DIGITAL MEDIA AND THE INDIGENIZATION OF CHRISTIANITY IN CHINA

by Tania Matthews A departmental research project completed in fulfillment of the requirements of COMM495r, Departmental Honors The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Dr. Zibin Guo, Dr. Kit Rushing, Dr. Rebekah Bromley and Dr. Dennis Plaisted Fall 2006-Spring 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 3 Research Objectives................................................................................................ 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 12 Religion in China .................................................................................................... 12 Indigenization of Christianity in China................................................................... 22 Internet in China ..................................................................................................... 40 Chinese Christianity and the World Wide Web...................................................... 58 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 69 RESEARCH METHODS ........................................................................................... 71 Internet Accessibility Sampling and Tests.............................................................. 71 Chinese Christian Web Sources and Content ......................................................... 78 Catholic Church Indigenization Case Study ........................................................... 79 DATA RESULTS AND ANALYSIS......................................................................... 81 Web Site Sources .................................................................................................... 82 Summary of Web Site Accessibility Tests.............................................................. 83 Accessible Web SitesAlways Uploaded ............................................................. 85 Inconsistent Web SitesInconsistently Uploaded................................................. 97 Inaccessible Web SitesNever Uploaded ........................................................... 102 Shanghai Catholic Diocese ................................................................................... 105 Dali Catholic Church ............................................................................................ 110 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 118 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................... 123 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 124 Suggestions for Further Study .............................................................................. 125 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................... 127 Appendix A: Data from Web Site Testing................................................................ 147 USA (6/15/06-6/18/06) ......................................................................................... 147 Shanghai (6/22/06)................................................................................................ 153 Suzhou (6/24/06)................................................................................................... 156 Nanjing (6/25/06).................................................................................................. 159 Kunming (6/27/06-6/28/06) .................................................................................. 162 Lijiang (6/30/06-7/2/06)........................................................................................ 165 Lijiang Downtown Internet Caf Cross-Check (7/3/06)....................................... 173 Beijing (7/4/06)..................................................................................................... 177 USA (7/8/06)......................................................................................................... 186 Appendix B: List of Web Sites Tested in China....................................................... 188 Appendix C: Consent Forms..................................................................................... 201 ABOUT THE AUTHOR .......................................................................................... 204

1 ABSTRACT This paper examines the relationship between the explosive growth of the Internet in Chinaa means of accessing Western cultural ideas and practicesand the cultural construction of indigenous Chinese Christianity. Internet technology gives people around the world access to a global network of cultures and ideas. Chinas leadership has actively promoted the expansion of the Internet in China for economic growth on an international scale; however, social theorists have argued that Chinese authorities have also employed the most sophisticated Internet filtering regime in the world to resist the influx of Western ideas and culture available on the Internet, notably in the domain of religion. The researcher tested the accessibility of a sample of 77 Chinese-Christian religious Web sites and 26 Christian Web sites in English on a 17-day trip through six cities in China and discovered that the Web sites were almost always accessible to mainland Chinese people from June to July 2006. Many of the Web sites created for Chinese people by Chinese Christians originated outside of China. The researcher also examined the factors contributing to the degree of indigenization versus Westernization of Christianity in China by comparing indigenous and Western architectural features on church buildings in Shanghai and in Dali. The two cities had equal access to the Internet, however the Western or indigenous features on the buildings directly reflected the Western and/or Chinese Christian leadership in the cities when the churches were built.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION The simultaneous growth of the Internet and Christianity in China has the potential to influence both the communication and anthropological fields of study. Today, the growth of indigenous Christianity in Africa, Latin America and Asia has come as a surprise to some in the West who thought that Christianity was gradually dying out as a relic of Western past.1 Christianity, a religion that began with a Jewish man Jesus death and resurrection in Jerusalem in 33 C.E.2, never belonged exclusively to the West, and the recent resurgence of Christianity in Africa and Asia bears witness to that fact.3 The number of Christians in China has grown exponentially within the last 40 years. In the 1960s under Communist Chairman Mao Zedong the fledgling Christian population in China was estimated at less than 500,000 Christians.4 Chinese

Lamin O. Sanneh, Whose Religion is Christianity? the Gospel Beyond the West, (Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Pub., 2003), 14. we were told as late as the 1970s to expect a steady decline in Christian numbers by 2000, with the resurgence of Islam sealing the fate of the churchSo the expansion of Christianity at the end of the twentieth century has come as something of a surprise. 2 Dennis McCallum, Chronological Study of the Life of Christ, Xenos Christian Fellowship, 2006, Xenos Christian Fellowship, 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.xenos.org/classes/chronc.htm>. 3 Sanneh, 14. The facts of the expansion are in little dispute In 1962 when Africa had largely slipped out of colonial control, there were about 60 million Christians, with Muslims at about 145 millionBy 1985 it had become clear that a major expansion of Christianity had been under way in Africa in spite of prevailing pessimism about the imminent collapse of postindependent states, and of waning confidence in the church in Europe. Although they were little prepared for it, the churches found themselves as the only viable structures remaining after the breakdown of state institutions, and as such had to shoulder a disproportionate burden of the problems in their societies. 4 Jonathan Aiken, Beijing Bows to Belief, The American Spectator 29 Sept. 2005, sec. High Spirits. Lexis Nexis. 5 Dec. 2005: 2. At the height of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s, Chairman Mao expelled the last of the old Western missionaries and ruthlessly persecuted what remained of their dwindling flock, which numbered less than half a million.

4 academics in 2004 estimated the number of registered and unregistered Christians in China at 45 million, while other researchers estimated 90 million.5 Jason Kindopp, an editor of the Brookings Institute publication God and Caesar in China described the significance of these numbers, saying China now has the worlds second-largest Christian populationbehind only the United Statesand if current growth rates continue, China will become a global center of evangelical Christianity in coming decades.6 One possible reason for why a number of Chinese people have begun to convert to Christianity on mainland China is that Christianity in China has become a truly indigenous movement. Indigenization refers to a trend in China to modify Christianity to fit the local culture.7 Sometimes that means eliminating Western influences on the church in China, other times it refers to the incorporation of Chinese practices.8

Sarah Schafer and Craig Simmons, Onward, Christian Soldiers; Chinese missionaries are souls across the Middle Kingdomand plan to spread even farther (Cover Story), Newsweek International 10 May 2004: 24-27, InfoTrac Web. 5 Dec. 2005, 26. 6 Jason Kindopp, Jason Kindopp and Carol L. Hamrin, eds., Policy Dilemmas in Chinas ChurchState Relations: an Introduction, God and Caesar in China: Policy Implications of Church-State Tensions, 1st ed. (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2004), 2. 7 Conrad P. Kottak, Cultural Anthropology, 11th ed. (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2006) 349-371. When outside forces enter new settings, they typically are indigenizedmodified to fit the local culture. Mass media can diffuse the culture of a country within its borders, thus enhancing national identity. 8 Luo Guanzong, Remembering the Past as a Lesson for the Future, Chinese Theological Review (2004): 1-16, 29 Sept. 2006 <http://www.christianityinchina.org/PreGen/n465/Theol_Rev_18.pdf>, 13. Luo Guanzong, the director of the CCC (China Christian Council) and the TSPM (Three Self Patriotic Movement) wrote in his 2004 forward to the Chinese Theological Review that this undertaking of indigenization involves a reform of structure, literature, and theology to adapt the Gospel to Chinese culture and people.

5 Today in China, a Christian revival9 is occurring at the same time as the explosive spread of the Internet. There is little if any evidence of causation factors between the two, though some Christians have advocated the use of the Internet as a medium for evangelism in China. In 1995, Andy Su of Tien Dao10 Christian Media posted a message in English on the Internet urging Christians to use the Internet as a medium to spread the Gospel to the Chinese people.11

Tony Lambert, The Resurrection of the Chinese Church, (Wheaton Ill: Harold Shaw, 1994), 156. Revival as a distinct work of God has a distinguished history throughout the world. A genuine spiritual revival may be defined as occurring when: 1. The people of God are stirred to pray fervently for the low state of the church, and for the unconverted world. 2. Powerful preachers of the gospel are raised up by God to proclaim the gospel with unusual spiritual force. 3. The church is convicted of a deep sense of sin before a holy God. 4. Individuals and churches repent of specific sins. 5. A new sense of joy permeates the church, making the gospel and the things of God become real. 6. The Christian church has a marked impact on the surrounding community. 7. God works visibly in supernatural ways. 10 Andy Su, Gospel, Computer and Chinese, CCIM, 14 Aug. 1995, Chinese Christian Internet Mission, 15 July 2006 <http://www.ccim.org/Publishing/Share/comp_you/eng.html> and Tian, Sunrain, 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/> and Dao, Sunrain, 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Tien is an alternate spelling of tian [], the correct pinyin spelling. The organization Tien Dao [] is based out of Cupertino, California. They hosted a Web page with an evangelistic mission to and resources for Chinese speakers. In December 1995, Andy Su of Tien Dao Christian Media posted a goal online of gathering together technology professionals to provide Christian, Chinese-directed electronic resources to reach every family in China through television and computer network(s). Tien dao [] means heavenly way. 11 ATIP98.090: the Internet in China, Asian Technology Information Program, Beijing: ATIP, 1998, 14 July 2006 <http://www.atip.org/public/atip.reports.98/atip98.090r.html>. Andy Sus call to action at the end of 1995 preceded a critical time for the growth of the Internet in China. In the following year (1996) the number of Internet service providers in China grew to four times as many as in 1995. The number of Internet subscribers in China also increased to ten times as many subscribers as there were in 1995.

6 A large number of Chinese converting to Christianity live outside China.12 It is estimated that approximately 10 percent of the 600,000 Chinese now studying abroad at the undergraduate level or above have become Christians.13 There are an estimated 62.5 million Chinese people of Chinese descent14those born in China or with Chinese ethnicitywho live outside mainland China,15 and many of the creators of the Christian Web sites specifically for Chinese mass media consumers are among them. The accessibility of Christian Web sites in China could potentially unite overseas Chinese Christians with Christians inside China who have Internet access. However, Christians living in mainland China are supposed to remain autonomous from foreign Christian leadership and resources. The Chinese government actively promotes the propagation of Internet technology for economic development, but mandates that Christians in China maintain their autonomy from foreign Christians in

Fengang Yang and Joseph B. Tamney, Exploring Mass Conversion to Christianity, Sociology of Religion: a Quarterly Review 67 (2006): 126. Conversion amongst certain sociocultural groups may be called mass conversion, by which we mean the phenomenon of religious conversion happening to individuals in a society within a relatively short period of time In this collection, four of the five papers concentrate on Christian conversion among different segments of the Chinese population in the United States, from the most recent foreign students from the Peoples Republic of China to second generation Chinese-American Christian college students. We also include an article about conversion to Christianity in urban Taiwan. A recent article (Yang 2005) on conversion in urban China may be read as a supplement to the current collection as well. 13 John K. Chang, Striving Toward the Chinese Century, China Source 2002, 23 Oct. 2006 <http://www.chsource.org/Striving.htm>. 14 About Us, HuayiNet, 2005, Inter-Agency Committee on Chinese Overseas Databank & Research, Singapore, 6 Sept. 2006 <http://www.huayinet.org/aboutus/aboutus.htm>. 15 Overseas Chinese, Wikipedia, 29 Aug. 2006, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 6 Sept. 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Chinese>.

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7 the West.16 Whether foreign Christians includes Chinese Christians living overseas and their cohorts is not specified. One can only speculate at the present time what the future of collaboration between technologically savvy Christians inside and outside China will bring. The unregistered house churches in China as a group have expressed their desire to participate in the universal church.17 Many Christian believers in China are seeking to connect with believers in other countriesChinese and foreignand the Internet provides a channel for interpersonal communication. The editors of the quarterly review Sociology of Religion 2006 summer issue suggested that the ability of Chinese living overseas and those living in mainland China to influence one another should not be underestimated. Given the intensive transnational networks in the accelerating globalization process (Yang 2002a), what happens in Chinese diasporic communities is likely to have a significant impact in Chinese societies, and vice versa.18

Kim-Kwong Chan and Eric R. Carlson, Religious Freedom in China: Policy, Administration, and Regulation--a Research Handbook, (Santa Barbara: Institute for the Study of American Religion, 2005), 4. Article 36 of the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China specifies that Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination. 17 David Aikman, Jesus in Beijing, (Washington D.C.: Regnery Publishing Inc., 2003), 304. the state policy does not allow us [the house churches] to have communication with churches overseas, but the Bible teaches that the church is universal and that there is no division between Chinese and foreigners, for Christ has redeemed His people from all nations with His blood and that the believers are to love each other and to have communion with each other. 18 Yang and Tamney, 126. Meanwhile, whereas the immediate social, political, and cultural contexts in these societies are different, significant numbers of people are converting to Christianity rather than retaining or returning to traditional Chinese traditions. This phenomenon is intriguing

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8 While the potential of the Internet to promote a free flow of information has been studied in the context of furthering democracy,19 few if any studies exist on the potential for Internet impact on indigenous Christianity in China. Many books have been written describing the indigenization of Christianity in China,20 but these books by and large do not discuss the Internet as an agent for or against indigenization. While the Internet and Christianity are both growing exponentially in China, only a little more than 10 percent of people in China are Internet users21 and less than 10 percent of people in China are Christians.22 It is unknown how many people fall into both categories on mainland China. Among overseas Chinese, however, it is clear that many people are both Internet users and Christians. As more Chinese-speaking people are able to access more Christian materials online, there is the potential for increased exchange of information, both nationally and internationally. More people in China have access to the Internet than ever before, and religious resources are on the World Wide Web for Chinese people, but researchers

One example is the book Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule by Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas, published in 2003. 20 One example is the book, Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity is Transforming China and Changing the Global Balance of Power by David Aikman, published in 2003. 21 Brian Carnell, China's Population Surpasses 1.3 Billion, Overpopulation.Com, 9 Apr. 2005, 13 Sept. 2006 <http://www.overpopulation.com/archives/years/2005/000006.html> and Internet Users Top 20 Countries - Internet Usage, Internet World Stats, 11 Jan. 2007, The Internet Coaching Library, 23 Jan. 2007 <http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm>. There are 1.3 billion people in the Chinese population and 132 million Internet users, so approximately 10.15 percent of the Chinese population were Internet users as of December 2006. 22 Carnell, <http://www.overpopulation.com/archives/years/2005/000006.html> and Schafer and Simons, 26. Average estimates for the number of Christians in China average about 90 million, or 6.92 percent of the Chinese population.

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9 have debated about the general accessibility of online resources in China given the Chinese governments attempts to filter the Internet. A joint study called the OpenNet Initiative23 conducted by the University of Toronto, Harvard University and Cambridge University reported that Chinas Internet filtering regime is the most sophisticated effort of its kind in the world.24 Western social theorists and researchers tend to be alarmed by government restrictions of the Internet in China.25 The Chinese government filtersamong other things26online religious content. Web sites must not break the religious policy of the State [and/or] spread evil cults or feudal superstition.27 The controversy about the extent of Chinas Internet filtering technology with relation to religious content warrants field research to test whether a standard spread of Christian Web sites [some in Chinese and in some in English] can be uploaded in China.

Jonathan L. Zittrain and John G. Palfrey, Jr., Internet Filtering in China in 2004-2005: a Country Study, Citizen Lab at the Munk Centre for International Studies at the University of Ontario, Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School, Advanced Network Research Group at the Cambridge Security Programme (Centre for International Studies) at the University of Cambridge, OpenNet Initiative, 2005, 14 July 2006, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. The OpenNet Initiative is a collaborative partnership between three leading academic institutions: the Citizen Lab at the Munk Centre for International Studies, University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard Law School; and the Advanced Network Research Group at the Cambridge Security Programme ( Center for International Studies) at the University of Cambridge. 24 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. 25 The 15 Enemies of the Internet and Other Countries to Watch, News From Around the World, 17 Nov. 2005, Reporters Without Borders for Press Freedom, 13 Sept. 2006 <http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=15613>. 26 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. China filters unconstitutional materials online, content that endangers or harms the state, content that disrupts unity or breeds hatred among ethnic groups, content that breaks religious policy or spreads evil cults or feudal superstition; pornography, gambling, terrorism, slander and anything prohibited by laws and administrative rules. 27 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>.

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10 If the exponential increase in numbers of Chinese Christians and Chinese Internet users continues in coming decades, the relationship between the Internet and indigenous Christianity in China deserves continued study. This study on digital media and the indigenization of Christianity in China may serve as a point of comparison for later studies of the growing interaction between communication technology and culture.

Research Objectives (1) To discover how accessible Web sites related to Christianity are in China by testing 103 pre-selected Web sites in various locations in China. (2) To analyze the sampled Web sites with respect to content, source and place of origin. (3) To examine the factors surrounding the Westernization and indigenization of Christianity in China and by observing Western and indigenous features on Imperialist-Era Catholic church buildings and associated printed materials in the cities of Shanghai and Dali in Shanghai Municipality and Yunnan Province respectively.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

12 LITERATURE REVIEW

Religion in China The Western conception of a religion is typically based around sets of beliefs.28 Christianity has been propagated in Western culture through the belief that Jesus is the Son of God who takes away the sin of those who repent and believe29 in him. Traditionally, when the Chinese conceptualize religion, the first word that comes to mind is not beliefs but rather ritesa set of activities, a form of ritual intended for efficacious communion and intercourse between the human and nonhuman realms.30 As such, religion has long been an integral part of Chinese culture. The Chinese government today classifies religion in China into four categories. The first category consists of the five recognized religions: Daoism, Buddhism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism.31 These five religious categories can encompass a broad range of beliefs, for example, the Lahu minority group in southern
28

United Nations, General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 Dec. 1948, 6 Mar. 2007 <http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html>. Article 18 of the United Nations Universal declaration of Human Rights Recognizes both religious beliefs and religious practices as legitimate manifestations of religion. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. 29 The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Mark 1: 14-15 (Wheaton: Crossway Bibles, Good News, 2001), 1588. Now after John was arrested, Jesus came into Galilee, proclaiming the Gospel of God, and saying, The time is fulfilled, and the Kingdom of God is at hand; repent and believe in the Gospel. 30 Anthony C. Yu, State and Religion in China Historical and Textual Perspectives, (Chicago, Ill: Open Court, 2005). 22.

13 Yunnan Province who sacrifice animals to many gods and spirits are labeled Buddhists.32 The second category of religion in China is unregistered religious organizations, some of which function comfortably under local governing bodies while others are referred to as evil cults.33 Autonomous Christian communities, also called house churches34 fit into this category. The third religious category is the feudal superstitions and/or folk religions grouping.35 The last category encompasses all the religions of the minority groups in China, protected as their cultural heritage.36 Providing a demographic overview of the religious identities of people in China is very difficult for several reasons. For one, it is generally acceptable in China to practice more than one religion at once.37 The researcher has observed a Buddhist temple in Kunming that has enshrined the local deities in the temple to be worshipped along with the Buddhist deities.38

Chan and Carlson, 13. Tetsunao Yamamori and Kim-Kwong Chan, Witnesses to Power: Stories of God's Quiet Work in a Changing China, (Waynesboro: Paternoster, 2000), 30. 33 Chan and Carlson, 13. 34 Yamamori and Chan, xviii. 35 Chan and Carlson, 13. 36 Chan and Carlson, 13. 37 Chinese Religions, China, 2001, Chine-informations.com, 6 Sept. 2006 <http://www.chineinformations.com/mods/dossiers/index.php?lg=en&action=fiche&id=24>. 38 Joseph M. Kitagawa, Buddhism and Asian Politics, Asian Survey July 1962: 1-11, JSTOR, 7 Dec. 2006, 3. Inevitably, when Buddhism was transplanted into China, it had to be conditioned by the historical experiences and cultural assumptions of the Chinese people. The same was true with Buddhist development in other parts of the Far East, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. The result is that Buddhism from the tenth to the nineteenth century developed and behaved very much as though it
32

31

14 A second reason that it is difficult to assign religious identities to people in China is that religion and philosophy in China are often intermixed, making it difficult to draw distinctions.39 The root word for religion, jiao,40 refers to the human ability to discern things in nature.41 Heaven suspends patterned images, and humans act on these things; this is called jiao.42 The Three Religions of China Confucianism, 43 Daoism,44 and Buddhism45are referred to as sanjiao.46 Christianity or Protestantism47 is jidujiao48 in Chinese, meaning the jiao or

were a national or local religion, each manifestation confined to a particular and insular culture or natural region, thus developing a series of culturally oriented religions, such as, Burmese Buddhism, Thai Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, etc. One of the significant characteristics of this culturally oriented phase of Buddhism is that it rarely demanded an either/or decision from peoples of non-Buddhist background. When Buddhism entered a new area, it usually presented itself more as a supplement than as a contestant to existing religions and cultures. 39 Religious and political philosophy are often intermixed in China. In the largest bookstore in Shanghai, the Shanghai City of Books [], the philosophy section of the store contains books on religious philosophy [Zen Buddhism and Christianity for example], as well as books on political philosophy by Karl Marx and Lenin. 40 Jiao, Sunrain, 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>.[] 41 The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Psalms 19:1-3, 873. Christianity also speaks about the discourse of nature, specifically as pointing to a Creator God. The heavens declare the glory of God, the sky above proclaims his handiwork. Day to day pours out speech, and night to night reveals knowledge. There is no speech, nor are there words, whose voice is not heard. 42 Yu, 17. The Lexicon Guangyun was compiled by Chen Pengnan, and the cited quotation is from the Chunqiu or yaunmingbao, a rhyming dictionary from the Song Dynasty in 1007 C.E. 43 Yu, 19 and Wing-Tsit Chan, Chinese Philosophy, 1949-1963, (Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1967), 19 and Thomas A. Wilson, Images of the Temple of Culture, The Cult of Confucius, 2004, Hamilton College, 6 Sept. 2006 <http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/TempleCulture.html>. The scholar Confucius Kongzi [] exemplifies the close relationship between religion and philosophy in China. Confucius fills the roles of a philosopher and of a god. The written Analects lunyu [] of the teachings of Confucius date back to before the year 2 BCE. The earliest temple to Confucius is built in his hometown and dates back even earlier478 BCE. Confucianism is typically not considered a religion in the West because, among other reasons, it does not advocate prayer, a practice universally regarded as religious. 44 Daojiao, Sunrain, 11 Oct. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Taoism is daojiao []. 45 Fojiao, Sunrain, 11 Oct. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Buddhism is fojiao []. 46 San, Sunrain, 6 Mar. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/> and Jiao, <http://www.sunrain.net/>. San [] means three and jiao [] means a teaching or instruction. 47 Wang and Yang, 188.

15 teaching of yesu jidu49 or Jesus Christ. Catholicism50 in Chinese is tienzhu zhengjiao51 meaning orthodox religion of the Lord of Heaven.52 A third reason it is difficult to classify religious beliefs in China is that in China, many deceased people [such as Confucius] are worshiped as gods apart from any religion.53 For example, the City God Temple in Shanghai houses two city gods, Qin Yubo who the first Ming Emperor appointed to be the city god, and also a statue of Huo Guang, a general in the Han dynasty.54 Neither god fits into the category of a nationally established religion. Finally, the traditional religious practice of ancestor worship55 or ancestor veneration56 is not classified as an official religion in China. Despite not being

Jidujiao, Sunrain, 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Jidujiao[] means Christianity or the teaching of Christ. 49 Yesu, Sunrain, 6 Mar. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/>, "Jidu," Sunrain, 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/> and Yesujidu." Sunrain. 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Yesu [] refers to Jesus. Jidu [] means mediator. Yesujidu [] refers to Jesus Christ. 50 Wang and Yang, 188. 51 Yu, 8. Tianzhu zhengjiao [] means orthodox religion of the Lord of Heaven. 52 Yu, 8. Mateo Ricci, a pioneer Jesuit missionary who was in China from 1582 to 1610 gave this Chinese name to Christianity []. 53 Yu, 21. Theism in the Western European or classical Indian sense may have been wanting in ancient Chinese culture, but other loci of transcendence as powerful as any similar systems are readily discernable. While the enjoinment to praying individually may have received only ambiguous assessment by Confucius, no student of early Chinese culturecan overlook the importance of ritual, centrally defined as various forms of state and communal divinations and sacrifices that must be revered and practiced as lifelong obligations. 54 City God Temple (Yuyuan Commercial City), Shanghai Tour, 2003, Shanghai Municipal Tourism Administrative Commission, 6 Sept. 2006 <http://lyw.sh.gov.cn/en/tour/rs_detail.aspx?id=4>. 55 Yu, 20. sacrifices to ancestors (both royal and commoner) in ethics and politics has always been, as we shall see below, the lynchpin of the enduring state cult ideology down through the centuries. Without a robust conviction on the afterlife that manifests itself first and foremost in ancestral intervention and supervenience in human affairs, the imperial cult no less than the ordinary subjects of the Chinese state could not have persisted so long in their particular forms of historical existence for so long. The Chinese term for ancestor worship is baizu [].

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16 termed a religion, ancestral rites have been described as the glue holding Chinese society together.57 Confucianisma framework for Chinese social interaction stemming from the Analects of Confucius or lunyu58 which came into use in the second century B.C.E.59has traditionally been the dominant ideology of the upper classes in China.60 Western missionaries emphasized perceived similarities between Confucian values and Christian values in the late 19th century, for example, John Stronach, author of Questions about Christianity wrote that Christianscan accept the Confucian emphasis on self-cultivation, an upright heart, and a sincere spirit (xiu shen, zheng xin, cheng yi), but they believe that this can be accomplished only through Jesus salvation and by the help of the Holy Spirit. 61

Richard R. Wertz, Ancestor Worship, Culture, 2006, Exploring Chinese History, 6 Sept. 2006 <http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/02cul/c03sb05.html>. Ancestor veneration is a translation of jingzu []. 57 Ralph R. Covell, Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ a History of the Gospel in Chinese, (Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis Books, 1986), 121. 58 Lunyu, Sunrain, 2 Apr. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. The Analects of Confucius []. 59 Chan, 19. The name Lun-yu did not appear until the 2nd century B.C. At that time there were three versions of it with some variations. 60 Stephen Greer and Tiong P. Lim, Confucianism: Natural Law Chinese Style? Ratio Juris 11 (1998): 80-89, citing Yu-lan Fung, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, New York: MacMillan, 1950. It was not until several centuries after his death that the teachings of Confucius became the official creed of the governing elite in China, a status they retained until the late 19th Century. 61 Covell, 95.

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17 Taoism62 or Daoism is a religion/way of thinking that began in earnest in China in about the 1st century B.C.E.63 Christianity and Taoism have some intriguing congruities, for example, some of the attributes of ChristChrist as the self-existing God,64 who existed before all of creation,65 Christ as creator, 66 Christ as the revealer of truth who descended to earth67correspond with attributes of the leader of the supreme trinity of Taoism, Yuanshi Tianzun known as the First Principle, the first

Pas, Julian F. and Man Kam Leung. Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 1998. This Tao is deepest mystery, it cannot be grasped by the rational mind only, but intuitively, if the mind is still and desires are controlled. This must be done through spiritual cultivation, through contemplation. Only those who are able to gain a deep insight into the nature of the Tao are entitled to rule the country. 63 Chan, 136. Taoism and Confucianism possess major differences, outlined by Wing-tsit Chan in his text A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy: Chinese civilization and the Chinese character would have been utterly different if the book Lao Tzu had not been writtenIt is true that, while Confucianism emphasizes social order and an active life, Taoism concentrates on individual life and tranquilityBut, in reality, by opposing Confucian conformity with non-conformity and Confucian worldliness with a transcendental spirit, Taoism serves as a severe critic of Confucianism. 64 Taoist Deities, Taoism and the Philosophy of Tai Chi Chuan, Chebucto Community Net, 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/religious-tao.html>. He is self-existing, changeless, limitless, invisible, contains all virtues, is present in all places and is the source of all truth. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Col. 1:15-17, 2005. He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation. For by him all things were createdand he is before all things, and in him all things hold together. 65 Taoist Deities, <http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/religious-tao.html>. He existed before the void and the silence, before primordial chaos. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Gen. 1:2, 6. The earth was without form and void, and darkness was over the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters. 66 Pas and Leung, 373. Yuanshi Tianzun is believed to have existed before the creation of the universe and its 10,000 beings. He is eternal, imperishable, whereas the universe goes through cycles of creation and destruction. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, John 1:1-4, 1683. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things were made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made. 67 Pas and Leung, 373. When a new creation of the universe takes place, he descends to earth to reveal to mankind the secrets of the Tao. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, John 1:9-10, 1683. The true light, which enlightens everyone, was coming into the world. He was in the world, and the world was made through him, yet the world did not know him.

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18 of the three highest deities of the Taoist Pantheon.68 Concepts that exist in both Christianity and Taoism include the existence of the human soul,69 eternal life,70 a bodily resurrection,71 and references to a Book of Life.72 Not only Western Christians, but also Chinese Christians have seized on concepts held in common to promote Christianity to Chinese people. Documentary film maker and writer, Yuan Zhiming, who fled China after his film River Elegy helped to inspire the Tiananmen Square protest in 1989,73 asserts in his book Chinese Confession that the most ancient classical texts say that the Chinese were worshipping

Taoist Deities, <http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/religious-tao.html>, Pas and Leung, 345 and Ebrey, cover page. The worship of these deities is said to have begun during the period of the Six Dynasties from 280-589 A.D. 69 Pas and Leung, 161. It was an early Chinese belief that human beings were endowed with two souls: a hun or yang soul and a po or yin soul. If the two separate, death follows. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Matt. 10:28, 1547. And do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell. 70 Pas and Leung, 165. to be freed from punishment in hell, to be assigned a favorable reincarnation, that is eternal life. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, John 3:16, 1547. For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life. 71 Pas and Leung, 162. Xianthe ideal Taoist realized stateBefore Taoism adopted this idea of transcendent perfection it was already part of the popular tradition: this has transpired from funeral texts found in Han tombsIt is likely that they hoped for what A. Seidel has called post-mortem immortality: This would involve a bureaucratic decision to restore the deceased body and reunite it with the soul, to live in heaven forever. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Gen. 1:2, 6. I tell you brothers: flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable. Behold! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable, and we shall be changed. For this perishable body must put on the imperishable, and this mortal body must put on immortality. 72 Pas and Leung, 164. If one chooses the harder path of full-time spiritual practice, it will take years of intense effort to have ones name transferred to the Book of Life. The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Revelation 20:12, 15, 2000. And the dead were judged by what was written in the books, according to what they had doneAnd if anyones name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire. 73 Wang and Yang, 179. Yuan Zhiming converted to Christianity after arriving in the United States and was baptized at Princeton University in 1991.

68

19 the God of Heaven Shangdi74 long before the civilizations that the missionaries came from existed.75 He argues that the Bible is the means by which the Chinese can reconnect with their historical and cultural roots and rediscover God.76 While ancestor worship, Confucianism and Daoism can accurately be described as indigenous to China, other religions such as Buddhism, Islam and Christianity started outside of China, entered as foreign religions, and were later indigenized. Indigenization, again, refers to the process by which outside forces enter new settings and are modified to fit the local culture.77 Buddhism is said to have arrived in China between 50 B.C.E. and 50 C.E.,78 predating Christianitys arrival in China by about 600 years.79 In the 7th century C.E. a Chinese Buddhist priest, Chen Xuanzang made an epic pilgrimage to the West80 or what is now modern-day India, and brought back 75 translated volumes [or 1,341

"Shangdi," Sunrain, 2 Apr. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. The Supreme; the Supreme Intelligence; God; the Supreme Being []. 75 Wang and Yang, 186. 76 Wang and Yang, 186. This book [Chinese Confession] reinterprets the Chinese history from a Christian theological perspective. It makes powerful arguments with passionate words: God was not absent in Chinese history. Rather, God has been present in China, worshipped by the Chinese in the most ancient times as reflected in the most ancient texts of the five classics. But God had been concealed by idolatries and political authoritarianism in the post classic eras. Once we know the messages revealed in the Bible, we can reconnect with our cultural roots, salvage the valuable elements in our culture, and shake off the curse of evil. This book has helped many Chinese Christians to find the connection between Christianity and Chinese culture. 77 Kottak, 350. When outside forces enter new settings, they typically are indigenizedmodified to fit the local culture. 78 Yu, 90. 79 Covell, 22. The first Christian missionaries to go to China were the Nestorians, and they were in China in a recognizable force in 635 C.E. 80 Yu, 131.

74

20 scrolls] of Buddhist scripture.81 Though the religion has experienced bouts of persecution in China,82 Buddhism has proven to be an exceptionally adaptive religion, shaking off the initial disapproval for its anti-Confucian values, such as abandoning ones parents to join the Sangha or lead a life of mendicancy, the cessation of ancestral sacrifices, the mutilation of ones body (by shaving ones hair when one becomes a nun or priest), and the effective severance of ones lineage by taking the vow of celibacy if the family has no male heir alive,83 and become an indigenous Chinese phenomenon. Islam in China has faced a different set of circumstances from Christianity and Buddhism. Islam is estimated to have arrived in China beginning around the start of the 7th century through migrant Arab, Persian, Central Asian and Mongolian Muslims who settled in southeast China [though it was not part of China yet.]84 Muslims also migrated into Northeastern China during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in the 13th and

Yu, 134. Yu, 117-122. The first case of major persecution [of Buddhism] arose in the reign of Taiwudi [ ] (r. 424-452) of the Tuoba Wei dynasty (386-532)When Taiwu died in 452 and Wenchang came to the throne, one of his first acts was an edict to revive BuddhismThe second episode of major persecution of Buddhism again came as a result of the running conflict between Daoism and BuddhismEmperor Wudi (r. 561-78)The third event of major imperial suppression of Buddhism, occurring during the Huichang reign period (841-46) of the Tang emperor Wuzong [], is often regarded as the most severeMost historians would probably share Stephen Teisers assessment that the unprecedented blow to Chinese Buddhist institutions was one from which they never fully recovered, despite the more lenient and restorative policies of the emperor Xuanzong [] (r. 847) that followed immediately. 83 Yu, 98. This extensive piece of recorded criticism by an official of the Jin (265-419) during the first phase of intensive Buddhist-Confucian polemical conflict touches on many of the salient faults that the Chinese would find with the teachings of Buddhism with respect to the home and family life. To leave ones home represents veritable acts of criminality. 84 Dru C. Gladney, Islam in China, Religion in China Today, (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003), 143 and 148.
82

81

21 14th centuries. Today the Hui and the Uygher minority groups in eastern China represent most of the two percent of Chinas population that are Muslim.85 Because of their minority status they have more religious freedom under law.86 Indigenous Christianity in China, unlike Buddhism and Islam, has not been accepted through the adaptability of the faith itself or through intermarriage. At the grassroots level physical healings have contributed to the acceptance of Christianity.87 In some cases a healing results in the conversion of entire families to Christianity.88 The reports of these healings lead some officials to dismiss it [Christianity] as an aberrant form of healing cult, because many of the peasants, lacking proper medical facilities, seek healing in the name of Jesus but have little other knowledge of the Christian faith.89 [Truthfully, Christianity has been a religion based on miraculous healings beginning with Jesus own ministry,90 so calling Christianity it a healing cult is a fairly accurate description.] While today in China, indigenous Christianity is

Gladney, 145. Gladney, 151. 87 Lambert, 89. The writer [from Northern Anhui Province, 1988], further stated that in his area there were no [Christian] believers prior to 1982. People had turned to Christ through listening to gospel radio programs beamed in from overseas, and then through miracles and healings. 88 Paul Hattaway, The Heavenly Man, (Grand Rapids: Monarch Books, 2002), 42. This account serves as an example of the phenomenon of miraculous healing, and should not be taken as an attempt by the researcher to prove that this phenomenon exists by listing a single persons story. There are more than enough personal accounts of miraculous healings coming out of China alone to serve as convincing proof that the phenomenon is real. I thank God that he saved my whole family. My father went home to heaven a few years after being miraculously healed of cancer. I was grieved and happy at the same time. Grieved because Id lost my father at such an early age, yet happy that the Lord had saved him. God had used my fathers illness to bring our whole family to the foot of the cross. 89 Lambert, 112. 90 The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, Mark 1:32-34, 1589. That evening at sundown they brought to him all who were sick or oppressed by demons. And the whole city was gathered at the door. And He healed many who were sick with various diseases, and cast out many demons. And he would not permit the demons to speak, because they knew him.
86

85

22 seen by many officials as superstitious, paradoxically today in the West indigenous Christianity in China is considered by many Christians to be the Gospel in its truest form.91

Indigenization of Christianity in China The indigenization of Christianity in China in the past century has resulted from Chinese efforts to change the national conception of Christianity from a Western religion to a religion that is indigenously Chinese, and also efforts by Chinese Christians to incorporate original Chinese art, music and practice into Chinese Christianity as opposed to Western art, music and practice.92 In Western literature describing the indigenization of Christianity in China, the word indigenization has been used to describe the work of missionaries in China who are judged to have succeeded in adapting the Gospel to Chinese culture, and the word syncretism has been used to deride the efforts of missionaries who were judged to have compromised the Gospel by allowing too many local customs to infiltrate.93 In each case, this use of terminology betrays an assumption that

Lambert, 287. The Chinese church has returned to the basics of Gods Word and prayer, and they also are aware of the power and the majesty of God, areas in which Western Christians perceive a deficiency in Western Christianity. 92 Syncretism, def. 1, The American Heritage Dictionaries, 27 Sept. 2006 <http://www.answers.com/topic/syncretism>. A related concept that often accompanies indigenization is syncretism. Syncretism is the reconciliation or fusion of differing systems of belief, as in philosophy or religion, especially when success is partial or the result is heterogeneous. 93 This paper, in using the word indigenization, does not focus on foreign missionary efforts to adapt Christianity to China while preserving the essence of Christianity as the missionaries thought it should be preserved. Rather this report focuses on what the Chinese have done with Christianity in adapting it to their own culture.

91

23 missionaries either control and or should control what the Chinese do with Christianity. Christian missionaries in China entered and left China several times throughout history. Jesuit missionaries94 were active in China until 1724 when the Emperor Yong Zheng cracked down on Christianity because he was angered by Pope Clement XIs95 assertion that the Jesuits were polluting the Christian faith by allowing the practice of Chinese traditions with Christianity [such as ancestor veneration].96 More than 100 years later in 1842, the Opium War with the British97 and the Treaty of Nanjing98 opened China to foreign missionaries again, until they were expelled through the formation of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. In order to better understand the impact of the Opium War and the Imperialist Era on the indigenization of Christianity in different regions in China, this paper will focus on two regions of China that differ drastically from one anotherShanghai Municipality and Yunnan Province. Each region became a relative hub for Christianity during the
94

Covell, 66. The Jesuit missionaries were famous for their indigenous approach to Christian evangelism, which some opposed as syncretism. Although the Jesuits may not have succeeded to the extent they desired, [Mateo] Riccis principles in seeking to put the Gospel into Chinese continue to be recognized as having abiding validity. He saw clearly that before he could expect the Chinese to be changed, he must change in his approach and methods. Despite having a message with carefully defined content, he perceived that it could only be meaningful within the Chinese frame of reference. He must go to the Chinese ideologically and not always expect them to come to him. 95 James F Loughlin, Pope Clement XI, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908, Robert Appleton Company, 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04029a.htm>. 96 Aikman, 34. 97 Patricia B. Ebrey, China: a Cultural, Social, and Political History, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), 217.

24 Imperialist Era, but for opposite reasonsShanghai was full of Western concessions,99 but Dali was isolated from Western influences except for some Western missionaries.100 The city of Shanghai was one of Chinas important commercial centers even before it became a treaty port.101 Shanghai is centrally located on Chinas eastern sea coast at the Yangzi River Delta with ocean access to international trade routes and river access into mainland China.102 The Chinese characters shang []103 and hai []104 can be literally translated on the ocean.105 In English, the verb to shanghai someone means to kidnap or compel someone to do something,106 perhaps representing the crushing defeat the Chinese experienced there.

Ebrey, 215. The Treaty of Nanjing also opened China to economic exploitation by imperialist nations. 99 Eriberto P. Lozada, Shanghai, Encyclopedia of Urban Cultures, (Danbury, Conn.: Grolier, 2002),181. The Opium Wars (1839-1843, 1856-1860) and the Treaty of Nanjing (1842) further increased the importance of Shanghai. British and Portuguese traders found opium to be a valuable, but illegal, commodity to exchange for Chinese tea, silks, and porcelain. When the Qing government attempted to suppress this illegal trade, hostilities increased between Chinese and British forces, and with superior technology British forces attacked and quickly overwhelmed Chinese troops. Hostilities temporarily ceased with the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, where five ports (including Shanghai) were opened for British traders to establish residence. This was further supplemented with additional treaties that effectively yielded extraterritoriality and other political and economic concessions for all foreign powers in China. In Shanghai foreign traders gradually occupied concessions to the north of the Chinese city of Shanghailand that was essentially under the political control of Western imperial powers, especially the British and the French. 100 Martin Gordon, Saving Lives in Southwest China, Great Britain China Center, 24 July 2006 <http://www.gbcc.org.uk/32article2.htm>. 101 Lozada, 181. 102 Rhodes Murphy, Shanghai: Key to Modern China, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953), 2. 103 Philip Y. Lee, 250 Essential Chinese Characters for Everyday Use, vol. 1, (Singapore: Tuttle Language Library, 2003), 133. Shang [] means to go to or on the. 104 Hai, Oxford Starter Chinese Dictionary, (New York: Oxford UP Inc., 2000), 50. Hai [] means the ocean. 105 Lozada, 180. Shanghai [] means on the sea. 106 Lozada, 180.

98

25 Shanghai arguably epitomized Western imperialism in China. An anecdotal example of the Western nations historic possessiveness of Shanghai occurred when Sun Yatsen, the Chinese revolutionary leader, returned to his home in the French concession in Shanghai 1924. He found the foreigners discussing whether he should be allowed to remain headquartered there. Foreshadowing the changes that were about to take place in China, Yatsen reminded the foreigners that they were the guests and that the Chinese were their hosts: I, as a citizen of China have every right to reside in my territory, whereas foreign residents in this country, as our guests, have no authority whatsoever to oppose the presence in any part of China of their hosts. If, therefore, foreigners should dare to oppose or obstruct my presence in Shanghai, I with the support of my countrymen, am determined to take some drastic steps to deal with themIndeed the time has come when all foreign settlements in our country should be abrogated.107 Sun Yatsens successful Nationalist movement which overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1911108 gave rise to the Republican period (1911-1949),109 in which the Nationalist Party established a cosmopolitan culture in Shanghai, blending

107 108

Harley Farnsworth MacNair, China in Revolution, (New York: H. Fertig, 1968), 76-77. Ebrey, 233. 109 Lozada, 182.

26 Chinese and Western ideologies.110 It was during this time that Shanghai Municipality became a major center for Catholicism and Christianity.111 While Shanghai may have become a hub for Christianity, particularly Roman Catholicism, during the Republican period, the city itself in many districts did not belong to the Chinese at that time, thus hindering the indigenization of the churches built there. Many of the old buildings in Shanghai were built between 1843 and 1949 while these bourgeois Western powers were in China. Many of the older churches still reflect the influence of Western builders.112 The Communist Party defeated the Nationalist Party in 1949.113 The book China in Revolution published earlier in 1931 reported that as the Communists gained power they took a special interest in routing out Christianity in China, because of its intimate relationship with the bourgeois powers of the West.114 While the city of Shanghai with its tall, Western church steeples provides one picture of Christianity in China during the Imperialist and Republican periods, the other side of the story was taking place in southeast China in Yunnan Provincea mountainous, remote and isolated region of China at the time. In 1908 an American

110 111

Lozada, 182. The Nationalist Party was known as the Guomindang or GMD. Lozada, 185. 112 Daniel H. Bays, Chinese Protestant Christianity Today, Religion in China Today, ed. Daniel L. Overmyer, (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003, 182-198), 186. Foreign missionaries left China a full half-century ago, but in many urban churches the Western imprint is still visible in church architecture, liturgy, music and theology. 113 Ebrey, 250. 114 MacNair, 197.

27 missionary James O. Fraser arrived in Yunnan at age 22.115 Within ten years he and his Chinese and Lisu116 colleagues were traveling by mule to remote Lisu villages in the Yunnan mountains, and the first Christian mission organization in China based on the principles of self-support, self government, and self-propagation117 was established. Unlike Westerners living in the foreign concessions in Shanghai, surrounded by the products and the languages of home, Frasers colleagues were not usually Westerners. Fraser worked with Lisu converts to Christianity and with Ting Limei, Chinas Moody.118 Ting and Fraser were in agreement that foreign money and foreign control would build a foreign church, and a weak one119 among the Lisu, making self-support essential despite the Lisus poverty. Today the Lisu tribe is still largely Christian,120 suggesting that the strategy worked.

115

Eileen F. Crossman, Mountain Rain: a Biography of James O. Fraser, (Wheaton Ill: Harold Shaw, 1994), 11. 116 Crossman, 173. James O. Fraser traveled and preached among the Lisu minority in Yunnan province who lived in remote mountain villages. This is a description of his attitude toward indigenization: The mountain people were poor, very poor. James knew how poor because he shared their povertyLisu food was subsistence level only, and their resistance to illness was very low. When an epidemic struck there would be death on a large scale. Their homes, too, scarcely kept out the bitter winds of winter in the heights. But the more he though about it, the more certain he became that the tribal churches would only grow strong if financially independent from the start. To be selfpropagating they would have to be self-supporting. It would have been much easier to give them money. Plenty of people in America would have sent money to build churches and pay pastors. 117 Crossman, 208. 118 Crossman, 151. Chinese Pastor Ting Limei was known as Chinas Moody because like Dwight L. Moody, he was a humble, loveable preacher and evangelist. 119 Crossman, 173-174. 120 Yamamori and Chan, 96. Among the one million Lisu in the world, almost 60 percent live in Yunnan, China, concentrated in the Nujiang Canyon (formerly known as the Selwin Valley). In spite of the unfavorable political conditions against Christianity since 1949, the Christian population among the Lisu has been growing. For example, in 1997 about 70 percent of the people in Fugong county of Nujiang prefecture were Christians. This is the highest Christian concentration in China at the county level and the first primarily Christian county in China.

28 In 1927, a key event occurred in the development of Christianity in Yunnan, precipitated by events in Shanghai. In 1925 Shanghai student and labor organizations, with the support of the growing CCP, lead a series of protests called the May Thirtieth Movement that catalyzed a nationwide nationalistic movement against foreign imperialism.121 Fraser and some other foreigners in Yunnan fled on a raft down the Yellow River to Shanghai where foreigners were converging.122 With all the missionaries briefly forced out of the city of Dali in Yunnan, Ting Limei took over control of the church in Dali and had them build a beautifully decorated chapel Chinese-style,123 which will be discussed later in the paper. In 1949 the government of the Peoples Republic of China formally expelled all foreign missionaries,124 [though all of them did not leave immediately.]125 The government later established the Christian Three-Self Patriotic Movement, abbreviated TSPM,126 which advocates self-administration, self-support, and selfpropagation127Frasers guidelines restatedfor the official church in China.

121 122

Lozada, 182. Crossman, 201. 123 Gordon, <http://www.gbcc.org.uk/32article2.htm>. 124 Aikman, 44. 125 Crossman, 298. The last CIM [China Inland Mission] workers to leave the tribes [in Yunnan Province] were John Kuhn and Charles Petersenin 1950by 1951 the Lisu church was standing on its own without foreign help, thirty years after its birth. 126 Guanzong, 2. 127 Yamamori and Chan, 81. Before 1949, there were at least one hundred and fifty different denominations represented by various mission boards in China. After 1949, the government established the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) for the church, calling for self-administration, self-support, and self-propagation. Theologically this meant the church was to be run by Chinese rather than foreigners; politically, the movement was a symbol of nationalism and patriotism; missiologically, it declared the end of foreign mission in China.

29 Luo Guanzong, the director of the CCC (China Christian Council) and the TSPM, sees the establishment of the TSPM as a triumph for China and for socialism against imperialism: The greatest achievement of the Three-Self Movement was the severing of the relationship between Christianity and imperialism, throwing off the control of foreign mission boards, and enabling a foreign religion used by imperialist aggressors to be transformed into an independent Christianity run by Chinese Christians themselves, self-governed, self-supported and self-propagated. On this basis, TSPM enabled Christianity to adapt to a socialist society. Guanzong explains both the positive and negative views of the foreign missionary efforts in his forward to the 2004 Chinese Theological Journal. First, he acknowledges the contributions that some that some missionaries made historically: Many missionaries came to China with a mission of spreading the Gospel and many gave their lives for it. They translated the Bible and did much for cultural exchange, medicine and health, worked to transform social traditions, and social service work. Some sympathized with and supported the 1911 Revolution [against the Qing Dynasty.128] In 1937, during the Nanjing Massacre, there were American missionaries and foreign nationals who risked

128

Ebrey, 236.

30 suffering and danger to form a safety zone to protect Chinese citizens. These we will always remember.129 Guanzong goes on to outline the harmful connections that missionaries had to the imperialist goals of their governments: The so-called truth that imperialism, through its exploitation of evangelism wanted to preach was that the poverty, backwardness, and suffering of the Chinese people was the will of God, and that they must submit and not resist. This explains why many missionaries, rather than doubting the policies of aggression of their governments, praised them and, consciously or not, served their governments policies of aggression toward China.130 Guanzongs analysis of the missionaries underlying motivations mirrors Robert R. Covells review of portions of Protestant missionary W.A.P. Martins book Tiandao Suyuan, published in 1854. Tiandao Suyuan was a defense of the Christian faith that appealed to many Chinese concepts and classical works and was widely distributed in China. Martin observed, [in the words of Covell,] that God had providentially granted great material resources to Christian countries so that they could sponsor missionaries and build merchant fleets to bring

129 130

Guanzong, 9. Guanzong, 10.

31 them to their destinations. By contrast, he observed, non-Christian countries were getting progressively weaker and had very few ships.131 Even Martins book, a work which affirmed the validity of Chinese scholarship, still possessed an air of perceived Western superiority. People in China who advocated the indigenization of Christianity in China prior to 1949 did not seek to withdraw from the [foreign] mission board, but rather hoped that the mission board would give the administration, finances and other authority over to a Chinese leadership.132 The independence movement ultimately prevailed and wrested Christianity in China from the hands of foreigners by sending them all out of the country. Since that time Christianity in China has grown exponentially, from approximately 3 million Roman Catholics and less than one million Protestants in 1949,133 to todays estimates of 12 million Catholics and between 80-100 million Protestants.134 Of these Chinese Christians, approximately 5 million Catholics and 15 million Protestants belong to the registered135 churches in China,136 while many of the

131

Covell, 99 and 114. Covell also notes that Catholic missionary writings from this time made few attemptsto clothe the Christian faith in Chinese dress in contrast to the writings by Catholics prior to the Vatican suppression of Jesuit literary innovation at the end of the 1700s. 132 Guanzong, 13. 133 Aikman, 44. Aikmans estimate of 750,000 Protestants at the time of Maos reforms is higher than other sources which estimate less than half a million. 134 Paul Hattaway, Back to Jerusalem, (Waynesboro: Authentic Media, 2003), 13. 135 Chan and Carlson, 13. The Chinese government classifies religion in China into four categories. The first category consists of the five recognized religions: Daoism, Buddhism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. 136 Crossing the Communists; China's Christians, (Christianity is becoming popular with China's urban elite), The Economist (US), 375 (April 23, 2005): 44-45, InfoTrac Web, 5 Dec. 2005: 44.

32 others are part of autonomous Christian communities 137 which the government categorizes as unregistered religious organizations.138 The growth of Christianity in China since the 1960s when the Communist government expelled the last of the foreign missionaries139 has led some to question whether it is time to call for a missions moratorium140 in China, since the Chinese church seems to have grown more in the absence of foreign missionaries.

137 138

Yamamori and Chan, xviii. Chan and Carlson, 13. The second category of religion in China is the unregistered religious organizations, some of which function comfortably under local governing bodies while others are referred to as evil cults. 139 Aiken, 2. At the height of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s, Chairman Mao expelled the last of the old Western missionaries and ruthlessly persecuted what remained of their dwindling flock, which numbered less than half a million. 140 Yamamori and Chan, 83.

33

Differing Estimates of the Total Number of Christians in China 120,000,000 102,000,000 100,000,000 80,000,000 80,000,000 60,000,000 40,000,000 20,000,000 0 60,000,000 57,000,000 45,000,000 90,000,000 90,000,000

141

Aikman, 7. David Aikman, author of Jesus in Beijing How Christianity is Transforming China and Changing the Global Balance of Power estimated that there are 80 million Christians in China. Hattaway, Back to Jerusalem, 13. Paul Hattaway estimated that there were anywhere from 80 million to 100 million Protestants in China and 12 million Catholics. Kindopp, 2. Jason Kindopp of the Brookings Institution estimated that there were between 30 and 60 million Protestants and 12 million Catholics in China. Crossing the Communists; China's Christians, (Christianity is becoming popular with China's urban elite), 45. The American State Department Report on Religious Freedom in 2004 estimated that there were between 30 million and 90 million Christians in China. Richard Spencerin, Why Christianity is China's New Revolution, Europe Intelligence Wire 10 Aug. 2005, Lexis Nexis, 5 Dec. 2005. Richard Spencerin, writing for the Europe Intelligence Wire estimated that there were between 80 million and 100 million Christians in China.

141

m Br ic oo s( k 20 A i n m 04 g s er ) In ic sti an tu St te at (2 eD 00 ep 4) ar tm D en en t( ni 20 s 04 Ba Eu ) lc ro om pe be In tel (2 lig 00 en 4) ce W ir e (2 00 5)

3) (2 00 Be iji ng Je ru sa l Ch em si n Je su to Ba ck

in es e

Ac ad e

(2

00 3)

34 Some authorities in China believe that a resurgence of religious imperialism may occur if foreigners are allowed to hold influence over churches in China.142 Christianity in China has been put under legislation to preserve its autonomy from the West, even as China engages the West economically. Another reason that the growth of Christianity in China is so troubling to the government [aside from the historical Taiping Rebellion143] is that the resurgence of Christianity in China has been linked, particularly in the wake of the Tiananmen Square incident in 1989, to a crisis of faith in Maoism, or orthodox Marxism (however defined) in the minds of young people in China, inviting the consideration of Christianity as a serious world-view.144

Schafer and Simmons, 26. Dennis Balcombe is an American missionary pastor in Hong Kong who has taken many inland mission trips into China. Newsweek compared his 90 million Christian estimate to that of Chinas academics, who estimated that there were 45 million Christians. 142 China Refutes Distortions About Christianity, Embassy of the Peoples Republic of China in the United States of America, 2006. The Chinese Embassy in the United States of America, 29 Jan. 2007 <http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36493.htm>. In 1983, the National Council of the Churches of the Christ in the United States of America passed a statement about China, saying that it is based on purpose of spreading the Gospel that the Chinese Christians wish to expurgate the label of foreign religions from their belief and organizations. The statement said that overseas Christians should respect the efforts made by Chinese Christians among their own people, and should not try to restore the type of missionary work that prevailed in the past. The official pointed out that some people in the West try to revive colonialism and imperialism which made use of religion to cover their aggression of China, and still want to use religion as a political tool against socialist China. A few of them, recklessly attack the Chinese Church which sticks to the Three-Self Principle, distort the facts, tell lies and even create stories to deceive overseas Christians, the official added. He said that Chinese Christian organizations and believers are firmly against such actions. 143 Ebrey, 218. The Taiping Rebellion, which took place from 1851-1864 was an attempt by a man named Hong Xiuquan to overthrow the Qing rulers. Hong was given a Christian tract by a missionary in Guangzhou, and after reading it had visions convincing him that he was Jesus younger brother. Given that this was less than a decade after the Opium War and the Treaty of Nanjing, there were many schisms in China between people who felt that the government of China should have treated the situation with the British differently, and as a result of the ensuing conflict [which did not overthrow the Qing Dynasty] 20-30 million people in China died. 144 Lambert, 102.

35 In the ongoing debates over Christianity in China, three social views of how Christianity should function in China vie in opposition. They are: the preference for a civil or state religion, advocated by the Chinese government and the state church establishments; the doctrine of the universal church, advocated by the autonomous churches in China; and within the foreign sector, religious freedom, usually advocated by people in the United States among others. The argument for a civil or state church in China also goes back to the Chinese Communist Partys 1950s United Front Policy, which was characterized by anti-imperialism and patriotism and defined as love for socialism and for the new China under the leadership of the CCP [Chinese Communist Party].145 In support of a civil or state Christianity, Guanzong argues that religion can only be free in well-to-do societies, but when a nation is poor and weak and humiliated, the church will be controlled and used by aggressors.146 Within China, the view that churches that do not register with the government have succumbed to Western imperialist aims and/or are trying to foment a rebellion against socialism in China has resulted in many arrests147 of unregistered Christians.148 In China, religion

145 146

Lambert, 28. Guanzong, 14. 147 Lambert, 79. Since 1982 there have been numerous reports of arrests of Christian believers in China, as well as other significant restrictions of religious liberty. 148 Yamamori and Chan, 87. The second camp [of churches in China] holds that the church cannot submit to any secular administration, since Jesus Christ, not Caesar, is her head. The activities of this unregistered house church movement are, technically speaking, illegal. These churches often experience various levels of harassment and persecution. The governments policy toward them ranges from toleration to eradication.

36 is expected to take its direction from the Chinese government.149 Those who desire a civil or state religion would likely uphold the view that the state should censor the Internet to prevent foreign usurpers from using it to establish foreign-controlled Christianity in China. Chinese unregistered house church leaders believe, in contrast, in the doctrine of a universal Christian church existing under the authority of Christ and Scripture. They believe that the authority of Christ and Scripture must supercede the governments restrictions on their interactions with Christian believers outside China. In 1998, the house churches in China released a collective statement, saying that the state ordinances on religionare contrary to the principles of the Scripture in five ways: (1) the ordinances require state approval for where people worship, who preaches and in which districts registered preachers can speak; (2) the state forbids preaching the Gospel to those under 18; (3) the state refuses to allow prayers for healing or exorcisms, (4) the state does not allow the house churches to host believers from afar; and

149

Yu, 2. Religion, if it is to exist within such a nation [a socialist nation] must fulfill the statemandated obligation of being patriotic, in the sense that religion would never, in Document 19s words, be permitted to make use in any way of religious pretexts to oppose the Partys leadership or the Socialist system, or to destroy national or ethnic unity. With greater social, economic, and educational developments such as those advocated and instituted by Socialism and Communism, the

37 (5) the state does not allow the house churches to have communication with the church overseas while the Bible teaches that that the church is universal and that there is no division between Jews or Gentiles, and hence no division between Chinese and foreigners.150 For these house churches, the Internet could be a lifeline providing them with access to Christian materials and information and a way to communicate with Christians in other countries. Lastly, many Americans and other advocates of the freedom of religion believe that religion should exist apart from government control. Within the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution articulates religious freedom, stating that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.151 The question of religious freedom factors greatly in U.S./China diplomatic relations, though according to Brookings Institute researcher Jason Kindopp, it has remained largely unexamined. 152 In the book God and Caesar in China, Kindopp suggests that, in regards to the subject of religious freedom, Chinas leaders prefer to avoid the subject entirely, enforcing a ban, until recently, on internal discussion of the subject. American concerns about

document [Document No. 19] confidently asserts that religion will eventually disappear from human history. 150 Aikman, 303-304. 151 Amendments to the Constitution, United States House of Representatives, 2006, United States Government, 29 Sept. 2006 <http://www.house.gov/paul/const-amend.html>.

38 violations of religious freedom, in turn have been expressed primarily in the form of criticism over individual cases.153 Neither approach helps to foster discussion between the two countries. Advocates of freedom of religion would likely support the use of the Internet as a tool for free religious expression. Guanzong suggests that while some Christians abroad still seek to use religion to foment rebellion in China,154 others with a sense of justice, beyond our borders155 have seen how the past connections between missionaries and their imperialist governments damaged the witness of Christianity in China. Guanzong says the church in China will establish and develop friendly relations with such persons156 who acknowledge that the Chinese Church must maintain its independence from Western leadership. Contrast Guanzongs perspective with that of the Back to Jerusalem Movement which is the vision of several large house church networks in China.157 The Back to Jerusalem Movement is a commitment of several Chinese house church networks to send missionaries to evangelize within the countries that are between

152 153

Kindopp, II. Kindopp, II. 154 Guanzong, 14. 155 Guanzong, 16. 156 Guanzong, 16. 157 Hattaway, Back to Jerusalem, 1. Back to Jerusalem represents the present and future vision of the twenty-first-century Chinese church.

39 China and Israel, Asia, the Middle East, and Islamic North Africa,158 particularly the nations that are primarily Hindu, Buddhist and Muslim.159 In the words of Brother Yun, an outspoken spokesman for the Back to Jerusalem Movement: This is how the Chinese Christians will operate during the back to Jerusalem mission. We will not make much noise, but will secretly and quietly do the Lords work underground.You will not see any great or small church buildings resulting from our efforts because we are determined to do what the Lord has lead us to do in China these past fifty years and establish spiritual fellowships of believers who meet in their homesTermites are very hard to detect. They do their destructive work inside the walls of homes and underneath the floorboards. Usually, the owner of the house has no clue that his magnificent structure is being eaten away until it is too late and it collapses in a heap!160 Many Chinese Christians living in foreign countries [like Brother Yun] have become leaders of Chinese international Christian evangelism and relief efforts. Christian leaders of autonomous churches within China have expressed concern that Brother Yuns exuberant sales pitches for the Back to Jerusalem Movement may draw unwanted publicity to the Chinese missionary efforts.161 David Wang, president of

158 159

Hattaway, Back to Jerusalem, 20. Hattaway, Back to Jerusalem, 90. 160 Hattaway, Back to Jerusalem, 91-92. 161 Barney Zwartz, Going Global with God, The Age, 10 Apr. 2004, 25 Jan. 2007 <http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/09/1081326923562.html>.

40 international aid and evangelism group Asian Outreach, says the movement's leaders in China have been sufficiently disturbed to write an open letter asking people outside China to tone it down. 162 He said in the press that he felt that Chinese Christians overseas such as Brother Yun were endangering Chinese missionaries in foreign countries by talking too much. The leaders in China plead, don't mention 100,000 missionaries going to the Middle East. The countries there will see it like a repeat of the crusades, as terrorism in reverse.163 Chinese people living overseas do not represent an imperialistic force into China, but they may well bring many ideas and accoutrements of outside cultures into their innovative ideas for the Chinese body of believers worldwide. One medium through which they can express their ideas to people back in China is over the World Wide Web Using Internet technology.

Internet in China Within the process of communication outlined by communication theorist David Berlo, communication messages164 from a source165 are transmitted via a channel166 to a receiver.167 Communication theorists Claude E. Shannon and Warren

Zwartz, <http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/09/1081326923562.html>. Zwartz, <http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/09/1081326923562.html>. 164 David Kenneth Berlo, The Process of Communication, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), 30. The purpose of the source has to be expressed in the form of a message. In human communication, a message is behavior available in physical formthe translation of ideas, purposes, and intentions into a code, a systematic set of symbols. 165 Berlo, 30. We can say that human communication has some source, some person or group of persons with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. 166 Berlo, 31. a channel is a medium, a carrier of messages.
163

162

41 Weaver add that noise168 in the channel may obstruct information from getting though.
Encoding Channel Message Decoding

Source

Receiver

169

[except noise] must be present. In this study, the sources are the individuals who put the message of Christianity or specifically Chinese Christianity on the World Wide Web. The receivers are those people who upload the Web sites on their computers or other applicable Internet receiving devices. Noise that can be introduced to the process of communication may be technological malfunctioning and/or human
167

Berlo, 31. When we talk somebody must listen, when we write, somebody must read. The person or persons at the other end can be called the receiver, the target of communication. 168 Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, (Urbana: University of Illinois P, 1949), 18-19. How does noise affect information? Information is, we must remember, a message of ones freedom of choice in selecting a messageIf noise is introduced, then the received message contains certain distortions, certain errors, certain extraneous material, that would certainly lead on to say that the received message exhibits, because of the effects of the noise, an increased uncertainty.

Feedback
Receiver

Noise Message

Noise
Source

Feedback

Decoding

Channel

Encoding

For communication to occur, all components of the communication process

42 induced noise such as Internet filtering, both of which obstruct the message from getting through to the receiver intact. Finally, for communication to occur, one must have a channel such as the Internet to carry the communication messages of those who publish on the World Wide Web. In early 2007, Internet World Stats estimated that approximately 16.6 percent of the worlds population had access to the Internet.170 The Internet revolution in mass communication in the late 20th century has been compared to the innovation of the printing press171 Johannes Gutenberg created in Germany in 1440.172 After the printing press came into use in Europe and literacy increased, materials printed on paper in the vernacular could be widely distributed. The Protestant Reformation which began in the early 1500s in Germany would not have been possible without the invention of the printing press. The little-known fact in the Western world is that the

Joseph R. Dominick, The Dynamics of Mass Communication Media in the Digital Age, 7th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2002), 5. This table is based on a graphic of the communication process from Dominicks textbook. 170 World Internet Usage Statistics News and Population Stats, <http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm>. 171 Mary Bellis, Johannes Guttenberg and the Printing Press, About.Com, 14 July 2006 <http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blJohannesGutenberg.htm>. The first full book to be printed on Gutenbergs printing press was the Bible, printed in 1452. 172 Bruce Jones, The Development of Print Technology, The Development of Print Technology, 30 Jan. 1970, About.com, 11 Sept. 2006 <http://inventors.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://communication.ucsd.edu/bjones/Books/ >. Before the printing press, books in Europe were copied by hand or printed on vellum [skin from a lamb or calf,] using an individually carved plate for each page. Europes first exposure to paper was in the 1100s AD when paper arrived in Italy from China but was judged to be too fragile for books. Neither was the block-printing a truly European inventionMarco Polo became aware of the technology when he traveled to China in the 1200s and brought the knowledge back with him.

169

43 inventions that made the printing press possiblemovable type173 and paper and block printing174each came to Europe from China. The Internet is a network of computer networks175 by which computer users can use modems176 to send packets177 of information content through Internet servers,178 and view content that other Internet users have placed on the network.179 Before the Internet, world mass communication180 relied on mass media181 channels such as books and other printed materials and radio and television broadcasts. Internet packet switching technology was developed in the United States in the 1960s during the Cold War to enable covert communication between the

173

Bellis, <http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blJohannesGutenberg.htm>. The Chinese developed movable type in 1041 AD. 174 Jones, <http://inventors.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://communication.ucsd.edu/bjones/Books/ >. 175 Dominick, 302. Primary uses of the Internet apart from the World Wide Web include e-mail and newsgroups. E-mail allows people to send text messages to one another electronically. Newsgroups allow people to post text messages online for anyone else to read in response to any particular issue or topic featured by the newsgroup. 176 Modem, def. 1, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: MerriamWebster, Incorporated, 2003), 798. A modem is a device that converts signals produced by one type of device (as a computer) to a form compatible with another (as a telephone). 177 Packet, def. 5, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2003), 889. A packet is a short fixed-length section of data that is transmitted as a unit in an electronic communications network. 178 Server, def. 6, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2003), 1137. A server is a computer in a network that is used to provide services (as access to files or shared peripherals or the routing of e-mail) to other computers in the network. 179 Network, def. 2b, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: MerriamWebster, Incorporated, 2003), 833. A network is a system of computers, peripherals, terminals, and databases connected by communication lines. 180 Dominick, 520. Mass communication is the process by which a complex organization, with the aid of one or more machines, produces and transmits public messages that are directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered audiences. 181 Dominick, 520. Mass media is the channels and institutions of mass communication.

44 government, the military and education and research institutions.182 The Internet made its first public debut at the International Computer Communication Conference in Washington D.C. in 1972183 when Robert E. Kahn first demonstrated the technology to the general public184 His statements to the British Broadcasting Network (BBN) at that time only began to encapsulate the future impact of the Internet. Kahn said the social implications of this field are a matter of widespread interest that reaches society in almost all walks of life; education, medicine, research, business and government. All these areas will be affected as the field develops.185 In trying to try to establish a global network, one of Kahns four ground rules for the new network was that there would be no global control at the operations level, meaning that there would be no gatekeepers186 for the Internet as there are in print media and broadcast publications. Everyone would be free to publish whatever he or she wanted to publish online.187

Barry M. Leiner et. al., A Brief History of the Internet, All About the Internet: History of the Internet, 10 Dec. 2003, Internet Society (ISOC), 14 July 2006 <http://www.isoc.org/Internet/history/brief.shtml>. 183 Leiner et. al., <http://www.isoc.org/Internet/history/brief.shtml>. 184 Leiner et. al., <http://www.isoc.org/Internet/history/brief.shtml>. The Internet was then called ARPANET after the Advanced Research Projects Agency (now know as DARPA, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). 185 Leiner et. al., <http://www.isoc.org/Internet/history/brief.shtml>. 186 Dominick, 519. Gatekeepers are individuals who decide whether a given message will be distributed by a mass medium. 187 Robert E. Kahn, Demonstration at International Computer Communications Conference, RCF 371, 12 July 1972, The RCF Archive, 12 Sept. 2006 <http://www.rfc-archive.org/getrfc.php?rfc=371>. Robert E. Kahns four ground rules for the new open-architecture network were: 1. Each distinct network would have to stand on its own and no internal changes could be required to any such network to connect it to the Internet. 2. Communications would be on a best effort basis. If a packet didnt make it to the final destination, it would shortly be retransmitted from the source.

182

45 Internet technology skyrocketed in China in the last decade of the 20th century. President Deng Xiaopings educational188 and economic189 reforms beginning in the late 1970s started a new age of education and of information technology in China. The first institutions to get onboard with the Internet in the late 1980s were educational and research institutions, followed by the business, government and private sectors.190 One of the unique features of Chinas Internet development is that while the United States has been upgrading the speed of its Internet connections over many years on an older telecommunications network, China has hit the ground running and installed some of the highest-grade Internet cables available.191 In 1996 in China the

3. Black boxes would be used to connect the Networks; these would later be called gateways and routers. There would be no information required by gateways about the individual flow of packets passing through them, thereby keeping them simple and avoiding complicated adaptation and recovery from various failure modes. 4. There would be no global control at the operations level. 188 Deng Xiaoping Quotes, Brainy Quote, 2006, Brainy Media.com, 12 Sept. 2006 <http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/d/dengxiaopi111763.html>. The educational system in China under Chairman Mao favored students from rural areas for acceptance into higher educational institutions. One of Deng Xiaopings famous quotes coming into power regarding education was It doesnt matter if a cat is white or black, so long as it catches mice. 189 David Moser, Media Schizophrenia in China, DanWei, 7 Aug. 2006, DanWei, 12 Sept. 2006 <http://www.danwei.org/media_and_advertising/media_schizophrenia_in_china_b.php>. In 1980 in China, 5 percent of urbanites in China owned televisions. 190 ATIP98.090: the Internet in China, <http://www.atip.org/public/atip.reports.98/atip98.090r.html>. Chinas first Internet connection was set up in 1988 when China Academic Network (CANnet) established a link with Karlsruhe University in Germany. In 1990 China Research Network (CRN) was established for research Institutions in China. In 1993, the Chinese Institute of High Energy Physics (IHEP) linked itself to Stanford. China Academy of Science, Tsinghua University Network and Peking University each developed their own separate Internet networksCASnet, TUnet and PUnet respectively. In 1989 the China State Planning Commission and the World Bank started the National Computing Facilities of China (NCFC) which by 1993 had joined the three university networks to the world Internet via a supercomputer. Full connectivity to the worldwide network was established in 1993. 191 David Sheff, China Dawn: The Story of a Technology and Business Revolution, (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 4. Edward examines a piece of transparent fiber about the width of a fishing

46 government-run China Telecom company laid down one third of the new phone lines installed worldwide.192 In 2000, the Chinese government created a new organization, China Netcom Corporation (CNC), to compete with the monopoly of China Telecom for the market of Internet users and to install broadband cables.193 CNC installed 8,000 kilometers of broadband cable in its first year of operation, joining the 17 largest cities in China. By 2004, 40 percent of Internet users in China had access to broadband connections while 56 percent were using a dial-up telephone connection.194 Edward Tian, president of CNC and quoted in David Sheffs book China Dawn has a wife and daughter in the United States, and on a personal level his motivation for developing ubiquitous bandwidth195 in China is that someday he may be able to read to his daughter Stephanie when she falls asleep at

line and asks a bespeckled engineer, is this a G655 fiber? Assured that it is, Edward turns back toward me. One pair of this fiber can carry forty gigabytes of data per second. How much is that? He responds, Enough to carry all of the conversations going on in all of the AT&T lines at any time in the United States. If that isnt enough, he adds, We are already upgrading to a new type of fiber that holds sixteen hundred gigabytes per pair. Its twice the speed of WorldComs UUNet networkthe State of the art in the United Statesand comparable to the fast fiber in the States and Europe. 192 Larry Rinder, Envision the Globe According to the Density of Traditional Media - TVs and Telephones - and You Get a Brand-New Map. The Wired World Atlas, Nov. 1998, Wired Digital, Inc., 12 Sept. 2006 <http://wired.com/wired/archive/6.11/mediamap_pr.html> and Zixiang (Alex) Tan et. al., China's State-Coordinated Internet Infrastructure, Communications of the ACM 42 (1999): 44-52, The ACM Digital Library, 17 Oct. 2006, keyword: China + Internet, 47. 193 Broadband, def. 1, Die.net, 23 Oct. 2006 <http://dict.die.net/broadband/>. A transmission medium capable of supporting a wide range of frequencies, typically from audio up to video frequencies. It can carry multiple signals by dividing the total capacity of the medium into multiple, independent bandwidth channels, where each channel operates only on a specific range of frequencies. 194 Jonathan J. H. Zhu and Enhai Wang, Diffusion, Use, and the Effect of the Internet in China, Communications of the ACM 48 (2005): 49-53, The ACM Digital Library, 17 Oct. 2006, keyword: China + Internet, 50. 195 Bandwidth, def. 1, Die.net, 14 Sept. 2006 <http://dict.die.net/bandwidth/>. Bandwidth is a data transmission rate; the maximum amount of information (bits/second) that can be transmitted along a channel.

47 night using videoconferencing technology.196 Tians other goals for broadband include the goal to provide health care educational information to rural parts of China using the Internet.197 In 2006, China Mobile and Google were discussing a highly publicized deal to give cell phone users in China an Internet search engine on their phones.198 The number of Internet users and computer hosts in China has continued to grow exponentially as long as the Internet has been available there. The statistical survey report by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) 199 identifies an Internet user as a Chinese citizen who uses the Internet at least one hour per week.200 They identify a computer host as a computer through which at least one person may access the Internet. 201 In December 2006 there were an estimated 132 million Internet users in China and 54 million computer hosts.202 That is the

196 197

Sheff, 6. Sheff, 161. 198 David Temple, China Mobile and Google Talk Cell Phone Search, Multilingual Search 18 May 2006, 7 Mar. 2007 <http://www.multilingual-search.com/china-mobile-and-google-talk-cell-phonesearch/18/05/2006/en/>. 199 Internet Statistics, China Internet Network Information Center, 30 June 2005, CNNIC, 14 July 2006 <http://www.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm>. The China Internet Network Information Center is the state network information center of China which was founded as a non-profit organization on Jun. 3rd 1997. 200 17th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China (2006/2/15), China Internet Network Information Center, Beijing: CNNIC, 2006, 14 July 2006 <http://www.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm>, 4. 201 17th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China (2006/2/15), 4. 202 Internet Statistics, <http://www.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm>.

48 second-largest number of Internet users in any country in the world, second only to the United States which had 210 million Internet users in 2006.203

Growth of Population, Internet Users, and Computer Hosts in China (Millions) 1,400 1,300 1,200 1,100 1,000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06

Total Population Internet Users Computer Hosts

204

Internet Users - Top 20 Countries - Internet Usage, <http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm>. Japan comes in third place with 84 million Internet users. 204 Zhu and Wang, 50; Internet Statistics, <http://www.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm>; Yearly Data, Statistical Data, 2005, National Bureau of Statistics of China, 13 Sept. 2006 <http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/yearlydata/>; 2002 Data Sheet Highlights, 2002

203

49 The Chinese government has made great progress in growing the Internet in China in the last decade, from 620 thousand mainland Chinese Internet users in 1997205 to more than 132 million Internet users by the end of 2006.206 Of these Internet users, 43.5 percentabout 64.3 million individualsuse a broadband connection.207 In the United States, approximately 148 million people, excluding children under five,208 had some form of Internet access in their homes in the year 2003 and about 35.6 percent of American households with Internetthat is about 54 million individuals, excluding children under the age of fivehave access to broadband Internet in their homes.209

World Population Data Sheet, 2002, Population Reference Bureau, 13 Sept. 2006 <http://www.prb.org/pdf/WorldPopulationDS02_Eng.pdf#search=%22China's%20population%20in% 202002%22> and Carnell, <http://www.overpopulation.com/archives/years/2005/000006.html>. 205 Statistical Report of the Development of Chinese Internet, China Internet Network Information Center, CNNIC, 1997, 23 Oct. 2006 <http://www.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm>. In 1997, the China Internet Network Information Center estimated that there were 620,000 Internet users in China. 206 Internet Users - Top 20 Countries - Internet Usage, <http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm>. 207 7th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China (2006/2/15), 57. 208 National Estimates 2006 All Data, Census Bureau Home Page, 2006, US Census Bureau, 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.census.gov/popest/national/files/NST_EST2006_ALLDATA.csv> and USA QuickFacts From the US Census Bureau, Census Bureau Home Page, 2006, US Census Bureau, 12 Jan. 2007 <http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html>. The US Census Bureau estimates that the United States population in 2003 was 290,796,023. They also estimated that the number of persons per household averaged 2.59 people in the year 2,000. Assuming that this number remained constant through the year 2003, we can estimate that there were approximately 112,276,457 households in the United States in 2003. Also, 6.8 percent of the American population was under the age of five in 2004, so assuming that that is consistent with the number in 2003, there were approximately 19,774,130 children under the age of five in the United States in 2003. 209 Cooper, Kathleen B. and Michael D. Gallagher, A Nation Online: Entering the Broadband Age, US Census Bureau, US Department of Commerce, 2004. 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.ntia.doc.gov/reports/anol/index.html>. This report states that approximately 19.9 of American households had broadband Internet connections at home in 2003. Given that there were an estimated 112,276,457 households in 2003, one in five is equivalent to approximately 22,343,015 households. Given that each household averaged 2.59 persons, that is 57,868,409 individuals. Given that approximately 6.8 percent of these individuals were children under the age of five, that leaves approximately 53,933,357 people aged five and older who had access to broadband Internet in their homes in 2003 in the United States. Also, 22,343,015 is stated as representing 36.5 percent of Internet

50

Internet Usage (Millions)

1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0

1,300

China United States

300 210 132 64 54 Broadband Users

Population

Internet Users

The chart above compares recently available population and Internet statistics for China and the United States as of 2007. With one billion more people in the Chinese population210 than in the United States,211 China could become the top world

households in the United States, so the number of households with Internet in the United States in 2003 was approximately 61,213,740. If each household averaged 2.59 persons, and 6.8 of these persons were children under the age of five, then excluding the children there were 147,762,662 people age five and older in the United States [out of an estimated 112 million households in the United States 54.5 percent] who had Internet access in their homes in 2003. 210 China, The World Factbook, <https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html>. China has the largest population of any country worldwide, estimated at 1,313,973,713 July 2006. 211 United States, The World Factbook, 17 Oct. 2006, CIA, 23 Oct. 2006 <https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html>. The July 2006 estimate for the population of the United States is 298,444,215.

51 Internet user in the future.212 In China an Internet user has been defined as someone who uses the Internet an hour each week, but in the United States an internet user is more commonly defined as someone who has Internet access installed in his or her home.213As stated earlier, when the Internet in China was first introduced, Internet users in China usually came from the academic and research communities. Though education still plays a major role in determining who chooses to go online,214 today Internet users in China are from the government and business communities and the private sector as well. Two out of three people who go online in China access the Internet from home.215 Profiling todays Chinese Internet user reveals a broad sweep of people students and educators,216 researchers,217 network gamers,218 and also people using the Internet for business purposes.219 The computers where Internet users in China go online can be personal computers,220 computers found in educational or businesses

"China," <https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html>. It is estimated that 90.9 percent of people age 15 and over in China can read and write. 213 Cooper and Gallagher, <http://www.ntia.doc.gov/reports/anol/index.html>. 214 Zhu and Wang, 50. At the end of 2003, nearly half (49%) of those with college educations used the Internet, compared to only 6% of those without college educations. 215 Zhu and Wang, 50. 216 17th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China (2006/2/15), 13. Telephone sampling suggested that approximately 83.8 percent of the Internet users surveyed had a high school education or above. The percent of Internet users who had a college diploma or above was 53.6 percent. 217 ATIP98.090: the Internet in China, <http://www.atip.org/public/atip.reports.98/atip98.090r.html>. The Internet has moved quickly into the research and academic communities. 218 David Barboza, Ogre to Slay? Outsource It to Chinese, The New York Times 9 Dec. 2005, sec. A: 1, Lexus Nexus, 22 Mar. 2006. Some Chinese gamers make their living selling network game money and characters to other gamers, many of whom are in other countries. 219 17th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China (2006/2/15), 14. 220 ATIP98.090: the Internet in China, <http://www.atip.org/public/atip.reports.98/atip98.090r.html>. In October 1997, a report showed that 25.3 percent of surveyed Internet users in China said they accessed the Internet from home. By 1998, that number had risen to 44 percent of Internet users. The

212

52 institutions,221 or computers in Internet cafs.222 The most popular online activity in for Internet users in China since 1997 has been e-mail, followed by using search engines and reading the news online.223 It is also estimated that about half of Chinas nearly 100 million Internet users play online games.224 This phenomenon is confined mainly to the younger generation of Internet users.225 The reasons that many people in China do not use the Internet, according to CNNIC surveys, are not economic. Rather, they are lack of computer skills, followed by lack of facilities, lack of time, and lack of interest.226 According to a report in the 2004 survey of the CNNIC, Chinese Internet users as a group prefer to view Web sites originating within China 80 percent of the time, foreign Web sites in Chinese 10 percent of the time and Web sites in other languages 5 percent of the time.227

17th Statistical Report on the Internet development in China, compiled in 2006, indicates that 70.5 percent of Internet users in China report that they access the Internet from home. 221 ATIP98.090: the Internet in China, <http://www.atip.org/public/atip.reports.98/atip98.090r.html>. Universities in China were some of the first institutions to establish Internet networks. The business sector came later. 222 17th Statistical Survey Report on the Internet Development in China (2006/2/15), 14. Telephone surveys showed that 70.5 percent of people identified their home as one of the main places they access the Internet. 37.6 percent said the workplace was somewhere they accessed the Internet regularly, 27 percent said Internet cafs and 19 percent said that one of the main places they go online is at school. 223 Zhu and Wang, 50-51. 224 Zhu and Wang, 51. 225 Zhu and Wang, 51. Internet cafs are filled with young people on networked PCs interacting with their peers. 226 Zhu and Wang, 50. 227 Zhu and Wang, 52.

53 Chinas membership in the World Trade Organization, beginning Dec. 11, 2001,228 continues to stimulate economic interaction with other world nations, increasing the need for Internet access. The Internet in China is not without its restrictions, however. China employs 30,000 Internet police229 to keep track of Web users and track and block certain kinds of content such as political dissent and pornography.230 The Chinese government has two goals regarding the Internet, promoting economic development and maintaining the states political and economic control.231 Chinas September 2000 State Council Order No. 292, Article 12, states that ICPs or Internet Content Providers (such as Internet Cafs) are responsible for ensuring the legality of any information disseminated through their services and required to keep records of user activity for 60 days. Article 15, put into effect in 2000, lists nine categories of content that may not be produced, copied, published or disseminated232 in China over the Internet, These include content that would harm the state, content that works against the unity of the

228

Member Information: China and the WTO, WTO, Mar. 2006, World Trade Organization, 14 July 2006 <http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/china_e.htm>. 229 Callum Macleod, Web Users Walk the Great Firewall of China, USA Today 3 Apr. 2006, 13 Oct. 2006 <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-web-cops_x.htm>. 230 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. 231 Tan et. al., 45. Compared to such countries as the U.S., where Internet infrastructure is primarily a private effortChinas Internet infrastructure is highly coordinated, managed by a combination of public and governmental bodies. 232 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>.

54 people and also pornography and online gambling.233 The fifth category under Article 15 describes restricted religious contentin order to be acceptable for viewing, religious content must not break the religious policy of the State, spread evil cults or feudal superstition.234 In 2003, researchers Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas published the book Open Networks, Closed Regimes in which they discussed the impact of the Internet on eight authoritarian regimes. They suggested that the Chinese governments approach to the Internet in China has been contradictory,235 meaning that the government has been know to both suppress and encourage online developments. In November 2005, Reporters without Borders for Press Freedom had listed China as an enemy of the Internet and the United States as one of the ten countries to watch,236 partly because American companies Yahoo, Microsoft and Google were

Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. State Council order number 292, promulgated in September 2000, established the first formal content restrictions for ICPsArticle 15 specified nine restricted, relatively vague categories of information that cannot be produced, copied, published, or disseminated, comprising data 1. Which are against the principles prescribed in the Constitution; 2. Which endanger the security of the State, divulge the secrets of the State, overthrow the government, or damage the unification of the State; 3. Which harm the dignity and interests of the State; 4. Which instigate hatred, discrimination among ethnic groups, or destroy the unity of nationalities; 5. Which break the religious policy of the State, spread evil cults or feudal superstition; 6. Which spread rumors, disturb the social order, and damage the social stability; 7. Which spread pornography, sex, gambling, violence, murder, terrorism or abetment; 8. Which insult or slander others and thus infringe upon others lawful rights and interests; or 9. Which involve other contents prohibited by the laws and administrative rules. 234 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. 235 Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas, Excerpts From Open Networks, Closed Regimes: the Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule, First Monday, 8 Mar. 2006 <http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue8_1/kalathil_chapter2.html>. 236 The 15 Enemies of the Internet and Other Countries to Watch, <http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=15613>. Reporters Without Borders listed China as one of

233

55 working with China to develop mechanisms to filter key word searches237 related to topics such as Falun Gong.238 The OpenNet initiativea collaborative effort of research centers within the University of Toronto, Harvard Law School and the University of Cambridgesaid in a 2005 study that Chinas filtering regime was the most successful in the world: Compared to similar efforts in other states, Chinas filtering regime is pervasive, sophisticated, and effective. It comprises multiple levels of legal regulation and technical control. It involves numerous state agencies and thousands of public and private personnel. It censors content transmitted through multiple methods, including Web pages, Web logs, on-line discussion forums, University bulletin board systems, and e-mail messages. Our testing found efforts to prevent access to a wide range of sensitive materials, from pornography to religious material to political dissent.239 Their alarm may not be completely justified if one evaluates their sampling strategy. In determining which URLs to test, the OpenNet Initiative looked at Web

the worlds top 15 enemies of the Internet, along with Belarus, Burma, Cuba, Iran, Libya, the Maldives, Nepal, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. The charges against China were Internet filtering and imprisoning the largest number of cyberdissidents worldwide62. The United States was listed as one of the ten countries that needs to be watched because it doesnt offer Internet users enough privacy, and also the American companies Yahoo, Cisco Systems and Microsoft have been working with China to develop filtering mechanisms. 237 Google Search & Cache Filtering Behind China's Great Firewall, OpenNet Initiative, 2004, 6 Mar. 2007 <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/bulletins/006/>. 238 Anthony Collings, Words of Fire: Independent Journalists Who Challenge Dictators, Druglords, and Other Enemies of a Free Press, (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 186. 239 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>.

56 sites that they considered likely to be blocked.240 For example, the news Web sites the OpenNet Initiative tested were all on politically-sensitive topics: In this category [news], we checked sites containing anti-Communist content, pages with material related to the Tiananmen Square incident, the site for the non-governmental organization Human Rights in China, and various prodemocracy Web sites on political topics, and Taiwan and Tibet. We found extensive blocking in all categories.241 Under the category of religious Web sites, the OpenNet Initiative looked at Web sites dealing with the repressed Chinese spiritual movement Falun Gong, political sites dealing with Taiwanese and Tibetan independence,* and the Dali Lama.242 Even with these politically sensitive topical selections, only 25 percent of the Web sites tested by the OpenNet Initiative were blocked in China, and 66 percent of them were completely accessible.243 According to a 2006 USA Today article, Internet users who wish to be online political activists experience more repression than the average Internet user, suggesting that Web sites dealing with subjects politically opposed to the government are the most likely to be censored.244

240 241

Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. 242 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. 243 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. 244 Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. Student Huang Tai, in central Jiangxi province, has discovered where the limits lie. After his critiques of social and political problems were deleted from other forums, and his Internet

57 An American owner of a media and technology consulting firm in Beijing, David Wolf, explained the differing perspectives that he believes Americans and Chinese have about the Internet. Americans look at the Web as a frontier. Chinese prefer to look at it as a fenced field. Where it is productive, you may go, where there is danger, you may not.245 A Chinese student interviewed in the same article expressed that she did not feel that her Internet access in China was restricted. All the sites I want to access I canI never look at blocked sites.246 Social theorists in the West have also expressed concern that besides filtering the Internet the Chinese government may use the Internet to spy on users.247 Besides having police watch people in certain Internet cafs in China,248 a computer program called Internet Detective records identity card numbers and online activities for Internet users in all regulated Internet cafs in China.249

account blocked, Huang founded the online forum Angry Youth in 2004 to create a space for free speech that wont be interfered with by Webmasters he says...By January [2005] authorities shut down Angry Youth. 245 Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. 246 Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. Chatting and gaming in Beijing, student Jin Shan says she feels little temptation to venture into unapproved areas of cyberspace, preferring to stay inside the barriers dubbed the Great Firewall of China. 247 Kalathil and Boas, <http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue8_1/kalathil/kalathil_chapter2.html>. Others believe that the Internet will become a tool of the Chinese regime, which will use increasingly powerful monitoring and surveillance technologies to stay one step ahead of the democracy-seeking masses. 248 Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. While Jin fights monsters on a computer at the Feiyu Internet Bar, a team of seven security guards sits in a back room watching on closed-circuit TV screens that are linked to a nearby police station. Feiyu guards walk the lines of 320 computer consoles, looking over shoulders to make sure no one slips through firewalls to look at pornography or banned content. 249 Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>.

58 Experts who have not expressed alarm over Chinas governments attempting to censor the Internet are often skeptical that it can be done effectively. Wolf says that in trying to censor the Internet, the government is Shooting at moving targets.250 Once a Web site is blocked, it can be redesigned and go online again under a new URL. If the Web site is being filtered by key word blockers, placing a photograph of the offending word on the Web site instead of text prevents the key word checking machine from detecting the word while still allowing people to read it. In the words of Sheff, the Internet is too unwieldy and decentralized to effectively censor, but that hasnt stopped the security forces from trying.251 It is also difficult for the Chinese government to regulate communication materials that can be downloaded over the Internet, particularly in the private sector.252

Chinese Christianity and the World Wide Web It is important to distinguish between the Internet and the World Wide Web,253 just as one would distinguish between a library building and the books inside. The

MacLeod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. 251 Sheff, 8. 252 Aikman, 13. As China came to require a much deeper knowledge than hitherto allowed of the outside world in order to compete economically in the global marketplace, it became possible for ordinary Chinese to have contact with foreigners, then to travel overseas, and more recently, to have access to foreign-source informationincluding much information about Chinathrough the Internet. Though the Chinese Communist Party still blocks key Internet sites and occasionally resorts to blocking search engines like Google, overall, Chinas authorities have permitted their people unprecedented freedom of intellectual investigation and social activity at the private level for the past decade. 253 Dominick, 523. The World Wide Web is a network of information sources that uses hypertext to link one source of information to another. The shortened form of World Wide Web is the www found within URLs.

250

59 Internet refers only to the network of computer connections that make the exchange of data over the World Wide Web possible. The World Wide Web refers to online Web sites254 and the Web pages255 contained thereinthe messages and content available over the Internet. The name World Wide Web [referenced by the www found in URLs] was first coined by one of the Internets early technologists, Tim Berners-Lee, in 1990.256 Berners-Lee envisioned the World Wide Web as a hypertext257 global network that would mimic the human brains ability to store random associations between disparate things.258 The Internet user visiting a Web site would have the option to click on a single word in the text and be transported to another Web page or even another Web site dealing with that specific concept.

254

Web site, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2003), 1418. A Web site is a group of World Wide Web pages usually containing hyperlinks to each other and made available online by an individual company, educational institution, government, or organization. 255 Dominick, 523. A Web page is a hypertext page contained within a website. 256 Tim Berners-Lee, The World Wide Web: a Very Short Personal History, Tim Berners-Lee, 7 May 1998. World Wide Web Consortium, 14 July 2006 <http://www.w3.org/People/BernersLee/ShortHistory.html>. 257 Hypertext, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2003), 611. Hypertext is a database format in which information related to that on a display can be accessed directly from the display; also: material (as text) in this format. The shortened form of hypertext transmission protocol is http. 258 Berners-Lee, <http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/ShortHistory.html>.

60 The idea was very successful. In 2005, the search engine Google estimated that 8.1 billion Web documents could be accessed from its database of URLs, 259 shedding some light on the enormous scope of todays World Wide Web.260 When one studies the World Wide Web, the most important questions to ask are who is posting the Web sites, who is reading the Web sites and what responses each of them are seeking.261 Since the advent of the World Wide Web and the Information Age, many religions, including Christianity, have been using the Web as a way to promote and propagate their faith.262 Religion in general is one of the most popular items on the World Wide Web.263 The Internet supplies more online
259

URL, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2003), 1377. A URL, also known as uniform resource locator and universal resource locator is the address of a resource (as a document or Web site) on the Internet that consists of a communications protocol followed by the name or address of a computer on the network that often includes additional locating information (as directory and file names). 260 John Markoff, Debating the Size of the Web, International Herald Tribune 16 Aug. 2005, 14 July 2006 <http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/08/15/business/web.php>. The search engine Yahoo claimed that 19.2 billion documents were accessible from its databases, a figure contested by Google. 261 Berlo, 16. In any communication situation, there are at least two sets of desired responses: (1) the response sought by the person producing the message, and (2) the response sought be the person receiving the message. Readers as well as writers have purposes; audiences as well as performers have purposes. 262 Jeffery K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, The Promised Land or Electronic Chaos? Toward Understanding Religion and the Internet, Religion on the Internet: Research Prospects and Promises, Ed. Jeffery K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, (New York: Elsevier Science Inc., 2000), 8. Although Christianity may have been the first to stake a claim on the audio and video airwaves, e-space is hardly limited to that religion. There is scarcely a religious tradition, movement, group, or phenomenon absent entirely from the Net. From the Norse neopaganism of Asatru to Christian countercult refutations of it, from Tibetan Buddhist prayer bowls and thangka paintings to Wiccan scrying bowls that come with easy-to-follow instructions, from a disenfranchised Catholic bishop exiled to a nonexistent North African diocese to a cyber-monastery established exclusively for non-resident students of Zen, the only thing that seems crystal clear is that the presence of religion on the Internet will only expand as the Web technology and access availability increase. 263 Hadden and Cowan, 7-8. religion is one of the most popular items on the Net. The first book off of Gutenbergs famous printing press was the Bible. On Christmas Eve, 1906, the worlds first radio broadcast was a religious service which included a violin solo of Gounods O Holy Night and readings from the Gospel of Luke. In fact, religious broadcasters, to a person, agree with broadcast historian J. Harold Ellens that [it] is not without significance that the first voice broadcast

61 materials pertinent to religion than the printing press could ever have hoped to produce and the impact of these online materials on Christianity in China is still unfolding. The World Wide Web in 2006, in addition to Christian resources presented in English, boasts an impressive set of Christian resources set up specifically for Chinese people. Chinese Christians have taken advantage of the new Internet technology and produced indigenous Chinese Christian materials available on Web sites that facilitate interpersonal communication264 and provide Chinese speakers with downloadable indigenous Christian educational materials and worship music. Web sites span the categories of news and information, opinion, education, entertainment, commerce and interpersonal communication, and are all intended for people with a common written language [Chinese] and a Christian faith interest who are geographically scattered around the world.265

was a Christian religious celebration. Indeed, perhaps no group was so quick to realize and embrace the potential of electronic communications as evangelical Christians (see Hadden and Shupe, 1988, Ch. 3). To those who take seriously Christs commandment to go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature (Mark 16:15), the revolution in electronic communications is not just one among many significant scientific advances in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Rather, since the coming of the Christ, it is perhaps the paramount event in human history. For the first time, the ability to transmit the voice and visual image of the preacher made it possible to fulfill the Great Commission, to reach all humankind with the Gospel message. The potential for realizing biblical eschatology became located in this wave of technological advance. While conservative Christian broadcasters have not rushed to embrace the Internet as quickly as they did radio and television, few now have not established their presence in espace. 264 Jen Lin-Liu, At Chinese Universities, Whispers of Jesus, The Chronicle of Higher Education 51 (Lexis Nexis, 12 Dec. 2005), 44. Campus Christian groups rely on word of mouth or the Internet to attract new members. 265 Dominick, 5. The Chinese Christian use of the Internet described in this report mirrors and has been derived from the profile of mass-media consumers described by Dominick.

62 The Internet as a communication medium has united geographically dispersed communities of people with common interests through Web sites.266 This worldwide effect of bringing people together who did not previously have a connection to one another is broadly termed globalization.267 The goal to create a global community is expressed on Web sites that Chinese Christians have created. One example of such a Web site from the business sector is an online Chinese Christian business directory centered in Hong Kong called 5talents.net. 268 5Talents.net delivers a poignant message on the Website in English for overseas Web users, asking them to support one anothers business endeavors in the face of persecution for being Christians. Despite errors in spelling and grammar, the message clearly seeks to unite Chinese Christian business owners and customers in Hong Kong and in the rest of the world: Dear Friends of Christian Websites, please help to connect up into a stronger force, in this harsh times fro [sic] business; we should each imparts [sic] our influence, take the opportunity, and help all Christian brothers and sisters to

Globalization and Digital Media, Paradox of Global Interaction: Trusting Strangers, University of Denver, 26 Jan. 2007 <http://www.du.edu/~cshneide/social.html>. The social interaction available on a person-to-person level has changed drastically with the advent of technology and the everpervasive idea of globalization. The Salcedo family posted their private information on the Internet, seeking the comfort of family, but they received solidarity from around the world. In other corners of the Internet, chat rooms labeled by topic encourage communication between strangers based on common interests. 267 Globalization and Digital Media, <http://www.du.edu/~cshneide/social.html>.Globalization is communication, interaction between individuals, that crosses boundaries and creates a network or instantaneous social interaction. 268 Overseas Chinese Business Directory, 5Talents.net Chinese Christian Business Directory, 5Talents.net, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.5talents.net/overseas/index.html>. 5Talents (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm; (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm

266

63 get through this tough age. For all members of the Website, when they get any Business out the Website, we encouraged all members to commit 10% donate back to his/her own church, for the growth of the Kingdom of God. Please e-mail this website link and share with your friends. We encourage you to consider Christian made products, and try to care and be care for [sic] in this Website for God. I must stress again, although all participated members are Christians, you still need to be careful in doing business. Please help to pray for this Website, to be used by Jesus, to bring Blessings and Grace to bros and sisters form [sic] the Church. And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. Romans 8:28269 Another Web site that clearly seeks to build community among Chinese Christians world wide is the Chinese Christian organization directory, Imanuel.net.270 The Web site lists contacts for 1,724 Chinese Christian fellowship groups and organizations overseas with the goal of providing free and useful information to all the people to find a place to worship God and receive help when traveling overseas.271

269

Overseas Chinese Business Directory, <http://www.5talents.net/overseas/index.html>. 5Talents (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm; (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm 270 Chinese Christian Directory, Immanuel.net, 2006, Immanuel, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.immanuel.net/overseaschurch/>. Immanuel.net (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp 271 Chinese Christian Directory, <http://www.immanuel.net/overseaschurch/>. Immanuel.net (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp

64 Among non-profit organizations, a letter posted online from the General Secretary of the China Coordination Centre of World Evangelism (CCCOWE)a center that seeks to unify Chinese churches all over the worldfurther illustrates the goal of the creators of Chinese Web sites to promote global community: August 23, 2006 Dear Friends of CCCOWE, Welcome! Thank you very much for supporting the CCCOWE Movement through prayer as well as generous offerings. When a group of Christians were laden with the vision for world mission, the CCCOWE movement was born in 1976. CCCOWE strives to bring worldwide Chinese churches together for the good cause of world evangelism. Taking into consideration the absence of unity in the nature of Chinese people, certain people had predicted the CCCOWE Movement would only last two years for the most. Despite lack of manpower and shortage of fund in the past 30 years, CCCOWE co-workers have been faithfully committing to the CCCOWE vision by the empowerment of the Lord. Over 8,000 Chinese churches,

65 scattering in 57 CCCOWE Committee Districts, have witnessed the Lord Himself has [sic] been advancing and leading the CCCOWE Movement.272 In the academic sphere, Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine273 online seeks to create a community of Chinese Christian students attending colleges and universities overseas. Given the linguistic diversity of the Chinese community studying abroad, the site provides full translations of articles in English and in Chinese characterssimplified and traditional.274 A final example of a community-building Web site is a Chinese Christian media company in Hong Kong called Breakthrough275 that has two Web pages, each of which expresses a desire to create community among Chinese Christian youth in Hong Kong by bringing together youth from different countries including mainland China:

A Word From the General Secretary, CCCOWE, 23 Aug. 2006, China Coordination Centre of World Evangelism, 20 Oct. 2006 <http://www.cccowe.org/gs.asp>. Chinese Coordination Centre of World Evangelism (Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp; (English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp 273 Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine (GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm; (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php; (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm; (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm 274 Ken Lunde, Introduction to Chinese Information Processing, Chinese and Information Technology, 30 Oct. 2002, University of Pennsylvania, 21 July 2006 <http://projects.ldc.upenn.edu/Chinese/info_it.htm> and Lee, xi. Simplified characters refers to the set of Chinese characters used on mainland China, some of which have been simplified from their original traditional form. In 1986 the Communist Chinese government established the simplification of about one third of the characters in use with an officially sanctioned list. In Taiwan, all of the traditional characters are still in use. 275 Breakthrough (Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/; (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html

272

66 Globalization of information is a trend of the new century. Products of Breakthrough have penetrated market of the Chinese-speaking people. Meanwhile, Breakthrough hosts international cultural exchange activities that bring together young people from different countries, and provide a platform for culture exchange. We also share our experiences in youth work with youth workers from overseas and mainland China.276 It is clear that a common goal expressed by creators of Chinese Christian Web pages is to bring together communities of Chinese Christians. One question that has not been answered in this paper is whether Chinese Christian Web sites have an interested audience in mainland China. Given that only 10 percent of the Chinese population is characterized as Web users,277 how many of the Web users are Christians? It appears from the number of Chinese Christian Web sites produced and receiving hits278 that the Web sites are in use, though it is not specified where the hits are from.

276

About Us, Breakthrough, 2004, Breakthrough, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/eng/aboutus/aboutus.html#index5>. 277 Carnell, <http://www.overpopulation.com/archives/years/2005/000006.html> and Internet Users Top 20 Countries - Internet Usage, <http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm>. There are 1.3 billion people in the Chinese population and 132 million Internet users, so approximately 10.15 percent of the Chinese population were Internet users as of December 2006. 278 Internet Usage Statistics for www.fhl.com - Last 12 Months. FaithHopeLove. Jan. 2007. FHL.net. 29 Jan. 2007 <http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/>. For example, the FaithHopeLove Christian Web site operating out of Taiwan documented an average of 2,701,915 hits per month over the last 12 months.

67 Reports also show that many Christians in mainland China today [through not necessarily the majority] are affluent279 and/or well-educated280 people who can afford computers and Internet access. For those who cannot afford to buy a computer for themselves, there are computers available in China in workplaces, educational institutions and Internet cafs. This researcher has witnessed hotel employees congregating around a computer with Internet access whenever the hotel guests were not using it. The implication of all this material is that barring Internet filtering, selfcensorship and other societal deterrents, there are many people in China who could use the Internet to access Chinese Christian Web sites.

279

Impact of China's Economic Development on Christian Communities in Zhejiang Province, (Beijing, 2005), 179. A study conducted in Zhejiang Province, a relatively affluent Chinese province south of Shanghai showed that more churches are becoming more affluent, and the boss Christiandenoting a person who owns a private businesswas increasingly more common. 280 Lambert, 236. After the Tiananmen Square confrontation in 1989, many students and intellectuals in China faced disillusionment and despair and looked at Christianity as a possible alternative to Communism. In April 1990, a source in Beijing revealed detailed statistics concerning the alarming drop in applicants for CCP membership, compared to the vast increase in people joining churches. The figures showed that whereas new membership of the CCP had decrease by 45 percent in 1987-89 compared to 1984-86, over the same period, numbers joining the TSPM churches had risen by 70 percent.

68

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

69 RESEARCH QUESTIONS What is the relationship between the Internet in China and the movement in China to indigenize Christianity? Can selected Christian Web sites with a Chinese emphasis be uploaded in multiple locations in China? Can selected Christian Web sites without a Chinese emphasis be uploaded in multiple locations in China? Have the Web sites the researcher sampled been created by Chinese sources or people of other nationalities? In which countries do the Web sites originate? What has been the history of Dali and Shanghai in relation to Christianity and Westernization? How has interaction with Westerners in the past affected the indigenization of Christianity in Catholic church buildings in Shanghai and Dali? How is the indigenization of Christianity evident or lacking in specific indigenously produced religious print materials of the churches?

70

RESEARCH METHODS

71 RESEARCH METHODS This research is a cross-disciplinary endeavor to study through field research and secondary research (1) the accessibility of Christian Web sites in China and (2) the indigenization of Christianity in China, in order to assess (3) the nature of the interaction (or lack of interaction) between the Internet and digital media281 usage and the indigenization of Christianity in China.

Internet Accessibility Sampling and Tests The first case study was a field test of Internet accessibility, followed by a qualitative content description of which pre-selected Christian Web sites were and were not accessible in China.282 In this research the sampling design was intended to imitate [not replicate] the activities of someone in China surfing the Web looking for Christian Web sites.283 Several Chinese Christian Web sites provided useful lists of links to other Chinese Christian Web sites.284 The majority of the Web sites selected for the sample were

Digital Media: n. Any messages, images, music, or information that can be transmitted to a mass audience electronically over the Internet or cable or satellite broadcast. Also, any messages, images, or music information stored in binary code on a compact disc or any other digital storage device and physically distributed to a mass audience. 282 The size of the populationthe total number of Web sites in existence with Chinese and/or Christian emphasesis unknown, therefore the field study cannot be considered quantitative. The research only demonstrates the accessibility of the specific Web sites selected for testing, which may or may not be representative of the entire Christian Web. 283 The sample is a non-probability sample because not all members of the population [Chinese and/or Christian Web sites] have an equal opportunity of being selected. Popular Web sites with links to many other Web sites were the ones most commonly discovered by the researcher. 284 The following sites provided the most useful lists of links:

281

72 Chinese-directed, meaning that they either communicate exclusively in Chinese characters or had at least one translated version in Chinese characters, simplified or traditional.285 The researcher used the search engine Google to provide rough translations in English of Web sites that were only available in Chinese by typing the URL of the Web site into the search engine and selecting the function translate this page. The week before traveling to China (June 14-19, 2006) the researcher used a home computer Internet connection within the United States and a combination of prior knowledge of Chinese Christian sites and Google searches to find the first 76 Chinese286 Christian287 Web sites288 accessible in the United States. Later in the

Chinese Bible Church San Diego (Chinese Congregation): Links to cool Christian sites! (GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html Chinese Christian Internet Mission: Christian Media (GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/media.html Cantonese Christian Fellowship, Columbia University: Resources (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/Resources/resources.html Gospel Tape Ministry: Link (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm Immanuel.net: General Links (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/resource/ Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church: Links (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/content.php?page=links/christian_organisations.htm Theologos Publications: Links to Other Sites (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html 285 Lunde, <http://projects.ldc.upenn.edu/Chinese/info_it.htm> and Lee, xi. Simplified characters refers to the set of Chinese characters used on mainland China, some of which have been simplified from their original traditional form. In 1986 the Communist Chinese government established the simplification of about one third of the characters in use with an officially sanctioned list. In Taiwan, all of the traditional characters are still in use. 286 Chinese emphasis: adj. Any Web site that (1) can be read or interpreted by a person who reads Chinese characters only, (2) identifies its primary audience as Chinese, or (3) presents originally Chinese content translated into a language other than Chinese. 287 Christian: adj. Any Web site whose creator(s) express a desire that the material offered be used to promote or enrich the religious faith inspired by Jesus Christ. 288 Two sites were not selected for inclusion, even though they fit under both headings of Chinese and Christian. Evangelical Formosan Ministry: http://www.logos-seminary.edu/index_1.htm A Google search for Formosan termites (the Web sites on Formosan termites are not needed) brings up

73 research, the total number of Chinese Christian Web sites was raised to 77 as a result of subdividing two Web sites,289 adding one Web site290 and dropping one Web site.291 While in China, the researcher identified 26 more Web sites that fit the heading of Christian emphasis but not Chinese and tested them for accessibility, bringing the total number of Web sites tested in China to 103 Web sites, 77 of which also had a Chinese emphasis and 26 of which did not. [The sample was purposely structured to include more Web sites in Chinese because statistics show that the Chinese and people of other nationalities tend to prefer to look at Web sites specific to their home country.]292 The 75 sites were listed on an Excel spreadsheet with columns A-G.

http://www.fapa.org/, a site that lists the latest news about FAPA and US, Taiwanese, and PRC relationship. Formosan refers to the aboriginal languages in Taiwan, and because this study was instructed to steer clear of political issues, this site was dropped from the list, (perhaps unnecessarily, given that the Web site is about a seminary in Taiwan and is acceptable material.) China Ministries International: http://www.cmius.org/StatEng.htm. The site http://www.cmius.org/StatEng.htm was last updated on July 12, 1997, about nine years previous to the date viewed. Because the site had not been updated in nine years, it did not seem to be in use and was not included in the study. 289 Trans World Radio was divided between Trans World Radio Hong Kong (Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/ and Trans World Radio North East Asia Office (English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/. Also, Ours Web was divided between its two URLs, (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ and (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net. The reason for the divide was that in each case, one URL always uploaded and the other was inconsistent. 290 The Chinese-emphasis Web site added in Kunming was Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/. 291 The Web site dropped from the list by accident after its first successful upload in Shanghai was Tien Dao Bookstore (Big5)http://www.tiendao.org.hk/. 292 Zhu and Wang, 52. According to a report by the 2004 survey of the CNNIC, Chinese Internet users as a group access Websites originating within China 80 percent of the time, foreign Web sites in Chinese 10 percent of the time, and 5 percent foreign Web sites in other languages.

74

A
Name of Organization 5Talents

B
Category

C
GB

D
Big5 and Other

E
English

F
Resources

G
USA Notes

Directory of Christian Businesses in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Overseas

N/A

http://w ww.5tale nts.net/in dex_chin a.htm

http://w ww.5tal ents.net /index_ oversea s.htm

Links to Chinese Businesses

Web sites visible; also included pages for Taiwan and Hong Kong

Column A listed the Name of [the] Organization that sponsored/created the Web site. Column B listed the Category of the site, briefly described, and the Web sites geographic origin if stated in a language intelligible to the researcher.293 Columns C-E listed URLs to be tested. Some Web sites had more than one URL listed in more than one column, for example, many Web sites supported both Chinese language and English versions, and some sites in Chinese supported a GB294

293 294

The researcher reads English and some Chinese place names written in characters. Lunde, <http://projects.ldc.upenn.edu/Chinese/info_it.htm>. GB stands for GuoBiao which is short for GuoJia BiaoZhun meaning national standard. GB encodes simplified characters and is the preferred code for mainland China. It was developed in 1981.

75 version and a Big5295 version. An online Chinese/English dictionary http://www.sunrain.net/ that accepted GB or Big5 input was used to check if a site was in GB or Big5the two most common ways to encode Chinese characters. Column C, labeled GB, listed URLs for pages using simplified Chinese characters. Web sites that did not use simplified characters were labeled N/A for not available. Column D, labeled Big5, listed URLs for pages with traditional Chinese characters, plus all then unidentifiable Chinese typefacessome were later identified as GB, some as Big5. Web sites identified as only having GB or English versions were listed as N/A in this column.296 Column E, labeled English, listed the URLs for the English versions of Web sites. Web sites that supported only Chinese language versions were labeled N/A. Column F, labeled Resources listed unique features the Web sites possessed, such as a radio programs or materials that could be downloaded. Column G, labeled USA Notes listed any personal observation about the Web sites, such as whether the site took a long time to upload or whether there were more language versions of the site available aside from Chinese and English.

295

Lunde, <http://projects.ldc.upenn.edu/Chinese/info_it.htm>. Developed in 1984, Big5 is the preferred encoding for Chinese traditional characters in Taiwan. Its name refers to the five companies that developed it together. 296 Many of the GB and Big5 Web sites were categorized incorrectly and had to be rechecked and recategorized once the researchers ability to distinguish between simplified and traditional characters had improved.

76 A total of 103 Web sites related to Christianity were tested for accessibility in China in six cities in three distinct regions in China. (1) Shanghai, Suzhou and Nanjing are cities in the eastern-central part of China, found in the adjacent regions of Shanghai Municipality and Jiangsu Province. (2) Kunming and Lijiang are in Yunnan Province in southern China. (3) Beijing is in Beijing Municipality in the northeast of China. The researcher tested different combinations of URLs in different cities. Each URL in the Chinese Christian category was tested in a minimum of three different cities, and each URL in the general Christian category was tested in at least two cities. Web sites that showed up as inconsistent or inaccessible were tested in each Internet check following their discovery. The researcher tested Web sites by electronically copying a URL off an Excel list, pasting it into the address bar of a computer in China and recording whether the URL uploaded on the computer screen. When a Web site appeared on the computer screen and stayed there, it was recorded as having uploaded in that city. When a Web site flashed across the screen and then registered as unavailable, it was not listed as having uploaded in that city. All results were stored in e-mail draft folders in an online Yahoo E-mail account.297

297

One site (Big5)http://www.tiendao.org.hk was left off the list of sites to be tested by mistake after being tested once in China. Because the site was only tested once it was dropped from the study.

77 In Lijiang, the Adange Hotel business center was cross-checked with a downtown Internet caf to see if they yielded the same results. Every third URL from the hotel check was tested in the Internet caf, as well as all URLs that did not upload in the hotel.298 The researcher conducted tests in the following locations on the following dates: USA Tennessee (6/15/06-6/18/06): Researcher developed a list of Web site URLs that uploaded in the United States on a home computer in Knoxville, Tenn. Shanghai (6/22/06): Researcher tested all the URLs listed in Column C GB using a UTC professors laptop hooked up to a hotel Internet connection in the Yashidu Suites Hotel in the city of Shanghai. Suzhou (6/24/06): Researcher tested all the URLs listed in Column D Big5 and Other using the Glamor Hotels business center in Suzhou. Nanjing (6/25/06): Researcher tested all the URLs listed in Column E English using a professors computer and a wireless Internet connection in the Nanjing Grand Hotel.

298

The fact that there was more than one URL listed for several Web sites meant that an occasional repeat was encountered. When that happened, the researcher went on to the next URL and continued testing every third one.

78 Kunming (6/27/06-6/28/06): Researcher tested 26 new sites that fit the operational definition of Christian but not Chinese in the business center of the Golden Dragon Hotel in Kunming. Completed first Internet check. Lijiang (6/30/06-7/2/06): Researcher retested all Web sites using a hotel Internet computer in the business center of the Adange Hotel.299 Lijiang Internet Caf Cross-Check (7/3/06) Researcher retested every third URL using an Internet caf in downtown Lijiang. Beijing (7/4/06): Researcher retested all Web sites on the room computer provided in the Beijing Jinqiao Apartment Hotel. USA Tennessee (7/8/06): Researcher retested all the sites that did not upload somewhere in China to see if they would still upload in the United States using the same home computer and Internet connection as were used for preliminary Web site searches in Knoxville, Tenn.

Chinese Christian Web Sources and Content The researcher read the sampled Web sites mission statements, subjectively determined their primary function for the Web consumer [see Appendix B], and looked for addresses and contact information with Chinese-literate assistance to determine the place of origin for each Web site.

299

Four Web sites from the Non-Chinese directed list were omitted by mistake from the Lijiang tests.

79 Catholic Church Indigenization Case Study The second case study used field observation and secondary research to observe specific Catholic churches within the Shanghai Diocese [this includes many different churches, the primary one being the Cathedral of St. Ignatius] and Dalis single Catholic church building and then photograph the characteristics of each building that suggested either Western influence or indigenization. The researcher also examined a book produced by the Shanghai Diocese and an indigenous Christian poster that was hanging on the wall of the Catholic church in Dali and looked for indigenous Chinese Christian features. The sampling strategy for this study is non-purposive in that the churches and print materials selected for analysis were those that the researcher was able to visit while on tour in China. The researcher visited the St. Ignatius Cathedral in Shanghai (6/23/06) and the old Dali Catholic chapel (6/29/06). The researcher used secondary research to collect background information on the histories of the cities of Shanghai and Dali and the Western influence or lack thereof.

80

DATA RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

81 DATA RESULTS AND ANALYSIS In China it is state policy that police watch people in certain Internet cafs in China,300 and a computer program called Internet Detective records identity card numbers and online activities for Internet users in all regulated Internet cafs in China.301 The enforced situation, however, is not always as strict as the regulations suggest. While visiting a city in China in June 2006, the researcher learned that only a person with a Chinese I.D. could purchase an Internet card and use an Internet caf in China. Borrowing the tour guides boyfriends Chinese I.D. card allowed the researcher [a female] to purchase an Internet card and use an Internet caf. The Chinese I.D. card needed to purchase the Internet card did not have to be the researchers own I.D. card. If the researchers activities online [uploading Christian Web sites, including typically blocked ones], were recorded in accordance with the legal requirements, the activity was kept on that young mans record for 60 days,302 or until Sept. 1, 2006.

300

Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. While Jin fights monsters on a computer at the Feiyu Internet Bar, a team of seven security guards sits in a back room watching on closed-circuit TV screens that are linked to a nearby police station. Feiyu guards walk the lines of 320 computer consoles, looking over shoulders to make sure no one slips through firewalls to look at pornography or banned content. 301 Macleod, <http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/internetprivacy/2006-04-02-china-webcops_x.htm>. 302 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. Users must register with their identification cards, and cafs must record this information, along with the computer used and time of use, maintaining it for 60 days and making it available to the Public Security Bureau and the Culture Department.

82 Web Site Sources A closer examination of the active Web sites with a Chinese emphasis shows that out of 76 Web sites, 66 [87 percent] were created by Chinese people for other Chinese people whereas the other 10 [13 percent] were created for Chinese people by people who were not Chinese. This suggests that Chinese people are the primary creators of Chinese Christian Web sites. Of the 66 Web sites created by Chinese people for Chinese people, eight originated in mainland Chinaabout 12 percent. Three Web sites did not list a place of origin.303 The other 55 Web sites designed by Chinese peopleabout 81 percent operated outside of China, and 30 of them were operating out of the United States. Other international Web site locations included Hong Kong which had 12.5 sites [the 0.5 refers to a part of a Christian online retailer that based itself out of two places, Hong Kong and Singapore,304] Taiwan had six, Canada had three, Singapore had 2.5, Australia had two and Germany and the Philippines each had one. If Chinese-directed Web sites that non-Chinese organizations produced were included in the count, then 64 out of 76 Chinese directed Web sites [84 percent] operated outside of China. Only nine Web sites [12 percent] operated within mainland China. Four Chinese-directed Web sites [five percent]Chinese

303

Chinese Christian Web sites were not the only Web sites that did not specify a place of origin. The non-Chinese Web site Answering Islam303 also stated a desire to keep its location anonymous. 304 Christian Communications Ltd. (Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/; (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/

83 Communication Bookshop,305 Midiverse,306 ChristianStudy.com and Answering Islamdid not list a place of origin, and may be operating within China or somewhere else. Midiverse and ChristianStudy.com were each completely inaccessible in China, while Chinese Communication Bookshop and Answering Islam were completely accessible.

Summary of Web Site Accessibility Tests A total of 103 Web sites related to Christianity, 77 of which also included a Chinese emphasis, were tested for accessibility in China. Tests were conducted in six cities within three regions in China. Of the 103 sampled Web sites, 87 Web sites uploaded wherever they were tested in China, seven uploaded inconsistently, eight never uploaded in China and there was one inactive URL.307

305

Chinese Communications Bookshop (Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID=0003/ 306 Midiverse (Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ 307 An inactive URL is a URL that was inaccessible in China and also did not upload in the United States after the researcher returned and tested all of the inaccessible URLs.

84

Tested Web Sites

8 7

Always Uploaded Inconsistent Never Uploaded Dead URL

87

Disregarding the inactive URL, 87 out of 102 sampled Web sites [85 percent] tested in the three regions in China always uploaded. A total of 94 out of 102 sampled Web sites [92 percent] uploaded at least once. Of the 76 Web sites with a Chinese emphasis [disregarding the inactive URL], 68 out of 76 [89 percent] of the sampled Chinese-directed Web sites uploaded at least once, and 62 out of 76 [82 percent] of the sampled Chinese-directed Web sites always uploaded.

85

Always Uploaded Chinese Emphasis No Chinese Emphasis Total 87 25 62

Inconsistent

Never Uploaded

Inactive URL 1

Total

77

26

103

Most of the tests were conducted in hotels in China. In Lijiang, the crosscheck between a hotel business center Internet connection and an Internet caf indicated that the Internet caf did not restrict the accessibility of Christian Web sites in comparison to the hotel, in fact, one Web site uploaded at the Internet caf308 that did not upload in the hotel.

Accessible Web SitesAlways Uploaded The 87 Web sites that always uploaded in China appeared to be completely accessible in the areas of China the researcher visited. Of the 87 completely accessible Web sites, 62 [74 percent] had a Chinese emphasis.

The Web site for the Chinese Christian Relief Agency (Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/ did not upload in the Adange Hotel business center in Lijiang, but it did upload in the Internet caf in downtown Lijiang.

308

86 Some examples of Web sites that uploaded consistently included: Web sites devoted to Chinese Christian communications,309 Chinese evangelical mission organizations310 and overseas-run mission evangelical organizations seeking to make converts among the Chinese.311 Six of the accessible Web sites geared for Chinese audiences had live radio programs in Chinese and sermon recordings that could be

Chinese Christian Internet Mission (GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html Christian Communication Inc. of Canada (GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/ Christian Communications Ltd. (Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/; (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/ ORTV.com.sg (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ 310 Back to Jerusalem Movement (GB)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/Open%20letter%20Heavenly%20Man/Open%20LetterChinese.htm; (English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/ Chinese Coordination Centre of World Evangelism (Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp; (English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp Fuyin.com (GB)http://www.fuyin.com/ Gospel Operation International (Big5)http://www.gointl.org/ Gospel Tape Ministries (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/; (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=GB/; (Big5)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=BIG5/; (English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm Grace Melodia (All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ Great Commission Center International (Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/; (English)http://www.gcciusa.org/English/index.htm Luwei Performing Arts Fellowship (Big5)http://www.luweiarts.org.sg/ STEMI (Big5)http://www.stemi.org.sg/2005/; (English)http://www.stemi.org/ Worshippers (Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ 311 Ambassadors for Christ Inc. (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm; (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm Answering Islam (Big5)http://www.answering-islam.org/Chinese/index.htm; (English)http://www.answering-islam.org/ Chinese Christian Mission USA (GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/ Christian Renewal Ministries (Big5)http://www.crmnj.org/ Focus on the Chinese Family (GB, Big5 and English)http://www..org/ Chick Publications (GB)http://www.chick.com/zh/gb/; (English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp RBC Ministries (GB)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=gb/; (Big5)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=b5/; (English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/ Revival Chinese Ministries International (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm; (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm

309

87 listened to online.312 A young woman the researcher interviewed in China confided that her grandparents who were Christians kept Christian radio on constantly at home while she was growing up, suggesting that Christian radio is a popular item with some Chinese Christians. Christian radio broadcasts are said to have been responsible for Chinese conversions to Christianity in the 1980s when there were few other Christian influences.313 Six Christian e-commerce sites selling Chinese Christian books, music and other products were accessible on the Internet in mainland China. These Web sites also offered to ship internationally.314 It is interesting to note that two of the accessible Chinese Web sitesGrace Melodia and Goodnewscom.orgdid not use text at all, but preferred to rely on

Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm; (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm; (English)http://www.chinesegoodnews.org/en/home.html BBN Radio (GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnradio.org/wcm/schinese/; (GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnradio.org/wcm/tchinese/; (Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnradio.org/wcmtchinese/; (English)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnradio.org/wcm/english/ Far East Broadcasting Company (GB)http://sc.w4j.org/m/FEBCChinese/index.asp; (Big5)http://www.febcchinese.org/; (English)http://www.febc.org/ Goodnewscom.org (All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/ Lutheran Hour Ministries (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/; (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/; (English)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/english/ Trans World Radio North East Asia Office (English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/ 313 Lambert, 89. The [Chinese] writer further stated that in his area [Northern Anhui Province] there were no believers at all prior to 1982. People had turned to Christ through listening to gospel radio programs beamed from overseas, and then through miracles and healings. 314 Alleluia Bookstore (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html, Asian Book One (Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/, Chinese Communications Bookshop (Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID=0003/, "Cool" Chinese Internet Mission (Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/, Email Bookstore.com (Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/default.asp, Liberty House Company (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/.

312

88 pictures of text, perhaps because text in pictures cannot be detected by key word blocking programs.315 One of the overseas Web sites targeting China was not expected to be accessible, but it was. This Web site openly declares its intention to serve unregistered churches in China and closely follows the ministry of Dennis Balcombe, a man whose presence was formerly banned in China. The Web site was tested in four citiesSuzhou, Nanjing, Lijiang and Beijingand was accessible in all of them. The organization in question, Revival Chinese Ministries International,316 [RCMI] is directed by Balcombe, a charismatic minister originally from southern California who arrived in Hong Kong in the 1970s. In the 1980s he imported Bibles illegally when he entered mainland China to teach English. Between 1988 and 1994 he traveled around inland China, occasionally in a coffin to avoid detection. For eight years1995 to 2003Balcombe was banned from China. During this time he traveled around Europe and the United States, including a visit to Congress, speaking against the persecution of Christians in China.317 The RCMI Web site updates Web audiences on Balcombes ministry and activities.318 One can extrapolate that RCMIs mission statement would anger Chinese officials who are opposed to Christianity:

315

Grace Melodia (All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ and Goodnewscom.org (All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/ did not contain text that would assign them the label of GB or Big 5. 316 Revival Chinese Ministries International (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm; (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm 317 Aikman, 271-275. 318 Revival Chinese Ministries International (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm; (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm

89 Mission Statement: We are called to seeing China reached with the Gospel. Our vision is to help the house churches [researchers emphasis] in China to fulfill her calling from heaven, to be a Blessings [sic] to All Nations.319 The official Web site of the Chinese Protestant Church in China always uploaded,320 suggesting that key word blockers will not filter out Christian lingo on this Web site. Also, the Chinese Theological Review,321 a journal featuring translated articles by Three-Self Leaders and adherents was consistently accessible. The Web site for Amity Foundation,322 an organization that prints Bibles in China, was also consistently accessible. In Shanghai the researcher was informed that Bibles can only be purchased [legally]323 at church bookstores. The official policy in China is that religious articles, artworks, and publications should be sold at registered venues for religious activities.324 The researcher also visited Shanghais City of Books325the largest

About Us, 9 May 2006, Revival Chinese Ministries International, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/about_rcmi.htm>. 320 Chinese Protestant Church in China (GB)http://www.chineseprotestantchurch.org.cn/1.asp 321 Chinese Theological Review (English)http://www.christianityinchina.org/Common/Admin/showFP_auto.jsp?Pid=7&Versionfiltere d=1&Charset=big5/ 322 Amity Foundation (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/; (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp; (English)http://www.amitynewsservice.org/index.php 323 Hannah Beech, The Not-So-Good-Book: Lai Kwong-keung is a God-fearing man, and that spooks Beijing. China's devout are learning that Bibles can bring big trouble, Time International 21 Jan. 2002: 28-30. InfoTrac Web. 5 Dec. 2005. In 2002, Hannah Beech reporting for Time International wrote "In the crowded stalls of Beijing's Book Street, Bibles compete openly for space with self-help manuals and guides for getting into American M.B.A programs. 324 Chan and Carlson, 83. This regulation is from the Decree of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China No. 426, Article 21. These regulations on religious affairs went into effect March 1, 2005.

319

90 bookstore in Shanghaiand confirmed that there were no Bibles on the shelves.326 While legally purchased Bibles may have been confined to church bookstores, Bible search engines in Chinese were available online in GB format at Antioch.com327 and in Big5 format at BibleKeeper.com.328 There were accessible Chinese Christian Web sites that appeared to support themselves by advertising, including Faith Hope Love.net329 which operated out of Taiwan and Chinese Christian Herald Crusades operating out of the United States.330 Accessible Chinese Web sites devoted to the academic study of Christianity included Theologos.net,331 a resource for intellectuals with questions about Christianity and Crossmap,332 a Web resource for Chinese pastors. There were also Web sites devoted to Chinese Christian music that were always accessible in China.333

The visit to Shanghai City of Books [] took place on June 23, 2006. While there were no Bibles on the shelf, academic texts on Christianity were available. 327 Get Bible Passage in Chinese, Antioch.Com, 2006, Antioch Networks International, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm>. Antioch (English)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm. 328 Chinese Union Version (Big5), BibleKeeper, BibleKeeper.com, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-union-big5/index.php>. Bible Keeper (Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-union-big5/index.php 329 Faith Hope Love.net (GB)http://www.fhl.net/main/; (Big5)http://wbbs.fhl.net/; (English)http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/ 330 Chinese Christian Herald Crusades (GB)http://www.cchc.org/ 331 Theologos.net (GB)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_gb/GBtxt_IE.html; (Big5)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_big5/B5txt_IE.html; (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html 332 Crossmap (GB)http://www.crossmap.cn/index.htm 333 HKACM Music (GB)http://www.hkacm.org/ Lamb Music (Big5)http://www.lambmusic.org/ Red Bean Music (Big5)http://www.redbeanmusic.com/ Songs of Praise (GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/translations.htm Stream of Praise Music Ministries (Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml; (Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml, (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx
326

325

91 The Christian Community in Hong Kong334 had many Web resources.335 5Talents.net, mentioned in the literature review, allowed businesses to register categorically within one of four location directories: Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, and overseas. In the overseas category there were four businesses registered. In the China category there were 11. In the Taiwan category there were 12.336 Businesses in Hong Kong were the primary usersin the Hong Kong category there were 129 listings by Christian businesses. The Hong Kong domain also included a link to another Web site, called 5Loaves2Fish.com, 337 which was a Hong Kong page of Christian Recruitment Ads.338 One posted on Oct. 19, 2006, was for a dental nurse.339 Specifically designed for Hong Kong youth were [previously mentioned] Breakthroughs two Web sites for youth entitledBreakthrough340 and UZone21.341 Breakthroughs Web site described the breadth of the organizations influence:
334

Gugler, 212-236. Hong Kong is a city-state. It is also one of the richest cities in the world, and it is ranked the ninth city in world trade. In 1842, the British took the island of Hong Kong as a place to trade with China after the Opium War. It remained in British possession until 1997 when it was returned to China as a sovereign autonomous region. As such it has its own social and economic system, its way of life, its status as a free port and its currency. Its government is autonomous also democratic in nature. 335 5talents.net is a China, Hong Kong, Taiwan & Overseas Chinese Christian Business Directory Website, Chinese Business Directory, 5Talents.net, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.5talents.net/>. 336 5talents.net is a China, Hong Kong, Taiwan & Overseas Chinese Christian Business Directory Website, <http://www.5talents.net/>. 5talents (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm, (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm. 337 Christian Recruitment Ads, 5loaves2fish, 19 Oct. 2006, 5loaves2fish.com, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.5loaves2fish.com/>. 5Loaves2Fish (English and Big5)http://www.5loaves2fish.com. 338 Christian Recruitment Ads, <http://www.5loaves2fish.com/>. 5Loaves2Fish (English and Big5)http://www.5loaves2fish.com. 339 Christian Recruitment Ads, 5loaves2fish, 19 Oct. 2006, 5loaves2fish.com, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.5loaves2fish.com/job/job.htm>. 5Loaves2Fish (English and Big5)http://www.5loaves2fish.com. 340 Breakthrough (Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/; (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html

92 Breakthrough is serving close to one million youths of Hong Kong through her media services each year. She has been producing award-winning television series and weekly radio programs. Her partners include all major broadcasting networks in Hong Kong.342 Their other Web site, Uzone21, provided discussion forums for youth to air their opinions.343 These Hong Kong Web site examples suggest that Chinese Christians in Hong Kong as a whole enjoy a much greater degree of online freedom than Christians in China. Overseas Chinese Web sites were among those accessible in China. Immanuel.net [previously mentioned], a directory originating in the United States listed 1,724 Chinese Christian Churches and Organizations in order to provide free

341 342

UZone21 (Big5)http://www.uzone21.com/index/ About Us, <http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/eng/aboutus/aboutus.html#index5>. Breakthroughs description of itself is one example of an organization that integrates media and Christianity: Our Way Forward WHOLISTIC EDUCATION It is our strategy to nurture the multi-intelligence and life skills of young people by an integrating cross-media productions with people ministries. GLOBALIZATION Globalization of information is a trend of the new century. Products of Breakthrough have penetrated market of the Chinese-speaking people. Meanwhile, Breakthrough hosts international cultural exchange activities that bring together young people from different countries, and provide a platform for culture exchange. We also share our experiences in youth work with youth workers from overseas and mainland China. DIGITALIZATION Constant innovation is the spirit of Breakthrough. We employ the latest media technology to provide forward looking and interactive digital service for youths. YOUR PARTICIPATION We believe in youths' talents and creativity, which enable them to be masters of the future. We invite all of you to be our partners to contribute to a promising future for them. Join us and develop leaders for the 21st century. 343 Welcome to Uzone21, Uzone21, 20 Oct. 2006, Breakthrough, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.uzone21.com/index/>.

93 and useful information to all the people to find a place to worship God and receive help when traveling overseas.344 [Listed among the 1,724 Chinese Christian churches and organizations was information for a Chinese Christian fellowship group meeting in Chattanooga, Tenn., where the researcher was living.] Chinese college students overseas can access Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine onlineA Place for Soul-Searching Chinese Intellectuals345and read other overseas Chinese students testimonies in GB and Big5 formats and in English. Due to its consistent accessibility in China, this Web site is potentially available to college students on mainland China as well. Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship had an accessible Web site with links that might be of interest to Chinese college students.346 Even though the main page of this Web site was accessible in China, three of the links they recommended were among the eight sampled Web sites that the researcher found were completely blocked in China. These included, China Horizon, a Chinese

Chinese Christian Directory, <http://www.immanuel.net/overseaschurch/>. Immanuel.net (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp 345 A Place for Soul-Searching Chinese Intellectuals, Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine, 2006, Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm>. Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine (GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm, (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php, (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm, (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm 346 Resources, Cantonese Christian Fellowship, 9 Oct. 2006, Columbia University, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/Resources/resources.html>. Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html

344

94 Christian periodical covering the latest news on Christianity in China;347 ChristianStudy.com, a GB and Big5 resource with lots of Christian information (including articles that talk about the difference with [sic] other cults) and also various Bible study material;348 and Midiverse, a Web site with lyrics and music to Chinese Christian worship songs.349 Overseas Chinese church Web sites were accessible. It is significant that these Web sites could be uploaded in China because these Web sites were the most helpful in providing pages of links to other Chinese Christian Web sites. Two church Web sites with particularly extensive lists of links were the Chinese Bible Church of San Diego350 and Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church in Australia.351 Ling Liang Church in Taiwan352 and Yan Fok Church in New York353 also had accessible Web sites. Of the 87 Web sites that always uploaded in China, 25 did not have a Chinese emphasis. Just because these Web sites were not in Chinese does not mean that they could not be construed as offensive. However, none of these Web sites were

Dr. Samuel Ling, China Horizon, 2004, China Horizon, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.chinahorizon.org/>. China Horizon (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ 348 Christian Study Homepage, ChristianStudy.Com, 2001, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.christianstudy.com/>. Christian Study (GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/. The Web site hit counter was at 3,873,580 as of Oct. 19, 2006. 349 Midiverse, 4 Nov. 2005, 19 Oct. 2006 <http://midiverse.netfirms.com/>. Midiverse (Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/. 350 Chinese Bible Church of San Diego (GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html; (English)http://www.cbcsd.com/; (English)http://www.lordsgracesd.org/ 351 Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/ 352 Ling Liang Church (Big5)http://www.llc.org.tw/ 353 Yan Fok Church (GB)http://www.ggmci.org/

347

95 completely blocked in China, and only one of the sampled Web sites without a Chinese emphasis uploaded inconsistently.354 The accessibility of some of these foreign Web sites was unexpected. The Voice of the Martyrs Web site355 was accessible everywhere it was testedin Kunming, Lijiang and Beijing. Their mission statement is as follows: The Voice of the Martyrs is a non-profit, interdenominational organization with a vision for aiding Christians around the world who are being persecuted for their faith in Christ, fulfilling the Great Commission, and educating the world about the ongoing persecution of Christians.356 It is worth noting that non-member visitors to the Web site did not have access to all the archives. The public portion of their Web site included no outspoken statements about China that the researcher was able to locate. In addition there was no search function allowing the researcher to pull up information on China or any particular country. The following organizations were also accessible from the English-only Web list: the Biblical Archeological Society,357 Billy Grahams Web site,358 Campus

354

The only Web site that was not Chinese-directed that uploaded in consistently was Westminster Theological Seminarys Web site (English)http://www.wts.edu/. 355 Voice of the Martyrs (English)http://www.persecution.com/ 356 About VOM, The Voice of the Martyrs, 2003, Voice of the Martyrs, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.persecution.com/about/index.cfm?action=vom>. 357 Biblical Archeological Society (English)http://www.bib-arch.org/ 358 Billy Graham (English)http://www.billygraham.org/

96 Crusade for Christ International359 Catholic Forum,360 Christian Answers [online forum],361 Christian Caf [online dating forum],362Covenant College in Georgia,363 Evangelism Explosion International,364 Focus on the Family,365 Harvard Divinity School,366 the Jesus Film,367 the Seed Company,368 Southern Baptist Theological Seminary,369 the University of Notre Dame,370 the Vatican,371 Wycliffe International [Bible Translation],372 and Young Life [Christian youth ministry].373 The following Web sites with Christian study materials in English were always accessible in China: the Bible Resource Center;374 Biblical Greek and Hebrew tutorials375 and Crosswalk.com, a Web site offering a Bible search engine, commentaries and pastoral resources.376

Campus Crusade for Christ International (English)http://www.ccci.org/ Catholic Forum (English)http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/ccfjeff/ 361 Christian Answers.net (Multilingual)http://www.christiananswers.net/menu-at1.html 362 Christian Caf (English)http://www.christiancafe.com/ This Web site was accessible but said that China was outside its region of use. 363 Covenant College (English)http://www.covenant.edu/ 364 Evangelism Explosion International (English)http://www.eeinternational.org/ 365 Focus on the Family (English)http://www.family.org/ 366 Harvard Divinity School (English)http://www.hds.harvard.edu/ 367 Jesus Film (English)http://www.jesusfilm.org/ 368 Seed Company (English)http://www.theseedcompany.org/ 369 Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (English)http://www.sbts.edu/ 370 University of Notre Dame (English)http://www.nd.edu/ 371 Vatican (German, English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese)http://www.vatican.va/ 372 Wycliffe International (English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ 373 Young Life (English)http://www.younglife.org/ 374 Bible Resource Center (English)http://www.bibleresourcecenter.org/ 375 Greek Tutorial [Biblical] (English)http://www.ibiblio.org/koine/, Hebrew Tutorial [Biblical] (English)http://foundationstone.com.au/OnlineHebrewTutorial.html 376 Crosswalk.com (English)http://www.crosswalk.com/
360

359

97 Three accessible church Web sites without a Chinese emphasis included the Nairobi Chapel in Kenya377 New City Fellowship Presbyterian Church in Chattanooga Tenn.,378 and the San Diego Diocese Web site in San Diego Calif.379 Inconsistent Web SitesInconsistently Uploaded Five out of seven of the Web sites that uploaded inconsistently were designed by Chinese people for a Chinese audience. Of the Web sites that uploaded inconsistently, the results were highly varied as to which city would upload which Web site. In the chart below, the light gray cells indicate cities where a Web site was not tested, the dark gray cells show where a Web site uploaded and the white cells show where a Web site did not upload.

377 378

Nairobi Chapel (English)http://www.nairobichapel.org/index.htm New City Fellowship Church (English)http://www.newcityfellowship.com/ 379 San Diego Diocese (English)http://www.diocese-sdiego.org/

98

Shanghai
Chinese Christian Evangelical Association Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Family for Christ Ours Web Westminster Theological Seminary Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch

Suzhou Yes

Nanjing No

Kunming Yes

Lijiang No

Beijing Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes X

X X

X X

Yes Yes

No No

No No

Yes

No

No

99

The Web sites that uploaded inconsistently all belonged to Christian ministry organizations: the Chinese Christian Evangelical Association,380 the Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong,381 the Chinese Christian Relief Organization,382 Chinese Family for Christ,383 Ours Web.cn,384 Westminster Theological Seminary385 and Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch.386 One possible explanation for the inconsistent uploading of the above Web sites is the practice of keyword Internet filtering in China. Subsidiary machines 387 work with the main routers,388 looking for offending keywords and filtering out Web sites that have those words in them.

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association (GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ccea2003/ministry.asp; (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784&type=0/. Uploaded in Suzhou, Kunming and Beijing, but not Lijiang or Nanjing. 381 Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong (Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/. Uploaded in Suzhou. Did not upload in Kunming, Lijiang, or Beijing. Note that their American Web site which was also tested (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/ always uploaded. 382 Chinese Christian Relief Association (Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/. Uploaded in Kunming and Beijing. Did not upload in Suzhou, Nanjing or Lijiang. 383 Chinese Family for Christ (GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp. Uploaded in Shanghai, Kunming, Lijiang and Beijing. Did not upload in Nanjing. 384 Ours Web (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/. Uploaded in Shanghai and Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. Note that Ours Web (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ always uploaded. 385 Westminster Theological Seminary (Not Chinese Directed)http://www.wts.edu/. Uploaded in Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. 386 Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/. Uploaded in Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. Note that their international site (English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ always uploaded. 387 Richard Clayton, Ignoring the Great Firewall of China, Light Blue TouchpaperSecurity Research, Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 27 June 2006, 11 July 2006 <http://www.lightbluetouchpaper.org/2006/06/27/ignoring-the-great-firewall-of-china/>. It turns out [caveat: in the specific cases weve closely examined, YMMV] that the keyword detection is not actually being done in large routers on the borders of the Chinese networks, but in nearby subsidiary machines. When these machines detect the keyword, they do not actually prevent the packet containing the keyword from passing through the main router (this would be horribly complicated to achieve and still allow the router to run at the necessary speed). Instead, these subsiduary machines generate a series of TCP reset packets, which are sent to each end of the connection. When the resets arrive, the end-points assume they are genuine requests from the other end to close the connection and obey. Hence the censorship occurs.

380

100 In three of the aforementioned Web sites, the version of the Web site with a domain label such as cn or hk uploaded inconsistently while the version without the domain label always uploaded. Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong (Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/ uploaded in Suzhou, but it did not upload in Kunming, Lijiang, or Beijing. The partner Web site for Chinese Christian Mission USA (GB)http://www.ccmusa.org/, which was tested in Shanghai, Nanjing, Lijiang and Beijingtwo of the same locations as the Hong Kong sitealways uploaded. Ours Web (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/, a self-supporting Christian Web site operating out of China with the cn or China domain uploaded in Shanghai and Kunming, but it did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. Ours Web (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ uploaded everywhere it was testedin Shanghai, Lijiang and Beijing. Finally, Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/ uploaded in Kunming, but it did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. However, the International site for Wycliffe http://www.wycliffe.net/ always uploaded and was tested in Kunming, Lijiang and Beijing. This suggests that Web sites with East Asian Chinese domain labels may be more tightly monitored.

388

Router, def. 2, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2003), 1086. A router is a device that mediates the transmission routes of data packets over an electronic communications network (as the Internet).

101 The Chinese Christian Evangelical Association389 Web site uploaded in every other city from Suzhou to Beijing. As the title suggests, the site is primarily evangelical, with articles such as AD 2025 Buddhist MonitorTracking the Spread of Gods Good News Among Buddhist Peoples Worldwide390 The Web site, [even the purportedly English version,] is mostly in Chinese characters, so it is possible that the Web site has offending keywords in Chinese, which is why it would not upload consistently everywhere. The only non-Chinese directed site that did not upload consistently was the site for Westminster Theological Seminary,391 which uploaded in Kunming, but not in Lijiang or Beijing. One can only speculate why this Web site was unavailable in those two cities. The Web site may have experienced technical difficulties July 2-July 4, 2006, making it internationally inaccessible, but this is highly unlikely. This Web site provides access to an extensive electronic resource library on Christianity.392 It is worth noting however that the Web sites for other Christian institutions of study with

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association (GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784&type=0 390 Missionworld, CCEA.Org.Tw, 2006, Chinese Christian Evangelical Association, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.ccea.org.tw/missionworld/>. 391 Westminster Theological Seminary (Not Chinese Directed)http://www.wts.edu/. Uploaded in Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. 392 Westminster Library Electronic Resources, Montgomery Library, 16 Oct. 2006, Westminster Theological Seminary, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.wts.edu/library/eresources.html>. Westminster Theological Seminary (Not Chinese Directed)http://www.wts.edu/. Uploaded in Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing.

389

102 extensive online libraries including Harvard Divinity School393 and the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary394 uploaded wherever they were tested.

Inaccessible Web SitesNever Uploaded Eight of the Web sites tested uploaded in the United States but never uploaded in China. One theory for why these sites would not upload in China, barring temporary technological malfunction, is that these Web sites have been censored from Chinas network.395 All eight of these censored Web sites were designed by Chinese people with a Chinese audience in mind. One of the inaccessible Web sites was China Soul for Christ,396 available in English and in Chinese simplified characters. It is the Web site of Yuan Zhiming, a renowned documentary film maker who fled China in 1989 after his politically critical film River Elegy had helped to inspire the Tiananmen Square protest.397 He was subsequently blacklisted in China. He converted to Christianity in 1991 in the United States, and has since released a series of books and films, all of which are now

Harvard Divinity School (English)http://www.hds.harvard.edu/ Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (English)http://www.sbts.edu/ 395 Zittrain and Palfrey, <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. Filtering takes place primarily at the backbone level of Chinas network, though individual Internet service providers also implement their own blocking. 396 China Soul for Christ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/; (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/; (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm 397 Yuting Wang and Fenggang Yang, More Than Evangelical and Ethnic: the Ecological Factor in Chinese Conversion to Christianity in the United States, Sociology of Religion: a Quarterly Review 67 (2006): 179-191. Yuan Zhiming converted to Christianity after arriving in the United States and was baptized at Princeton University in 1991.
394

393

103 banned in China, based around the theme of Christianity in China. His films, The Cross: Jesus in China are available for free download on the Web site.398 Another blocked Web site was the Chinese Graduate School of Theology in Hong Kong (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/. Available in GB and Big5 formats and in English, this Web site did not upload at all in China. Their mission statement allows for speculation as to why they were censored, but nothing concrete can be determined since other Web sites with similar mission statements were not censored: China Graduate School of Theology (CGST) is an evangelical interdenominational theological school in Hong Kong. It is an indigenous effort born out of, and sustained by, a vision to build up the Chinese Church to face today's unprecedented challenges and opportunities of church growth, renewal, evangelization of not only the Chinese but the world.399 The other Web sites that did not upload at all were: China Horizon,400 China Life Press Inc.401 China Witness Center,402 Midiverse403 and Trans World Radio Hong Kong.404

Yuan Zhiming, Video/Audio, China Soul for Christ Foundation, 2003, China Soul for Christ Foundation, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.chinasoul.org/e/e-va.htm>. 399 Welcome to CGSTUS, CGST U.S. Community, 2006, China Graduate School of Theology US, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.cgstus.org/>. 400 China Horizon (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ 401 Christian Life Press Inc. (GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFrameSet/; (Big5/Other)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?OpenframeSet/; (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?OpenFrameSet/ 402 Christian Witness Center (GB and English)

398

104 One Web site, Footprint Radio Broadcasting Ministry,405 (GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html, was a URL that went inactive while the researcher was in China. This radio Web site allowed the Web user to listen to a Christian radio broadcast in Chinese online. The URL did not upload anywhere in China, and it did not upload when retested in the United State after the researcher returned from China and had retested all the Web sites that would not upload in China. The home Web page (GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ however did upload in Beijing, so the inactive URL may have been a Web page that was discontinued while the research was being carried out in China, and the home page may have been accessible. The data analysis will now move to the second case studythe observation of Catholic church buildings in cities in China.

Midiverse (Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ Trans World Radio Hong Kong (Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/ 405 FRBM, FRBM, 17 Oct. 2006, Footprint Radio Broadcasting Ministry, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.footprint.fm/>. Footprint Radio (GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html. The site (GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/
404

403

105

Shanghai Catholic Diocese In 2006 Shanghai had a

CHINA

population of 17 million,406
Shanghai

overshadowing Beijings 13 million.407 Shanghai has experienced some of the fastest growth of any city in China

within the last two centuries. The city opened to foreign trade in 1843 after the Treaty of Nanjing408 and ten years later was Chinas largest international trade port.409 The book Catholic Church in Shanghai410 produced by the Shanghai Catholic Diocese and sold at the St. Ignatius411 Cathedral 412 church bookstore provides pictures and descriptions of many of the Catholic churches in Shanghai.

Travel Destinations Lonely Planet, Lonely Planet Trave1 Guide, 2006, Lonely Planet, 22 July 2006 <http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/>. 407 Travel Destinations Lonely Planet, <http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/>. 408 Murphy, 1. 409 Gugler, 28. 410 Catholic Church in Shanghai Today. Shanghai: Shanghai Diocese, 2000. This book clearly seeks to demonstrate that the Catholic churches in Shanghai welcome interaction with important government officials and with foreigners. The man in authority, Bishop Jin, is shown in pictures in this book shaking hands with the former Chinese President Jiang Zemin, former U.S. President Bill Clinton and world leaders from Argentina, Belgium and Bolivia.410 Other notables include Mother Teresa and Cardinals and Bishops within the Vatican, as well as Rev. Billy Graham from the United States and Bishop Tutu of South Africa. 411 Covell, 59, quoting Mary L. Martin, East Meets West: the Jesuits in China (1582-1773). a Report on a Symposium, (Hong Kong: Tripod, 1982), 155. St. Ignatius was a saint known to and loved by the Jesuits. For Jesuitsspirituality is necessarily based on the Spiritual exercises of St. Ignatius, basic to which is the notion of the Creator as a personal God, not just a Source of Morality, and a deep faith in the Incarnation which carries with it a decision to follow Jesus as a person, not as an abstract concept. Fr. Hu maintained that this foundation must have been passed on to early converts, who would have been drawn to a personal God and the person of Jesus His Son. 412 Lozada, 185. In 2002 St. Ignatius, or Xujiahui Cathedral, was still Shanghais largest church, seating 2,500 people at a time.

406

106 The Western influences in the city of Shanghai had a direct impact on the absence of indigenization in the architecture of the church buildings built in that city during the Era of Imperialism and the Republican period of Chinese history (1842-1949). Of the 26 Catholic churches in Shanghai depicted in the book, most were constructed during that time and have western-looking features. The statues and St. Ignatius, finished 1910. paintings of Jesus and of the Madonna and child are Caucasian. In Shanghai, the most Chinese-looking churches are those that were either built before 1843 or refurbished after the Cultural Revolution,413 during periods where there were no Western Christian authority figures present. The Western-looking brick Cathedral of Saint Ignatius [visited by the researcher] was built in 1896 while foreigners occupied Shanghai. The gothic-style Church of our Lady of Lourdes, a white imposing structure with a tall Westernlooking steeple [like those on the cathedral of St. Ignatius] was built in 1898, damaged in the Cultural Revolution and then repaired in 1988. The Basilica Minor of

413

Lambert, 181. When the Catholic churches and cathedrals began to be reopened in 1979 the number attending mass was small.

107 St. Mary at Sheshan with the Caucasian statue of the Madonna and child was built in 1925. Dates on other churches in the diocese1847, 1861, 1863 and 1933all come from the period of time when Shanghai was experiencing rapid growth under Western powers. Two of the churches in the Shanghai diocese, each known as the Sacred Heart Church are exceptions and were not built during the Imperialist Era. They were built earlier during the Qing dynasty [after 1644414], rebuilt in the late 19th century and reopened in the late 20th century. They are rather unusual in that their architecture is more Chinese than the other churches.415 The white Sacred Heart Church exterior has red doors and shutters in the typical Chinese celebratory style of architecture. The exterior of the graying Sacred Heart church is described in the book as a beautiful blend of eastern and western design, while the interior has the style of a Chinese palace.416

Lady of Lourdes. Lady of Sheshan. Church built 1677. Sacred Heart Church 1658. There are signs of indigenization in the activities of Shanghai Catholic
414 415

Ebrey, cover page. Catholic Church in Shanghai Today.

108 Diocese described in the book Catholic Church in Shanghai Today. For example, one of the ideals of traditional Taoism is caring for ones body,417 and along this vein, the book shows a picture of seminary students exercising together in the morning. The diocese in Shanghai also emphasizes Confucian values of caring for and respecting the elderly.418 The book devotes an entire section to describing how it cares for elderly nuns.419 The book also promotes the family and specifically refers to passing on the faith next to a picture of a Chinese mother with a very young child.420 While groups of foreign guests are depicted in the book, they do not run things. These indigenous features suggest that the church is establishing an indigenous mode of operation.

416 417

Catholic Church in Shanghai Today. Yu, 69. Li Shaojun advocated Taoist practices include dietary observance and the quest for physical longevity. 418 Kwang-Kuo Hwang, The Deep Structure of Confucianism: A Social, Psychological Approach, Asian Philosophy (2001): 179-204, 30 Mar. 2006, 187. Quoting The Golden Mean, ch. XX, Righteousness (yi) means appropriateness; respecting the superior is its most important rule. 419 Catholic Church in Shanghai Today. 420 Hwang; 187. Quoting The Golden Mean, ch. XX, Benevolence (ren) is the characteristic attribute of personhood. The first priority of its expression is showing affection to those closely related to us.

109

Book on Church in Shanghai.

Seminary students group exercise.

Shanghai Diocese sign.

Passing on the Faith.

Nuns from the Convent for Older Sisters.

Nuns with Western visitors.

110

Dali Catholic Church Located in the southern province of Yunnan, the city of Dali
CHINA

has a population of 400,000.421 Dali

Dali

has experienced rapid economic development within the last twenty

years. A tour guide in Dali described to the researcher how in the 1980s everyone had to travel to Dali by horsenow there are paved roads and modern buildings thanks to government development of the region. The characters da and li mean big422 and inner principle or structure.423 Dali is a beautiful walled city built on the edge of Erhai Lake. The city and the lake are walled in all around by green forested mountains and blue sky. Between 750 and 900 C.E., Dali was the capital of the Nanzhao Kingdom and ruled all of Yunnan Province.424 Containing ancient relics from the Tang, Song and Ming dynasties,425 Dali is a tourists paradise. The tour guide informed the researcher that the city of Dali has two church buildingsone Catholic and one Protestant, which are popular tourist attractions.
421

The population statistic taken from a Yunnan travel document supplied by the travel agency USA Gateway Travel. 422 Da, Oxford Starter Chinese Dictionary, (New York: Oxford UP Inc., 2000), 23. Big []. 423 Li, Sunrain, 22 July 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Inner principle or structure []. 424 Gordon, <http://www.gbcc.org.uk/32article2.htm>.

111 Some of the first Westerners to interact with the landscape in Dali were missionaries. The tour guide mentioned that Dali had good missionaries who were forced to leave in the early 1950s. She did not remember why they left behind that reputation. The missionaries that were in Dali are known to some in the West and Dali church, perhaps built 1927. described online. One missionary woman in

particular, Dr. Jesse MacDonald, left behind letters and records of her work in Dali which are housed in the archives of the Billy Graham Center at Wheaton College in Illinois.426 The Dali resident missionaries who arrived in the late 1800s were primarily medical missionaries who treated people with opium addictions.427 Their attempts to help with the opium problem stand out in stark contrast to the foreign tradesmen who imported the opium in the first place.428

425

The description of Dali relics is taken from a Yunnan travel document supplied by the travel agency USA Gateway Travel. 426 Papers of Jesse McDonaldCollection 246, BGC Archives, 29 Nov. 2000, Billy Graham Center, 29 Sept. 2006 <http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/246.htm>. 427 Gordon, <http://www.gbcc.org.uk/32article2.htm>. 428 Ebrey, 204.

112 The beautiful indigenous church in Dali in Yunnan province, adorned like a temple with craved wood, is an excellent example of Christian indigenization in China. It may be or may emulate a church that was constructed in Dali during a time when all the missionaries had to temporarily absent themselves from Dali. Martin Gordon, writing for the Great Britain China Center, said that in 1925 an earthquake destroyed Dalis Christian church, which was originally built in 1913 in honor of an American missionary, Mary Huston, who was murdered in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900.429 In 1927, two years after the earthquake, all the missionaries in Dali had to leave for a few years because of the anti-foreigners movement in the country.430 While they were gone, a Chinese pastor Ting Limei took charge of the Dali mission, and it was under his leadership in 1931 that the local people reconstructed and beautifully decorated the formerly destroyed church.431 The carvings under the terraced roofs of the indigenous church in Dali depict dragons, chickens, dogs and elephants. Elephants in particular are difficult to place
429

Ebrey, 228 and "Martyrs of the 1900 Boxer Rebellion," China's Christian Martyrs, 2000, Asia Harvest, 27 Jan. 2007 <http://www.asiaharvest.org/pages/Martyrsofthe1900BoxerRebellion.htm>. The Boxer rebellion occurred at the turn of the 19th century when small groups of enraged people in China known as Boxers urged others to kill all the foreigners in China and recruited members who attacked and killed 188 foreign missionaries and 32,000 Chinese Christians. 430 Crossman, 200. Jamess years in Kansu and later in Shensi came to an end when all foreigners had to be evacuated during an anti-foreign campaign which heralded the growing Communist movement, in 1927. Europeans had to leave the area quickly and face a hazardous journey to the coast. James was one of a party which escaped on a raft down the Yellow River, shooting the rapids, and on occasion only just escaping bandits, until they reached Shanghai.

113 within a Biblical context, however, the researcher was informed that in Yunnan Province, elephants are considered to represent good luck, so they are an indigenous design and not a Biblical depiction.432

Detail of animal carvings.

Lower view of Dalis Catholic Church roof.

On the wall inside the church in Dali was a poster depicting a town with Heaven at the top, Hell at the bottom and Purgatory off to the side. In Western art, one can recall the wall of the Sistine Chapel in Rome Michelangelo painted which shows sinners and saints going to Heaven or Hell; however, this Chinese poster is not a take-off on Western art. In China, religions like Confucianism and Buddhism used poster tracts as well. Covell confirms that to use tracts and other Christian literature
431

Gordon, <http://www.gbcc.org.uk/32article2.htm>. The church we saw in Dali is one of two older churches in the city and may be the one rebuilt in 1931. It displays the ornate wood carvings that can also be observed on temples in China, so it may also be a converted temple. 432 Covell, 122, quoting Loren Noren, "The Life and Work of Karl Ludvig Reichelt," Ching Feng 3 (1967). Other examples do exist of churches that took on indigenous elements in their design, such as the Buddhist-Christian church of missionary Karl Ludvig Reichelt in Hong Kong that depicted a cross rising out of a lotus over the gate to symbolize that the best of Buddhism was fulfilled in Christ. Karl Ludvig Reichelt was a missionary who believed that truth was present in all religions, so a person who converted to Christianity could understand that the truths in his religion were pointing to Christ, instead of renouncing them altogether. Reichelts belief was not typical of most missionaries, but under

114 to exhort the population to believe in God, even as the Catholics had done earlier was to adopt a tactic very familiar to the Chinese.433 This poster is an example of a Catholic publication. Passing out literature and tracts became a favorite missionary strategy in China to reach large numbers of people, especially at times when a missionary was not proficient enough in the language to engage in deep discussion. The people walking in the direction of Heaven have books in their hands, probably the Bible. The Bible as a book is not indigenous to China; however, reading and writing have always been a part of Chinese culture, used by the religious sector, so the depicted focus on reading the Bible is in fact indigenous to China. The poster on the wall of the church in Dali contains several elements not typically seen in Western Christian art. The angels in heaven depicted in this poster are not wearing whitethey are all dressed in bright colors, the same colors that decorate the church. The roofs of buildings are made with Chinese tiles and the buildings are open, suggesting perpetually good weather like they have in Dali.

his leadership there is no question that an indigenous form of Christianity highly dependent on Buddhist terminology was allowed to develop. 433 Covell, 93.

115

Person in yellow Western dress.

Two men smoking opium.

Over Hell, a man and a woman engaged in lascivious behavior are about to fall through a chasm. A man admiring himself in what looks like a mirror looks unknowingly into the eyes of what may be a demon on the other side of the glass. Directly to his right is a person in yellow, western-looking dress with a canteen around his or her neck. This may be a missionary, or perhaps a soldier. While the dress is Western, the nationality is uncertain. The demons interspersed throughout seem to accompany sinful actions; for example, in one scene two men smoke opium while a demon crouches under their couch. At the top of the poster are five characters, which read [from right to left] the road between Heaven and Hell. One can extrapolate that the poster is attempting to connect actions in a persons present life with where they will go when they dieHeaven, Hell, or Purgatory.

116

Indigenous Christian poster from inside the Catholic Church in Dali.

117

DISCUSSION

118 DISCUSSION Historical precedent suggests historical events such as the Opium War and the degree of Westernization have affected the rate of Christian indigenization in different parts of China. However, Chinese culture tends to assimilate both knowledge and ideas into its own cultural framework. The Internet and Christianity in China are acquiring and have acquired distinctive Chinese identitiesan ongoing indigenization process that is likely to continue in the future. When it comes to the Internet, the future looks optimistic. The Internet in China has been spreading rapidly, and presently there are an estimated 132 million Internet users in China, many of whom access the Internet from home. The Chinese government blocks certain Web sites, but the focus appears to be more strongly concentrated on censoring political content rather than religious content. Within China there is a great deal of controversy over Christianity because of the discrepancies between the opinions of those in favor of a state church who say that the Chinese church should separate itself from all Western interference, as opposed to those Christians who are part of autonomous Christian groups [often referred to as house churches] that are not registered with the government. It is clear, however that in places like Dali that were more isolated from Western Imperialism, Christianity was able to indigenize without as much baggage. While Westerners shaped Shanghai for more than 100 years, Dali had very little contact with

119 Westerners except for Western missionaries. In Dali, people are proud of their local indigenous Christian church and remember their past missionaries fondly. In Shanghai, when Westerners were in China in force in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the church buildings were given many Western features. However, when Chinese Christians were in positions of authority, indigenous features appeared on church buildings. Culturally, many activities of the church described in the book Catholic Church in Shanghai Today are indigenously Chinese today under Chinese leadership. Similarly in Dali, the brief departure of the missionaries in 1927 resulted in the local people rebuilding a Christian church so that it was beautifully decorated in an indigenous fashion. In Chinas history, it appears that the indigenization of Christian architecture and church activities could not fully begin until Westerners were no longer leading Christianity in China. It appears that foreign religious authority figures did not always separate their culture from their religion in relation to architecture, and perhaps other aspects of Christianity as well. The final departure of all foreign missionaries in the early 1950s then was not the end of Christianity in Chinait was the beginning of the complete indigenization of Christianity in China, a trend that continues. Christianity in China and the Internet seem to each occupy a dual identity within Chinaindigenous and occasionally threatening. The growing Internet infrastructure in China provides a direct connection to the Western democratic mindset, however, it is indigenousthe Chinese built it themselves from the ground

120 up. Likewise, the Chinese Christian churches, registered and unregistered, have grown exponentially in fifty years of Chinese leadership without Western interference; however, some Christianity in China still carries the baggage of past imperialism, represented in the Western-looking churches in Shanghai left over from the Imperialist era. The question arises, is the Internet inseparable from Western thought? Is Christianity inseparable from Western culture? Can the Chinese people embrace the Internet and Christianity in their society without risking a Western invasion? The answer is represented symbolically in the Dali Catholic church. Fully Chinese and fully Christian, the temple-like church is a source of local pride for its intricate Chinese design exalting an uncompromised Christian place of worship. The combination is not contradictory, it is complementary. Similarly, the indigenous Chinese Internet has already distinguished itself as faster, more efficient and also more restricted than its Western counterpart in the United States. Chinese Christianity as a whole distinguishes itself through a xenophobic devotion to socialism alongside one of the most ambitious evangelical plans ever conceived of in the history of world Christianity with the Back to Jerusalem Movement. There are no simple summary answers in China. Religion, politics and culture appear eclectic and complex when viewed through a Western mindset. It is the opinion of this researcher that the dual identities of the Internet and Christianity in

121 China will also someday weave themselves into the complexity of national thought, becoming so convoluted that they will accept only one identityChinese.

122

CONCLUSION

123

CONCLUSION This study examined the relationship between the Internet in China and the movement in China to indigenize Christianity, discovering that overseas Chinese Christians in particular have begun to use the Internet as a way to connect with one another through Chinese Christian Web sites. Three-quarters of the Web sites designed by Chinese people originated outside of mainland China. Testing 103 Web sites in six cities in China resulted in 87 Web sites that always uploaded, seven that were inconsistent, eight that never uploaded in China and one inactive URL, suggesting a high rate of accessibility of Christian Web sites. Web sites that were always accessible shared characteristics with Web sites that were never accessible, to the point where the decision appeared to be somewhat arbitrary [to an uninformed observer] which Web sites were blocked and which were not. Only eight Web sites out of 103 Christian Web sites would not upload at all in China, suggesting that the scope of Chinas Internet filtering with relation to Christianity in general is not as tight as the filtering of religious Web sites with more politically-sensitive content that other researchers have tested, such as those Web sites related to the exercise and meditation cult Falun Gong or the spiritual and temporal Leader of the Tibetan people434 the Dali Lama.435

434

His Holiness the Dalai Lama, His Holiness the 14th Dali Lama of Tibet, 2001, Friends of Tibet, 20 Oct. 2006 <http://www.friends-of-tibet.org.nz/dlama.html>.

124 Chinese people in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, as well as overseas Chinese created many of the Web sites the researcher sampled and tested that were specifically directed to a Chinese audience, and many of their Web sites stressed the need for Chinese Christians to stand together as a community. The cities Shanghai and Dali exhibited remarkably different features on their churches. Shanghai churches built during the time when foreigners occupied the city still present a Western appearance, whereas the chapel in more remote Dali resembles local temples. The St. Ignatius Catholic Church in Shanghai book436 and the poster on the wall of the Dali chapel revealed many indigenous features in the religious practices however. These findings suggest that Christianity indigenized in China when the leadership was Chinese.

Limitations In testing the Internet, the researcher did not have enough time to test every URL in every location visited in China. Similarly, more accurate results may have been achieved had the research been able to test the sites more than once in the same location to look for variations in accessibility. The researcher was not able to conduct studies through interviews or surveys about how Christians in China are actually using the Internet. More interviews and/or

435 436

Zittrain and Palfrey. <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. Catholic Church in Shanghai Today.

125 surveys would have provided significant help determining the goals and intentions of people who construct or use the Chinese Christian Web in mainland China. The brief duration of the travel to China [17 days] meant that the sample of churches was very limited. The opportunity to view more churches in more locations would have allowed for a broader architectural analysis.

Suggestions for Further Study When using a search engine in China to look for information on Christian subjects, what content can be accessed? Follow-up studies are needed to judge if the status of the accessibility of Christian Web sites in China will remain consistent or change over time. How do people in China use Christian Web sites? Survey the consumer characteristics of Chinese Christian Web users in China. How have adherents of religions other than Christianity used the Internet in China? What indications of indigenization or lack of it are evident in Protestant churches in Shanghai and Dali? What elements of the worship services in these venues reflect indigenization or the lack of it?

126

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142 Tan, Zixiang (Alex), William Foster, and Seymour Goodman. "China's StateCoordinated Internet Infrastructure." Communications of the ACM 42 (1999): 44-52. The ACM Digital Library. 17 Oct. 2006. Keyword: China + Internet. Taoist Deities. Taoism and the Philosophy of Tai Chi Chuan. Chebucto Community Net. 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/religioustao.html>. Temple, David. China Mobile and Google Talk Cell Phone Search. Multilingual Search 18 May 2006. 7 Mar. 2007 <http://www.multilingualsearch.com/china-mobile-and-google-talk-cell-phone-search/18/05/2006/en/>. Tian. Sunrain. 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Travel Destinations Lonely Planet. Lonely Planet Trave1 Guide. 2006. Lonely Planet. 22 July 2006 <http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/>. United Nations. General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 10 Dec. 1948. 6 Mar. 2007 <http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html>. United States. The World Factbook. 17 Oct. 2006. CIA. 23 Oct. 2006 <https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html>. URL. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. Springfield: MerriamWebster, Incorporated, 2003.

143 USA QuickFacts From the US Census Bureau. Census Bureau Home Page. 2006. US Census Bureau. 12 Jan. 2007 <http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html>. Usage Statistics for www.fhl.com - Last 12 Months. FaithHopeLove. Jan. 2007. FHL.net. 29 Jan. 2007 <http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/>. Wang, Yuting and Fenggang Yang. More Than Evangelical and Ethnic: the Ecological Factor in Chinese Conversion to Christianity in the United States. Sociology of Religion: a Quarterly Review 67 (2006): 179-191. Web site. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. Springfield: MerriamWebster, Incorporated, 2003. Welcome to CGSTUS, CGST U.S. Community, 2006, China Graduate School of Theology US, 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.cgstus.org/>. Welcome to Uzone21. Uzone21. 20 Oct. 2006. Breakthrough. 19 Oct. 2006 <http://www.uzone21.com/index/>. Wertz, Richard R. Ancestor Worship. Culture. 2006. Exploring Chinese History. 6 Sept. 2006 <http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/02cul/c03sb05.html>. Westminster Library Electronic Resources. Montgomery Library. 16 Oct. 2006. Westminster Theological Seminary. 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.wts.edu/library/eresources.html>.

144 Wilson, Thomas A. Images of the Temple of Culture. The Cult of Confucius. 2004. Hamilton College. 6 Sept. 2006 <http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/TempleCulture.html>. World Internet Usage Statistics News and Population Stats. Internet World Stats. 11 Jan. 2007. The Internet Coaching Library. 23 Jan. 2007 <http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm>. Yamamori, Tetsunao and Kim-Kwong Chan. Witnesses to Power: Stories of God's Quiet Work in a Changing China. Waynesboro: Paternoster, 2000. Yang, Fengang and Joseph B. Tamney. Exploring Mass Conversion to Christianity. Sociology of Religion: a Quarterly Review 67 (2006): 126. Yearly Data. Statistical Data. 2005. National Bureau of Statistics of China. 13 Sept. 2006 <http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/yearlydata/>. Yesu. Sunrain. 6 Mar. 2007 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Yesujidu. Sunrain. 18 Sept. 2006 <http://www.sunrain.net/>. Yu, Anthony C. State and Religion in China Historical and Textual Perspectives. Chicago, Ill: Open Court, 2005. Zhiming, Yuan. Video/Audio. China Soul for Christ Foundation. 2003. China Soul for Christ Foundation. 17 Oct. 2006 <http://www.chinasoul.org/e/e-va.htm>.

145 Zhu, Jonathan J. H. and Enhai Wang. Diffusion, Use, and the Effect of the Internet in China. Communications of the ACM 48 (2005): 49-53. The ACM Digital Library. 17 Oct. 2006. Keyword: China + Internet. Zittrain, Jonathan L. and John G. Palfrey, Jr. Internet Filtering in China in 20042005: a Country Study. Citizen Lab at the Munk Centre for International Studies at the University of Ontario, Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School, Advanced Network Research Group at the Cambridge Security Programme (Centre for International Studies) at the University of Cambridge. OpenNet Initiative, 2005. 14 July 2006 <http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/china/>. Zwartz, Barney. Going Global with God. The Age. 10 Apr. 2004. 25 Jan. 2007 <http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/09/1081326923562.html>.

146

APPENDICES

147 APPENDIX A: DATA FROM WEB SITE TESTING USA (6/15/06-6/18/06)

Web site 5Talents URL(s) Tested (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm Alleluia Bookstore Ambassadors for Christ Inc. Amity Foundation (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/ (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp (English)http://www.amitynewsservice.org/index.php Answering Islam (Big5)http://www.answering-islam.org/Chinese/index.htm (English)http://www.answering-islam.org/ Antioch.com (GB)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm (Big5)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/b5_bible.htm (English)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/chinese.htm Asian Book One Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast (Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/ (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm (English)http://www.chinese-goodnews.org/en/home.html Back to Jerusalem Movement (GB)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/Open%20letter%20H eavenly%20Man/Open%20Letter-Chinese.htm (English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/ Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Result Accessible

148

Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN) Radio

(GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcm/schinese/ (Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcmtchinese/ (English)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias= www.bbnradio.org/wcm/english/

Accessible

Bible Keeper

(Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-unionbig5/index.php (English)http://www.biblekeeper.com/

Accessible

Breakthrough

(Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/ (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html

Accessible

Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine

(GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm

Accessible

Chick Publications

(GB)http://www.chick.com/zh/gb/ (English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp

Accessible

China Horizon China Soul for Christ

(Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm

Accessible Accessible

Chinese Bible Church of San Diego

(GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html (English)http://www.cbcsd.com/ (English)http://www.lordsgracesd.org/

Accessible

149

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Accessible

Chinese Christian Herald Crusades Chinese Christian Internet Mission Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Mission USA Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Communications Bookshop Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Chinese Protestant Church

(GB)http://www.cchc.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID= 0003/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp (English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.chineseprotestantchurch.org.cn/1.asp

Accessible

150

Chinese Theological Review

(English)http://www.christianityinchina.org/Common/Admi n/showFP_auto.jsp?Pid=7&Versionfiltered=1&Charset=big5 /

Accessible

Christian Communication Inc. of Canada Christian Communications Ltd.

(GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/ (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/

Accessible

Christian Life Press Inc.

(GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFram eSet (Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Ope nFrameSet

Accessible

Christian Renewal Ministries Christian Study Christian Witness Center Church Hong Kong Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship Cool Chinese Internet Mission Crossmap

(Big5)http://www.crmnj.org/

Accessible

(GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.church.com.hk/cdc3/index-dc.cgi/ (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.crossmap.cn/index.htm

Accessible

151

Email Bookstore

(Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/defa ult.asp

Accessible

Faith Hope Love Network

(Big5)http://wbbs.fhl.net/ (GB)http://www.fhl.net/main/ (English)http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/

Accessible

Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC)

(Big5)http://www.febcchinese.org/ (GB)http://sc.w4j.org/m/FEBCChinese/index.asp (English)http://www.febc.org/

Accessible

Focus on the Chinese Family Footprint Radio

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html

Accessible

Footprint Radio Fuyin Goodnewscom Organization Gospel Operation International Gospel Tape Ministries

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ (GB)http://www.fuyin.com/ (All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.gointl.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=G B/ (Big5)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=B IG5/ (English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm

Accessible

Grace Melodia

(All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/

Accessible

152

Great Commission Center International HKACM Music Immanuel Network Lamb Music Liberty House Company Ling Liang Church Lutheran Hour Ministries

(Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/ (English)http://www.gcciusa.org/English/index.htm (GB)http://www.hkacm.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp (Big5)http://www.lambmusic.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/

Accessible

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.llc.org.tw/ (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/ (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/ (English)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/english/

Accessible Accessible

Luwei Performing Arts Fellowship Midiverse ORTV Singapore Ours Web China Ours Web Network Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church RBC Ministries

(GB)http://www.luweiarts.org.sg/

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=gb/ (Big5)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=b5/ (English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/

Accessible

Red Bean Music Revival Chinese Ministries International

(Big5)http://www.redbeanmusic.com/ (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm

Accessible Accessible

153

Society for World Internet Mission Songs of Praise

(Big5)http://china.swim.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/ translations.htm

Accessible

STEMI

(Big5)http://www.stemi.org.sg/2005/ (English)http://www.stemi.org/

Accessible

Stream of Praise Music Ministries Theologos

(Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx (GB)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_gb/GBtxt_IE.html (Big5)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_big5/B5txt_IE.html (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html

Accessible

Accessible

Trans World Radio Hong Kong Trans World Radio North East Asia Office UZone21 Worshippers Yan Fok Church

(Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Accessible

(English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.uzone21.com/index/ (Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ (GB)http://www.ggmci.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

Shanghai (6/22/06)
Web site Alleluia Bookstore Amity Foundation URL Tested (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/ (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp Antioch Asian Book One (GB)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm (Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/ Accessible Accessible Result Accessible Accessible

154

Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN Radio) Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine Chick Publications China Soul for Christ

(GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcm/schinese/ (GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm

Accessible

Accessible

(GB)http://www.chick.com/zh/gb/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/

Accessible Inaccessible

Chinese Christian Internet Mission Chinese Christian Mission USA Chinese Communications Bookshop Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Christian Communication Inc. of Canada Christian Communications Ltd.

(GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/ Orgs/index.html (GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/

Accessible

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID= 0003/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/ (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/

Accessible

155

Christian Life Press Inc. Christian Renewal Ministries Christian Study Christian Witness Center Cool Chinese Internet Mission Crossmap Email Bookstore

(GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFram eSet (Big5)http://www.crmnj.org/

Inaccessible

Accessible

(GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Inaccessible Inaccessible

(Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.crossmap.cn/index.htm (Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/defa ult.asp

Accessible Accessible

Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC) Focus on the Chinese Family Gospel Tape Ministries

(GB)http://sc.w4j.org/m/FEBCChinese/index.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=G B/

Accessible

Lutheran Hour Ministries ORTV Singapore Ours Web China Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church RBC Ministries

(Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=gb/

Accessible

156

Society for World Internet Mission Songs of Praise

(Big5)http://china.swim.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/ translations.htm

Accessible

Theologos

(GB)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_gb/GBtxt_IE.html

Accessible

Suzhou (6/24/06)
Web site 5Talents Ambassadors for Christ Inc. Amity Foundation Answering Islam Antioch Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast Back to Jerusalem Movement Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN) Radio Bible Keeper (GB)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/Open%20letter%20H eavenly%20Man/Open%20Letter-Chinese.htm (Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcmtchinese/ (Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-unionbig5/index.php Breakthrough (Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/ (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine China Horizon (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ Inaccessible (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp (Big5)http://www.answering-islam.org/Chinese/index.htm (Big5)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/b5_bible.htm (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible URL Tested (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm Result Accessible Accessible

157

Chinese Bible Church of San Diego Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Accessible

Chinese Christian Herald Crusades Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Graduate School of Theology Chinese Protestant Church Christian Life Press Inc. Christian Study Church Hong Kong Cool Chinese Internet Mission Faith Hope Love Network Far East Broadcasting Company

(GB)http://www.cchc.org/

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Inaccessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.chineseprotestantchurch.org.cn/1.asp

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5)http://www.church.com.hk/cdc3/index-dc.cgi/ (Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/

Inaccessible

Inaccessible Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.fhl.net/main/ (Big5)http://wbbs.fhl.net/ (Big5)http://www.febcchinese.org/

Accessible

Accessible

158

Footprint Radio

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Fuyin Goodnewscom Organization Gospel Operation International Gospel Tape Ministries

(GB)http://www.fuyin.com/ (All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.gointl.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (Big5)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=B IG5/

Accessible

Grace Melodia Great Commission Center International HKACM Music Immanuel Network Lamb Music Liberty House Company Ling Liang Church Lutheran Hour Ministries Luwei Performing Arts Fellowship Midiverse Ours Web Network RBC Ministries

(All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ (Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/

Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.hkacm.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp (Big5)http://www.lambmusic.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.llc.org.tw/ (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/

Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.luweiarts.org.sg/

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ (Big5)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=b5/

Inaccessible Accessible Accessible

159

Red Bean Music Revival Chinese Ministries International STEMI Stream of Praise Music Ministries Theologos Trans World Radio Hong Kong UZone21 Worshippers Yan Fok Church

(Big5)http://www.redbeanmusic.com/ (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.stemi.org.sg/2005/ (Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx (Big5)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_big5/B5txt_IE.html (Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Accessible Accessible

Accessible Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.uzone21.com/index/ (Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ (GB)http://www.ggmci.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

Nanjing (6/25/06)
Web site 5Talents Alleluia Bookstore Ambassadors for Christ Inc. Amity Foundation Answering Islam Antioch Asian Book One Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast (English)http://www.amitynewsservice.org/index.php (English)http://www.answering-islam.org/ (English)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/chinese.htm (Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/ (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm (English)http://www.chinese-goodnews.org/en/home.html Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible URL Tested (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm Result Accessible Accessible Accessible

160

Back to Jerusalem Movement Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN) Radio Bible Keeper Breakthrough Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine Chick Publications China Horizon China Soul for Christ Chinese Bible Church of San Diego Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/

Accessible

(English)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias= www.bbnradio.org/wcm/english/ (English)http://www.biblekeeper.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/ (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm

Accessible

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm (English)http://www.cbcsd.com/ (English)http://www.lordsgracesd.org/ (GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Accessible Inaccessible Inaccessible Accessible

Inaccessible

Chinese Christian Internet Mission Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Mission USA Chinese Christian Relief Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Inaccessible

161

Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Chinese Theological Review

(English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Inaccessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(English)http://www.christianityinchina.org/Common/Admi n/showFP_auto.jsp?Pid=7&Versionfiltered=1&Charset=big5 /

Accessible

Christian Life Press Inc. Christian Witness Center Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship Faith Hope Love Network Far East Broadcasting Company Focus on the Chinese Family Footprint Radio

(English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Ope nFrameSet (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Inaccessible

Inaccessible

(English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html

Accessible

(English)http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/

Accessible

(English)http://www.febc.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/

Inaccessible

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Gospel Tape Ministries

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm

Accessible

162

Great Commission Center International Immanuel Network Liberty House Company Lutheran Hour Ministries Midiverse ORTV Singapore Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church RBC Ministries Revival Chinese Ministries International Songs of Praise STEMI Theologos Trans World Radio North East Asia Office

(English)http://www.gcciusa.org/English/index.htm

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/english/

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/

Inaccessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/ (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm

Accessible Accessible

(GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/translations.htm (English)http://www.stemi.org/ (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html (English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

Kunming (6/27/06-6/28/06)
Web site China Horizon China Soul for Christ URL Tested (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm Result Inaccessible Inaccessible

163

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Accessible

Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Christian Life Press Inc.

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFram eSet (Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Ope nFrameSet

Inaccessible

Christian Study Christian Witness Center Footprint Radio

(GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Inaccessible Inaccessible

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/00_FRBM/00/untitled %20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Midiverse Ours Web China

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/

Inaccessible Accessible

164

Trans World Radio Hong Kong Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch Bible Resource Center Biblical Archeological Society Billy Graham Campus Crusade for Christ International Catholic Forum Christian Answers.net

(Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/

Accessible

(English)http://www.bibleresourcecenter.org/ (English)http://www.bib-arch.org/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.billygraham.org/ (English)http://www.ccci.org/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/ccfjeff/ (Multilingual)http://www.christiananswers.net/menuat1.html

Accessible Accessible

Christian Caf Covenant College Crosswalk Evangelism Explosion International Focus on the Family Greek Tutorial [Biblical] Harvard Divinity School Hebrew Tutorial [Biblical] Jesus Film

(English)http://www.christiancafe.com/ (English)http://www.covenant.edu/ (English)http://www.crosswalk.com/ (English)http://www.eeinternational.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.family.org/ (English)http://www.ibiblio.org/koine/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.hds.harvard.edu/

Accessible

(English)http://foundationstone.com.au/OnlineHebrewTutori al.html (English)http://www.jesusfilm.org/

Accessible

Accessible

165

Nairobi Chapel New City Fellowship Church San Diego Diocese Seed Company Southern Baptist Theological Seminary University of Notre Dame Vatican

(English)http://www.nairobichapel.org/index.htm (English)http://www.newcityfellowship.com/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.diocese-sdiego.org/ (English)http://www.theseedcompany.org/ (English)http://www.sbts.edu/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.nd.edu/

Accessible

(German, English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese)http://www.vatican.va/

Accessible

Voice of the Martyrs Westminster Theological Seminary Wycliffe International Young Life

(English)http://www.persecution.com/ (English)http://www.wts.edu/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ (English)http://www.younglife.org/

Accessible Accessible

Lijiang (6/30/06-7/2/06)
Web site 5Talents URL(s) Tested (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm Alleluia Bookstore Ambassadors for Christ Inc. (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm Accessible Accessible Result Accessible

166

Amity Foundation

(GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/ (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp (English)http://www.amitynewsservice.org/index.php

Accessible

Antioch.com

(GB)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm (Big5)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/b5_bible.htm (English)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/chinese.htm

Accessible

Asian Book One Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast

(Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/ (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm (English)http://www.chinese-goodnews.org/en/home.html

Accessible Accessible

Back to Jerusalem Movement

(GB)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/Open%20letter%20H eavenly%20Man/Open%20Letter-Chinese.htm (English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/

Accessible

Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN) Radio

(GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcm/schinese/ (Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcmtchinese/ (English)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias= www.bbnradio.org/wcm/english/

Accessible

Bible Keeper

(Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-unionbig5/index.php (English)http://www.biblekeeper.com/

Accessible

Breakthrough

(Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/ (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html

Accessible

167

Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine

(GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm

Accessible

Chick Publications

(GB)http://www.chick.com/zh/gb/ (English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp

Accessible

China Horizon China Soul for Christ

(Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm

Inaccessible Inaccessible

Chinese Bible Church of San Diego

(GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html (English)http://www.cbcsd.com/ (English)http://www.lordsgracesd.org/

Accessible

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Inaccessible

Chinese Christian Herald Crusades Chinese Christian Internet Mission Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Mission USA

(GB)http://www.cchc.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Inaccessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/

Accessible

168

Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Communications Bookshop Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Chinese Protestant Church Chinese Theological Review

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID= 0003/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp (English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.chineseprotestantchurch.org.cn/1.asp

Accessible

(English)http://www.christianityinchina.org/Common/Admi n/showFP_auto.jsp?Pid=7&Versionfiltered=1&Charset=big5 /

Accessible

Christian Communication Inc. of Canada Christian Communications Ltd.

(GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/ (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/

Accessible

Christian Life Press Inc.

(GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFram eSet (Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Ope nFrameSet

Inaccessible

169

Christian Renewal Ministries Christian Study Christian Witness Center Church Hong Kong Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship Cool Chinese Internet Mission Crossmap Email Bookstore

(Big5)http://www.crmnj.org/

Accessible

(GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Inaccessible Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.church.com.hk/cdc3/index-dc.cgi/ (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.crossmap.cn/index.htm (Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/defa ult.asp

Accessible Accessible

Faith Hope Love Network

(Big5)http://wbbs.fhl.net/ (GB)http://www.fhl.net/main/ (English)http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/

Accessible

Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC)

(Big5)http://www.febcchinese.org/ (GB)http://sc.w4j.org/m/FEBCChinese/index.asp (English)http://www.febc.org/

Accessible

Focus on the Chinese Family Footprint Radio

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/00_FRBM/00/untitled %20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Footprint Radio Fuyin

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ (GB)http://www.fuyin.com/

Accessible Accessible

170

Goodnewscom Organization Gospel Operation International Gospel Tape Ministries

(All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.gointl.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=G B/ (Big5)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=B IG5/ (English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm

Accessible

Grace Melodia Great Commission Center International HKACM Music Immanuel Network Lamb Music Liberty House Company Ling Liang Church Lutheran Hour Ministries

(All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ (Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/ (English)http://www.gcciusa.org/English/index.htm (GB)http://www.hkacm.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp (Big5)http://www.lambmusic.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/

Accessible Accessible

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.llc.org.tw/ (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/ (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/ (English)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/english/

Accessible Accessible

Luwei Performing Arts Fellowship Midiverse ORTV Singapore

(GB)http://www.luweiarts.org.sg/

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/

Inaccessible Accessible

171

Ours Web China Ours Web Network Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church RBC Ministries

(GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/

Inaccessible Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=gb/ (Big5)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=b5/ (English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/

Accessible

Red Bean Music Revival Chinese Ministries International Society for World Internet Mission Songs of Praise STEMI

(Big5)http://www.redbeanmusic.com/ (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://china.swim.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/translations.htm (Big5)http://www.stemi.org.sg/2005/ (English)http://www.stemi.org/

Accessible Accessible

Stream of Praise Music Ministries Theologos

(Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx (GB)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_gb/GBtxt_IE.html (Big5)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_big5/B5txt_IE.html (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html

Accessible

Accessible

Trans World Radio Hong Kong Trans World Radio North East Asia Office UZone21

(Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Inaccessible

(English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.uzone21.com/index/

Accessible

172

Worshippers Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch Yan Fok Church Bible Resource Center Biblical Archeological Society Billy Graham Campus Crusade for Christ International Catholic Forum Christian Answers.net Christian Caf Covenant College Crosswalk Evangelism Explosion International Focus on the Family Greek Tutorial [Biblical] Harvard Divinity School Hebrew Tutorial [Biblical] Jesus Film

(Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/

Accessible Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.ggmci.org/ (English)http://www.bibleresourcecenter.org/ (English)http://www.bib-arch.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.billygraham.org/ (English)http://www.ccci.org/

Accessible Accessible

Omitted by mistake. Omitted by mistake. Omitted by mistake. (English)http://www.covenant.edu/ (English)http://www.crosswalk.com/ (English)http://www.eeinternational.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.family.org/ (English)http://www.ibiblio.org/koine/

Accessible Accessible

Omitted by mistake.

Accessible

(English)http://foundationstone.com.au/OnlineHebrewTutori al.html (English)http://www.jesusfilm.org/

Accessible

Accessible

173

Nairobi Chapel New City Fellowship Church San Diego Diocese Seed Company Southern Baptist Theological Seminary University of Notre Dame Vatican

http://www.nairobichapel.org/index.htm (English)http://www.newcityfellowship.com/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.diocese-sdiego.org/ (English)http://www.theseedcompany.org/ (English)http://www.sbts.edu/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.nd.edu/

Accessible

(German, English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese)http://www.vatican.va/

Accessible

Voice of the Martyrs Westminster Theological Seminary Wycliffe International Young Life

(English)http://www.persecution.com/ (English)http://www.wts.edu/

Accessible Inaccessible

(English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ (English)http://www.younglife.org/

Accessible Accessible

Lijiang Downtown Internet Caf Cross-Check (7/3/06)

Web site Ambassadors for Christ Inc. Amity Foundation (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/ (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp Asian Book One Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast (Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/ (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm Accessible Accessible Accessible URL(s) Tested (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm Result Accessible

174

Back to Jerusalem Movement Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN) Radio Bible Keeper

(English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcmtchinese/ (Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-unionbig5/index.php

Accessible

Accessible

Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine Chick Publications China Horizon China Soul for Christ

(Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm

Accessible

(English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm

Accessible Inaccessible Inaccessible

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Inaccessible

Chinese Christian Internet Mission Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Mission USA Chinese Christian Relief Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Inaccessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Accessible

175

Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Christian Communication Inc. of Canada Christian Life Press Inc.

(English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFram eSet (Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Ope nFrameSet

Inaccessible

Christian Study Christian Witness Center Church Hong Kong Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship Cool Chinese Internet Mission Email Bookstore

(GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Inaccessible Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.church.com.hk/cdc3/index-dc.cgi/ (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/defa ult.asp

Accessible

176

Focus on the Chinese Family Footprint Radio

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Goodnewscom Organization Gospel Tape Ministries

(All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=G B/

Accessible

Grace Melodia Great Commission Center International Immanuel Network Lutheran Hour Ministries Midiverse ORTV Singapore Ours Web China Ours Web Network Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church RBC Ministries Revival Chinese Ministries International Songs of Praise

(All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ (Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/

Accessible Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/

Accessible Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/

Inaccessible Accessible Inaccessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/ (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm

Accessible Accessible

(GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/translations.htm

Accessible

177

Stream of Praise Music Ministries Trans World Radio Hong Kong Worshippers Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch Yan Fok Church Bible Resource Center Billy Graham Crosswalk Evangelism Explosion International Focus on the Family Greek Tutorial [Biblical] Nairobi Chapel Westminster Theological Seminary

(Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx (Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Accessible

Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/

Accessible Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.ggmci.org/ (English)http://www.bibleresourcecenter.org/ (English)http://www.billygraham.org/ (English)http://www.crosswalk.com/ (English)http://www.eeinternational.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.family.org/ (English)http://www.ibiblio.org/koine/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.nairobichapel.org/index.htm (English)http://www.wts.edu/

Accessible Inaccessible

Beijing (7/4/06)
Web site 5Talents URL(s) Tested (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm Alleluia Bookstore (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html Accessible Result Accessible

178

Ambassadors for Christ Inc. Amity Foundation

(Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/ (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp (English)http://www.amitynewsservice.org/index.php

Accessible

Accessible

Answering Islam

(Big5)http://www.answering-islam.org/Chinese/index.htm (English)http://www.answering-islam.org/

Accessible

Antioch.com

(GB)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm (Big5)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/b5_bible.htm (English)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/chinese.htm

Accessible

Asian Book One Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast

(Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/ (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm (English)http://www.chinese-goodnews.org/en/home.html

Accessible Accessible

Back to Jerusalem Movement

(GB)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/Open%20letter%20H eavenly%20Man/Open%20Letter-Chinese.htm (English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/

Accessible

Bible Broadcasting Network (BBN) Radio

(GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcm/schinese/ (Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=ww w.bbnradio.org/wcmtchinese/ (English)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias= www.bbnradio.org/wcm/english/

Accessible

Bible Keeper

(Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-unionbig5/index.php (English)http://www.biblekeeper.com/

Accessible

179

Breakthrough

(Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/ (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html

Accessible

Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine

(GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm

Accessible

Chick Publications

(GB)http://www.chick.com/zh/gb/ (English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp

Accessible

China Horizon China Soul for Christ

(Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm

Inaccessible Inaccessible

Chinese Bible Church of San Diego

(GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html (English)http://www.cbcsd.com/ (English)http://www.lordsgracesd.org/

Accessible

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association

(GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/

Accessible

Chinese Christian Herald Crusades Chinese Christian Internet Mission Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong

(GB)http://www.cchc.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/

Inaccessible

180

Chinese Christian Mission USA Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Communications Bookshop Chinese Coordination Center of World Evangelism Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Chinese Protestant Church Chinese Theological Review

(GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID= 0003/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp (English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp

Accessible

(GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/

Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.chineseprotestantchurch.org.cn/1.asp

Accessible

(English)http://www.christianityinchina.org/Common/Admi n/showFP_auto.jsp?Pid=7&Versionfiltered=1&Charset=big5 /

Accessible

Christian Communication Inc. of Canada Christian Communications Ltd.

(GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/ (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/

Accessible

181

Christian Life Press Inc.

(GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFram eSet (Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Ope nFrameSet

Inaccessible

Christian Renewal Ministries Christian Study Christian Witness Center Church Hong Kong Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship Cool Chinese Internet Mission Crossmap Email Bookstore

(Big5)http://www.crmnj.org/

Accessible

(GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Inaccessible Inaccessible

(Big5)http://www.church.com.hk/cdc3/index-dc.cgi/ (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/

Accessible

(GB)http://www.crossmap.cn/index.htm (Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/defa ult.asp

Accessible Accessible

Faith Hope Love Network

(Big5)http://wbbs.fhl.net/ (GB)http://www.fhl.net/main/ (English)http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/

Accessible

Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC)

(Big5)http://www.febcchinese.org/ (GB)http://sc.w4j.org/m/FEBCChinese/index.asp (English)http://www.febc.org/

Accessible

182

Focus on the Chinese Family Footprint Radio

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Footprint Radio Fuyin Goodnewscom Organization Gospel Operation International Gospel Tape Ministries

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ (GB)http://www.fuyin.com/ (All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.gointl.org/

Accessible

(GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/ (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=G B/ (Big5)http://www.gospeltape.org/bg_front_page.php?lang=B IG5/ (English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm

Accessible

Grace Melodia Great Commission Center International HKACM Music Immanuel Network Lamb Music Liberty House Company Ling Liang Church

(All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ (Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/ (English)http://www.gcciusa.org/English/index.htm (GB)http://www.hkacm.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp (Big5)http://www.lambmusic.org/ (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/

Accessible Accessible

Accessible Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.llc.org.tw/

Accessible

183

Lutheran Hour Ministries

(Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/ (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/ (English)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/english/

Accessible

Luwei Performing Arts Fellowship Midiverse ORTV Singapore Ours Web China Ours Web Network Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church RBC Ministries

(GB)http://www.luweiarts.org.sg/

Accessible

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/

Inaccessible Accessible Inaccessible Accessible Accessible

(GB)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=gb/ (Big5)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=b5/ (English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/

Accessible

Red Bean Music Revival Chinese Ministries International Society for World Internet Mission Songs of Praise STEMI

(Big5)http://www.redbeanmusic.com/ (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm

Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://china.swim.org/

Accessible

(GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/translations.htm (Big5)http://www.stemi.org.sg/2005/ (English)http://www.stemi.org/

Accessible Accessible

Stream of Praise Music Ministries

(Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx

Accessible

184

Theologos

(GB)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_gb/GBtxt_IE.html (Big5)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_big5/B5txt_IE.html (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html

Accessible

Trans World Radio Hong Kong Trans World Radio North East Asia Office UZone21 Worshippers Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch Yan Fok Church Bible Resource Center Biblical Archeological Society Billy Graham Campus Crusade for Christ International Catholic Forum Christian Answers.net

(Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Inaccessible

(English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/

Accessible

(Big5)http://www.uzone21.com/index/ (Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/

Accessible Accessible Inaccessible

(GB)http://www.ggmci.org/ (English)http://www.bibleresourcecenter.org/ (English)http://www.bib-arch.org/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.billygraham.org/ (English)http://www.ccci.org/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/ccfjeff/ (Multilingual)http://www.christiananswers.net/menuat1.html

Accessible Accessible

Christian Caf Covenant College Crosswalk

(English)http://www.christiancafe.com/ (English)http://www.covenant.edu/ (English)http://www.crosswalk.com/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

185

Evangelism Explosion International Focus on the Family Greek Tutorial [Biblical] Harvard Divinity School Hebrew Tutorial [Biblical] Jesus Film Nairobi Chapel New City Fellowship Church San Diego Diocese Seed Company Southern Baptist Theological Seminary University of Notre Dame Vatican

(English)http://www.eeinternational.org/

Accessible

(English)http://www.family.org/ (English)http://www.ibiblio.org/koine/

Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.hds.harvard.edu/

Accessible

(English)http://foundationstone.com.au/OnlineHebrewTutori al.html (English)http://www.jesusfilm.org/ (English)http://www.nairobichapel.org/index.htm (English)http://www.newcityfellowship.com/

Accessible

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.diocese-sdiego.org/ (English)http://www.theseedcompany.org/ (English)http://www.sbts.edu/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(English)http://www.nd.edu/

Accessible

(German, English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese)http://www.vatican.va/

Accessible

Voice of the Martyrs Westminster Theological Seminary Wycliffe International Young Life

(English)http://www.persecution.com/ (English)http://www.wts.edu/

Accessible Inaccessible

(English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ (English)http://www.younglife.org/

Accessible Accessible

186 USA (7/8/06)

Web site China Horizon China Soul for Christ URL Tested (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm Chinese Christian Evangelical Association (GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ ccea2003/ministry.asp (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ missionworld/functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784 &type=0/ Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong Chinese Christian Relief Association Chinese Family for Christ Chinese Graduate School of Theology Christian Life Press Inc. (GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFra meSet (Big5)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?O penframeSet (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/mainE?Op enFrameSet Christian Study Christian Witness Center (GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/ Accessible Accessible Accessible (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/ Accessible (GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp Accessible (Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/ Accessible (Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/ Accessible Accessible Result Accessible Accessible

187

Footprint Radio

(GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html

Inaccessible

Midiverse Ours Web China Trans World Radio Hong Kong Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch

(Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ (Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/

Accessible Accessible Accessible

(Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/

Accessible

188 APPENDIX B: LIST OF WEB SITES TESTED IN CHINA This is a list for consumer reference of all of the Web sites with sources and geographic origins included in the study. The Web sites are grouped into consumerusage categories according to the subjective judgment of the researcher for organizational purposes only. Many Web sites could be grouped under more than one category; however each Web site has only been listed once. The categories are: news and information,437 interpretation and opinion,438 entertainment,439 education,440 ecommerce,441 and interpersonal communication.442 The sources are identified as Chinese or other, and the Web sites place of origin is also listed. The Web sites have also been categorized according to their accessibility: Always Uploaded: The Web site uploaded every time tested, in the United States and in China. Inconsistent: The Web site uploaded in the United States and in some places in China. Never Uploaded in China: The Web site uploaded in the United States and nowhere in China.

437 438

An organizations description of itself, a news Web site, or a directory. Individual or group airs opinions or answers questions. 439 Music, radio, or televised diversions. 440 Educational institutions and Web sites to facilitate learning. 441 ATIP98.090: the Internet in China, <http://www.atip.org/public/atip.reports.98/atip98.090r.html>. E-commerce in China started in 1998 when the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPI) started a commercial Internet service.

189 Inactive URL: The URL to the Web site did not upload in the United States after the trip, revealing why the Web site was also inaccessible in China. There are a total of 87 Web sites that always uploaded, seven inconsistent, eight that never uploaded in China and one inactive URL. Christian Web Site List
NEWS AND INFORMATION Chinese-Directed (Always Uploaded) 5Talents (Big5)http://www.5talents.net/index_china.htm; (English)http://www.5talents.net/index_overseas.htm Ambassadors for Christ Inc. (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm; (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm Amity Foundation (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org/; (GB)http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/index.asp; (English)http://www.amitynewsservice.org/index.php Back to Jerusalem Movement (GB)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/Open%20letter%20Heavenly% 20Man/Open%20Letter-Chinese.htm; (English)http://www.backtojerusalem.com/ Chinese Germany Chinese China Chinese USA Source Chinese Place of Origin Hong Kong

442

Dominick, 5. The Chinese Christian use of the Internet described in this reports mirrors and has been derived from the profile of mass-media consumers described by Dominick.

190

Chinese Bible Church of San Diego (GB)http://www.cbcsd.com/index-c.html; (English)http://www.cbcsd.com/; (English)http://www.lordsgracesd.org/ Chinese Christian Internet Mission (GB and English)http://www.ccim.org/Orgs/index.html Chinese Christian Mission USA (GB and English)http://www.ccmusa.org/ Chinese Coordination Centre of World Evangelism (Big5)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe.asp; (English)http://www.cccowe.org/cccowe_e.asp Chinese Protestant Church (GB)http://www.chineseprotestantchurch.org.cn/1.asp Chinese Christian Herald Crusades (GB)http://www.cchc.org/ Christian Communication Inc. of Canada (GB)http://www.ccican.com/new/ Christian Communications Ltd. (Big5)http://www.cc-hk.org/hong-kong/chm-hkmain.asp?PaperID=0056/; (GB)http://www.cc-sg.org/ Christian Renewal Ministries (Big5)http://www.crmnj.org/ Church.com.hk (Big5)http://www.church.com.hk/cdc3/index-dc.cgi/ Focus on the Chinese Family (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.focf.org/ Fuyin.com (GB)http://www.fuyin.com/

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Hong Kong

Chinese

China

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Canada

Chinese

Hong Kong and Singapore

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Hong Kong

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Canada

191

Gospel Operation International (Big5)http://www.gointl.org/ Grace Melodia (All Pictures)http://gm.kyrios.com/ Great Commission Center International (Big5)http://www.gcciusa.org/; (English)http://www.gcciusa.org/English/index.htm Immanuel.net (Big5 and English)http://www.immanuel.net/index.asp Ling Liang Church (Big5)http://www.llc.org.tw/ Luwei Performing Arts Fellowship (GB)http://www.luweiarts.org.sg/ Queenstown Chinese Methodist Church (GB and English)http://www.qcmc.org.sg/ Revival Chinese Ministries International (Big5)http://www.rcmi.ac/chi/update_news.htm; (English)http://www.rcmi.ac/eng/update_news.htm Society for World Internet Mission (Big5)http://china.swim.org/ STEMI (Big5)http://www.stemi.org.sg/2005/; (English)http://www.stemi.org/ Yan Fok Church (Big5)http://www.ggmci.org/ NEWS AND INFORMATION Chinese-Directed (Inconsistent)

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Australia

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Taiwan

Chinese

Singapore

Chinese

Australia

Chinese

Hong Kong

Chinese

International

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

Source

Place of Origin

192

Chinese Christian Evangelical Association (GB and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/ccea2003/ministry.asp; (Big5 and English)http://www.ccea.org.tw/missionworld/ functioncode/publish/articleshow.asp?sn=784&type=0/ Uploaded in Suzhou, Kunming and Beijing, not Lijiang or Nanjing. Chinese Christian Mission Hong Kong (Big5 and English)http://www.ccmhk.org.hk/ Uploaded in Suzhou. Did not upload in Kunming, Lijiang, or Beijing. Note that their American Web site which was also tested (GB)http://www.ccmusa.org/ always uploaded. Chinese Christian Relief Association (Big5)http://www.ccra.org.tw/ccra2003/ Uploaded in Kunming and Beijing. Did not upload in Suzhou, Nanjing or in the hotel in Lijiang. It did upload in the Internet caf in Lijiang. Wycliffe Bible Translators, Hong Kong Branch (Big5)http://www.wycliffe.org.hk/ Uploaded in Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. Note that their international site (English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ always uploaded. NEWS AND INFORMATION Chinese Directed (Never Uploaded in China) China Horizon (Big5 and English)http://www.chinahorizon.org/ Christian Life Press Inc. (GB)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/main?OpenFrameSet/; (Big5/Other)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/Faith_main?Open frameSet/; (English)http://www.cclife.org/htdocs/cclife.nsf/ mainE?OpenFrameSet/ Christian Witness Center (Big5 and English)http://www.cwcnet.org/

Chinese

Taiwan

Chinese

Hong Kong

Chinese

Taiwan

Other

Hong Kong

Source Chinese

Place of Origin USA

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

193

NEWS AND INFORMATION Other (Always Uploaded) Biblical Archeological Society (English)http://www.bib-arch.org/ Billy Graham (English)http://www.billygraham.org/ Evangelism Explosion International (English)http://www.eeinternational.org/ Focus on the Family (English)http://www.family.org/ Jesus Film (English)http://www.jesusfilm.org/ Nairobi Chapel (English)http://www.nairobichapel.org/index.htm New City Fellowship Church (English)http://www.newcityfellowship.com/ San Diego Diocese (English)http://www.diocese-sdiego.org/ Seed Company (English)http://www.theseedcompany.org/ Vatican (German, English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese)http://www.vatican.va/ Voice of the Martyrs (English)http://www.persecution.com/ Wycliffe International (English)http://www.wycliffe.net/ Other USA Other USA Other Rome Other USA Other USA Other USA Other Kenya Other USA Other USA Other USA Other USA Source Other Place of Origin USA

194

Young Life (English)http://www.younglife.org/ NEWS AND INFORMATION Other (Inconsistent) Westminster Theological Seminary (English)http://www.wts.edu/ Uploaded in Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. INTERPRETATION AND OPINION Chinese-Directed (Always Uploaded) Answering Islam (Big5)http://www.answering-islam.org/Chinese/index.htm; (Arabic, Chinese, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Indonesian, Malay, Persian, Russian, Thai ,Turkish, and Urdu)http://www.answering-islam.org/ UZone21 (Big5)http://www.uzone21.com/index/ INTERPRETATION AND OPINION Chinese-Directed (Never Uploaded in China) China Soul for Christ (GB)http://www.chinasoul.com/; (GB)http://www.chinasoul.org/ (English)http://www.chinasoul.org/e/cs-e.htm ENTERTAINMENT Chinese-Directed (Always Uploaded) Back to God Hour Chinese Broadcast (Big5)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/big_5code/index.htm; (English)http://www.afcinc.org/afcsite/english/index.htm; (English)http://www.chinese-goodnews.org/en/home.html

Other

USA

Source Other

Place of Origin USA

Source Other

Place of Origin Anonymous

Chinese

Hong Kong

Source Chinese

Place of Origin USA

Source Chinese

Place of Origin USA

195

BBN Radio (GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnradi o.org/wcm/schinese/; (GB)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnradi o.org/wcm/tchinese/; (Big5)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbnrad io.org/wcmtchinese/; (English)http://www.bbnradio.org/wcm/Default.aspx?alias=www.bbn radio.org/wcm/english/ Faith Hope Love.net (GB)http://www.fhl.net/main/; (Big5)http://wbbs.fhl.net/; (English)http://www.fhl.net/statistics/www.fhl.net/ Far East Broadcasting Company (GB)http://sc.w4j.org/m/FEBCChinese/index.asp; (Big5)http://www.febcchinese.org/; (English)http://www.febc.org/ Goodnewscom.org (All Pictures)http://www.goodnewscom.org/ HKACM Music (GB)http://www.hkacm.org/ Lamb Music (Big5)http://www.lambmusic.org/ Lutheran Hour Ministries (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/; (Big5)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/big5/; (English)http://www.lhm.org/asian/china/english/ ORTV.com.sg (GB and English)http://www.ortv.com.sg/ Oursweb.net (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Taiwan

Chinese

Philippines

Chinese

Hong Kong

Chinese

Hong Kong

Chinese

USA and Hong Kong

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Singapore

Chinese

Taiwan

196

RBC Ministries (GB)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=gb/; (Big5)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=b5/; (English)http://www.rbcasia.org.sg/?lang=en/ Red Bean Music (Big5)http://www.redbeanmusic.com/

Other

International

Chinese

Hong Kong and China

Songs of Praise (GB and English)http://songsofpraise.org/translations.htm Stream of Praise Music Ministries (Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml; (Big5)http://www.sop.org/chn/home/index.shtml; (Big5)http://www.sopwc.org/Home/home.aspx Trans World Radio North East Asia Office (English)http://nea.ktwr.net/e/ Worshippers (Big5)http://www.theworshipers.com/ ENTERTAINMENT Chinese-Directed (Inconsistent) Ours Web (GB)http://www.oursweb.cn/ Uploaded in Shanghai and Kunming. Did not upload in Lijiang or Beijing. Note that Ours Web (Big5)http://www.oursweb.net/ always uploaded. ENTERTAINMENT Chinese-Directed (Inactive URL) Footprint Radio (GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ 00_FRBM/00/untitled%20folder/00_PE.html The site (GB and English)http://www.footprintradio.org/ uploaded in Beijing, but one test city was not enough to list this site as accessible.

Other

USA

Chinese

Taiwan

Other

USA

Chinese

Hong Kong

Source Chinese

Place of Origin China

Source Chinese

Place of Origin USA

197

INTERPRETATION AND OPINION Chinese-Directed (Never Uploaded in China) Midiverse (Big5 and English)http://midiverse.netfirms.com/ Trans World Radio Hong Kong (Big5)http://www.twr.org.hk/?Lang=zhhk&Catid=1/ EDUCATION Chinese-Directed (Always Uploaded) Antioch.com (GB)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/gb_bible.htm; (Big5)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/b5_bible.htm; (English)http://www.antioch.com.sg/bible/chinese.htm Bible Keeper (Big5)http://www.biblekeeper.com/chinese-union-big5/index.php; (English)http://www.biblekeeper.com/ Campus Evangelical Fellowship Overseas Campus Magazine (GB)http://www.cefocm.org/web/gb_txt/index.htm; (Big5)http://www.cef.org.tw/program/index.php; (Big5)http://www.cefocm.org/web/Big5_txt/index.htm; (English)http://www.cefocm.org/web/eng_txt/index.htm Chick Publications (GB)http://www.chick.com/zh/gb/; (English)http://www.chick.com/default.asp Chinese Theological Review (English)http://www.christianityinchina.org/Common/Admin/showFP _auto.jsp?Pid=7&Versionfiltered=1&Charset=big5/ Columbia University's Cantonese Christian Fellowship (English)http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccf/index.html Chinese USA Other USA Other USA Chinese USA Other USA Source Other Place of Origin USA Other Hong Kong Source Chinese Place of Origin Unknown

198

Crossmap (GB)http://www.crossmap.cn/index.htm Gospel Tape Ministries (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.gospeltape.org/; (GB)http://www.gospeltape.org/ bg_front_page.php?lang=GB/; (Big5)http://www.gospeltape.org/ bg_front_page.php?lang=BIG5/; (English)http://www.gospeltape.org/en_front_page.htm Theologos.net (GB)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_gb/GBtxt_IE.html; (Big5)http://www.theologos.net/Chn_big5/B5txt_IE.html; (English)http://www.theologos.net/Eng_MSIE.html EDUCATION Chinese-Directed (Inconsistent) Chinese Family for Christ (GB)http://www.cffc.org/e/default_home.asp. Uploaded in Shanghai, Kunming, Lijiang and Beijing. Did not upload in Nanjing. EDUCATION Chinese-Directed (Never Uploaded in China) Chinese Graduate School of Theology (GB, Big5 and English)http://www.cgst.edu/ ChristianStudy.com (GB and Big5)http://www.christianstudy.com/ EDUCATION Other (Always Uploaded)

Chinese

China

Chinese

USA

Chinese

Canada

Source Chinese

Place of Origin USA

Source Chinese

Place of Origin Hong Kong

Chinese

Unknown

Source

Place of Origin

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Bible Resource Center (English)http://www.bibleresourcecenter.org/ Catholic Forum (English)http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/ccfjeff/443 Covenant College (English)http://www.covenant.edu/ Crosswalk.com (English)http://www.crosswalk.com/ Campus Crusade for Christ International (English)http://www.ccci.org/ Greek Tutorial [Biblical] (English)http://www.ibiblio.org/koine/ Harvard Divinity School (English)http://www.hds.harvard.edu/ Hebrew Tutorial [Biblical] (English)http://foundationstone.com.au/OnlineHebrewTutorial.html Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (English)http://www.sbts.edu/ University of Notre Dame (English)http://www.nd.edu/ E-COMMERCE Chinese-Directed (Always Uploaded) Alleluia Bookstore (GB and English)http://www.ccbookstore.com/first.html Asian Book One (Big5 and English)http://www.asianbookone.com/
444

Other

USA

Other

USA

Other

USA

Other

USA

Other

USA

Other

Unknown

Other

USA

Other

Unknown

Other

USA

Other

USA

Source Chinese

Place of Origin USA

Chinese

USA

443 444

This site was only tested twice, in Kunming and Beijing. It was accessible in both places. This site was only tested twice, in Kunming and Beijing. It was accessible in both places.

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Chinese Communications Bookshop (Big5)http://www.ccbookshop.com/FrontPage.asp?PaperID=0003/ "Cool" Chinese Internet Mission (Big5)http://cool.ccim.org/ E-mail Bookstore.com (Big5)http://www.emailbookstore.com/newstore/scripts/default.asp Liberty House Company (Big5 and English)http://www.bestchinashop.com/ INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Chinese-Directed (Always Uploaded) Breakthrough (Big5 and English)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/; (Big5)http://www.breakthrough.org.hk/chi/index.html INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Other (Always Uploaded) Christian Answers.net (Multilingual)http://www.christiananswers.net/menu-at1.html Christian Caf (English)http://www.christiancafe.com/
445

Chinese

Unknown

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

Chinese

USA

Source Chinese

Place of Origin Hong Kong

Source Other

Place of Origin USA

Other

USA

445

This site was only tested twice, in Kunming and Beijing. It was accessible in both places.

201 APPENDIX C: CONSENT FORMS You are invited to participate in a study of the accessibility of Christian digital media in China and the indigenization of Christianity in China conducted by Tania Matthews and directed by Dr. Zibin Guo, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, USA. During the course of this interview, you will be asked questions regarding your experiences with Christian digital media and the indigenization of Christianity in China. Your responses will help me with an undergraduate research project for communication departmental honors. The interview will take about 1-2 hours. Your participation in this interview is entirely voluntary; it is your right to decline to answer any question I ask. You are free to end the interview at any time. Your identity will remain confidential and unidentifiable in any form of writings and discussions resulting from this interview. During the course of this interview, I will use a notebook to record our conversation. The notebook will remain in my direct physical possession. My project director, Dr. Zibin Guo and I, Tania Matthews, will be the only people who will have access to the notebook. To further assure the protection of your privacy, your name will not be asked nor be recorded for this interview. We will only use a numerical symbol to identify you and this interview. Thank you for your participation and help with this research! This form has been approved by the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Institutional Review Board.

Contact information: Dr. Zibin Guo: zibin-guo@utc.edu Tania Matthews: taniajmatthews@yahoo.com

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., UTC: taniajmatthews@yahoo.com zibin-guo@utc.edu

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

204 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Tania Matthews will graduate from the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga in August 2007 with a BA and highest departmental honors in communication and a BA in music. After graduation she plans to pursue a graduate degree in international public relations with an emphasis on Chinese language and culture.