the impedance of the load in series with the resistance of the line. TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY The electrical characteristics of a two-wire transmission line depend primarily on the construction of the line. The two-wire line acts like a long capacitor. The change of its capacitive reactance is noticeable as the frequency applied to it is changed. Since the long conductors have a magnetic field about them when electrical energy is being passed through them, they also exhibit the properties of inductance. The values of inductance and capacitance presented depend on the various physical factors that we discussed earlier. For example, the type of line used, the dielectric in the line, and the length of the line must be considered. The effects of the inductive and capacitive reactances of the line depend on the frequency applied. Since no dielectric is perfect, electrons manage to move from one conductor to the other through the dielectric. Each type of two-wire transmission line also has a conductance value. This conductance value represents the value of the current flow that may be expected through the insulation. If the line is uniform (all values equal at each unit length), then one small section of the line may represent several feet. This illustration of a two-wire transmission line will be used throughout the discussion of transmission lines; but, keep in mind that the principles presented

DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS Transmission line constants, called distributed constants, are spread along the entire length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. The amount of inductance, capacitance, and resistance depends on the length of the line, the size of the conducting wires, the spacing between the wires, and the dielectric (air or insulating medium) between the wires. The following paragraphs will be useful to you as you study distributed constants on a transmission line.

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Inductance of a Transmission Line When current flows through a wire, magnetic lines of force are set up around the wire. As the current increases and decreases in amplitude, the field around the wire expands and collapses accordingly. The energy produced by the magnetic lines of force collapsing back into the wire tends to keep the current flowing in the same direction. This represents a certain amount of inductance, which is expressed in microhenrys per unit length. Figure 3-10 illustrates the inductance and magnetic fields of a transmission line. Figure 3-10. - Distributed inductance Resistance of a Transmission Line The transmission line shown in figure 3-12 has electrical resistance along its length. This resistance is usually expressed in ohms per unit length and is shown as existing continuously from one end of the line to the other. Figure 3-12. - Distributed resistance.

Capacitance of a Transmission Line Capacitance also exists between the transmission line wires, as illustrated in figure 3-11. Notice that the two parallel wires act as plates of a capacitor and that the air between them acts as a dielectric. The capacitance between the wires is usually expressed in picofarads per unit length. This electric field between the wires is similar to the field that exists between the two plates of a capacitor. Figure 3-11. - Distributed capacitance.

Q.16 What must the physical length of a transmission line be if it will be operated at 15,000,000 Hz? Use the formula:

Q.17 What are two of the three physical factors that determine the values of capacitance and inductance of a transmission line? Q.18 A transmission line is said to have distributed constants of inductance, capacitance, and resistance along the line. What units of measurement are used to express these constants?

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Objective type questions

What is the velocity factor of a transmission line? The velocity of the wave in the transmission line divided by the velocity of light in a vacuum The ratio of the characteristic impedance of the line to the terminating impedance The index of shielding for coaxial cable The velocity of the wave in the transmission line multiplied by the velocity of light in a vacuum

0.66 2.70 0.30 0.10

What is the approximate physical length of a solid polyethylene dielectric coaxial transmission line that is electrically one-quarter wavelength long at 14.1 MHz? 3.5 meters 20 meters 2.3 meters 0.2 meters

Which of the following determines the velocity factor of a transmission line? Dielectric materials used in the line The termination impedance The line length The center conductor resistivity

What is the approximate physical length of an air-insulated, parallel conductor transmission line that is electrically one-half wavelength long at 14.10 MHz? 10 meters

Why is the physical length of a coaxial cable transmission line shorter than its electrical length? Electrical signals move more slowly in a coaxial cable than in air Skin effect is less pronounced in the coaxial cable The characteristic impedance is higher in a parallel feed line The surge impedance is higher in a parallel feed line

15 meters 20 meters 71 meters

How does ladder line compare to small-diameter coaxial cable such as RG58 at 50 MHz? Lower loss

What is the typical velocity factor for a coaxial cable with solid polyethylene dielectric?

Higher SWR Smaller reflection coefficient

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Lower velocity factor A capacitive reactance The same as the characteristic impedance of the line What is the term for the ratio of the actual speed at which a signal travels through a transmission line to the speed of light in a vacuum? Velocity factor Characteristic impedance Surge impedance Standing wave ratio What impedance does a 1/4-wavelength transmission line present to a generator when the line is open at the far end? Very low impedance The same as the characteristic impedance of the line What is the approximate physical length of a solid polyethylene dielectric coaxial transmission line that is electrically one-quarter wavelength long at 7.2 MHz? 6.9 meters 10 meters 24 meters 50 meters What impedance does a 1/4-wavelength transmission line present to a generator when the line is shorted at the far end? Very high impedance Very low impedance The same as the characteristic impedance of the transmission line The same as the generator output impedance The same as the input impedance to the generator Very high impedance An inductive reactance The same as the input impedance of the final generator stage

What impedance does a 1/8-wavelength transmission line present to a generator when the line is shorted at the far end? An inductive reactance A capacitive reactance The same as the characteristic impedance of the line The same as the input impedance to the final generator stage

What impedance does a 1/2-wavelength transmission line present to a generator when the line is shorted at the far end? Very low impedance Very high impedance The same as the characteristic impedance of the line

What impedance does a 1/8-wavelength transmission line present to a generator when the line is open at the far end?

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The same as the output impedance of the generator

What impedance does a 1/2-wavelength transmission line present to a generator when the line is open at the far end? Very high impedance Very low impedance The same as the characteristic impedance of the line The same as the output impedance of the generator

Which of the following is a significant difference between foam-dielectric coaxial cable and solid-dielectric cable, assuming all other parameters are the same? All of these choices are correct Reduced safe operating voltage limits Reduced losses per unit of length Higher velocity factor

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given to the computer. 4).It then returns the processed information to the user. This is called output. Input Unit Input Unit accepts the instructions and data from the outside world. Then it converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. After that it supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing. Output Unit The output unit is just reverse of the input unit. it accepts the result produced by computer, which are in coded form and can't be easily understood by us. Then it converts these coded result into human readable form. After that it supplies the converted results to the outside world. Memory Unit The Memory Unit is the part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing. Although it is closely associated with the CPU, in actual fact it is separated from it. Memory associated with the CPU is also called primary storage, primary memory or main storage or internal storage or main memory. When we load software from a floppy disk, hard disk or CD-ROM, it is stored in the Main Memory. There are two types of computer memory inside the computer: Primary Memory (RAM-Random Access Memory, ROM-Read Only Memory))

Architecture of Microprocessor
Q. What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device which is capable of receiving the inputs (data from the user), storing it for a desired period of time, manipulating it according to the set of instructions (called program) and producing the output to the user in desired form. It performs a variety of operations in accordance to the set of instructions. The basic components of a computer are: Input Unit

Output Unit Memory / Storage Unit CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit Control Unit

Secondary Memory (Hard Disk) Primary Memory Primary storage, presently known as main memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. However, the primary memory can hold information only while the computer system is ON. As soon as the computer system is switched off or rest, the information hold in primary memory disappears. Also it has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. It is made up of semiconductor devices. Secondary Memory Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is all data storage that is not currently in a computer's primary storage or memory. This is computer memory that is not directly accessible to the processor but uses the I/O channels. It is for storing data not in active use and preserves data even without power, meaning it is nonvolatile. In a personal computer, secondary storage typically consists of storage on the hard disk and on any removable media, if present, such as a CD or DVD.
CPU the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. Two typical components of a CPU are the following: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.

When a computer is asked to do a job, it handles the task in a very special way: 1).It accepts the information from the user. This is called input. 2).It stored the information until it is ready for use. The computer has memory chips, which are designed to hold information until it is needed. 3).It processes the information. The computer has an electronic brain called the Central Processing Unit, which is responsible for processing all data and instructions

control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
The

Q. What is the difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory?

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Primary Memory
Processor access the primary memory in a random fashion. The primary memory is embedded with two types of memory technologies; they are the RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). Primary memory is volatile in nature. The primary memory is much faster. It is costly.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is not directly accessed through CPU. The secondary memory is accessible in the form of Mass storage devices such as hard disk, memory chips, Pen drive, floppy disk storage media, CD and DVD. Secondary memory is non volatile. Secondary memory is not as fast as primary memory. It is less costly.

Q. What is the difference between RAM and ROM.

RAM

RAM
RAM stands for random access memory. This memory hold data that are accessed from secondary storage and that is frequently used by microprocessor. It is a volatile and small capacity storage.

ROM
ROM stands for read only memory. It is not used directly by microprocessor.

It is a not volatile and large capacity storage.

Q. What is operating system?

An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the computer's memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware. It also allows us to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's "language." Without an operating system, a computer is useless. When Booting the computer does several things: It runs tests to make sure everything is working correctly. It then starts up the operating system. Once the operating system has started up, it manages all of the software and hardware on the computer. Most of the time, there are many different programs running at the same time, and they all need to access our computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, and storage. The operating system coordinates all of this to make sure that each program gets what it needs. Without the operating system, the software wouldn't even be able to talk to the hardware, and the computer would be useless. Some operating system are Window 7, Linux, DOS etc.

It checks for new hardware.

from the typewriter. A standard keyboard includes about 100 keys, each of which sends a different signal to the CPU. It is connected to the computer through a PS/2 or an USB port. Pointing devices: A pointing device that detects two dimensional motions on a surface and sends the signal to the CPU. A mouse has two or more buttons and scroll wheels to allow users to interact with the GUI. The traditional PC mouse has two buttons. Mouse with more than two buttons can be programmed for specific tasks like short cut, launch application etc. The scroll wheel is used for vertical and horizontal scrolling. A mouse helps the user to have the ability to perform various functions such as opening a program or file and does not require the user to memorize commands. Scanner: Trackballs are similar to mice except that the ball is bigger, remains stationary on the desk unlike mouse and it is located on the top. The user uses fingers to roll the trackball and internal rollers sense the motion which is transmitted to the computer. Trackballs have the advantage over mice in that the body of the trackball remains stationary on the desk and doesnt need as much room as the mice. Early laptop computers often used trackballs. Track balls are used for special purposes such as air traffic control room, radar console etc. Touch screens: Touch screens are touch sensitive displays which can detect location of touches within the touch sensitive display. There are three basic systems that are used to recognize a person's touch: a) Resistive b) Capacitive c) Surface acoustic wave The resistive system consists of a normal glass panel that is covered with a conductive and a resistive metallic layer. These two layers are separated by thin space, and at the top a scratch-resistant layer is placed. An electrical current runs through the two layers while the monitor is operational. When a user touches the screen, it causes a change in the electrical current which is identified as a touch event and sent to the controller present inside the circuit board for processing. Once the coordinates are known, a special driver translates the touch into something that the operating system can understand, similar to the computer mouse click. (11) In the capacitive system, a layer that stores electrical charge is placed on the glass panel of the monitor. The human body also carries electric charge. When a user touches the monitor with his or her finger, some of the charge is transferred to the user, so the charge on the capacitive layer decreases. This fluctuation of current is measured by the circuit which is present at each corner of the display. The computer calculates, from the relative differences in charge at each corner, exactly where the touch event took place and then relays that information to the touch-screen driver software. (11) On the monitor of a surface acoustic wave system, two transducers (one receiving and one sending) are placed along the X and Y axes of the monitor's glass plate. Ultrasonic waves pass over the screen. . When the screen is touched, a portion of the wave is absorbed by the object or user. This change in the ultrasonic waves registers the position of the touch event and sends this information to the controller for processing.

Q. Describe some input output devices used in computer.

Input devices are hardware devices that are used to enter data into the computer. Output devices are used to communicate the results of the data processed to the end user. There are different types of input devices like: Keyboard: A flat board with grids of buttons which are programmed to input characters into the computer. Keyboards can be classified into different categories based on their layout, connection type, form factor etc. The most common keyboard layout is QWERTY which has been adopted

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Scanner: This is a devices that scans the printed materials and convert it into a digital form. The scanner uses light to detect printed objects on paper. In case of a typical flatbed scanner, the document is placed facedown on a glass bed. A moving optical mechanism consisting of a lamp, a mirror and a lens moves back and forth underneath the glass. The image sensor may be a CCD (Charged coupled device) or a CIS (Compact Image Sensor), a single row of sensor elements mounted very close to the document. Light from the lamp bounces off the document and then through a set of optical mechanisms it is focused into the CCD. In the case of the CIS, the light and dark areas are picked up directly by the sensor. The CCD/CIS digitizes the results via an analog-to-digital converter, and sends the resulting information to the scanner's own hardware and then to the host PC.

Magnetic strip Reader Graphics table Microphone: A microphone can be attached to a computer to record sound (usually through a sound card input or circuitry built into the motherboard). The sound is digitizedturned into numbers that represent the original analog sound wavesand stored in the computer to later processing and playback. MIDI devices Finger printer reader Camera

Output Devices:
Monitor The monitor is the primary output device. The monitor is a hardware device which physically connects to the video card. The monitor allows information and current status be visually outputted similar to a TV. Traditional monitors are made up of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The LCD (Liquid Control Display) consumes less electricity compared to CRT monitors. Printer: Computer printer is used to get hard copy of any document stored in electronic form. There are three broad categories of printer: Dot matrix printer, Inkjet printer, Laser printer.

Barcode Reader: A barcode reader is an input device for reading printed barcodes. Like a scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a photo conductor translating optical impulses into electrical ones. The decoder analyzes the barcode image data and transmits to the CPU. Each barcode has specific symbols defined as a series of bars in a barcode. The way to differentiate the barcode is by the height and width as well as the bar spacing. Each strip of bar can represent a number, character or alphanumeric character depending on which type of barcode symbology set is used. Barcodes are printed on nearly every product. The barcode contains the product details such as product name, size, manufacturer and the country of origin. The price is looked up from the shop's database. Optical Mark Reader: Reads the markings made by pencil on a printed form into the computer. OMR (Optical Mark Reader) systems are suited to reading pre-printed forms and check-boxes such as multiple choice exam papers. The OMR captures data by contrasting reflectivity at predetermined positions on a page. By shining a beam of light onto the document the scanner is able to detect a marked area because it reflects less light than an unmarked surface. Some OMR devices use forms which are preprinted onto 'Transoptic' paper and measure the amount of light which passes through the paper, thus a mark on either side of the paper will reduce the amount of light passing through the paper.

Dot matrix printer: In dot matrix printer the print head that runs back and forth on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like a typewriter.Dot Matrix refers to the way the printer creates characters or images on paper. This is done by several tiny pins, aligned in a column, striking an ink ribbon positioned between the pins and the paper, creating dots on the paper. Characters are composed of patterns of these dots by moving the print head sideways across the page in very small increments.The pins, contained in the print head, are about one inch long and are driven by several hammers which force each pin into contact with the ink ribbon (and paper) at a certain time. The force on these hammers comes from the magnetic pull of small wire coils (solenoids) which are energized at a particular time, depending on the character to be printed. (13) Inkjet printer: An inkjet printer is any printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an image. Important parts of an inkjet printer: Print head- is the core of an inkjet printer; the print head contains a series of nozzles that are used to spray drops of ink. Ink cartridges - Depending on the manufacturer and model of the printer, ink cartridges come in various combinations, such as separate black and color cartridges, color and black in a single cartridge or even a cartridge for

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each ink color. The cartridges of some inkjet printers include the print head itself. Laser Printer: Laser printers are bulky and primarily used in offices for bulk printing. Laser printers are faster in terms of output and cost per page is cheap. These are best for Black printing. The major advantage over other printers is that the laser printer has inbuilt memory. It can store incoming data stream in printer memory and process for printing. Many heavy-duty printers are network capable. Networked PCs can print directly from these printers without requiring the printer to be connected to any PC. These printers can also send, receive fax and make photocopies. Some printers also have Scanner, Fax and copier functions inbuilt. These are known as MFD or multi-functional devices. Color Laser printers are also getting popular as price is decreasing rapidly. (20) A laser printer is so-called because a laser beam is essential in its operations. The computer sends data stream to the printer. The printer converts the information received into a graphic image. Meanwhile a drum is charged up with electrostatic charge. The laser then writes the image onto the drum, discharging the bits where it shines but leaving the remainder still charged. The toner (dry ink cartage) is then put on the drum, and sticks where the charge remains, but falls off where the laser has discharged it. Finally, as in a photocopier, a fuser unit bonds the toner to the paper using heat and pressure. (20) 3D Printer: A 3D printer is a device that allows physical output of the digital material that has been drawn on the computer. This is the latest printing technology. Research is going on 3D printer technology. Various materials are used for printing 3D objects. 3D printers typically work by 'printing' successive layers on top of the previous to build up a threedimensional object. 3D printers are generally faster, more affordable and easier to use than other additive fabrication technologies. Speaker: Speakers are used for sound output. The PC speakers are equipped with internal amplifier and ranges from stereo setup to 7.1 setup. These are connected to the PC sound card using a 3.5mm stereo jack. Stereo speakers use one Line-in port whereas multi-channel setup uses up to 3 line-in ports. Projector: A projector takes a video signal from computer video output and projects the corresponding image on a projection screen using a lens system. All video projectors use a very bright light to project the image. To display images, LCD projectors typically send light from a halogen or halogen lamp through three LCD panels -- one each for the red, green, and blue components of the video signal. As polarized light passes through the panels (combination of polarizer, LCD panel and analyzer), individual pixels can be opened to allow light to pass or closed to block the light. The combination of open and closed pixels can produce a wide range of colors and shades in the projected image. Video projectors are widely used for conference room presentations, classroom training, and home theatre applications. Electronics: Digital clocks & Watches Measuring Meters Mechanical: Automobiles All remote machines Electrical: Motors

Mobile phones

Lathes

Lighting controls Power stations Patient monitoring Most of the Medical equipments

Medical:

Data loggers Computer: All computer accessories Scanners & Printers Domestic: Microwave Ovens

Laptops & Modems

Television/CD/DVD players Washing Machines

Q. What are the applications of microprocessor?

Microprocessor is a multi-use device which finds applications in almost all the fields.Here is some sample applications given in variety of fields.

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Digital Communication
Q. Write short note on digital communication.
Digital communication is a mode of communication where the information is encoded digitally as discreet signals and electronically transferred to the recipients. Digital communication is one of the most commonly used mode of communication in the current scenario. Organizations generally rely on this mode for all their business communications. The term digital communication covers a broad area of communication techniques, including digital transmission and digital radio. Digital transmission is the transmission of digital pulses between two or more points in a communication system. Digital radio is the transmission of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or more points in a communication system. Digital transmission systems require a physical facility between the transmitter and receiver, such as a metallic wire pair, a co-axial cable or an optical fiber cable. In digital radio system the transmission medium could be free space, Earths atmosphere or a physical facility such as metallic or optical fiber cable. In a digital transmission system the original source information may be in digital or analog form. If it is in analog form it must be converted to digital pulses prior to transmission and converted back to analog form at the receive end.

Q. What are the advantages of digital communication over analog communication?

a) Noise and destortion immunity:-When analog signal is transmitted in free space for long distances it will be distorted and no an ideal recovery done in receiver to recover the exact signal which is transmitted ,but in digital communication digital signal consist of 2 levels only zero or one (not like the analog one , it has infinite numbers of values or levels at each period of time),so digital signal can be recovered easily and excactly like transmitted one. More privacy and security due to encryption. Error detection techniques can be used and correction as well. Easy for processing and applying multiplexing techniques. Low cost. Transmission rate can be changed easily.

b) c) d) e) f)

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g) Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits the use of microprocessors, digital switching elements and layer scale. The wires that are most popular for wired communication or line communication are: 1. Co-axial 2. Parallel wire lines 3. Twisted pair cables Conventional telephone system is an example of line communication.

Q. What do you mean by channel capacity or information capacity of a digital communication system?
The information capacity of a digital communication system represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through the system in a given unit of time. The most basic symbol is the binary digit (bit). Therefore it is often convenient to express the information capacity of a system in bits per second(bps). According Shannon limit for information capacity, L=3.32 B log10(1+S/N) Where l=Information capacity. B=Bandwidth S/N=Signal to noise ratio Example: For a standard voice band communication channel with signal to noise power ratio of 1000(30dB) and bandwidth of 2.7KHz the Shannon limit for information capacity is l=2700 log10(1+1000) 26.9kbps.

Q. What does VSAT stand for?

VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. A VSAT is a small-sized telecommunications earth station that transmits and receives via satellite. The terminal size is 0.75 to 3.8 meters in diameter.

Q. What are the typical VSAT network configurations?

VSAT networks can be arranged in point to point, star, mesh, star/mesh, and broadcast configurations. The preferred arrangement depends on the kind of information flow the network will service.

Line Communication
Q. Describe the basic working of telephone system.
Telephone systems were first introduced by Graham Bell over one hundred years ago, but it is still works on the same operating principle. To make a call, we need to first pick up the handset. This causes the telephone system to be connected to a routing network. By pressing the numbers present on the touch tone keypad / frequency generator, signals are passed down via phone line to the routing station. Here, each digit is identified as a unique combination of tone frequencies. The specific combination of digits causes a signal to be passed to other telephone systems causing it to ring. When that telephone is picked up, connection between the two telephone systems is achieved. The ear piece acts as speaker where as mouthpiece acts as a microphone. Sound waves from the user's voice cause vibration to a thin plastic disc present inside the telephone system. This causes change in the distance between the plastic disk and another metal disk resulting in a varying electric current which is passed through the phone lines. The receiver on the other phone picks up this electromagnet current. These magnets cause diaphragm to vibrate which produces the sound /voice that initiated the current. An amplifier in the receiver end makes it easier to hear. When one of the phones is hung up the electric current get broken resulting in dis-connection of the telephone systems.

Q. What is Line Communication?

In line communication there is a physical connection between source and destination. The wired connections between two points are known as transmission lines.