FUNDAMENTALS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

PREFACE : The purpose of this paper is to acquaint the pump users with various parameters of centrifugal pumps, so as to enable them to select the right type of pump of suit their pumping system needs. 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES There are a number of occasions where fluids are required to be moved from one point to another. This is done by adding energy to the fluid by passing it through a pump. Depending on the type of movement of fluid in the pump, the pumps can be broadly divided into positive displacement pumps and Kinetic pumps. 1.1 Positive displacement pumps : In this type the pump keep on adding displacement by a pulsating action or rotary action. Positive displacement pumps are mainly used for viscous liquids, metering applications etc. 1.2 Kinetic Pumps : For handling water, chemicals, sewage, effluents, slurries etc. kinetic pumps are further classified on the basis of impeller geometry as under : 1.2.1 Regenerative pumps : These operate on the principle of pressure regeneration by which a multi-vaned impeller engages and re-engages the liquids to develop high head. These pumps are suitable for high-head low-capacity applications, making them suitable for hilly areas, for small discharge requirements. These are also used for small boilers, gas-liquid mixtures etc. 1.2.2 Centrifugal pumps : In these pumps Kinetic energy is imparted through centrifugal force developed by and impeller effective flow in radial direction. Number of geometries and constructions are available in centrifugal pumps making them suitable for water, sewage, chemicals boiler feed etc. 1.2.3 Mixed flow pumps : In these pumps the fluid is imparted with radial as well as axial force. These pumps have capacity for handling larger flows at relatively lower heads. These type impellers are used in horizontal as well as vertical turbine pumps.

1.2.4 Axial flow pumps : In these pumps the liquids moves parallel to the pump axis, and is activated by a ducted propeller. Head is generated by the lifting action of the vanes.

2. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Having defined centrifugal pumps we can now see different types of centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pumps can be classified on various plans as under : (a) Shaft Execution : Horizontal, vertical. (b) Impeller geometry : Closed impeller, semi-open impeller, open-impeller (non clogging). (c ) Casing splitting : Axially split (horizontally split casing as popularly known ). Radially split-end-suction pumps, multistage pumps. (d) Location of suction branch : End suction (parallel to pump axis), Side suction (perpendicular to pump axis ). In addition pumps are popularly distinguished on the basis of applications such as boiler feed pumps, sewage pumps, slurry pumps, chemical process pumps etc. 3. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS As already discussed a centrifugal pump delivers liquids by centrifugal force. Accordingly the pump characteristics are determined. 3.1 Pump Parameters 3.1.1. Capacity : It is the ability of the pump of discharge a specific amount of liquid at a specific head, measured in volume per unit time. 3.1.2 Head : The pressure developed by the pump is called the head. Head is measured in height of liquid column. 3.1.3. Efficiency : It is the measure of the ability of a pump to convert the input energy to output energy 3.2 Pump Performance Characteristics The performance of a pump is a combined function of various factors. 3.2.1 Head-discharge : Head and discharge of a centrifugal pump are interrelated and are plotted against each other. The maximum head is obtained at zero discharge and minimum head is obtained at maximum discharge. 3.2.2 Efficiency : The efficiency of the pump increases continuously up to a certain discharge (called the best efficiency point) and then tapers off at the maximum discharge. 3.2.3 Power required : The power input required by pump is proportional to the head, discharge, specific gravity and the efficiency at the point of operation. 3.2.4 NPSH required : NPSH (net positive suction head) is a pump design criterion. It is the measure of energy required in the fluid, as it enters the pump, to overcome the internal losses in the pumps. NPSH is given in equivalent height of liquid column. Ability of pump to lift the water from suction pump depends on NPSH-R.

3.2.5 Pump specific speed : This is a design criterion, and depends on the impeller geometry. Specific speed Ns = 3.65n Q 0.5 H 0.75 Where H = Head in met Q = Discharge in m3 / hr n = speed in RPM Radial flow impellers have specific speeds ranging between 90 400. Mixed flow impellers have specific speeds between 400-600 and axial flow impellers have specific speeds between 800-1300. 4. FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE : Various factors affect the performance of centrifugal pumps. These may be either related to pumps design or to the pumping system. 4.1 Design related factors : 4.1.1. Speed : Centrifugal pump performs differently at different speeds, but there is a relationship called the law of similitude or law of affinity. 4.1.2 Impeller diameter : The impeller diameter can be trimmed down to obtain lower head discharge characteristic. The affinity laws are given below. At constant impeller At constant speed N diameter D Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 H1 H2
=

N1 N2 = D1 D2

= [N1 ]2 [N2]

H1 = [D1]2 H2 [D2] P1 = [D1]3 P2 [D2]

P1 = [N1]3 P2 [N2]

Where H = head, Q= discharge , P = power absorbed.

Note: 1. Efficiencies tend to drop marginally at lower speeds. 2. The NPSH-R approximately varies like head. 4.2 System related factors :

4.2.1 Specific gravity of liquid : Affects the power absorbed at shaft, suction life but does not affect H and Q of pump. 4.2.2 Atmospheric pressure : Decreases with altitude, affects suction lift. 4.2.3 Temperature : Affects the liquids density, viscosity and vapour pressure thus affecting the NPSH available. At higher temperatures vapour pressure increases, viscosity and density decrease NPSH available decreases as vapour pressure increases. Above boiling point of the liquid pressurized suction in necessary.

4.2.4 NPSH available : It is the measure of the energy present in the fluid at pump suction. It depends on the pumping system. NPSH available depends on atmospheric pressure, suction height, vapour pressure and frictional losses in suction pipe line. For water NPSH- a (met) can be approximately calculated as (open tanks). (a) For suction lift --NPSHa = 10 Hvs - Hsgeo (b) For positive suction NPSHa = 10 Hvs + Hzgeo Where Hvs = Head loss in suction pipe and accessories (met) Hsgeo = Difference between pump suction centreline and suction level. Hzgeo = Difference between suction tank level (higher elevation than pump) and the pump suction centre-line. (met) 4.2.5 Friction in pipe line : Gives rise to friction head. The values of friction head (in equivalent meters of length ) are available for various fittings, straight pipe lines of various materials in the std. reference books. The duty point at which a pump operates is given by the point where the pump characteristic curve cuts the total system resistance head (comprising of static head plus dynamic friction head ). 4.2.6 Number of pumps in parallel operation : Many times the system demands operating pumps in parallel. The parallel operation point is given by the intersection of H-q curve of parallel operation with the system resistance curve. This type of system is common in sewage handling plants, irrigation schemes with variable output requirements. 4.2.7 Liquid characteristics : In case of pumps for handling chemicals the properties of liquid like specific gravity, viscosity, temperature, solids in suspended condition etc. affect the pump performance. For viscous liquids viscosity corrections need be considered while selecting the pump. With increase in specific gravity, temperature, viscosity NPSH a gets reduced. Suction pump designs may have to be modified for solids handling pumps. 5. PUMP CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

Various factors need to be considered depending upon the service requirements. 5.1 Materials of construction. Depending on service, pump metallurgy is selected. The cheapest of these which is suitable for general water service is cast iron. For drinking water bronze impellers are preferred. In case of sewage or effluent handling corrosivity and abrasion resistance may demand use of low-alloyed cast iron (generally up to 2% nickel) Specialized materials like stainless steels, alloy steels, bronzes, high-nickel alloys or non-metals like polypropylene, ceramic or cast iron lined with rubber of fibre-glass will be needed for chemical handling depending on the corrosion, erosion, temperature and pressure.

5.2 Pump construction: 5.2.1 Casing : For centrifugal pumps volute casings are needed, and the shape of casing is important. For handling larger volumes, double suction casings are required. For higher heads multistage pumps ring section multiple casing or barrel type casings are required. 5.2.2. Impeller : Various types of impellers are used depending upon the services. For water supply pumps closed radial flow impellers, mixed flow impellers, with single entry (end suction) or double entry (hor. split casing pumps ) type are used. Semi-open or open impellers are used for non-clogging pumps designed to handle solids. (for non clog pumps hand-holes are provided in casing for cleaning impeller passage without opening the pump). 5.2.3 Gland sealing : Generally for water supply, pumps are offered with packed gland. In case of corrosive liquids or costly liquids mechanical seals are used. 5.2.4. No. of stages : As the head requirement goes up pumps with more than one impeller in series are designed. A specific variant of these used in water supply is twostage horizontal split casing pumps. These are single or double suction pumps giving heads up to 200 met. For higher heads multistage pumps are used. 5.3. Couplings : The pump is connected to prime-movers by various means. 5.3.1 Drive : Pump and drive are connected by flexible coupling, which is designed to transmit the required horsepower. Various types of couplings are available. Most common being pin-bush type, jaw type, tyre type, Depending on HP transmitted, torquespeed characteristics etc., coupling is selected. For back pull-out construction pumps spacer-type, jaw couplings are required to be used. In case of vertically mounted pumps operated from a high platform (as in case of sewage handling pumping stations) extension shafting with suitable line couplings are needed. 5.3.3. Prime-movers : Major applications of pumping use electric motors as the primemovers. In special applications like boiler-feed turbine driven pumps are also used. Electric motors are available at various speeds and in various mounting frames and thus offers the most flexible driving arrangement. Diesel engines are also used where electricity is not available or portable pumps are desired (like contractors pumps). Small agricultural pump-sets use engines. Another specialized application of diesel engine

driven pumps is fire-fighting pumps. Torque-speed characteristics of pumps are available with manufacturers and should be matched with the drive. 6. SETTING PUMP SPECIFICATIONS : Pump user may be presented various options by various pump manufacturers. It is very essential that the correct selection is made by the users. Given below are a few pertinent points for pump selection: 6.1 System-parameters : For correct selection of pump, the manufacturer must be given all the important system parameters like : 6.1.1. Duty conditions : Discharge and head required. Many times the pump is expected to operated over a range. 6.1.2 Suction details : Piping configuration, pump suction tank details, levels of minimum and maximum liquid conditions etc. 6.1.3. Discharge side details : The static head, layout details of discharge pipelines (esp. for long discharge lines) are required to calculate the system resistance curve. Suction and discharge heads are required to calculate the head to be developed by the pump. 6.1.4. Liquid details : Liquid details can affect the material of construction, impeller design (sewage pumping), power requirement etc. Operating temperature, viscosity, specific gravity, solids to be pumped if any need to be specified. 6.1.5. Number of pumps in parallel/series operation : Pumps selected for parallel operation must to be compatible with each other. For series pumping the strength of materials in subsequent stages are important. 6.2 Pump parameters : The user has to specify various pump parameters for proper selection. (i) Manufacturing standard. (ii) Operational speed. (iii) Casing type. (iv) Head, discharge, NPSH available. (v) Materials of construction for major components viz. casing impeller, shaft and shaft sleeve. (vi) Prime mover details. 6.3 Power required : With advances in the pump designs manufacturers are coming out with more and more efficient pump models. Especially for higher HP models, little change in power absorbed at shaft can change the operational economics. And hence higher efficiency pumps should be selected, even if at higher prices as the extra cost is compensated in the lower energy bills, which is a recurring cost, for example if due to higher efficiency, kw absorbed at shaft is lowered by 5 kw, this means a saving of 5 units per year, if pump is used for 8 hour each day, which is clear saving considering the high electricity cost. The lower running cost more than compensates for extra capital cost if any.

6.4 Inspection and testing : Generally accepted manufacturing and testing standards for water pumps are IS 1520 and IS 5120. For process pumps ISO, API and DIN standards are popularly used. For critical pumps, the customer may insist on quality assurance plan and witness the performance testing to be assured that the manufacturers quoted figures of Head, discharge, efficiency (and NPSH required, if critical) are within the tolerance limits or not. 7. PUMP ORDERING DATA The pump user should give following details while ordering pumps or setting tender specifications. Application details : (i) Liquid characteristics sp. gravity, viscosity, corrosivity. (ii) Pumping temperature. (iii) Details of solids to be handled if any (iv) Discharge and head operational range to be specified if necessary. (v) NPSH available. Whether flooded suction is available, or how many meters lift desired. (vi) Operation whether intermittent or continuous, whether parallel of series pumping is required. (vii) Total system resistance curve static head as well as dynamic friction head to be specified. Pump Parameters : (i) Manufacturing standard. (ii) Speed of operation. (iii) Casing and impeller type. (iv) Gland sealing. (v) Materials of construction for casing, impellers, shaft and shaft sleeve. (vi) Minimum efficiency required. (vii) Flange drilling. (viii) Testing required.

APPENDIX SOME USEFUL EQUATIONS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 1. Power absorbed Bkw at shaft = Q (lps ) x H (met) x Sp. gravity x 100 102 x Efficiency (%) 2. Flow velocity in pipe with bore d V (m/s) = 1273.2 x Q (lit/sec) d2 (mm2) V (ft/sec) = 0.49 x I.GPM d2 (in2 ) 3. Pressure (kg/cm2) x 10/sp. gravity = Head in met of liquid column Pressure (p.s.i.) x 0.703/sp. gravity = Head in met of liquid column 4. Gallons/min x 0.2727 = m3 /hr 5. tons/hr x 0.2834 = lit/sec 6. m3/hr x 0.2728 = lit/sec 7. for larger flows mgd x 52.61 = lit /sec cusec x 28.32 = lit/sec cumins x 0.472 = lit/sec