Further Engineering Mathematics K.A.

Stroud

Vector Analysis (Part 1)

Summary of prerequisites 1. A scalar quantity has magnitude only; a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. The axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ, form a right-handed set. The symbols i , j , k denote unit vectors in the direction OX , OY , OZ respectively.
2 2 If OP = r = a x i + a y j + a z k then OP = r = a x + ay + a z2

2.

3.

The direction cosines [l , m, n ] are the cosines of the angels between the vector r and the axes OX, OY, OZ, respectively.For any vector r = a x i + a y j + a z k
l= a ax a ;m = y ;n = z r r r

and 4.

l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1

Scalar product (dot product) A B = AB cos 0 where 0 is the angle between A and B If A = a x i + a y j + a z k and B = bx i + by j + bz k then
A B = a xbx + a y by + a z bz

5.

Vector product (cross product)

A B = AB sin 0 in a direction perpendicular to A and B So that A, B , ( A B ) form a right-handed set Therefore A B = AB sin 0

i Also A B = a x bx

j ay by

k az bz

Angle between two vectors

cos 0 = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2

Where l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are the direction cosines of vectors r1 and r2 respectively For perpendicular vectors For parallel vectors
l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 1

One or two examples will no doubt help to recall the main points. Example 1 (Direction cosines)

If i , j , k are unit vectors in the directions OX , OY , OZ respectively, then any position vector OP (= r ) can be represented in the form
OP = r = a x i + a y j + a z k

Then r = KK ________________________________________________________________________
2 2 r = ax + ay + a z2

The direction of OP is denoted by stating the direction cosines of the angles made by OP and the three coordinate axes.

l = cos =

OL a x = OP r
OM a y = OP r

m = cos =

n = cos =

ON a z = OP r

 l , m, n = cos , cos , cos

So, if P is the point (3,2,6), then

r = KK;
l = KK; m = KK; n = KK

________________________________________________________________________
r = 7;
l = 0.429; m = 0.286; n = 0.857

Since ( r ) = 9 + 4 + 36 = 49
2

r =7

l = cos =

3 = 0.4286 7 2 m = cos = = 0.2857 7 6 n = cos = = 0.8571 7

Example 2 (angle between two vectors) If the direction cosines of A are l1 , m1 , n1 and those of B are l2 , m2 , n2 , then the angle between the vectors is given by cos 0 = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1 n2 If A = 2i + 3 j + 4k and B = i 2 j + 3k , we can find the direction cosines of each and hence 0 which is. ________________________________________________________________________
0 = 66 o36'

For A : r1 = 4 + 9 + 16 = 29
l1 =
2 ; m1 = 29 3 ;n = 29 4 29

For B : r2 = 1 + 4 + 9 = 14

 l2 =

1 3 2 ; m2 = ; n2 = 14 14 14

Then cos 0 =

1 {2 6 + 12} = 0.3970 14 29 0 = 66 o36'

Let us now look at the question of scalar and vector products. ________________________________________________________________________ Example 3 (scalar product) If A and B are two vectors, the scalar product of A and B is defined as
A B = AB cos 0

Where 0 is the angle between the two vectors. If we consider the scalar products of the unit vectors i , j , k which are mutually perpendicular, then
i i = (1)(1)cos 0o = 1 i j = (1)(1)cos 90 o = 0 i j = j k = k i = 0 i i = j j = k k =1

and

in general, if A = a x i + a y j + a z k and B = bx i + by j + bz k then

A B = a x bx + a y by + a z bz which is, of course, a scalar quantity

so, if A = 2i 3 j + 4k and B = i + 2 j + 5k , then A B = KK ________________________________________________________________________

A B = 2 6 + 20 = 16

Also, since A.B = AB cos 0 ,we can determine the angle 0 between the vectors. In this case 0 = .......... .......... . ________________________________________________________________________
0 = 57 o9' A = 2i 3 j + 4k B = i + 2 j + 5k A = A = 4 + 9 + 16 = 29
B = B = 1 + 4 + 25 = 30

We have already found that A B = 16 and A B = AB cos 0

16 = 29 30 cos 0 cos 0 = 0.5425 0 = 57 o9'

So , the scalar product of A = a x i + a y j + a z k and B = bx i + by j + bz k is and shown that

A B = a x bx + a y by + a z bz
A B = AB cos 0 where 0 is the angle between the vectors. It can also be

and ________________________________________________________________________ Example 4 (vector product) If A = a x i + a y j + a z k and B = bx i + by j + bz k the vector product A B is defined as
A B = AB sin 0 in the direction perpendicular to A and B such that A, B and ( A B ) form a right-handed set.

(i )A B = B A (ii )A (B + C ) = A B + A C

We can write this as A B = ( AB sin 0 )n

(3)

Where n is defined as a unit vector in the positive normal direction to the plane of A and B, i.e forming a right-handed set.
i j ay by k az bz

Also

A B = ax bx

(4 )

If we consider the vector products of the unit vectors, i,j,k, then i j = (1)(1)sin 90 o = 1 i j = j k = k i =1 Note that j i = (i j ) = 1 j i = k j = i k = 1 o Also i i = (1)(1)sin 0 = 0 i i = j j = k k = 0 It can also be shown that (i )A (B + C ) = A B + A C (ii )A B = (B A) (5) and Make a note of these result (3) , (4 ) and (5) Then, if A = 3i 2 j + 4k and B = 2i 3 j 2k A B = KK ________________________________________________________________________
A B = 16 i + 14 j 5k

We simply evaluate the determinant

i j k

A B = 3 2 4 2 3 2 = i (4 + 12 ) j ( 6 8) + k ( 9 + 4 ) = 16 i + 14 j 5k

________________________________________________________________________ We have seen therefore that The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar But that the vector product of two vectors is a vector. We know also that A B = AB sin 0 Therefore, the angle between the vectors A and B given in Example 4 is
0 = KK ________________________________________________________________________

0 = 79 o 40'

For A = 3i 2 j + 4k ; B = 2i 3 j 2k ; and A B = 16 i + 14 j 5k
A B = 16 2 + 14 2 + 52 = 477 = 21.84
A = A = 32 + 2 2 + 4 2 = 29 = 5.385 B = B = 2 2 + 32 + 2 2 = 17 = 4.123 21.84 = (5.385 )(4.123 )sin 0 sin 0 = 0.9838 0 = 79 o 40'

So, to recapitulate: If A = a x i + a y j + a z k and B = bx i + by j + bz k and 0 is the angle between them (i) Scalar product = A B = a x bx + a y by + a z bz = AB cos 0 i j k (ii)vector product A B = a x a y a z bx by bz and
A B = AB sin 0

________________________________________________________________________ 6

Triple products We now deal with the various products that we form with three vectors. Scalar triple product of three vectors. If A,B,C are three vectors, the scalar formed by the product A (B C ) is called the scalar triple product. If A = a x i + a y j + a z k ;
i B = bx i + by j + bz k ; j by cy k bz cz
i j by cy k bz cz

C = cx i + c y j + cz k ;

Then

B C = bx cx

A (B C ) = (a x i + a y j + a z k ) bx cx

Multiplying the top row by the external bracket and remembering that
i j = j k = k i = 0 and i i = j j = k k = 1

We have A (B C ) = bx cx Example If Then

ax

ay by cy

az bz cz B = i 2 j 3k ; 2 3 4

(6 )
C = 2i + j + 2k

A = 2i 3 j + 4k ;

A (B C ) = 1 2 3 2 1 2

= KK ________________________________________________________________________

A (B C ) = 42 2 3 4 For A (B C ) = 1 2 3 2 1 2 = 2( 4 + 3) + 3(2 + 6 ) + 4(1 + 4 ) = 42

Properties of scalar triple products (a) B (C A ) = c x ax

bx by cy ay bz ax ay cy by az cz bz

cz = cx az bx

Since interchanging two rows in a determinant reverses the sign. If we now interchange rows 2 and 3 and again change the sign, we have
B (C A ) = bx cx
ax ay by cy az bz = A (B C ) cz

A (B C ) = B (C A ) = C ( A B ) (7) i.e. the scalar triple product is unchanged by a cyclic change of the vectors involved
bx by ay cy bz ax ay by cy az bz cz

(b)

B ( A C ) = ax cx

a z = bx cz cx

B ( A C ) = A (B C )

(8)

i.e. a change of vectors not in cyclic order, changes the sign of the scalar triple product. ax a y a z (c) A (B A ) = bx by bz = 0 since two rows are identical ax a y az
A (B A ) = B (C B ) = C ( A C ) = 0 (9 ) C = 3i + j 2k

Example If A = i + 2 j + 3k ;

B = 2i 3 j + k ;

A (B C ) = KK C (B A ) = KK ________________________________________________________________________ A (B C ) = 52; C ( A B ) = 52 1 2 3 For A (B C ) = 2 3 1 = 1(6 1) 2( 4 3) + 3(2 + 9 ) = 52 3 1 2

C (B A ) is not a cyclic change from the above. Therefore C (B A ) = A (B C ) = 52

Coplanar vectors The scalar triple products provides a test to show whether three given vectors lie in the same plane.

By definition, (B C ) is a vector product of B and C , of magnitude B C acting in a direction perpendicular to the plane of B and C and forming a right-handed set.

The scalar product of two vectors A and D is A D where A D = A D cos 0,0 being the angle between A and D

If 0 =

, A D = A D cos

=0

A D = 0

Therefore, if D = (B C ) , combining the two results above, we have this conclusion: If A is third vector Perpendicular to (B C ) , then (i) (ii) A,B and C are coplanar A (B C ) = 0

Therefore, three vectors A,B,C are coplanar if A (B C ) = 0 Example 1 Show that A = i + 2 j 3k ; coplanar.
B = 2i j + 2k ; and C = 3i + j k are

We just evaluate A (B C ) = KK and apply the test ________________________________________________________________________

A (B C ) = 0

1 2 3 For A (B C ) = 2 1 2 = 1(1 2 ) 2( 2 6 ) 3(2 + 3) = 0 3 1 1

Therefore A,B,C are coplanar Example 2 If A = 2i j + 3k ; B = 3i + 2 j + k ; are coplanar, find the value of p .
C = i + pj + 4 k

The method is clear enough. We merely set up and evaluate the determinant and solve the equation A (B C ) = 0 p = KK ________________________________________________________________________
p = 3

10

Since

A (B C ) = 0

2 1 3 3 2 1 =0 1 p 4 p = 3

2(8 p ) + 1(12 1) + 3(3 p 2 ) = 0 7 p = 21

One more. Example 3 Determine whether the three vectors A = 3i + 2 j k ; B = 2i j + 3k ; C = i 2 j + 2k are coplanar. Work through it on your own. The result shows that.. ________________________________________________________________________
A,B,C are not coplanar

In this case A (B C ) = 2 1 1 2
A (B C ) = / 0

1 3 = 13 2 A, B , C are not coplanar

________________________________________________________________________ Vector triple products of three vectors If A,B and C are three vectors, then are called the vector triple products A (B C ) And ( A B ) C Consider A (B C ) where A = a x i + a y j + a z k ; B = bx i + by i + bz k ; and
C = cx i + c y j + cz k

(10)

Then (B C ) is a vector perpendicular to the plane of B and C and A (B C ) is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and (B C ) ,i.e coplanar with B and C. Now
i (B C ) = bx cx j by cy k by bz = i cy cz

bz b j x cz cx

bx bz +k cx cz

by cy

11

Then A (B C ) =
by cy

i ax bz cz

j ay b bz x cx cz bx cx

k az by cy

= by cy

i ax bz cz bz cz

j ay bx cx bx cx

k az by cy

In symbolic form, further expansion of the determinant becomes somewhat tedious. However a numerical example will clarify the methods. Example 1 If A = 2i 3 j + k ; B = i + 2 j k ; C = 3i + j + 3k ; Determine the vector triple product A (B C ) We start off with B C = K ________________________________________________________________________

B C = 7 i 6 j 5k
i j k = i (6 + 1) j (3 + 3) + k (1 6 ) For B C = 1 2 1 = 7 i 6 j 5k 3 1 3

Then A (B C ) = KK ________________________________________________________________________
A (B C ) = 21i + 17 j + 9k

12

i j k For A (B C ) = 2 3 1 7 6 5

= i (15 + 6 ) j ( 10 7 ) + k ( 12 + 21) = 21i + 17 j + 9k

That is fundamental enough. There is, however, an even easier way of determining a vector triple product. It can be proved that
A (B C ) = ( A C )B ( A B )C ( A B ) C = (C A)B (C B )A

(11)

And

The proof of this is given in the Appendix. For the moment, make a careful note of the expressions: then we will apply the method to the example we have just completed. ________________________________________________________________________
A = 2 i 3 j + k ; B = i + 2 j k ; C = 3i + j + 3k and we have A (B C ) = ( A C )B ( A B )C = (6 3 + 3)(i + 2 j k ) (2 6 1)(3i + j + 3k ) = 6(i + 2 j k ) + 5(3i + j + 3k ) = 21i + 17 j + 9k

Which is, of course the result we achieved before. Here is another. Example 2 If A = 3i + 2 j 2k ; B = 4i j + 3k ; C = 2i 3 j + k determine ( A B ) C using the relationship.

( A B ) C = (C A)B (C B )A ( A B ) C = KK
________________________________________________________________________
50 i 26 j + 22 k

For

( A B ) C = (C A)B (C B )A = (6 6 2 )(4 i j + 3k ) (8 + 3 + 3)(3i + 2 j 2k ) = 2(4i j + 3k ) 14(3i + 2 j 2k )

= 50 i 26 j + 22 k

Now one more.

13

Example 3 If A = i + 3 j + 2 k ; B = 2 i + 5 j k ; C = i + 2 j + 3k A (B C ) = KK ( A B ) C = KK Finish them both. ________________________________________________________________________

A (B C ) = 11i + 35 j 58 k ( A B ) C = 17 i + 38 j 31k

For A (B C ) = ( A C )B ( A B )C = (1 + 6 + 6 )(2i + 5 j k ) (2 + 15 2 )(i + 2 j + 3k ) = 13(2i + 5 j k ) 15(i + 2 j + 3k ) = 11i + 35 j 58k And ( A B ) C = (C A )B (C B )A = (1 + 6 + 6 )(2i + 5 j k ) (2 + 10 3)(i + 3 j + 2k ) = 13(2i + 5 j k ) 9(i + 3 j + 2k ) = 17 i + 38 j 31k As these two result clearly show A (B C ) = / ( A B ) C so beware! Before we proceed, note the following concerning the unit vectors.

(i ) (i j ) = k i (i j ) = i k = j i (i j ) = j (ii ) (i i ) j = (0 ) j = 0 (i i ) j = 0
And once again, we see that i (i j ) = / (i i ) j ________________________________________________________________________

14

Finally, by way of revision: Example 4 if A = 5i 2 j + 3k ; B = 3i + j 2k ; C = i 3 j + 4 k ; determine (a) the scalar triple product A (B C ) (b) the vector triple products

(i )A (B C ) (ii )( A B ) C .

___________________________________________________________________

(a )A (B C ) = 12 (b )A (B C ) = 62i + 44 j 74k
( A B ) C = 109 i + 7 j 22 k

Here is the working. (a) A (B C ) = 3 1 2 1 3 4

= 5(4 6 ) + 2(12 + 2 ) + 3( 9 1) = 12 5 2 3

(b)(i) A (B C ) = ( A C )B ( A B )C = (5 + 6 + 12 )(3i + j 2k ) (15 2 6 )(i 3 j + 4 ) = 23(3i + j 2k ) 7(i 3 j + 4k ) = 62 i + 44 j 74 k (ii) ( A B ) C = (C A )B (C B )A = 23(3i + j 2k ) ( 8)(5i 2 j + 3k ) = 109 i + 7 j 22 k

15

Differential of vectors In many practical problems, we often deal with vectors that change with time, e.g. velocity, acceleration, etc. If a vector A depends on a scalar variable t , then A can be represented as A(t ) and A is then said to be a function of t . If A = a x i + a y j + a z k then a x , a y , a z will also be dependent on the parameter t. i.e.
A(t ) = a x (t )i + a y (t ) j + a z (t )k

Differentiating with respect to t gives.. ________________________________________________________________________

d {A(t )} = i d {a x (t )} + j d {a y (t )}+ k d {a z (t )} dt dt dt dt

In short

da dA da da =i x + j y +k z. dt dt dt dt

The independent scalar variable is not, of course, restricted to t . In general, if u is the paramater, then dA = KK du _____________________________________________________________
da dA da da =i x + j y +k z du du du du

If a position vector OP moves to OQ when u becomes u + u , then as u 0 , the direction of the chord PQ becomes that of the tangent to the curve at P , i.e. the dA is along the tangent to the locus of P . direction of du

16

Example 1 If A = (3u 2 + 4 )i + (2u 5 ) j + 4u 3 k , then dA = .......... ...... du ________________________________________________________________________

dA = 6ui + 2 j + 12u 2 k du

If we differentiate this again, we get When u = 2 Then

dA = 12 i + 2 j + 48k du

d2A = 6 i + 24uk du 2 d2A and = 6i + 48k du 2

dA d2A = .......... .. and = ....... du du 2 ________________________________________________________________________ dA = 49.52; du

and

d2A = 48.37 du 2

For

12 dA 12 ={ 12 2 + 2 2 + 48 2 } = {2452} = 49.52 du

And

d2A = 6 2 + 48 2 2 du

12

= {2340} = 48.37
12

17

Example 2 If , F = i sin 2t + je3t + k (t 3 4t ) then when t = 1

dF d 2F = KK; = .......... . dt 2 dt _______________________________________________________________________
dF = 2 cos 2i + 3e 3 j k dt d 2F = 4 sin 2i + 9e 3 j + 6k dt 2

From these, we could if required find the magnitudes of

dF d 2F and dt dt 2

dF d 2F = ...... 2 = .......... ... dt dt ________________________________________________________________________ dF d 2F = 60.27; = 180 .9 dt dt 2

For

12 dF 2 = (2 cos 2 ) + 9e 6 + 1 dt

= {0.6927 + 3631 + 1} = 60.27

12

And

12 d 2F 2 = ( 4 sin 2 ) + 81e 6 + 36 2 dt

={ 13 .23 + 32678 + 36} = 180 .9

12

One more example. Example 3 If A = (u + 3)i (2 + u 2 ) j + 2u 3k (a)

dA dA d2A d2A (b) (c) (d) du du 2 du du 2

determine

at

u=3

Work through all sections and then check with the next frame ________________________________________________________________________

18

Here is the working. (a)

dA = i 2uj + 6u 2 k du d2A = 2 j + 12uk du 2

A = (u + 3)i (2 + u 2 ) j + 2u 3k

at u = 3,

dA = i 6 j + 54 k du

(b)

at u = 3,

d2A = 2 j + 36 k du 2

(c)

dA 12 12 ={ 1 + 36 + 2916} = (2953 ) = 54.34 du d2A 12 12 = {4 + 1296} = (1300 ) = 36.06 du 2

(d)

The next example is of a rather different kind, so move on. ________________________________________________________________________ Example 4 A particle moves in space so that at time t its position is stated as x = 2t + 3, y = t 2 + 3t , z = t 3 + 2t 2 . We are required to find the components of its velocity and acceleration in the direction of the vector 2i + 3 j + 4k when t = 1 First we can write the position as a vector r r = (2t + 3)i + (t 2 + 3t ) j + (t 3 + 2t 2 )k Then, at t = 1 dr = ........; dt
d 2r = ........ dt 2 ________________________________________________________________________ dr = 2i + 5 j + 7 k ; dt
d 2r = 2 j + 10 k dt 2

For

dr = 2i + (2t + 3) j + 3t 2 + 4t k dt
at t = 1,

dr = 2i + 5 j + 7k dt

d 2r And 2 = 2 j + (6t + 4 )k dt

19

 At t = 1,

d 2r = 2 j + 10 k dt 2

Now, a unit vector parallel to 2i + 3 j + 4k is .. ________________________________________________________________________

2i + 3 j + 4k 1 (2i + 3 j + 4k ) = 4 + 9 + 16 29

Denote this unit vector by I . Then the component of

=

dr in the direction of I dt

dr dr cos 0 = I dt dt 1 (2 i + 5 j + 7 k ) (2 i + 3 j + 4 k ) = 29 = .......... .......... ..

________________________________________________________________________
8.73

Since

1 (2i + 5 j + 7 k ) (2i + 3 j + 4k ) = 1 (4 + 15 + 28 ) 29 29 = 47 = 8.73 29

d 2r in the direction of I is dt 2 .......... .......... ________________________________________________________________________

Similarly, the component of

8.54

For

1 d 2r d 2r (2 j + 10k ) (2i + 3 j + 4k ) cos 0 = I = 2 2 dt dt 29 1 46 = = 8.54 (6 + 40) = 29 29

20

Differentiation of sums and products of vectors

If A = A(u ) and B = B (u ) ,then d (a) {cA} = c dA du du (b)

d {A + B} = dA + dB du du du d {A B} = A dB + dA B du du du d {A B} = A dB + dA B. du du du

(c)

(d)

These are very much like the normal rules of differentiation. However, if A(u ) = a x i + a y j + a z k
2 2 A(u ) A(u ) = a x + ay + a z2 = A = A 2 2

(a const .)
i

i.e. constant

Also

d {A(u ) A(u )} = A(u ) d {A(u )} + A(u ) d {A(u )} du du du

= 2 A(u )

d {A(u )} = d A2 = 0 du du d {A(u )} = 0 it follows that A(u ) and du

{ }

Assuming that A(u ) = / 0 then since A(u )

d {A(u )} are perpendicular vectors because. du ________________________________________________________________________

21

A(u )

d {A(u )} = A(u ) d {A(u )} cos 0 = 0 du du cos 0 = 0

0 =

Now let us deal with unit tangent vectors.

Unit tangent vectors

We have already established in frame 30 of this programme that if OP is a position d vector A(u ) in space, then the direction of the vector denoting {A(u )} is du

________________________________________________________________________ Parallel to the tangent to the curve at P Then the unit tangent vector T at P can be found from
d {A(u )} du T= d {A(u )} du

In simpler notation, this becomes: If r = a x i + a y j + a z k then the unit tangent vector T is given by
T= dr / du dr / du

22

Example 1 Determine the unit tangent vector at the point (2,4,7) for the curve with parametric equations x = 2u; y = u 2 + 3; z = 2u 2 + 5 First we see that the point (2,4,7) corresponds to u = 1 The vector equation of the curve is
r = a x i + a y j + a z k = 2ui + u 2 + 3 j + 2u 2 + 5 k

) (

dr = .......... . du ________________________________________________________________________

dr = 2i + 2uj + 4uk du

And at u = 1,

dr = 2i + 2 j + 4k du

Hence

dr and T = KK = KK du ________________________________________________________________________ dr = 2 6; du

T=

1 {i + j + 2k } 6

For

dr 12 = {4 + 4 + 16} = 241 2 = 2 6 du dr 2i + 2 j + 4k 1 {i + j + 2k } T = du = = dr 2 6 6 du

Let us do another. Example 2 Find the unit tangent vector at the point (2,0, ) for the curve with parametric equations x = 2 sin 0; y = 3 cos 0; z = 20. We see that the point (2,0, ) corresponds to 0 = 2 Writing the curve in vector from r = KK ________________________________________________________________________

23

r = 2 sin 0i + 3 cos 0 j + 20k

Then, at 0 = 2,

dr = .......... ... d0
dr = KK d0

T = KKK Finish it off ________________________________________________________________________

dr dr = 3 j + 2 k ; = 13 d0 d0 1 ( 3 j + 2k ) T= 13

And now Example 3 Determine the unit tangent vector for the curve
x = 3t ; y = 2t 2 ; z = t 2 + t

At the point (6,8,6 ) On your own. T = .......... ....... ________________________________________________________________________

T=
1 (3i + 8 j + 5k ) 98

The point (6,8,6 ) corresponds to t = 2 r = 3ti + 2t 2 j + (t 2 + t )k dr = 3i + 4tj + (2t + 1)k dt At t = 2, r = 6i + 8 j + 6k and

dr = 3i + 8 j + 5k dt

dr 12 = (9 + 64 + 25 ) = 98 dt

dr dt 1 (3i + 8 j + 5k ) = dr dt 98 ________________________________________________________________________

T =

24

Partial Differentiation Of Vectors

If a vector F is a function of two independent variables u and v , then the rules of differentiation follow the usual pattern. If F = xi + yj + zk then x, y , z will also be function of u and v F x y z Then = i+ j+ k u u u u
F x y z = i+ j+ k v v v v 2F 2 x 2 y 2z = + + i j k u 2 u 2 u 2 u 2 2F 2 x 2 y 2 z = + + i j k v 2 v 2 v 2 v 2 2F 2 x 2 y 2z = i+ j+ k uv uv u v u v

And for small finite changes du and dv in u and v , we have F F dF = u + v u v Example If F = 2uvi + (u 2 2v ) j + (u + v 2 )k

F F 2F 2F = KK; = KK; 2 = KK; = KKK u v u u v ________________________________________________________________________ F = 2vi + 2uj + k ; u 2F = 2 j; u 2 F = 2ui 2 j + 2vk v 2F = 2i uv

This is straightforward enough.

25

Integration of vector functions

The process is the reverse of that for differentiation. If a vector F = xi + yj + zk where F , x, y , z are expressed as functions of u , then

Fdu = i xdu + j ydu + k zdu

a a a

Example 1 if F = (3t 2 + 4t )i + (2t 5) j + 4t 3k , then

3 1

Fdt = i

3 1

(3t

+ 4t dt + j

(2t 5)dt + k 1 4t 3dt 1

3 3

= KKK ________________________________________________________________________

42 i 2 j + 80 k

For

3 1

Fdt = i t 3 + 2t 2 + j t 2 5t + kt 4

[(

) (

= (45i 6 j + 81k ) (3i 4 j + k ) = 42 i 2 j + 80 k

Here is slightly different one. Example 2 If F = 3ui + u 2 j + (u + 2 )k And Evaluate

V = 2ui 3uj + (u 2 )k

(F V )du
2 0

First we must determine F V in terms of u F V = KKK ________________________________________________________________________

F V = u 3 + u 2 + 6u i u 2 10u j 2u 3 + 9u 2 k
i j u 3u
2

) (

) (

For F V = 3u 2u

(u + 2 ) (u 2 )

Which gives the results above. Then

(F V )du = .......... .......

2 0

26

4 {14 i + 13 j 24k } 3

u (F V )du =

u3 u4 u3 2 + 3u 2 + 3u 3 i 5 u j k 3 3 2

2 8 (F V )du = (4 + 8 + 12 )i 20 j (8 + 24 )k 3 0 3

4 3

{14i + 13 j 24k }

Example 3 If F = A (B C ) where A = 3t 2 i + (2t 3) j + 4tk B = 2i + 4tj + 3(1 t )k C = 2ti 3t 2 j 2tk Determine

1 0

Fdt

First we need to find A (B C ). The simplest way to do this is to use the relationship A (B C ) = KK ________________________________________________________________________
A (B C ) ( A C )B ( A B )C

So A C = KK And A B = KK ________________________________________________________________________
A C = 6t 3 6t 3 + 9t 2 8t 2 = t 2 A B = 6t 2 + 8t 2 12t + 12t 12t 2 = 2t 2

Then F = A (B C ) = t 2 {2i + 4tj + 3(1 t )k } 2t 2 {2ti 3t 2 j 2tk }

Fdt = KK
0 1

Finish off the simplification and complete the intergration ________________________________________________________________________

27

1 60

{ 20i + 132 j + 75k }

For F = A (B C ) = (2t 2 4t 3 )i + (4t 3 + 6t 4 ) j + (3t 2 + t 3 )k Integration with respect to t then gives the result stated above. ________________________________________________________________________
Scalar and vector fields

If every points P ( x, y , z ) of a region R of space has associated with it a scalar quantity o / (x, y , z ) then o / ( x, y , z ) is a scalar function and a scalar field is said to exist in the region R Examples of scalar fields are temperature, potential, etc.

Similarly, if every point P ( x, y , z ) of a region R has associated with it a vector quantity F ( x, y , z ) , then F (x, y , z ) is a vector function and a vector field is said to exist in the region R Examples of vector fields are force, velocity, acceleration, etc. F ( x, y , z ) can be defined in terms of its components parallel to the coordinate axes, OX , OY , OZ . That is, F (x, y , z ) = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k ________________________________________________________________________

28

Grad (gradient of a scalar function)

If a scalar function o / (x, y , z ) is continuosly differentiable with respect to its variables x, y , z throughout the region, then the gradient of o / written grad o / , is defined as the vector o o o / / / (12 ) grad o i+ j+ k /= x y z Note that, while o / is a scalar function, grad o / is a vector function. For example, if o / 2 3 depends upon the position of P and is defined by o / = 2 x yz , then
3 2 3 2 2 grad o / = 4 xyz i + 2 x z j + 6 x yz k

Notation The expression (12) above can be written

grad o + j + k o / / = i y z x Where i x + j y + k z is called a vector differential operator and is denoted by the symbol (pronounced delor sometimes nabla)

i.e.

= i x + j y + k z

Beware! cannot exist alone:it is an operator and must operate on a stated scalar function o / ( x, y , z ) If F is a vector function, F has no meaning. So we have:
(13) o / = grad o / = / i x + j y + k z o o o o / / / =i + j +k z x y ________________________________________________________________________
2 3 2 2 Example 1 If o / = x yz + xy z , determine grad o / at the point P (1,3,2 ) o o o / / / By the definiton, grad o i+ j+ k. / = o /= z x y

29

All we have to do then is to find the partial derivatives at x = 1, y = 3, z = 2 and insert their values. o / = .......... ________________________________________________________________________
4(21i + 8 j + 18k )

2 3 2 2 Since o / = x yz + xy z

o / = x 2 z 3 + 2 xyz 2 y o Then at (1,3,2 ) / = 48 + 36 x o / = 8 + 24 y o / = 36 + 36 z

o / = 2 xyz 3 + y 2 z 2 x o / = 3 x 2 yz 2 + 2 xy 2 z z

o / = 84 x o / = 32 y o / = 72 z

grad o / = o / = 84 i + 32 j + 72 k = 4(21i + 8 j + 18k )

Example 2 if A = x 2 zi + xyj + y 2 zk And B = yz 2 i + xzj + x 2 zk determine an expression for grad ( A B ). This we can soon do since we know that A B is a scalar function of x, y and z First then, A B = .......... .........
A B = x 2 yz 3 + x 2 yz + x 2 y 2 z 2

Then ( A B ) = KK ________________________________________________________________________
2 xyz (z 2 + 1 + yz )i + x 2 z (z 2 + 1 + 2 yz ) j + x 2 y (3 z 2 + 1 + 2 yz )k

For if

2 2 2 2 o / = A B = (x zi + xyj + y zk ) ( yz i + xzj + x zk ) 2 3 2 2 2 2 o / = A B = x yz + x yz + x y z o / = 2 xyz 3 + 2 xyz + 2 xy 2 z 2 = 2 xyz (z 2 + 1 + yz ) x

30

o / = x 2 z 3 + x 2 z + 2 x 2 yz 2 = x 2 z (z 2 + 1 + 2 yz ) y o / = 3 x 2 yz 2 + x 2 y + 2 x 2 y 2 z = x 2 y (3 z 2 + 1 + 2 yz ) z
( A B ) = 2 xyz z 2 + 1 + yz i + x 2 z z 2 + 1 + 2 yz j + x 2 y 3 z 2 + 1 + 2 yz k

Now let us obtain another useful relationship. If OP is a position vector r where r = xi + yj + zk and dr is a small displacement corresponding to changes dx, dy , dz in x, y , z respectively, then
dr = dxi + dyj + dzk

If o / (x, y , z ) is a scalar function at P , we know that o o o / / / grad o i+ j+ k / = o /= z x y Then grad o / dr = KKK ________________________________________________________________________
o o / / x o / grad o + y + z / dr = z x y o o o / / / ( For grad o / dr = x i + y j + z k dxi + dyj + dzk ) o o o / / / = dx + y + z x y z = the total different d o / of o / do / = dr grad o /

(14 )

________________________________________________________________________

31

Directional derivatives

We have just established that

do / / = dr grad o

If ds is the small element of arc between P (r ) and Q (r + dr ) then ds = dr

dr dr = ds dr

dr is thus a unit vector in the direction of dr . ds do / dr = grad ds ds dr , i.e , the result becomes If we denote this unit vector by a =a ds

and

do / grad o =a / ds do / is thus the projection of grad o on the unit vector a and is called the directional / ds . It gives the rate of change of o derivative of o / in the direction of a / with distance do and / = a and grad o measured in the direction of a / will be a maximum when a ds grad o / have the same direction of ,since then
grad o grad o a /=a / cos 0 and 0 will be zero

Thus the direction of grad o / gives the direction in which the maximum rate of changes of o / occurs
2 2 2 Example 1 Find the directional derivative of the function o / = x z + 2 xy + yz at the point (1,2,1) in the direction of the vector A = 2i + 3 j 4k . 2 2 2 We start off with o / = x z + 2 xy + yz o / = .......... . ________________________________________________________________________

32

2 2 2 o / = (2 xz + 2 y )i + (4 xy + z ) j + (x + 2 yz )k

Since

o / = 2 xz + 2 y 2 ; x

o / = 4 xy + z 2 ; y

o / = x 2 + 2 yz z

Then at (1,2,1)

o / = ( 2 + 8)i + (8 +1) j + (1 4)k = 6i + 9 j 3k

where A = 2i + 3 j 4k Next we have to find the unit vector a ) a = .......... ........ ________________________________________________________________________ = a 1 (2i + 3 j 4k ) 29

For = 2i + 3 j 4k

A = 4 + 9 + 16 = 29
= a

A 1 (2i + 3 j 4k ) = A 29
1 (2i + 3 j 4k ) 29

= So we have o / = 6i + 9 j 3k and a

do / = a o / = .......... .. ds ________________________________________________________________________ do 51 / = = 9.47 ds 29

Since

do 1 / (2i + 3 j 4k ) (6i + 9 j 3k ) = a o /= ds 29 =
1 (12 + 27 + 12 ) = 51 = 9.47 29 29

That is all there is to it (i) from the given scalar function o / / , determine o in the direction of the given vector A (ii)Find the unit vector a do o (iii) Then / = a / ds

33

2 2 2 Example 2 Find the directional derivative of o / = x y + y z + z x at the point (1,1,2 ) in the direction of the vector A = 4i + 2 j 5k . Same as before.Work through it and check the result with the next frame. ________________________________________________________________________

do / 23 = = 3.43 ds 3 5
2 2 2 For o / =x y+ y z+z x 2 2 2 o / = (2 xy + z )i + (x + 2 yz ) j + ( y + 2 zx )k At (1,1,2 ), o / = 2 i 3 j + 5k

A = 4 i + 2 j 5k

A = 16 + 4 + 25 = 45 = 3 5
= a 1 3 5

(4i + 2 j 5k )

do 1 / (4i + 2 j 5k ) (2i 3 j + 5k ) = a o /= ds 3 5 1 (8 6 25) = 23 = 3.43 = 3 5 3 5

Example 3. Find the direction from the point 1,1,0 which gives the greatest rate of increase rate of increase of the function o / = (x + 3 y ) + (2 y z )
2 2

This appears to be different, but it rests on the fact that the greatest rate of increase of o / with respect to distance is in.. ________________________________________________________________________ The direction of o / All we need then is to find the vector o / , which is . ________________________________________________________________________
o / = 4(2i + 8 j k )

For o / = ( x + 3 y ) + (2 y z )
2

o o / / = 6( x + 3 y ) + 4(2 y z ); = 2(2 y z ) y z o o o / / / At (1,1,0 ), = 8; = 32; = 4 x y z o / = 8i + 32 j 4k = 4(2i + 8 j k ) greatest rate of increase occurs in direction 2i + 8 j k o / = 2(x + 3 y ); x

34

________________________________________________________________________ Unit normal vectors If o / (x, y , z ) = constant, this relationship represents a surface in space, depending on the value ascribed to the constant.

If dr is a placement in this surface, then do / = 0 since o / is constant over the surface. Therefore our previous relationship dr grad o / = do / becomes dr grad = 0 For all such displacements dr in the surface. But dr grad = dr grad cos 0 = 0
0 = grad o / is perpendicular to dr , i.e. grad o / is a vector perpendicular to the 2 surface at P , in the direction of that maximum rate of change of o / . The magnitude of that maximum rate of change is given by grad

The unit vector N in the direction of grad o / is called the unit normal vector at
P.

unit normal vector

N=

o / o /

(15 )

Example 1 Find the unit normal vector to the surface at the point (1,3,1) x 3 y + 4 xz 2 + xy 2 z + 2 = 0 Vector normal = o / = .......... . ________________________________________________________________________

2 2 2 3 2 o / = 3 x y + 4 z + y z i + x + 2 xyz j + 8 xz + xy k

) (

) (

35

Then, at (1,3,1) o / = 4i 5 j + k And the unit normal at (1,3,1) is ________________________________________________________________________

1 (4i 5 j + k ) 42

Since o / = 16 + 25 + 1 = 42 o 1 And N = / = (4i 5 j + k ) o 42 / One more Example 2 Determine the unit normal to the surface xyz + x 2 y 5 yz 5 = 0 at the point (3,1,2 ) All very straightforward. Complete it. ________________________________________________________________________ Unit normal = N =
1 (8i + 5 j 2k ) 93

2 For o / = xyz + x y 5 yz 5 2 o / = ( yz + 2 xy )i + (xz + x 5 z ) j + ( xy 5 y )k

At (3,1,2 ), o / = 8i + 5 j 2 k ; o / = 64 + 25 + 4 = 93
o 1 / (8i + 5 j 2k ) = o 93 /

unit normal = N =

Collecting our results so far, we have, for o / ( x, y , z ) a scalar function o o o / / / (a) grad o i+ j+ k / = o /= x y z o o o / / (b) do x + y + / z / = dr grad o / where do /= x y z do grad o (c) directional derivative / = a / ds o (d)unit normal vector N = / o / copy out this brief summary for future reference. It will help. ________________________________________________________________________

36

Grad of sums and products of scalars

(a) ( A + B ) = i ( A + B ) + j ( A + B ) + k + ( A + B ) z x y A B A B B A = i+ j+ k + i + j+ k z z x y y x
( A + B ) = A + B

(b) ( AB ) = i ( AB ) + x

j ( AB ) + k ( AB ) z y

B A A A B B + B + kA +B + B + jA = iA y z x z x y B A A B B A i+A j+A k + B = A i+B j+B k z z x y y x A B A B A B = A i + j+ k + B i + j+ k z z y y x x ( AB ) = A(B ) + B (A )

Remember that in these results A and B are scalars. The operator acting on a vector ________________________________________________________________________ Has no meaning Example 1 If A = x 2 yz + xz 2 and B = xy 2 z z 3 evaluate ( AB ) at the point (2,1,3) We know that ( AB ) = A(B ) + B (A ) At (2,1,3), B = .......... ..; A = .......... ....; ________________________________________________________________________
B = 3i + 12 j 25k ; B = A = 21i + 12 j + 16 k

B B B i+ j+ k = y 2 zi + 2 xyzj + xy 2 3 z 2 k z y x = 3i + 12 j 25k at (2,1,3)

A =

A A A i+ j+ k = 2 xyz + z 2 i + x 2 zj + x 2 y 2 xz k z y x = 21i + 12 j + 16 k at (2,1,3)

37

Now ( AB ) = A(B ) + B (A) = .......... ...

Finish it ________________________________________________________________________
( AB ) = 3( 117 i + 36 j 362 k ) ( AB ) = A(B ) + B (A ) at (2,1,3), A = 12 + 18 = 30

B = xy 2 z z 3 at (2,1,3), B = 6 27 = 21 ( AB ) = 30(3i + 12 j 25k ) 21(21i + 12 j + 16 k ) = 351i + 108 j 1086 k = 3( 117 i + 36 j 362 k )

A = x yz + xz
2

So add these to the list of results. ( A + B ) = A + B ( AB ) = AB + B (A) Where A and B are scalars ________________________________________________________________________
Div (divergence of a vector function)

The operator (notice the dot; it makes all the difference) can be applied to a vector function A(x, y , z ) to give the divergence of A, written in short as div A If A = a x i + a y j + a z k
div A = A = i x + j y + k z (a x i + a y j + a z k ) a a a div A = A = x + y + z x y z

Note that (a) The grad operator acts on a scalar and gives a vector (b) The div operation acts on a vector and gives a scalar
Example 1 If A = x 2 yi xyzj + yz 2 k then div A = A = .......... ... ________________________________________________________________________

38

div A = A = 2 xy xz + 2 yz

We simply take the appropriate partial derivatives of the coefficients of i,j and k. It could hardly be easier. Example 2 If A = 2 x 2 yi 2(xy 2 + y 3 z ) j + 3 y 2 z 2 k determine A i.e. div A. Complete it. A = .......... ..... ________________________________________________________________________
A= 0

For

A = 2 x 2 yi 2(xy 2 + y 3 z ) j + 3 y 2 z 2 k a a a A= x + y + z y z x = 4 xy 2 2 xy + 3 y 2 z + 6 y 2 z = 4 xy 4 xy 6 y z + 6 y 2 z = 0
2

Such a vector A for which A = 0 at all points, i.e for all values of x, y , z is called a solenoid vector. It is rather a special case.
Curl (curl of a vector function)

The curl operator denoted by ,acts on a vector and gives another vector as a result. If A = a x i + a y j + a z k then curl A = A
i.e. curl A = A = (a x i + a y j + a z k ) i x + j y + k z i j k = x y z ax a y az a y a x a z a y a x a z A = i + j z x + k x y y z

Curl A is thus a vector function. It is best remembered in its determinant form, so make a note of it. ________________________________________________________________________

39

Example 1 If A = ( y 4 x 2 z 2 )i + (x 2 + y 2 ) j x 2 yzk , determine curl A at then point (1,3,2 ).

i Curl A = A = x y 4 x2 z 2 j y x2 + y2 k z x 2 yz

Now we expand the determinant

2 A = i x 2 yz x + y2 z y

4 j y x2 z 2 x 2 yz z x

2 4 + k x + y2 y x2 z2 y x

All that now remains is to obtain the partial derivatives and substitute the values of x, y , z A = .......... ........ ________________________________________________________________________
2i 8 j 106 k

A = i x 2 z j 2 xyz + 2 x 2 z + k 2 x 4 y 3
At (1,3,2 ),

} {

} {

A = i (2 ) j{ 12 4} + k (2 108 ) = 2i 8 j 106 k

Example 2 Determine curl F at the point (2,0,3) given that F = ze 2 xy i + 2 xz cos yj + (x + 2 y )k .

In determinant form, curl F = F = .......... ... ________________________________________________________________________

i x ze 2 xy j y 2 xz cos y k z x + 2y

Now expand the determinant and substitute the values of x,y, and z, finally obtaining curl F = .......... .......... ... ________________________________________________________________________

40

Curl F = F = 2(i + 3k )
F = i{2 2 x cos y} j 1 e 2 xy + k 2 z cos y 2 xze 2 xy at (2,0,3) F = i (2 4 ) j (1 1) + k (6 12 ) = 2i 6k = 2(i + 3k )

} {

Every one is done in the same way.

Summary of grad, div and curl (a) Grad operator acts on a scalar field to give a vector field (b) Div operator acts on a vector field to give a scalar field (c) Curl operator acts on a vector fields to give a vector field. (d) With a scalar function o / ( x, y , z ) o o o / / / grad o i+ j+ k / = o /= z x dy

(e) With a vector function A = a x i + a y j + a z k a a a (i) div A = A = x + y + z x y z

i (ii) curl A = A = x ax j y ay k z az

Check through that list, just to make sure. We shall need them all ________________________________________________________________________ By way of revision, here is one further example.
2 2 3 2 Example 3 If o / = x y + x yz yz And F = xy 2 i 2 yzj + xyzk

Determine for the point P (1,1,2 ) (a) o /, (b)unit normal, (c) F (d) F . ________________________________________________________________________

41

2 2 3 2 Here is the working full. o / = x y + x yz yz

o o o / / / (a) o i+ j+ k /= x y z = (2 xy 2 + 3 x 2 yz )i + (2 x 2 y + x 3 z z 2 ) j + (x 3 y 2 yz )k at (1,1,2 ) o / = 4i 4 j + 3k

(b) N =

o / = 16 + 16 + 9 = 41

N =

1 (4i + 4 j 3k ) 41

(c)

F = xy 2 i 2 yzj + xyzk F =

a x a y a z + + x y z 2 F = y 2 z + xy F = 4

at

(1,1,2 )

F = 1 4 1 = 4

(d)

F = i ( xz + 2 y ) j ( yz 0 ) + k (0 2 xy ) = ( xz + 2 y )i yzj 2 xyk

i F = x xy 2

j y 2 yz

k z xyz

at (1,1,2),

F = 2 j + 2k

F = 2( j + k )

Now let us combine some of these operations. ________________________________________________________________________

Multiple operations

We can combine the operators grad, div and curl in multiple operations, as in the examples that follow.
Example 1 If A = x 2 yi + yz 3 j zx 3k
2 3 3 Then div A = A = (x yi + yz j zx k ) x i + y j + z k 3 3 = 2 xy + z + x = o / say

42

o o o Then grad (div A) = ( A ) = / i + / j + / k x y z = (2 y + 3 x 2 )i + (2 x ) j + (3 z 2 )k i.e. grad div A = ( A ) = (2 y + 3 x 2 )i + 2 xj + 3 z 2 k

Move on for the next example ________________________________________________________________________

2 2 2 Example 2 If o / = xyz 2 y z + x z determine div grad o / at the point (2,4,1)

First find grad o / and then the div of the result. At (2,4,1) div grad o / = (o / ) = .......... ......... ________________________________________________________________________ div grad o / =6
2 2 2 We have o / xyz 2 y z + x z o o o / / / grad o i+ j+ k / = o /= x y z = ( yz + 2 xz 2 )i + ( xz 4 yz ) j + (xy 2 y 2 + 2 x 2 z )k 2 2 div grad o / = (o / ) = 2z 4z + 2x

at (2,4,1), div grad o / = (o /)= 2 4+8 = 6

Example 3 If F = x 2 yzi + xyz 2 j + y 2 zk determine curl curl F at the point (2,1,1). Determine an expression for curl F in the usual way, which will be a vector, and then the curl of the result. Finally substitute values Curl curl F = .......... .......... . ________________________________________________________________________ Curl curl F = ( F ) = i + 2 j + 6k
i curl F = x x 2 yz j y xyz 2 k z y2z

For

= (2 yz 2 xyz )i + x 2 yj + yz 2 x 2 z k

43

i Then curl curl F = x 2 yz 2 xyz

j y x2 y

k z 2 yz x 2 z

= z 2 i ( 2 xz 2 y + 2 xy ) j + (2 xy 2 z + 2 xz )k

at (2,1,1), curl curl F = ( F ) = i + 2 j + 6k ________________________________________________________________________

Remember that grad, div and curl are operators and that they must act on a scalar or vector as appropriate. They cannot exist alone and must be followed by a function. One or two interesting general results appear. (a) curl grad o / where o / is a scalar
o o o / / / grad o i+ j+ k /= x y z
i
curl grad o /=
x o / x

j
y o / y

k
z o / z

2 2o 2o 2o 2o 2o / o / / / / / = i j k + =0 yz zy zx xz x y y x curl grad o / = (o /)= 0

(b)Div curl A where A is a vector. A = a x i + a y j + a z k

i curl A = A =
x

j
y

k
z

ax

ay

az a y a x a a j z x + k x y z x

a z a y = i y z

Then div curl A = ( A ) = i x + j y + k z ( A ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 az a y az ax a y ax = + + =0 x y z x x y y z z x y z

44

 div curl A = ( A ) = 0

(c) Div grad o / where o / is a scalar

o o o / / / grad o i+ j+ k /= x y z

Then div grad o / = (o /) o o o / / / = i x + j y + k z x i + y j + z k 2 2 2 o / o / / o = 2+ 2+ 2 x y z

div grad o / = (o /)=
2 2 2o / o / o / + + 2 2 2 x y z ________________________________________________________________________

This result is sometimes denoted by 2 o / So these general results are (a) curl grad o / = (o /)= 0 (b) div curl A = ( A ) = 0 (c )div grad o / = (o /)=
2 2 2o / o / o / + + 2 2 2 x y z

That brings us to the end of this particular programme. We have covered quite a lot of new material, so check carefully through the Revision Summary that follows; then you can deal with the test exercise.

45

REVISION SUMMARY

If A = a x i + a y j + a z k ; B = bx i + by j + bz k ; C = c x i + c y j + c z k then we have the following relationships. 1. Scalar product (dot product)

A B = AB cos

A B = B A and A (B + C ) = B + A C

2. Vector product (cross product)

A B ( AB sin )N

N = unit normal vector where A, B , N form a right-handed set i A B = ax bx A B = (B A ) j ay by k az bz

and

A (B + C ) = A B + A C

3. Unit vectors (a) i i = j j = k k = 1

i j = jk = k i = 0 (b) i i = j j = k k = 0 i j = jk = k i =1

4. Scalar triple product

ax A (B C ) = bx cx ay by cy

A (B C )

az bz cz

A (B C ) = B (C A ) = C ( A B ) Unchanged by cyclic change of vectors. Sign reversed by non cyclic change of vectors.

5. Coplanar vectors 6. Vector triple product

A (B C ) = 0 A (B C ) and ( A B ) C A (B C ) = ( A C )B ( A B )C

46

And 7. Differentiation of vectors

( A B ) C = (C A)B (C B )A

If A, a x , a y , a z are functions of u , da dA da x da = i+ y j+ z k dU du du du 8. Unit tangent vector T

T=
dA du dA du

9. Integration of vectors

A du = i a x du + j a y du + k a z du
b a a a

10. Grad (gradient of a scalar function ) grad = = i+ j+ k z x y del= operator = i x + j y + k z

d is a unit vector in a stated grad = a where a =a ds direction. Grad gives the direction for maximum rate of changes of

(a) Directional derivative

(b) Unit normal vector N to surface ( x, y , z ) = constant

N=

11. Div (divergence of a vector function A)

div A = A =
a x a y a z + + x y z

If A = A =

a x a y a z + + x y z

47

12. Curl (curl of a vector function A )

i j
y

k
z

curl A = A =

ax

ay

az

13. Operators grad ( ) acts on a scalar and gives a vector div ( ) acts on a vector and gives a scalar curl ( ) acts on a vector and gives a vector 14. Multiple operations (a) curl grad = ( ) = 0 (b) div curl A = ( A) = 0 (c) div grad = ( ) =
2 2 2 + + . x 2 y 2 z 2

48