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nhancing the energy efficiency of thermoprocessing plants is of great importance from an ecological as well as from an economical point of view. The operators of industrial furnaces in Germany pay approx. 30 billion Euros [1] for energy costs per year. The EU has released the following goals under the socalled Energy and climate-change package: the increase of energy efficiency by 20 %, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % the increase of electricity from renewable energy sources by 20 %. These goals can only be reached if the energy consumption of thermoprocessing plants is significantly reduced. More than 40 % of the total energy used in the german industry is consumed by thermoprocessing plants [1]. For example, approx. 270 TWh were consumed in 2005 which is equivalent to the energy consumption of 14 million households. Enhancing energy efficiency contributes significantly
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to the reduction of carbon dioxide in both gas and electrically heated industrial furnaces. Saving one kilowatt hour of electricity avoids the emission of 520 g carbon dioxide (status 2005).
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pressure gas quenching (HPGQ) -process. During HPGQ, the components are exposed to an inert gasstream with pressures up to 20 bar. The gas-velocities range from 1 to 20 m/s. Compared to liquid quenching such as oil-, polymer- or waterquenching, HPGQ is considered as an environmentally friendly and lowdistortion quenching process. Normally, technical gases such as nitrogen, helium and argon and mixtures of these gases are used in HPGQ. Fig. 2 shows a vacuum system for LPC with subsequent HPGQ, in which gear components are casehardened for large-scale production.
Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of the low pressure carburizing and high pressure gas quenching-process
Thermochemical processes (e.g. low-pressure carburizing, plasma carburizing, low-pressure nitriding, plasma nitriding, low-pressure carbonitriding) Brazing Bainitizing (=austempering). One example of a thermochemical process performed in vacuum is the process of low pressure carburizing (LPC) with subsequent high pressure gas quenching (HPGQ). LPC is a carburizing process where the exposure to any traces of oxygen is prevented during the whole process. It is performed under pressures between 5 and 15 mbar and temperatures ranging between 870 and 1,050 C. In most cases the carburizing temperatures range between 920 and 980 C. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the process. First, the charge is placed into the furnace under vacuum, this is followed by convective heating under 1.2 bar nitrogen. Convective heating is used to heat up the parts rapidly and homogeneously. This is followed by an additional heating phase under vacuum. After all parts have reached the specified carburizing temperature, the actual carburizing and diffusion process begins. After an optimized process the case is free of carbides and contains a low amount of retained austenite. Since the used gases and the furnace atmosphere are free of oxygen, any surface oxidation of the parts is safely prevented. In most cases the LPC-process is followed by a high
Vacuum heat treatment systems are generally electrically heated using indirect resistance heating with graphite or metal heating-conductors. These conductors are shaped as rods or bands. The heating- conductors transfer the energy to the parts by radiation and convection. Fig. 3 illustrates the energy fluxes in a steady-state vacuum heat treatment plant. This means it is assumed that the plant has already reached the required temperature before the charge enters the plant. This example shows a charge with a gross weight of 800 kg which was carburized to a case depth of 1.5 mm at 930 C with subsequent quenching using 12 bar helium. The electrical energy which is brought into the system consists 1st of the heating power (which is brought into the treatmentchamber) and consists 2nd of the power for the fan and the pumps (which is required in the quench-chamber during gas-quenching). Fig. 3 shows the distribution of the energy into 1st heating of the charge, 2nd quenching of the charge and 3rd wall-losses. Wall-losses are the socalled idle losses which are released through the wall to the outside during the process. However not only the steady-state condition of the plant but also the non-steady state, which includes the heating and the cooling of the treatment chambers, must be considered. It is distinguished between singlechamber systems and multi-chamber systems. In singlechamber systems the thermochemical process and the quench process are performed in the same chamber. In multi-chamber plants the thermochemical process and the quench process are performed in separate chambers (treatment-chamber and quench-chamber, see Fig. 2.)
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The energy advantage of the multi-chamber technology lies in the fact that the temperature in the treatment chambers is always maintained. Therefore no additional energy is consumed to heat and cool the inner components of the chamber such as insulation, heating-conductors, charge-support, etc., see Fig. 4.
Fig. 2: Modular vacuum furnace system ModulTherm for case- hardening in large scale production
Fig. 4: Comparison of the temperature profiles in single-chamber and multi-chamber systems for vacuum process technology
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essary to consider as well the partial utilization of the production-capacity. In the automobile industry for example, during the ramp-up phase of a new transmission, the number of parts is increased step by step. Fig. 7 shows a simplified diagram of the equipment utilization after the SOP of a new transmission. If a continuous furnace (e.g. a pusher furnace) is installed for the heat treatment of the parts, then this continuous furnace is utilized partially for a longer period of time. This leads to an excessively higher energy consumption. In comparison, the use of a modular expandable system (such as a modular multi-chamber vacuum furnace) offers the possibility to customize capacity to the actual production requirements, see Fig. 7. When using a flexible multi-chamber plant of the type ModulTherm, an additional treatment chamber can be installed within two to three days. Fig. 8 shows the typical annual production numbers of an automotive transmission. The production-rate is usually reduced in the summer months. When using a continuous furnace, the energy consumption stays at an unnecessary high level. However, the use of a modular system allows the shut-off of individual treatment chambers, as required by the production numbers. This leads to significant reductions in energy consumption. The energy consumption of the plants shown in Fig. 8 was
reduced from 6,400 MWh to 4,800 MWh when using a modular multi-chamber system. This is a reduction of the annual energy consumption of 25 %.
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processes are shortened. Here are two possible solutions to accelerate the thermochemical process and increase energy efficiency.
Convective heating Since the heat transfer by radiation is very low in a temperature range below 700 C, it is recommended to use an additional so called convective heating step. For this purpose an internal gas fan is installed in the treatment chambers. When starting the process, the treatment chamber is first evacuated and then flooded with nitrogen to a pressure of 1.2 to 2 bar abs. The nitrogen is circulated by the internal gas fan to improve the heat transfer. Thus in addition to a shorter heating time, the charge is also heated more homogeneously. Fig. 10 shows that convective heating reduces the time for heating up a densely packed load of metal bolts to 890 C from 130 min to 90 min [5] (in a pre-heated treatment-chamber). The wall-losses of this treatmentchamber are 28,5 kW under vacuum and 37 kW under convective heating with 1.2 bar. Although the wall-losses are higher, the total energy consumption with convective heating was reduced from 62 to 56 kWh because the heating time was reduced by 1.5 h. This equals a reduction of wall-losses during the process step heating of approx. 10 %.
High temperature case-hardening Low pressure carburizing is a diffusion-controlled process. The diffusion rate increases sharply with increasing temperature and the corresponding carburizing time is significantly reduced, see Fig. 11. Additionally the limits of carbide precipitation shift to higher values. The precipitation limit of unalloyed steels (e.g. C15) rises according to the iron-carbon-diagram from approx. 1.3 % at 930 C to approx. 1.65 % C at 1,030 C. Thus higher surface carbon contents can be targeted in each carburizing pulse. The higher concentration gradient results in an additional reduction of treatment times which is not even reflected in Fig. 11. When parts made of 18CrNiMo7-6 are carburized to a carburizing depth of 1,5 mm, the total process time can be reduced by 40 %, if the carburizing temperature is increased from 930 to 1,030 C. Fig. 12 shows the resulting effect on energy consumption. These values refer to 1 kg charge weight when treating a charge with 800 kg gross weight. After carburizing the parts are quenched with 12 bar Helium. In this application the energy consumption was reduced from 0,61 kWh per kg to 0,483 kWh per kg after increasing the carburizing temperature from 930 to 1,030 C. This equals a reduction of 21 %. For applications with deeper case depths, the potential for improvement is even bigger. E.g. for 15CrNi6-material
Fig. 6: Comparison between fixtures made of CFC and cast steel [3]
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Fig. 7: Equipment utilization during the ramp-up phase for a new transmission
with a case depth of 3 mm, a 55 % reduction of the total process time was verified after raising carburizing temperature from 950 to 1,050 C. However, it should be noted that carburizing temperatures above 980 C may have a negative impact on the microstructure of the components. With temperatures above 980 C large grains may be formed. This grain growth may deteriorate the fatigue properties of the components. In order to counter this effect, micro-alloyed materials were developed which can be carburized at temperatures above 1,050 C without significant grain growth.
Fig. 8: Equipment utilization in the gear production over a period of one year
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for such a combined process is the sinter-hardening of powder-metallurgical parts. During sinter-hardening both sintering and hardening are performed in one heat. This leads to a significant reduction of energy consumption.
Practical implementation of an energy efficient case-hardening process in large-scale production A Japanese automotive company expanded its production capacity for case-hardening of transmission components. A modular vacuum heat treatment system of the type ModulTherm with oil-quenching was installed. After the successful start of production, the vacuum furnace technology was compared with the existing conventional technology, i.e. atmospheric gas carburizing with oil quenching in a continuous furnace. The result of this comparison is shown in Fig. 13. The new vacuum furnace technology led to a significant energy conservation of 39 % which equals a CO2-reduction of 50 %, according to calculations by the NREA (New & Renewable Energy Authority). The manufacturer of the vacuum system was awarded the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy- prize in 2011 for this achievement [7].
Fig. 10: Comparison of heating rates with vacuum heating and convective heating
Conclusion
Enhancing the energy efficiency of thermoprocessing systems is of great ecological and economical importance. Vacuum heat treatment plants are generally heated electrically. There are many possibilities to increase the energy efficiency of these plants. The use of optimized thermal insulation of the furnace chamber and the use of fixtures for load-charging made of carbon-fibre reinforced carbon (CFC) reduces energy consumption significantly. Compared to continuous furnaces, modular systems offer clear advantages when the production-capacity is only partly needed. The use of a modular system allows the user to tailor the number of individual treatment chambers depending on the respective production requirements. An example from the gear industry
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Fig. 11: Carburizing depth as a function of carburizing temperature and carburizing time (without heating up) [4]
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ing peak demand and avoiding unnecessary heating. Accelerated processes such as high temperature case hardening enhance the energy efficiency significantly. An application was presented where the energy consumption per kg material was reduced from 0.61 kWh to 0.483 kWh after increasing the process temperature from 930 to 1,030 C. This is equivalent to a saving of 21 %. When selecting auxiliary units such as drives, vacuum pumps and compressors their energy efficiency must be taken into account.
Literature
[1] Beneke, F. et al: VDMA-Leitfaden Energieeffizienz von Thermoprozessanlagen; VDMA Thermoprozesstechnik, 2011 [2] Heuer, V. und Lser, K.: Kapitel 8.2 Grundlagen der Vakuumwrmebehandlung in Praxishandbuch Thermoprozesstechnik, Vulkan-Verlag 2010; ISBN 978-3-8027-2947-8 [3] GTD Graphit Technologie GmbH [4] Autorenkollektiv AWT-FA 5; AK4: Die Prozessregelung beim Gasaufkohlen und Einsatzhrten; Expert Verlag 1997 [5] Beneke, F., S. Schalm: Prozesswrme Energieeffizienz in der industriellen Thermoprozesstechnik. Essen: Vulkan-Verlag 2011, S.402-410, ISBN 978-3-8027-2962-1 [6] Koch, A., Steinke, H., Brinkbumer, F., Schmitt, G.: Hochtemperatur-Vakuumaufkohlung fr groe Aufkohlungstiefen an hoch belasteten Rundstahlketten. In: Der Wrmebehandlungsmarkt 4/2008, S. 5-7 [7] Information Daido Steel Co. Ltd., to be published in 2012
Fig. 12: Energy consumption in kWh corresponding to 1 kg load weight (800 kg gross weight, carburizing depth 1.5 mm and 12 bar He-quenching)
Authors
Dr. Volker Heuer ALD Vacuum Technologies GmbH
Fig. 13: CO2-reduction during case-hardening of transmis- sions through the use of modular vacuum-systems [7]
Hanau, Germany Tel.: +49 (0)6181/ 307-3372 dr.volker.heuer@ald-vt.de Dr. Klaus Lser
showed a reduction of the annual energy consumption of 25 %. Modern thermoprocessing plants are equipped with an energy management system with automated start and shut down of the plant. The starting time and sequence of the different units are set, thus reduc-
ALD Vacuum Technologies GmbH Hanau, Germany Tel.: +49 (0)6181/ 307-3366 dr.klaus.loeser@ald-vt.de
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