Part 1 Analysis Case

Part I - Analysis Case
Table of Contents
Introduction
1.0 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 1

Static Stress Analysis
2.1 Introduction to Static Analysis ............................................................................................... 3

2.2 Linear Static Analysis ............................................................................................................ 5

2.3 Nonlinear Static Analysis .................................................................................................... 16

2.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 16

2.3.2 Nonlinear Elastic Analysis ............................................................................................ 16

2.3.3 Elasto-plastic Analysis .................................................................................................. 17

Seepage Analysis
3.1 Introduction to Seepage Analysis ........................................................................................ 28

3.2 Seepage Flow Rule............................................................................................................. 29

3.3 Governing equations ........................................................................................................... 30

3.4 Finite Element Formulation ................................................................................................. 33

3.5 Time Integration ......................................................................................... 34

Stress-Seepage Staggered Analysis
4.1 Introduction to Stress-Seepage semi coupled Analysis....................................................... 36

4.2 Effective Stress ................................................................................................................... 36

4.3 Governing Equation ............................................................................................................ 37

Table of Contents Part 1 Analysis Case

Consolidation Analysis
5.1 Introduction to Consolidation Analysis ................................................................................ 39

5.2 Governing Equation ............................................................................................................ 40

5.3 Formulation of Finite Element ............................................................................................. 41

5.4 Properties of Consolidation Element ................................................................................... 42

5.4.1 Degrees of freedom for plane strain element ............................................................. 44

5.4.2 Degrees of freedom for solid elements ...................................................................... 45

5.5 Precautionary Points about Consolidation Analysis ............................................................ 47

5.5.1 Time and loading input ................................................................................................. 47

Construction Stage Analysis
6.1 Introduction Construction Stage Analysis ............................................................................ 49

6.2 Addition and Removal of Elements ..................................................................................... 51

6.3 Adding and Subtracting of Load .......................................................................................... 53

6.4 Adding and Subtracting of Boundary Conditions ................................................................. 55

6.5 Load Distribution Factor ...................................................................................................... 55

6.6 Initialization of Displacements ............................................................................................. 56

6.7 Change in Material Properties............................................................................................. 57

6.8 In-situ Stress ....................................................................................................................... 58

6.8.1
0
K Method ................................................................................................................. 58

6.8.2 Self Weight Analysis Method ........................................................................................ 58

6.9 Restart Function.................................................................................................................. 59

6.10 Undrained Analysis ........................................................................................................... 59

Table of Contents - Part 1 Analysis Case

Dynamic Analysis
7.1 Introduction to Dynamic Analysis ........................................................................................ 60

7.1.1 Eigenvector Analysis .................................................................................................... 60

7.1.2 Subspace Iteration Method .......................................................................................... 66

7.1.3 Lanczos Iteration Method ............................................................................................. 66

7.2 Consideration of Damping .................................................................................................. 66

7.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 66

7.2.2 Proportional damping ................................................................................................... 67

7.3 Response Spectrum Analysis ............................................................................................. 69

7.4 Time History Analysis .......................................................................................................... 74

7.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 74

7.4.2 Modal Superposition Method ........................................................................................ 74

7.4.3 Direct Integration Method ............................................................................................. 76

7.5 Complex Response Analysis............................................................................................... 81

7.5.1 1-dimensional dynamic analysis (theoretical solution) .................................................. 81

7.5.2 2-dimensional dynamic analysis (finite element method) ............................................. 87

7.5.3 Transmitting boundary .................................................................................................. 87


Slope Stability Analysis
8.1 Introduction Slope Stability Analysis ................................................................................... 87

8.2 Strength Reduction Method ................................................................................................ 88

8.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 88

8.2.2 Theoretical Background ............................................................................................... 89

8.2.3 Method of calculating Minimum Factor of Safety .......................................................... 90

8.3 Stress analysis method based on the limit equilibrium method ........................................... 91

8.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 91

8.3.2 Evaluation of Factor of Safety ...................................................................................... 92

8.3.3 Stress integration along the potential sliding surface ................................................... 93

Introduction
Chapter 1
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1.0 Overview

In general, geotechnical analysis is often compared with structural analysis for its
fundamental concept. In structural analysis, the focus is placed on the uncertainty of
applied loads such that various load cases are analyzed for a given structure, and t he load
cases are combined to determine the maximum force effects on each member for its final
design. On the other hand, geotechnical analysis is focused on construction sequence and
uncertainty of ground materials. Geotechnical engineers primarily place emphasis on
analyzing the physical state and behavior of soils through numerical analysis. Therefore,
the analysis model should be able to reflect the actual ground composition and construction
conditions using solid elements. In addition, the elements must possess nonlinear and
anisotropic characteristics of soils to reflect the in-situ conditions considering the initial state
of stresses of the ground.

A geotechnical analysis software package must serve to well reflect the actual site
conditions in numerical modeling in order to determine the suitability of design and
construction conditions. As a total solution package for geotechnical engineering, midas
GTS is designed to provide all the necessary functions required for numerical analysis for
tunnel engineering and soil/rock mechanics. The analysis features included in are outlined
below:

A. Static Stress Analysis
1) Linear static stress analysis
2) Nonlinear static stress analysis (Nonlinear elastic & elasto-plastic
analysis)

B. Seepage Analysis
1) Steady state analysis
2) Transient state analysis
C. Stress-Seepage Semi Coupled Analysis

D. Consolidation analysis


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E. Construction stage analysis
1) Nonlinear analysis
2) Steady state analysis
3) Transient state analysis
4) Consolidation analysis

F. Dynamic analysis
1) Eigen value analysis
2) Response spectrum analysis
3) Time history analysis
4) Complex response analysis

G. Slope stability analysis
1) Strength reduction method
2) Limit state stress analysis

Static Stress Analysis
Chapter 2
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2.1 Introduction to Static Stress Analysis

Static stress analysis is theoretically used for analyzing structures, which are not subjected
to any kind of vibration. However, in practice, it is often assumed that static stress analysis
can be performed on a structure if the externally applied load has a frequency that is equal
to or less than one third of the natural frequency of the structure. Static stress analysis
problems can be divided into linear and nonlinear behavior according to the behavior type.
Linear behavior can be recognized as a special case of nonlinear behavior. The primary
sources of nonlinearity in static stress analysis are as follows:

Material nonlinear behavior
Geometric nonlinear behavior due to finite strain
Nonlinear behavior due to slip and spread of boundaries

In geotechnical analysis, material nonlinear behavior is applied primarily to represent soil
behavior, and to simulate the soil behavior in detail, structural material nonlinearity can be
imposed for the analysis. The material models that are used to consider material
nonlinearity can be divided as follows

Linear elastic model
Nonlinear elastic model
Elasto-plastic model
Visco-elastic model
Visco-elasto-plastic model

Among the above models, midas GTS provides the linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, and
elasto-plastic models. More detailed list of the models is shown in Part 3. Constitutive
Model in the manual.

The strain due to the body action may be divided into large strain and finite strain. Most
geotechnical problems relate to large strain, and the physical interactions are evaluated
based on the assumption that the strain of foundation is small enough. The geometric
nonlinear behavior, including finite strain, would heavily occur on large deformed structures
consisting of ductile materials such as mild steel and rubber.
Part 1 Analysis Case

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However, the geometric nonlinear effects would be trivial for structural behavior exhibiting
large deformation composed of ductile materials such as mild steel and rubber. Therefore,
the aforementioned effects are not commonly considered in geotechnical problems.

The boundary nonlinear effect reflects the nonlinear behavior that occurs in the interfaces
between different materials. A variety of behaviors may occur in the interfaces between
different materials such as shear slip, crack opening, and contact according to the types of
external loadings. To take into account these behaviors, it is common to describe the
behavior of interfaces with the special types of elements. The special type of elements and
behaviors are summarized as follows:

Interface, Contact Element : slip, cracking or opening, contact, bending
Elastic Link : tension only, compression only, hook, gap
Spring
1
: tension only, compression only, hook, gap

The static stress analysis types provided by midas GTS can be divided as follows based on
the feature of behavior:

Linear static stress analysis
Nonlinear static stress analysis

Linear analysis is regarded as an independent analysis type in midas GTS because of its
convenience and immediacy. In linear static stress analysis, the material model is limited to
linear elastic models, and elastic link element and tension only, compression only, hook,
and gap behaviors of truss element are available. Therefore, linear static stress analysis is
utilized to observe the approximate behavior of a foundation, construction in the initial
condition of construction stage analysis, or to perform a tunnel lining analysis.
When linear static stress analysis is performed on a foundation or structure that is assigned
with nonlinear material models, midas GTS internally converts the material models into
linear type and performs a linear static stress analysis.

1
The current spring element of midas GTS does not consider the nonlinear behavior.

Chapter 3 Seepage Analysis

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2.2 Linear Static Stress analysis

Linear static stress analysis is used to determine the overall behavior of soil and rock
structures by assuming that all ground elements are composed of linear elastic materials.
Linear static stress analysis neglects the failure mode and idealizes the stress-strain
relationship in a straight line. Since finite element equations are expressed in a linear
elastic form based on Hookes Law, nonlinear elastic analysis and elasto-plastic analysis
can be also executed in the form of the linear elastic equations.

The inception of Nonlinear or elasto-plastic analysis by finite element method became
common in the practice of geotechnical engineering in the early 1990s. Initially, there were
technical difficulties in performing nonlinear analysis in practice. Relatively long analysis
time required for convergence for nonlinear or elasto-plastic analysis had to be overcome
as well. At this time, linear elastic analysis prevailed. However, due to the rapid
development of computer analysis speed and nonlinear and elasto-plastic analysis
algorithms, such analyses are now widespread and easily applicable to many geotechnical
projects. Linear analysis is still widely used in practice for efficiency in conducting
preliminary analysis and simple analysis involving materials with relatively less inherent
nonlinearity.

In most civil engineering applications, analysis problems can be condensed to whether or
not a structure is safe under a given set of loads and what the amount of deformation is
prior to structural failure. In order to find geotechnical deformation, a stress-strain
relationship is required. However, the stress-strain relationships of geo-materials are very
complex. A stress-strain relationship varies widely depending upon the material
composition, porosity, stress history and loading method.

Since stress-strain relationships exhibit very complex nonlinear material characteristics, it is
not practical to mathematically represent them in numerical models. In practice, the
material models are idealized to a simpler form to model stress-strain relationships. In the
process of idealizing the material models, the modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio
alone cannot adequately represent ground behavior realistically. But, approximations can
be made to analyze the behavior at some specific stress states. In such a case, a clear
definition of the modulus of elasticity is required to idealize the material model.
The key material parameters are the modulus of elasticity, Tangent modulus, and Secant

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modulus. For a perfectly linear elastic material model, the last two moduli are identical. The
Secant modulus is often referred to as the deformation modulus of a nonlinear material in
the stress range we are interested in.

One of the equilibrium equations used for linear elastic analysis is expressed in Eq. (2.1.1).

= Ku p (2.2.1)

where
K : Stiffness matrix
u
: Displacement vector
p
: Load vector or unbalanced force vector

From Eq. (2.1.1), the displacement vector can be determined. This method is known as the
displacement method, which obtains the displacement vector from the first found analysis
results. The strain is calculated from the displacement vector through the compatibility
equation, and then the stress is determined from the strain through the constitutive
equation.

When materials undergo deformation, as shown in Fig. 2.2.1, an internal point e(x, y, z)
moves to a new coordinate B (x+u, y+v, z+w). Unless the element is rigid, the
displacement vector ( ) , , u v w U continuously changes, and it can be represented by a
function of x, y, and z coordinates.


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x y
z
( ) , , u v w U
( ) , , x u y v z w + + + B
( ) , , x y z A

Figure 2.2.1 Displacement vector (u, v, w)

The strain is expressed as follows using the distributed displacements.

x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
u
x
v
y
w
z
v u
x y
w v
y z
u w
z x
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c c
= +
c c
c c
= +
c c
c c
= +
c c
(2.2.2)


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Applying uniaxial stress in an elastic material results in strain in the same direction as the
stress.

z
z
x y z
E
o
c
c c vc
=
= =
(2.2.3)

where

, ,
x y z
c c c
: Strain components in the x, y, z direction
E
: Modulus of elasticity
v
: Poissons ratio

If shear stress,
zx
t
, exists, the shear strain can be expressed as Eq (2.2.4)

zx
zx
G
t
= (2.2.4)

where G : Shear modulus

Shear modulus can be derived from the modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio.

( ) 2 1
E
G
v
=
+
(2.2.5)

The volumetric strain of soil is expressed as follows:

( )
(1 2 )
x y z
x y z
V
V E
o o o
c c c v
+ +
A
= + + = (2.2.6)


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where
1
[ ( )]
1
[ ( )]
1
[ ( )]
x x y z
y y z x
z z x y
E
E
E
c o v o o
c o v o o
c o v o o
= +
= +
= +
(2.2.7)
Thus, the bulk modulus, K, can be defined as follows:

[( ) / 3]
/ 3(1 2 )
x y z
E
K
V V
o o o
v
+ +
= =
A
(2.2.8)

Due to the characteristics of the ground continuum, the use of the bulk modulus (K) and
shear modulus (G) may be a little controversial. But they are more conveniently used as
they can be expressed more concisely and clearly compared to E and v. Figure 2.2.2
illustrates the physical significance of K and G.


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Figure 2.2.2 Various types of moduli

When boundaries are constrained horizontally, the constrained modulus, M, can be

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determined by deformation in one dimension. Eq. (2.2.9) and (2.2.10) give the equations for
horizontal stresses and the constrained modulus for
0
x y
c c = =
.

1
x y z
v
o o o
v
= =
(2.2.9)

( )
( )( )
1
1 1 2
M E
v
v v
=
+
(2.2.10)

The modulus obtained from field testing is one of the moduli above. This can be used in
practice after appropriately converting the modulus.

Boundary conditions for one dimensional consolidation behavior are identical to those for
the constrained modulus, which is closely related to the properties of one dimensional
consolidation behavior in soft ground. Table (2.2.1) summarizes the relationship between
the one dimensional consolidation property parameter and constrained modulus.

The values shown in Table (2.2.2) are based on testing results obtained from uncracked
small specimens of various materials. Accordingly, reduced moduli of elasticity of rocks
should be used to consider the discontinuity of materials in a large scale. Figure (2.2.3)
shows a graph indicating the testing data of elastic modulus reduction ratio relative to the
Rock Quality Designation (RQD). RQD is defined as the cumulative length of core pieces
longer than 100 mm in a run divided by the total length of the core run expressed in a
percentage. Higher RQD values imply better the rock quality. An RQD of 100% does not
necessarily mean that the rock is perfectly continuous without defects. Weathered rocks
exhibit small RQD values.

As shown in Figure 2.2.3, the Modulus of Elasticity reduces from 100% to 20%, as the RQD
reduces from 100% to 70%.
The 3D stress-strain relationship is expressed as follows:


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1/ / / 0 0 0
/ 1/ / 0 0 0
/ / 1/ 0 0 0
0 0 0 1/ 0 0
0 0 0 0 1/ 0
0 0 0 0 0 1/
x x
y y
z z
xy xy
yz yz
zx zx
E E E
E E E
E E E
A
G
G
G
c o
v v
c o
v v
c o v v
t
t
t

(

(

(

(

=
( ` `
(
(
(
(
) )
(2.2.11)

The above equation can be rewritten in an inverse matrix form:

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
2
x x
y y
z z
xy xy
yz yz
zx zx
A
v v v
v v v o c
v v v o c
o c
v
t
v t
t
v
(
(

(

(

(

(

=
` ` (
(
(
(
(
) )
(

(2.2.12)

where
( )( ) 1 2 1
E
A
v v
=
+

That is,

= D
(2.2.13)

( )
( )
3
x y z
x y z
K
o o o
c c c
+ +
= + +
(2.2.14)

where
( ) 3 1 2
E
K
v
=


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The matrix D related to the compatibility matrix is as follows:

1 2 2
2 1 2
2 2 1
3
3
3
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
D D D
D D D
D D D
D
D
D
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(2.2.15)

where
1
2
3
4
3
2
3
D K G
D K G
D G
= +
=
=

Table 2.2.1 Relationship between Consolidation Parameters and Constrained Modulus
Consolidation Parameters Relationship with M
coefficient of volume change,
v
m

1
v
m
M
=
coefficient of compressibility,
v
a

0
1
v
e
a
M
+
=
compression index,
c
c

0
(1 )
0.435
va
c
e
c
M
o +
=


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Table 2.2.2 Moduli of Elasticity and Poissons Ratios of rocks & other materials
Material Elastic Modulus (tonf/m
2
) Poissons Ratio
amphibolite 9.4~12.1 106 0.28~0.30
anhydrite 6.8 106 0.30
siabase 8.7~11.7 106 0.27~0.30
siorite 7.5~10.8 106 0.26~0.29
solomite 11.0~12.1 106 0.30
sunite 14.9~18.3 106 0.26~0.28
deldspathic
gneiss
8.3~11.9 106 0.15~0.20
gabbro 8.9~11.7 106 0.27~0.31
granite 7.3~8.6 106 0.23~0.27
ice 7.1 106 0.36
limestone 8.7~10.8 106 0.27~0.30
marble 8.7~10.8 106 0.27~0.30
mica Schist 7.9~10.1 106 0.15~0.20
obsidian 6.5~8.0 106 0.12~0.18
oligoclasite 8.0~8.5 106 0.29
quartzite 8.2~9.7 106 0.12~0.15
rock salt 3.5 106 0.25
slate 7.9~11.2 106 0.15~0.20
aluminum 5.5~7.6 106 0.34~0.36
steel 20.0 106 0.28~0.29


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Rock Quality Designation (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
?
?
?
M
o
d
u
l
u
s

R
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

R
a
t
i
o

(
E
L
/
E
M
)
Results from DWORSHAK DAM, Deere
et.al., 1967
Results after Coon and Merritt, 1970
ORANGE FISH TUNNEL VERTICAL JACKING
TESTS, Oliver, 1977
ORANGE FISH TUNNEL HORIZONTAL JACKING
TESTS
DRAKENSBERG TESTS
ELANDSBERG TESTS
OTHER DATA, 1978

Figure 2.2.3 RQD vs. Reduction Ratio of Elastic Modulus (
/
M L
E E
)


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2.3 Nonlinear Static stress analysis

2.3.1 Introduction

In geotechnical analysis, the nonlinear behavior is induced by the material nonlinearity of
foundation. The material nonlinear behavior is divided into nonlinear elastic, elasto-
plastic, and visco-elasto-plastic models according to the assumption on behavior. Each
model can be subdivided with respect to the characteristics of the foundation to analyze.
For small strain problems, nonlinear elastic model can be applied usefully. For large
strain problems which have something to do with the speed of applied load and seepage,
visco-elastoplastic analysis is appropriate. In majority of all other cases, elasto-plastic
analysis is used. In midas GTS, nonlinear elastic and elasto-plastic analyses are
available.

2.3.2 Nonlinear Elastic Analysis

A nonlinear elastic material changes its elastic characteristics depending upon the
analysis results. A hyperbolic model such as the Duncan-Chang model is a typical
example of a nonlinear material model which the stress and strain relationship is
described by a hyperbolic curve. The ground parameters are a function of confinement
stress and shear stress. The model is quite useful because it can be easily defined by
ground material properties obtained from triaxial tests or published literatures.

Hyperbolic curve
o
c

Figure 2.3.1 Stress-Strain Curve of Duncan-Chang model


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2.3.3 Elasto-plastic Analysis

2.3.3.1 Introduction

The plastic strain is present after removing the applied load in the plastic behavior of
material unlike the elastic behavior. To represent the characteristic behavior, the total
strain can be calculated as follows:

e p
= + (2.3.1)

where

: Total Strain
e
: Elastic Strain
p
: Plastic Strain

Hooks law defines the stress-strain relationship in elastic range, and from Eq. (2.3.1)
the stress can be expressed as the following:

( )
e p
= = D D
(2.3.2)

where

: Stress Vector
D: Material Stiffness Matrix

The stress at an arbitrary point in the structure subjected to loading is a criterion to
estimate the elasto-plastic stress state of that point. The criterion to evaluate the
elasticity and plasticity is defined with respect to the characteristics of the materials
such as steel and concrete, and which is called yield criterion. The yield criterion of
material is defined based on experimental data, and the stress state at which the
plastic flow is initiated can be expressed as a function in stress space below:
( ) , 0 f k =
(2.3.3)


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where
f : yield function
k : hardening parameter

If the value of the yield function f is less than zero, no plastic flow will occur. If f is
greater than zero, plastic flow will occur.

2.3.3.2 Plastic Flow Rule

The yielding point of a material would initiate the plastic flow, which induces the stress
redistribution for maintaining the equilibrium of material. The calculation of the plastic
flow is usually formulated by the incremental form to apply nonlinear anal ysis. The
representative variables for computing the plastic flow are the directions of
incremental stress and plastic strain. The direction of incremental stress can be written
as below:

i
i
f c
=
c
n
(2.3.4)
where n is the slope vector for the direction of the incremental stress perpendicular
to the yield surface, i is the total number of yield surfaces for the case that yield
function consists of multiple yield surfaces.

The incremental plastic strain is decomposed into two parts: magnitude and direction.
According to the Koiters law they are expressed below:

n n
i
p i i i
i 1 i 1
g

= =
c
= =
c

m
(2.3.5)

where
i
g
is the plastic potential function which is considered as a function of the
stress and hardening parameter k , and is obtained from the experiment test of
material.
The plastic multiplier
i
is restricted by the Kuhn-Tucker conditions as follows:

0 f s ;
i
0 > ;
i
0 f = (2.3.6)

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These conditions show that no plastic flow will occur since
i
is always zero if the
yield function f is less than zero.

In Eq. (2.3.5), m is defined as a directional vector of incremental plastic strain. When
including the yield function f defines the incremental plastic strain, instead
of plastic potential function
g
, it is called the associated flow rule. When the yield and
plastic potential functions differ, / g c c is used as the relation, which is known as the
non-associated flow rule.

In general, the associated flow rule is applied to material models which have constant
deviatoric stress distributions along the hydrostatic axis in stress space such as von
Mises and Tresca models. The non-associated flow rule is used for material models
where the deviatoric stress distribution is not constant along the hydrostatic axis in
stress space such as Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager models. When the non-
associated flow rule is used for models with varying deviatoric stress distributions
along the hydrostatic axis, it can prevent the excessive volume expansion (dilatancy
effects) induced by inconsistency of directions of stress and strain. It is important to
note that slower convergence should be expected whenever a non-symmetric stiffness
matrix is required to solve the system of equations.

2.3.3.3 Linearized Consistency Condition

The internal state of elasto-plastic material is defined as the incremental constitutive
relation that is expressed by the large rate form. The plastic flow initiates when the
stress point reaches the yield criterion, and it is controlled by the parameter of plastic
state such ask .

The constitutive equation for the large strain of a non-associate plastic flow is given as
below based on Eq. (2.3.2):

p
( ) ( ) = = D D m (2.3.7)

/ f c c

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When the stress point lies on the yield surface, the linearized consistency condition is
defined as the following first order expansion Taylor series.

( )
T
T
, 0
f f
f h
k
k
k
c c c | |
= + = =
|
c c c
\ .
n
(2.3.8)
where
f c
=
c
n
, and hardening modulus

f
h
k
k
c c
=
c c
.

The / f k c c is calculated from the f k relationship based on the experiment. The
/ k c c depends on the materials yield model, and it is calculated using the k
relationships defined with respect to the yield models outlined in Section 1.2.

Substituting Eq. (2.3.7) into Eq. (2.3.8) and rearranging it for the plastic multiplier
give the following:

T
T
h
=
+
n D
n Dm
(2.3.9)

Substituting Eq. (2.3.9) into Eq. (2.3.7) gives the incremental form of stress-strain
relationship as:

T
ep
T
h
| |
= =
|
+
\ .
Dmn D
D D
n Dm
(2.3.10)

where
ep
D
is the elastic-plastic tangent operator that means the tangential stiffness
matrix of material.

Applying the non-associated flow rule, i.e., = m n yields the non-symmetric matrix
ep
D
.


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2.3.3.4 Integration of rate form

The integration methods for rate form of equations can be globally divided into the
explicit forward Euler algorithm with sub-increment and implicit backward Euler
algorithm.

In the explicit forward Euler algorithm, the direction of plastic flow is obtained at point
A, refer to Figure 2.3.2 & 2.3.3, where the stress rate intersects with the yield surface.
In the implicit backward Euler algorithm, it is calculated at point B, refer to Figure 2.3.4,
that is the final stress point.

The explicit forward Euler algorithm is relatively simple and does not require the
iterative calculation at the integration points. However, the following shortcomings are
as follows:

conditionally stable
sub-increment is needed to obtain the admissible precision (Figure 2.3.3)
additional calibration is required for returning to the yield surface (Figure 2.3.3)

In addition, the consistent tangent stiffness matrix cannot be derived in the explicit
forward Euler algorithm. The implicit backward Euler algorithm produces the accurate
results within an acceptable range and is unconditionally stable, but it requires the
iterative calculation at the integration points. The method is more efficient than the
explicit forward Euler algorithm since the consistent tangent stiffness matrix can be
derived.


midas GTS
22
22

(a) Location of the intersection point A

(b) Moving from A to C in the tangential direction and calibrating to the point D

Figure 2.3.2 Explicit forward Euler algorithm

Yield surface
X
A
B
e
Yield surface
X
A
B
C
D
r
e
(
1
-
r
)
e
-m
A

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23
23

Figure 2.3.3 Sub-increment in the explicit forward Euler algorithm

2.3.3.5 Explicit forward Euler method

In the explicit forward Euler method, the elastic stress increment is calculated based
on the assumption of elastic strain. Refer to point B in Figure 2.3.2(a).

e
e
B X
A = A
= + A
D

(2.3.11)

In the next step, the incremental stress specifying the elastic limit is calculated. The
initial elastic stress increment is decomposed into the allowable stress increment
( )
e
1 r A
within elastic region, and the unallowable stress increment
e
rA outside
the yield function. The stress increment specifying the elastic limit is calculated from
the following equation. Refer to point A in Figure 2.3.2(a).

( ) ( )
e
X
B
B X
1 , 0 f r
f
r
f f
k + A =
=

(2.3.12)

where the suffixes in Eq. (2.3.10) and Eq. (2.3.11) are given in Figure (2.3.2).
To apply the sub-increment method, the stress increment
e
rA outside the yield
A
X
B
B
C
D
Yield surface
- m
A A
- m
B B
- m
B B

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24
24
function should be approximately subdivided into small k sub-increments of stress
(Figure 2.3.3). The number of sub-increments is directly related to the size of error, and
is calculated from Eq. (2.3.13).

( )
effB effA effA
INT 8 1 k o o o ( = +

(2.3.13)

where
effA
o
and
effB
o
are the effective stresses at the points A and B in Figure
2.3.2(a).

When the final stress point is not on the yield surface, the stress point should be
transferred to the point on the yield surface through the next iteration using a returning
algorithm. Refer to point D in Figure 2.3.3.

C
C T
C C
D C C C
f
h
A =
+
= A
n Dm
Dm
(2.3.14)

2.3.3.6 Implicit backward Euler method

The explicit backward Euler method always requires the calculation of i ntersection
point since the next stress point is estimated using the direction vector perpendicular
to the yield surface on the intersection point A. However, the calculation of intersection
point is not required if the direction vector perpendicular to the yield surface were
reckoned on the point B.

C B C
= A Dm
(2.3.15)


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25
25
The iterative analysis is needed to find the solution since both left and right hand side
terms have the values of the unknown point C as shown in Eq. (2.3.15). Then, the
residual vector r which means the difference between the current stress and the
backward-Euler stress is introduced for the iterative analysis.

( )
C B C
= A r Dm
(2.3.16)

Figure 2.3.4 I mplicit forward Euler algorithm

The residual vector r converges to zero when the final stress point is on the yield
surface. The new residual vector
new
r
during the iterative analysis can be expressed
as the following using the first order expansion of Taylor series:

new old

c
= + + + A
c
m
r r Dm D
(2.3.17)

The residual vector
new
r
equals to zero according to the converged final stress.
Substituting
new
0 = r
into Eq. (2.3.7), and rearranging it for gives the Eq. (2.3.18).

( ) ( )
1
1
old old

c | |
= + A + = +
|
c
\ .
m
I D r Dm R r Dm
(2.3.18)
Yield surface
X
B
e
C

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26
26

The yield function can be written as the following using the first order expansion Taylor
series:

new old old
0
T
f f
f f f h k
k
c c
= + + = + + =
c c
n
(2.3.19)

Therefore, substituting Eq. (2.3.19) into Eq. (2.3.18), yields the following equation:

1
old old
1
T
f
h
=
+
n R r
nR Dm
(2.3.20)

2.3.3.7 Constitutive matrix

The way to construct the plastic constitutive equation is explained as follows. The
large stress rate is determined from the elastic part of the large strain rate vector. To
wit,

( )
p
= = D D Dm (2.3.21)
Since the current stress point is always on the yield surface, the consistency condition
should be satisfied. Substituting Eq. (2.3.21) into Eq. (2.3.9) yields the large stress
rate of as shown in Eq. (2.3.22):

h
| |
= =
|
+
\ .
T
ep
T
Dmn D
D D
n Dm
(2.3.22)

The converged solution can be obtained faster due to the quadratic convergence
property of the Newton-Raphson method when the consistent tangent stiffness matrix
is used with the Newton-Raphson method in the explicit backward Euler method. To
consider this quadratic property, differentiating Eq (2.3.15) gives the following:


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27
27

k

k
c c c
= A A
c c c
m m
D Dm D D

(2.3.23)

where is the rate form of A .

Eq (2.3.23) is rewritten as:

= A D Dm (2.3.24)

where
c
= + A
c
m
A I D
,
k
k
c c
= + A
c c
m
m m

Putting
1
= H A D
, Eq (2.3.24) can be rewritten as

( )
= H m
(2.3.25)

Rewriting Eq (2.3.25) with respect to the total strain based on the linearized
consistency condition gives the following:

T
ep
T
h
| |
= =
|
+
\ .
Hmn H
H C
n Hm
(2.3.26)

Where
ep
D
in Eq (2.3.22) is the tangent stiffness matrix, and
ep
C in Eq (2.3.26) is the
consistent tangent stiffness matrix.

Seepage Analysis
Chapter 3
midas GTS
28
28

3.1 Introduction to Seepage Analysis

This chapter describes the techniques for developing and organizing the seepage function
in the analysis solver, the formulation procedure, and the relevant technologies. This
chapter will enable the user to become familiar with the programming methodology, solve
problems, and determine the acceptability of the analysis results.

The seepage analysis is globally divided into steady state and transient analysis.

Steady state analysis calculates a time-independent solution, whereas transient analysis
calculates a time dependent solution as a result of changing inflow/and or out-flow
conditions of the steady state are imposed.

The groundwater seepage may occur if water-permeable aquifer, head difference or flux
exists between region interfaces.

The seepage flow streams along the waterway connected to the empty space between soil
particles inside the foundation. The flow governed by Darcys law. According to this law, the
seepage quantity of water passing through the volume of soil in steady state is equal to the
permeability coefficient multiplied by hydraulic gradient and area. Darcys law is originally
for saturated zones, but also applies for unsaturated zones.

Unsaturated zones includes from bond drying to the state close to saturation. As the degree
of saturation decreases less than 100%, formation of air bubbles as well as water within the
pore between soil particles. When the degree of saturation is significantly low, the water
drops stick to the gaps of soil particles in the form of a concave surface.

As the degree of saturation decreases, the pore pressure gradually develops a tensile state
under the influence of surface tension, and accordingly, the negative pore pressure is called
suction pressure. In most cases, the suction pressure increases as the degree of saturation
decreases.

The transient analysis is different from the steady state analysis in that the boundary

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29
29
conditions vary with time and the volumetric water content is needed. When the
groundwater level rises or descends, the water content and porosity of unsaturated zone
are necessary due to the rising effects and decreasing velocities.

There is a great difference between the times required to reach the steady state of seepage
inside when the case that the water filling of reservoir begins in perfectly dry state of soil
dam is compared to that the water filling of reservoir begins in the state containing some
water content.

3.2 Seepage Flow Rule

midas GTS provides seepage analysis based on laminar flow using Darcys law., Darcys
law is expressed by the following equation :

q ki = (3.2.1)

where
q
: Seepage quantity of water
k : Permeability coefficient
i : Hydraulic gradient

Darcys law is originally derived for saturated soil, and is verified to be applicable to the flow
of unsaturated soil according to published studies. The only difference is that the
permeability coefficient of unsaturated soil is not a constant but a function, and indirectly
varies with the change of pore pressure. Darcys law can be expressed as,

v ki = (3.2.2)

where
v
is known as the Darcian velocity. When the water flows through permeable or
porous media, the actual average velocity can be calculated by dividing the Darcian
velocity into the porosity of soil.


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30
30
3.3 Governing Equations

midas GTS uses the following governing differential equation for the seepage:

x y z
H H H
k k k Q
x x y y z z t
| | c c c c c c cO | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
c c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .
(3.3.1)

where
H : Total water head
x
k
: Permeability coefficient for the direction of x
y
k
: Permeability coefficient for the direction of y
z
k
: Permeability coefficient for the direction of z
Q : Flow quantity
O : Volumetric water content
t : Time

The above equation shows that the change of volumetric water content equals to the
difference between the inflow and outflow quantities over an large volume in an arbitrary
location during an arbitrary time. In brief, the flow rates for the directions of x, y, and z axes
plus external flow quantity are same as the rate change of volumetric water content.

The governing equation is the seepage equation for the transient flow. Since the flow
quantities of inflow and outflow over the large volume are constant regardless of the time in
the steady state flow, the governing equation of Eq. (3.3.2) is obtained by assigning the Eq
(3.31) equal to zero.

0
x y z
H H H
k k k Q
x x y y z z
| | c c c c c c | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .
(3.3.2)

The change of volumetric water content depends on the change of stress state and the
characteristics of soil.

The saturated and unsaturated stress state conditions are expressed as two state

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31
31
variables. Those are ( )
a
p o
and ( )
a w
p p
, where
o
is the total stress,
a
p
pore air
pressure, and
w
p
pore water pressure.

The seepage analysis in midas GTS consists of the conditions of constant total stress. The
loading and unloading on soil does not exist. The pore air pressure is constant under the
atmospheric pressure during unsteady flow state since unloading on the soil by itself does
not exist. ( )
a
p o
is a constant, and does not affect the change of volumetric water
content. Thus, the change of volumetric water content is only a function of the change of
pore pressure since it depends on the change of stress state ( )
a w
p p
, and
a
p
is
constant.

The change of volumetric water content is related to the change of pore pressure according
to the stress state and the characteristics of soil, and the relation can be expressed as:

w w
m u cO= c
(3.3.3)

where
w
m
: Storage coefficient

Also, the total head is expressed as the summation of pressure head and potential head as
shown in Eq (3.3.4):

w
w
p
H y
= +
(3.3.4)

where
H : Total head
w
p
: Pore pressure
w
: Unit weight of water

y
: Height
Eq (3.3.4) is rewritten as:


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32
32
( )
w w
p H y =
(3.3.5)

Substituting Eq (3.3.5) into Eq (3.3.3) gives the following,

( )
w w
m H y cO = c
(3.3.6)

Substituting Eq. (3.3.6) into Eq (3.3.1) :

( )
x y z w w
H y H H H
k k k Q m
x x y y z z t
c c c c c c c
+ + + =
c c c c c c c
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
(3.3.7)

Since height is constant, the derivative of
y
is eliminated but the following differential
equation still remains:

x y z w w
H H H H
k k k Q m
x x y y z z t
c c c c c c c
+ + + =
c c c c c c c
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
(3.3.8)


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33
33
3.4 Finite Element Formulation

The finite element formulation from application of the weighted residual Galerkin approach
to derivation of the governing differential equation is as follows:

( ) ( ) ( )
,
T T
V V A
T
t
dV dV q dA + =
} } }
B CB H N N H N
(3.4.1)

where
B : Hydraulic gradient matrix
C : Permeability coefficient matrix of element
H : Nodal water head vector
N : Interpolation function vector

q
: Unit water quantity of element edge
: ( )
w w
m =
Storage term of transient seepage

,
t
H
:
t
c
=
c
| |
|
\ .
H
Change of water head with respect to time

For two-dimensional analysis, the thickness of all elements in midas GTS is considered
constant. Accordingly, the finite element formulation is expressed as:

( ) ( )
,
T T T
t
A A L
b dA b dA qb dL + =
} } }
B CB H N N H N (3.4.2)

where b is the element thickness. When the thickness is constant over the entire area,
the integration is calculated over the entire area which is reduced to the integration along
the length from a node to the other.


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34
34
The finite element formulation is simplified as given below:

,
t
+ = KH MH Q
(3.4.3)
where

( )
T
A
b dA =
}
K B CB
: Element characteristic matrix
( )
T
A
b dA =
}
M N N
: Mass matrix

T
L
qb dL =
}
Q N
: Applied water quantity vector

Eq (3.4.3) is a general finite element formulation for transient seepage analysis. For the
steady state seepage analysis, the equation is simplified since water head is not a function
of time, and accordingly the
,
t
MH
term is eliminated.

= KH Q (3.4.4)

3.5 Time Integration

The finite element solution of transient seepage analysis is a function of time as shown in
,
t
H
term of equation 3.4.1. The time integration with respect to time is performed using the
finite difference approach.

The finite element equation is written in the finite difference method as follows:

( ) ( ) { } ( ) ( )
1 0 1 0
1 1 t t t e e e e A + = A + + A K M H Q Q M K H (3.5.1)

where
t A : Time increment,
e
: Ration between 0 and 1,
1
H
: Water head at the final time increment
0
H
: Water head at the initial time increment
1
Q
: Nodal flow quantity at the final time increment

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35
35
0
Q
: Nodal flow quantity at the initial time increment
K : Element property matrix
M : Element mass matrix

midas GTS uses the Backward Difference method with
e
= 1.0. Since
e
= 1.0, equation
3.5.2 can be rewritten as:

( )
1 1 0
t t A + = A + K M H Q MH
(3.5.2)

To determine the water head at the final time increment, the initial water head must be
known. Generally, the initial conditions must be known before carrying out a transient state
analysis.

Stress-Seepage Staggered Analysis
Chapter 4
midas GTS
36
36

4.1 Introduction to Stress-Seepage semi coupled
Analysis

Groundwater seepage flow is caused by the difference in water heads at the boundaries in
the seepage zone or the flux boundary condition. As the groundwater flows, seepage force
is developed due to the friction between the water and soil particles. This process induces
displacements and stresses. Seepage force is expressed as an integration of the pore
water pressure.

midas GTS determines the seepage force using the pore water pressure obtained by
seepage analysis.

Pore water pressure is the product of the weight density of water and the pressure head
(total head - elevation head). In general, the seepage force is extensively used in areas
near outflow boundaries where the total head reduces drastically. Due to a low constraint
pressure, shear and tensile strengths are relatively low in these areas. As a result, when
considering seepage force to analyze the effective stress, the chances of failure is more
likely to occur. Stress-seepage Semi-coupled analysis is a very important field for
determining the stability of ground structures.

4.2 Effective Stress

Pore water pressure in ground affects the total stress. According to the Terzaghis theory,
the total pressure can be divided into effective stress ( ) o'
and pore water pressure (p
w
).

Chapter 4 Stress Seepage Coupled Analysis

midas GTS
37
37
Since water cannot resist any shear stress, the effective shear stress is equal to the total
shear stress. Thus, the total stress is expressed as:

xx xx w
yy yy w
zz zz w
xy xy
yz yz
zx zx
p
p
p
o o
o o
o o
t t
t t
t t
' = +
' = +
' = +
' =
' =
' =
(4.2.1)

The pore water pressure can be divided into steady state pore water pressure ( )
steady
p
and excess pore water pressure ( )
excess
p .

w steady excess
p p p = +
(4.2.2)

The steady state pore water pressure is input data obtained from the groundwater analysis,
which is determined by the height of groundwater table. The excess pore water pressure
occurs during the stress calculation of a material, which exhibits the behavior of undrained
materials. Calculation of excess pore water pressure is described in more detail in the
subsequent chapter.

4.3 Governing Equation

The inverse elastic Hookes law is considered to derive Hookes law expressed in large
strains.


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38
38

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 2 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 2
e
xx xx
e
yy yy
e
zz zz
e
xy xy
e
yz yz
e
zx zx
E
o v v c
o v v c
o v v c
t v
t v
t v
' ( ( (
( ( (
'
( ( (
( ( ( '
= ( ( (
' +
( ( (
( ( (
' +
( ( (
' + ( ( (

(4.3.1)

where

, E v
: Effective material properties modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio respectively.

However, since the derivative of the steady state component is zero,

w excess
p p = (4.3.2)

By applying the terms in Eq. 4.2.1, the above Eq. (4.3.1) can be rewritten as follows:

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 2 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 2
e
xx excess xx
e
yy excess yy
e
zz excess zz
e
xy xy
e
yz yz
e
zx zx
p
p
p
E
o v v c
o v v c
o v v c
t v
t v
t v
( ( (
( ( (

( ( (
( ( (
= ( ( (
' +
( ( (
( ( (
' +
( ( (
' + ( ( (

(4.3.3)

Consolidation Analysis
Chapter 5
midas GTS
39
39

5.1 Introduction to Consolidation Analysis

Consolidation analysis is closely related to drained/undrained analysis where the
dissipation of excess pore water pressure is calculated. The excess pore water pressure
takes place when the water resists loadings.

The entrapped water, which has the ability to resist loading, slowly drains with time by
applying drainage boundary conditions. The excess pore water pressure thus dissipates,
which results in the deformation of the soil skeleton. The decrease in water pressure results
in the increase in the effective pressure, which exists in the soil skeleton.

Consolidation analysis addresses the reduction of excess pore water pressure resulting in
the increase in effective pressure with respect to time. During the process, the ground soil
settles in the direction of gravity.

The increasing deformation with respect to time induces settlement foundation of structure.
The differential settlement of the foundation has a great influence on the structural stability.

In consolidation analysis, ground failure is less likely to occur since the ground soil
parameters strengthen over time. Undrained analysis generally precedes consolidation
analysis. If failure does not occur in the undrained analysis, failure does not occur in
consolidation analysis.


midas GTS
40
40
5.2 Governing Equation

Until now solid and fluid analyses have been considered individually or by superposition.
However, Biot has formalized the theory of coupled solid-fluid interaction applied to soil
mechanics. Ground is treated as porous elastic solid, and the pore fluid coupled with the
solid is based on the conditions of compressibility and continuity.

The governing equation of Biot is given in Eq. (5.2.1).

2 2 2
2 2 2
w w w w
x y z
w
K p p p p p
k k k
x y z t t
( c c c c c
+ + =
(
c c c c c

(5.2.1)

where
K : Bulk modulus of ground,
p
: Average total stress

A two dimensional state is assumed to simplify the equation. When there is no element load
in an equilibrium condition, the rate of change in effective stress is increased as Eq. (5.2.2)
by the rate of change in pore water pressure.

0
0
xy
x w
xy y
w
p
x y x
p
x y y
t
o
t o
c ' c c
+ + =
c c c
' c c
c
+ + =
c c c
(5.2.2)

The constitutive rules for solid Eq. (5.2.1) and fluid Eq. (5.2.2) have been defined
separately before. If we now assume full saturation and incompressibility, the discharge of
water from the ground elements reduces the volume of the elements. Accordingly,

y
x
q
q d u v
x y dt x y
c | | c c c
+ = +
|
c c c c
\ .
(5.2.3)

Chapter 5 Consolidation Analysis

midas GTS
41
41
The third differential equation from Eq. (5.2.1) is given as Eq. (5.2.4).

2 2
2 2
0
y
x w w
w w
k
k p p d u v
x y dt x y
| | c c c c
+ + + =
|
c c c c
\ .
(5.2.4)

5.3 Formulation of Finite Element

In general, displacement methods eliminate the following parameters
o
and
c
by
them with
u
and
v
terms. Accordingly the final coupled variables are
u
,
v
and p
w
.
These are expressed as Eq. (5.3.1) in accordance with general finite element
discretization.

w w w
u
v
p
=
=
=
Nu
Nv
N p
(5.3.1)

where
u, v, p
w
: x & y direction displacements and pore water pressures
,
w
N N
: shape functions for displacement and pore water pressure

Even though a higher order shape function is commonly used for the displacement, a linear
shape function is preferred for the pore water pressure.

Arranging the governing equation for equilibrium and continuity into a finite element
formulation using the Galerkin method, the coupled equation as Eq. (5.10) is obtained.

w
T
w w
d
dt
+ =
=
Ku Cp p
u
C K p 0
(5.3.2)

where C is a quadrilateral connection matrix, which is composed by the terms of the
following type:

midas GTS
42
42

j
i
N
N dxdy
x
c
c
}}
(5.3.3)

The above finite element equation needs to be integrated again over time. This is executed

by the following linear interpolation by the finite difference method.

( ) ( )
( )
1 1 0 0
2
1 1 0 0
1 1
1
w w
T T
w w w w
t t
u u u u
u u u u u
+ = + +
A = A
Ku Cp Ku Cp p
C u K p C u K p
(5.3.4)

where the loading,
p
is assumed to be unchanged with time.
If the fully implicit method ( ) 1 u =
is used, the above Eq. (5.3.4) can be expressed in the
recurrence relationship as Eq. (5.3.5).

1 0
1 0
T T
w w w
t
( (
= +
` ` `
( (
A
) ) )
K C u u 0 0 p
C K p p C 0 0
(5.3.5)

5.4 Properties of Consolidation Element

The important variables commonly used in a finite element solution for consolidation
analysis are displacement and pore water pressure. As incremental displacements are
related to nodal displacements through an interpolation function, incremental pore
water pressures are also related to nodal pore water pressures through an
interpolation function in a similar way.

nodal
w w w
p A = A N p (5.4.1)

From the above relationship equation, the right side represents the incremental pore
water pressure, and the left side represents the interpolation function of each pore
water pressure and the nodal incremental pore water pressure. midas GTS assumes
that the interpolation function of pore water pressure is identical to that of displacement.
In consolidation analysis, elements retain the degrees of freedom for nodal

midas GTS
43
43
displacements together with the degrees of freedom for pore water pressures
additionally. Consolidation analysis in midas GTS assumes that all elements retain
the degrees of freedom for pore water pressures unless two boundary conditions (non-
consolidation condition and draining condition) are defined. If elements are not
expected to become subjected to consolidation, for instance, embankment materials,
then we need to assign them a non-consolidation condition, as shown in the Figure
5.4.1, so that they act as general structural elements.

If draining conditions are modeled, then the consolidation elements must be subjected
to drainage conditions at the boundaries. Once consolidation analysis is carried out
with such boundary conditions, the excess pore pressures must become 0 in regions
where non-consolidation and draining conditions are assigned.

Figure 5.4.1 Boundary condition of consolidation element

Elements that can be assigned as consolidation elements presently are only plane
strain elements (3-node, 6-node, 4-node and 8-node) and solid elements (4-node, 10-
node, 6-node, 15-node, 8-node and 20-node). Detail description about the degrees of
freedom for displacements and pore water pressures per element and the integration
methods are outlined below.


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44

5.4.1 Degrees of freedom for plane strain element

If elements are of higher order, excess pore water pressure is first linearly interpolated to
obtain stress analysis results. The nodes representing the excess pore water pressure
act as a dummy variable, see Figure 5.4.2. In consolidation analysis, every node for
excess pore water pressure is located at corners, and a linear function is used to
interpolate all of the elements. This is known to be appropriate for the distribution of
excess pore water pressure.

Triangular elements

Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Structural DOF
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which is
linearly interpolated
1 Integration Point
Pore Pressure DOF
3 Integration Point

Figure 5.4.2 DOF for a lower order 3-node and a higher order 6-node triangular elements


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Quadrilateral elements

Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which
is linearly interpolated
4 Integration Point
4 Integration Point

Figure 5.4.3 DOF for a lower order 4-node and a higher order 8-node quadrilateral elements

5.4.2 Degrees of freedom for solid elements

Hexahedral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Dummy node for pore
27 Integration Point
8 Integration Point

Figure 5.4.4 DOF for a lower order 8-node and a higher order 20-node hexahedral elements


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46
Pentahedral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Structural DOF
Dummy node for pore
Pore Pressure DOF
9 Integration Point
2 Integration Point

Figure 5.4.5 DOF for a lower order 6-node and a higher order 15-node Pentahedral elements

Tetrahedral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Structural DOF
Dummy node for pore
1 Integration Point
Pore Pressure DOF
4 Integration Point

Figure 5.4.6 DOF for a lower order 4-node and a higher order 10-node tetrahedral elements


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5.5 Precautionary Points about Consolidation
Analysis

5.5.1 Time and loading input

For consolidation analysis, time and loading distribution is carried out by entering the
values as shown in Figure 5.5.1:

(a) Initial load (b) Additional load (c) Long-term load placement
Figure 5.5.1 I nput dialog for rimes and load factors

1.0
1.0
loading
time 1.0
1.0
loading
time 10.0
...
:
A=1.0
1
loading
time 16
0.0
8 2 4
...

(a) Initial load (b) Additional load (c) Long-term load placement

Figure 5.5.2 Time and load graphs


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Consolidation analysis using material models such as Cam-Clay or Modified Cam-Clay,
an initial analysis must be performed in order to take into account initial loads, i.e.
dead loads. Because the analysis is intended to define the initial stress within linear
range, a load time step is applied immediately.

When additional loads are activated in a construction staged consolidation, the total
additional load is loaded at appropriate intervals over the total time as shown in the
above Figure 5.5.2. Figure 5.5.2 (b) shows that additional loads are loaded at 10
equal intervals over a total of 10 days. The sum of the total load factors must equal to
1.0. If additional loads or the analysis time are inappropriate, convergence difficulties
may arise in consolidation analysis. In such cases, the time step needs to be
appropriately reduced and the load factor needs to be adjusted accordingly in order to
improve the convergence.

Once the embankment operation is completed, analysis for a long-term load
placement is carried out during which only time elapses. This is done by defining a
new null Construction stage. Figure 5.5.1 (c) shows that only time passes while the
final embankment is placed for a long time.

The load factor 0.0 means that no additional external load is applied. Due to the
characteristics of consolidation analysis, stress variations in the initial stages are rather
drastic. Figure 5.5.1 (c) shows that the initial time steps start with small time intervals
and gradually increase to larger intervals to achieve a better convergence and faster
analysis speed simultaneously.

Construction Stage Analysis
Chapter 6
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6.1 Introduction Construction Stage Analysis

Numerical analyses in many geotechnical applications with construction phases can be
easily simulated in the construction stage analysis. Geotechnical analysis usually involves
material nonlinear analysis in which the material nonlinear properties can be obtained from
the initial condition of the ground. The initial condition, which is the condition prior to any
construction events, refers to the in-situ condition or initial ground condition.

Once the initial ground stress is obtained, excavation loads can be obtained. In addition, the
shear strength of a nonlinear material can be calculated by applying material properties
such as Mohr-Coulomb. Therefore, the construction stage analysis entails the entire
construction process from the initial ground condition. Since the actual sequence of a
construction site is very complex and variable, the analysis is simplified to focus on the
major construction events in sequence.

For example, the construction stages for a tunnel are shown below:

1
st
Stage : Initial ground stress
2
nd
Stage : First face excavation
3
rd
Stage : Install reinforcement to first face + 2
nd
face excavation
4
th
Stage : Install reinforcement to second face + 3
rd
face excavation
5
th
Stage : Install reinforcement to third face + 4
th
face excavation


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midas GTS considers the following items in construction stage analysis:

1. Construction stage definition
Inactivate /Activate/ Deactivate Elements and Loads
Modify boundary condition
Reflect change in material properties
Load distribution ratio
Sequential groundwater level
Drained/undrained analysis
Displacement initialization
In-situ analysis
Restart

2. Seepage Analysis
Sequential Steady State Seepage Analysis.
Sequential Transient Seepage Analysis

3. Stress-Seepage Semi-Coupled Analysis
Effective stress analysis using pore water pressure results obtained from seepage
analysis.

4. Consolidation Analysis
Consolidation analysis according to embankment

When performing consolidation analysis on an embankment, the following elements are
classified for each relevant stage:

A. Inactive
B. Activated
C. Deactivated

New construction stages are created per construction sequence to reflect any structural
changes and updates in the analysis. This means that inactive elements which are activated
in a relevant construction stage will have zero stress regardless of the loadings to which the
structure is subjected.
midas GTS does not create and analyze independent analytical models for each
Chapter 6 Construction Stage Analysis

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51
construction stage. After completing the analysis for one stage, where the changes in
structure and loadings are reflected appropriately, the analysis results from the previous
stage are accumulated and reanalyzed. The concept of an accumulated model is used and
refers to any change in structure or loadings in a stage influences the subsequent
construction stages. For example, once a load is applied to the structure in a construction
stage, the load remains active for the subsequent construction stages.

6.2 Activation and Deactivation of Elements

Inactive elements that are activated in a construction stage are assigned with zero initial
stress at which point their self weights are applied to the existing structure.

All ground elements are subject to stress before deactivation. If a load is applied around the
deactivated elements, proper stress redistribution for the remaining activated elements must
take place so that the new free faces do not become subjected to any stress. This can be
explained by using an example:

Let us assume that Object A will become removed from Object B as shown in Figure 6.2.1.

A
B
AO
o
BO
o
T
AB
F
T
BA
F
(a)
(b)
(c)

Figure 6.2.1 Concept of Element Deactivation & Equilibrium Forces

The stresses in Object A and Object B prior to removal of Object A are
AO
o and
BO
o
respectively. All external forces have been reflected in these stresses. Since these two

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objects are in equilibrium, the load,
AB
F , must be applied to Object B due to Object A to
maintain the stress,
BO
o . Similarly, the load,
BA
F , must be applied to Object A. Therefore,
any excavation load applied to a boundary depends on the stress state and the self weight
of the elements being excavated. This is expressed in Eq. 6.2.1.

A A
T T
BA AO A A
V V
F dV dV o = +
} }
B N
(6.2.1)

where
B : Strain-Displacement Matrix,

A
V
: Volume of excavation,
N : Element shape function,
: Ground weight density

The global stiffness for the current construction stage is calculated by assembling the
stiffness parameters from each activated element as shown in Eq. (6.2.2). All elements used
in every construction stage are stored in the database, and the element information in the
current stage is defined by adding all elements retrieved as activated from initial to current
stage and by subtracting all elements deactivated.

1
n
T
i i i
i =
=
K L k L (6.2.2)

where
K : Global stiffness of current construction stage

i
L
: Matrix defining the location of element stiffness

i
k
: Element stiffness activated in the current construction stage
n
:Total number of elements activated in the current construction
stage


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6.3 Activation and Deactivation of Loads

The construction stage analysis consists of the phased analysis with incremental form, and
the incremental load of the current construction stage is needed for the analysis. The
incremental load
current
AF
of the current stage is the difference between total load
current
F

of the current stage and total load
previous
F
of the previous stage.

current current previous
A = F F F
(6.3.1)

All the loadings used in every construction stage are stored in a database, and the total load
current
F
of the current stage is defined by adding all loadings retrieved as activated from
initial to current stage and by subtracting all deactivated loads.

The total loads of the current stage are divided into surface force and body force as the
following:

current current current
surface body
= + F F F
(6.3.2)

where surface force includes the loadings related to nodes such as nodal force or
distributed force, and body force includes the loadings related to elements such as self-
weight. While the surface force is assembled by using the information about the degrees of
freedom of the nodes where the loads are imposed, the body force is assembled by using
the matrix
i
L
in Eq. (6.2.2) since it is related to adding and subtracting of elements.

The sub-incremental load step is defined as the incremental load
current
AF in Eq. (6.3.1)
multiplied by load factor
o
of the current construction stage. It can be expressed for an
arbitrary load step i as

current previous current current
i i
o = + A F F F (6.3.3)

The linear algebraic equation of static stress analysis calculates the response of structure
for an arbitrary load step i is given as


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54
ubf
i i i
= F K d (6.3.4)
where
i
K
is the global stiffness of i
th
load step, and
i
d
is the nodal displacement of i
th

load step. The
ubf
i
F is the unbalance force of the i
th
step, and is computed by subtracting
the total internal force of previous step from the total current load.

ubf current internal
1 i i i
= F F F (6.3.5)

In Eq. (6.3.5),
current
i
F is given in Eq. (6.3.3), and
internal
1 i
F is the total internal force of the
previous step which is computed from the element stresses.

( )
internal T T
1
1 1
d
n n
T
i j j j j j
V
j j
V
= =
= =

}
F L f L B
(6.3.6)

where,
j
f
: Element member force
j
L
: Matrix defining the location of loading in an element
j
B
: Matrix of slope for displacement-strain relation
j
: Element stress
V : Volume

n
: Number of elements activated in the current construction stage

For 1 i = ,
internal
0
F is the total internal force of the final load step of the previous
construction stage. The element stress is updated after calculating each load step.


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6.4 Activation and Deactivation of Boundary
Conditions

Activated boundary conditions are stored in a database similar to elements and loads. In
case of free nodes, they must be constrained to keep the mesh consistent. If all elements
connected to a node are deactivated, then the degrees of freedom connected to this node
will automatically be removed from the system of equations. This will improve the
computational efficiency by eliminating the free nodes by use of the information of nodes
included in the activated elements.

6.5 Load Distribution Factor

In order to simplify the construction stage analysis, load distribution factors can be
considered. This is a numerical technique which enables the user to reflect the changing
effects of an element by applying distribution factors. Distribution factors are sequentially
applied to represent a number of construction stages, as shown in Figure 6.5.1. The
concept is generally used when construction stages are condensed in a 3 dimensional
analysis, or when a 3 dimensional model is simplified to a 2 dimensional model.

For example, if a sequential transfer of stresses takes place over 3 steps, 40%, 30% and
30%, from an excavation stage. In midas GTS, the user can define the excavation stage
and activate the load distribution factor option. The user can then simply enter 0.4, 0.3 and
0.3 for After Current Stage 0, 1 and 2 respectively.


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56

Figure 6.5.1 Load Distribution Factor Dialog Box

If we assign a 100% load distribution factor to deactivating elements, all the internal
stresses in the deactivating elements are redistributed to the remaining elements of the
structure causing stress changes in the remaining elements. Conversely, if we assign 0%
load distribution factor to the deactivating elements, no redistribution of the stresses in the
deactivating elements takes place. In such a case, the stresses in the remaining elements
in the structure remain unchanged.

The load distribution factor controls the amount of stress transfer from the deactivated
elements to the remaining elements. This function becomes very useful when the user has
to consider partial or staged stress transfers even after completely removing elements.
For tunnel analysis, the stresses in the excavated elements are not transferred at once.
Instead, the stresses are gradually redistributed to the rock bolts and shotcrete over a
number of stages. In such a case, the load distribution factor is used to reflect partial
transfer of stresses.


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6.6 Initialization of Displacements

During the construction stage analysis, it may be necessary to initialize displacements to
zero at the initial stage. For instance, displacements must be initialized to zero at the end of
the initial stress calculation in the first construction stage.

Since the displacements can be initialized at any construction stage in midas GTS, the
initial stage conditions and intermediate stages can be obtained.

6.7 Change Element Attribute

Change Element Attribute is a function in midas GTS that is used to modify material
attributes in a construction stage analysis in order to reflect any improvements, ground
disturbance, and material hardening behavior over time. For instance, changes to the
structural lining attributes, such as hardening of lining concrete and lining thickness, can be
modified during a particular stage.

A precautionary note: Although linear elastic materials can be easily implemented, care
should be used when dealing with nonlinear material models. In the case of nonlinear
material models such as foundations, it is necessary to fill with different materials after
excavation under a construction stage analysis, and to change the material properties
without having to activate or deactivate elements. It is physically not exact behavior to
change the material properties because the stress state from the previous step will be
reflected in subsequent stages of the analysis. Therefore, the material properties for a
nonlinear material model should be changed in the new stage after deactivating the
elements. When new elements are created, midas GTS initialize the stresses, strains, and
internal state variables of the new elements to zero.


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58
6.8 In-situ Stress

midas GTS provides the following two methods for computing in-situ stresses.

6.8.1
0
K
Method

The K
0
method defines the earth pressure by calculating horizontal stresses from vertical
stresses using a non-dimensional quantity
0
K
in (
0
/
h v
K o o =
).

The vertical stress
v
o
is obtained first by performing a self-weight analysis, and then
the horizontal stress is modified using the relation
0 h v
K o o =
. In this case, the shear
stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes of the soil element are unchanged.

If the ground surface is horizontal, this method presents no problem. If the surface,
however, is not horizontal, the stress state determined by this method under self weight
will not be in static equilibrium. midasGTS always performs iterations using the K0
modified stresses as a starting point, to reach equilibrium. That means that calculated
stresses at the end of the K0-construction stage do not necessary obey the K0-condition.

6.8.2 Self Weight Analysis Method

The initial stress state is determined by the stress state obtained by self weight analysis.
If the ground surface is horizontal, this method is identical to that of the K
0
method,
0
/(1 ) K v v = . If it is not horizontal, the results will differ from those of the K
0
method
and shear stress will exist because horizontal strains exist.

Therefore, this method is more suited for a sloped ground surface. This method does not
allow us to specify a K
0
value greater than 1. If large values of K
0
are unavoidable, then
the K
0
method is used and a null stage is used subsequently to satisfy an equilibrium
condition.


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59
6.9 Restart Function

Construction stage analysis may be interrupted during analysis midway, or the program may
terminate due to system instability. In unforeseeable circumstances, GTS provides a restart
function Save for restart enables users to continue the analysis from where it has left off
and select the restart stage in the analysis controls option. Refer to Online help for details.
This option is only available for Construction Stages. This is a useful feature that will
significantly reduce the total analysis duration against unexpected errors during the analysis.
Note: restarts can be defined per stage. The restart stages can be initialized in the
analysis control panel.

6.10 Undrained Analysis

In midasGTS, undrained analysis can be applied to the selected elements and associated
construction stages. There are two handles to activate the undrained option in midas GTS.
First, the material properties for the undrained analysis are defined in the material models
drainage parameters. Second, they are activated under the construction stage. If the
drainage parameter option undrained is assigned, and not activated as undrained in the
construction stage, the material would assume drained behavior. Conversely, if the
drainage parameter option drained has been assigned, and activated as undrained in the
construction stage, the material would also behave as drained. For activating the undrained
option, the drainage parameter "undrained" and "undrained" option in the construction stage
must both be selected."

It is possible to conduct drained and undrained analysis in turn with respect to construction
stages. When undrained analysis was conducted in the previous stage, and drained
analysis is conducted in the current stage, it can be observed that the pore pressure
decreases due to the dissipation of pore pressure. When drained analysis was conducted in
the previous stage, and undrained analysis is conducted with applied loading in the current
stage, it can also be observed that the pore pressure changes due to increasing of pore
pressure.

Dynamic Analysis
Chapter 7
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60

7.1 Introduction to Dynamic Analysis

7.1.1 Eigenvector Analysis

In midas GTS, Mode shapes and natural periods of an undamped free vibration are
obtained from the characteristic equation below:

n n n
u = u K M
(7.1.1)

where
K : Stiffness matrix
M : Mass matrix
n
: n-th mode eigenvalue

n
u
: n-th mode eigenvector (mode shape)

Eigenvalue analysis is also referred to as free vibration analysis and is used to analyze
the dynamic characteristics of structures.

The dynamic characteristics obtained by an Eigenvalue analysis include vibration modes
(mode shapes), natural periods of vibration (natural frequencies) and modal participation
factors. They are determined by the mass and stiffness of a structure.

Vibration modes take the form of natural shapes in which a structure freely vibrates or
deforms. The first mode shape or natural vibration shape is identified by a shape that
can be deformed with the least energy or force. The shapes formed with increase in
energy define the subsequent higher modes. Figure (7.1.1) shows the vibration modes
of a cantilever beam, arranged in the order of their energy requirements for deflected
shapes, starting from the shape formed by the least energy.

A natural period of vibration is the time required to complete one full cycle of the free
vibration motion in the corresponding natural mode.
Chapter 7 Dynamic Analysis

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61
61

(a) Mode shape

sec sec sec
1
1.87510407 =
1
1.78702 sec T =
2
4.69409113 =
2
0.28515 sec T =
3
7.85475744 =
3
0.10184 sec T =

(b) Natural period

Figure 7.1.1 Mode shapes and corresponding natural periods of a prismatic cantilever beam

The methods to calculate the natural period in a single degree of freedom system
(SDOF) assumes that the load and damping terms equal to zero. The equation of
motion in SDOF yields to the free vibration equation of a linear second order differential
equation as given in Eq. (7.1.2).

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62

( )
0
mu cu ku p t
mu ku
+ + =
+ =
(7.1.2)

Since A is the displacement due to vibration, we simply assume cos u A t e = , where,
A is a constant related to the initial displacement. Therefore, Eq. (7.1.2) can be written
as:

2
( ) cos 0 m k A t e e + = (7.1.3)

In order to satisfy Eq. 7.3, the value in the parenthesis must be zero, which leads to Eq.
(7.1.4)

2
1
, , ,
2
k k
f T
m m f
e
e e
t
= = = = (7.1.4)

where
2
e : Eigenvalue
e
: Rotational natural frequency
f : Natural frequency
T : Natural period

The modal participation factor is expressed as a contribution ratio of the corresponding
mode to the total modes and is written as:

2
i im
m
i im
M
M

t
(7.1.5)

where
m
t
: Modal participation factor,
m
: Mode number,
i
M
: Mass at location i,
im
: m-th mode shape at location i

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63
63

In most seismic design codes, it is stipulated that the sum of the effective modal masses
included in an analysis should be greater than 90% of the total mass. This will ensure
that

the critical modes that affect the results are included in the design.

2
2
im i
m
im i
M
M
M
(

=

(7.1.6)

where
m
M
: Effective modal mass

If certain degrees of freedom of a given mass are constrained, the mass will be included
in the total mass but excluded from the effective modal mass due to the restraints on the
corresponding mode vectors. Accordingly, if the user attempts to compare the effective
modal mass with the total mass, the degrees of freedom pertaining to the mass
components must not be constrained.

In order to analyze the dynamic behavior of a structure accurately, the analysis must
closely reflect the mass and stiffness, which are important factors for determining the
eigenvalues. In most cases, finite element models can readily estimate the stiffness
components of structural members. In the case of mass, however, the user is required to
pay particular attention for obtaining an accurate estimate. The masses pertaining to the
self-weights of structural components are relatively small compared to the total mass. It
is quite important that an eigenvalue analysis accounts for all the mass components in a
structure.


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Mass components are generally specified as 3 translational masses and 3 rotational
mass moments of inertia consistent with 6 degrees of freedom per node. The rotational
mass moments of inertia pertaining to the rotational mass inertia do not directly affect the
dynamic response of a structure. Only translational ground accelerations are typically
applied in a seismic design. However, when the structure is of an irregular shape, where
the mass center does not coincide with the stiffness center, the rotational mass moments
of inertia indirectly affect the dynamic response by changing the mode shapes.

Mass components are calculated by the following equations: (See Table 7.1.1)

Translational mass: dm
}
(7.1.7)
Rotational mass moment of inertia:
2
r d m
}

where r : distance of the total mass center to the center of an large mass.

The units for mass and rotational mass moment of inertia are defined by the unit of
weights divided by the gravitational acceleration, W(T2/L) and the unit of masses
multiplied by the square of a length unit, W(T2/L)L2 respectively. Here, W, T and L
represent the weight, time and length units respectively. In the case of an MKS or
English unit system, the mass is determined by the weight divided by the gravitational
acceleration. The masses in an SI unit system directly use the weights in the MKS units,
whereas the stiffness or loads in the MKS units are multiplied by the gravitational
acceleration for the SI unit system.

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65
Table 7.1.1 Calculations for Mass data
: mass per unit area : mass center

Shape Translation mass
Rotational mass moment
of inertia
Rectangular shape

M bd =

3 3
12 12
m
bd db
I = +
| |
|
\ .

( )
2 2
12
M
b d = +
Triangular shape

M =
area of
triangle
( )
m x y
I I I = +

Circular shape

2
4
d
M
t
=
| |
|
\ .

4
32
m
d
I
t
=
| |
|
\ .

General shape

M dA =
}
( )
m x y
I I I = +


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66
Line shape

L
= mass per unit
length
L
M L =
3
12
m L
L
I =
| |
|
\ .

Eccentric mass

Eccentric mass : m
M = m
Rotational mass moment
of inertia about its mass
center :
o
I

2
m o
I I mr = +

midas GTS uses lumped masses in analyses for efficiency. Mass data can be entered in
the main menu through Model > Load > Nodal Mass.

midas GTS adopts the subspace iteration method for the solution of an eigenvalue
analysis, which is suitable for the analyses of large structures.

7.2 Consideration of Damping

7.2.1 Introduction

Structural damping in a dynamic analysis can be largely classified into the following:

A. Viscous damping (Voigt model and Maxwell model)

B. Hysteretic damping

C. Friction damping
1. Internal friction damping (Material damping)
2. External friction damping
3. Sliding friction damping

D. Radiation damping


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67
E. Modal damping
1. Proportional damping
2. Mass proportional type
3. Stiffness proportional type
4. Rayleigh type
5. Caughey type

F. Non-proportional damping
1. Energy proportional type

Among the many different ways of expressing the damping phenomena above, modal
damping is most frequently used in the numerical analyses of structures. The values for
modal damping are determined for each modal natural frequency of a vibration system.

The modal damping can be classified into proportional and non-proportional damping.
midas GTS provides proportional damping, which includes mass proportional, stiffness
proportional and Rayleigh type damping.

In midas GTS, mass-proportional, stiffness-proportional, and Rayleigh types of damping
are available.

7.2.2 Proportional damping

The mass-proportional damping represents the external viscous damping caused by air
resistance, and is based on the assumption that damping matrix is proportional to mass.
The stiffness-proportional damping might overestimate the damping of high order modes
since it is assumed that damping is proportional to stiffness due to the difficulty in
considering the vibration energy release directly.

Rayleigh damping is from modifying the damping value of high order modes in stiffness-
proportional damping, and is expressed by combining the mass and stiffness types of
proportional damping.

The general type of proportional damping matrix C is defined by Caughey as follows:


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68

N 1
1 j
j
j 0
C M{ a ( M K ) }
=
=
(7.2.1)

where

, j N
: Degrees of freedom of nodes (Mode number)
In equation (7.2.1),
1
M K
can be obtained from the equation of free vibration of an

undamped system below:

M{ y } K{ y } 0 + = (7.2.2)

iax
{ y } {u }e = (7.2.3)

Substituting into the equation (7.2.2), it becomes:

2
( M K ){u} {0} e + = (7.2.4)

From the equation (7.2.4),
1 2
M K e
= is obtained. Here,
2
e exists in as many numbers
as the number of modes. Considering all the modes, it is expressed as
2
s
e .

Substituting
1
M K
obtained from the equations (7.2.2)~(7.2.3) into the equation (7.2.1),

and multiplying
T
s
{ u } on the left hand side of the equation and
s
{ u }
on the right hand
side of the equation, the equation (7.2.5) becomes:

N 1 N 1
T 2 j T 2 j
s s s j s s s j s s
j 0 j 0
{ u } C{ u } C a { u } M{ u } a M e e

= =
= = =
(7.2.5)

Also, damping coefficient for Mode s, s
h
can be expressed as:

s s s s
C 2 h M e =
(7.2.6)

s
h
in equations (7.2.5) and (7.2.6) is:

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2 j s
s j s
s s s
3 2N 3 0
1 s 2 s N 1
s
C 1
h a
2 M 2
1 a
( a a a ), s 1 N
2
e
e e
e e e
e

= =
= + + + + =
(7.2.7)

The damping coefficients for N number of natural modes are then determined.
Damping constants and matrices for the mass proportional type and stiffness proportional
type are as follows:

0
s 0
s
a
h , C a M
2 e
= =
: Mass proportional type (7.2.8)

1 s
s 1
a
h , C a M
2
e
= = : Stiffness proportional type (7.2.9)

In the case of the Rayleigh type:

0
s 1 s 0 1
s
1 a
h ( a ), C a M a K
2
e
e
= + = +
(7.2.10)

where
1 2 1 2 2 1
0 2 2
2 1
2 ( h h )
a
( )
e e e e
e e

=

2 2 1 1
1 2 2
2 1
2( h h )
a
( )
e e
e e

=

7.3 Response Spectrum Analysis

The dynamic equilibrium equation for a structure subjected to a ground motion used in a
response spectrum analysis can be expressed as follows:

| | | | | | | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
g
M u t C u t K u t M w t + + =
(7.3.1)


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where | | M
: Mass matrix,
| | C
: Damping matrix,
| | K
: Stiffness matrix,

g
w
: Ground acceleration

and, u(t), ( ) u t , ( ) u t are relative displacement, velocity and acceleration respectively.

Response spectrum analysis assumes the response of a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF)
system as a combination of multiple single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems. A
response spectrum defines the peak values of responses corresponding to and varying
with natural periods (or frequencies) of vibration that have been obtained through a
numerical integration process. Displacements, velocities and accelerations form the basis
of a spectrum. Response spectrum analyses are generally carried out for seismic designs
using the design spectra defined in design standards.

To predict the peak design response values, the maximum response for each mode is
obtained first and then combined by an appropriate method. For seismic analysis, the
displacement and inertial force corresponding to a particular degree of freedom for the m-th
mode are expressed as follows:

xm m xm dm
d S = I
, xm m xm am x
F S W = I
(7.3.2)

where
I
m
: m-th modal participation factor

m
: m-th modal vector at location x
S
dm
: Normalized spectral displacement for m-th mode period
S
am
: Normalized spectral acceleration for m-th mode period
W
x
: Mass at location x

In a given mode, the spectral value corresponding to the calculated natural period is
located from the spectral data through linear interpolation. It is therefore recommended that
spectral data at closer increments of natural periods be provided at the locations of
curvature changes (refer to Figure 1.2.2). The range of natural periods for spectral data
must be sufficiently extended to include the maximum and minimum natural periods

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obtained from the Eigenvalue analysis.

midas GTS can easily generate the spectral data for seismic design by inputting Dynamic
coefficient, Foundation factor, Zoning factor, Importance factor, Ductility factor (or Response
modification factor or Seismic response factor), etc.

Response spectrum analyses are allowed in any direction on the Global X-Y plane and in
the vertical Global Z direction. The user may choose an appropriate method of modal
combination for analysis results such as the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
method or the Square Root of the Sum of the Squares (SRSS) method.
2

The following describes the methods of modal combinations:

SRSS(Square Root of the Sum of the Squares)

1 2
2 2 2
max 1 2 n
R R R R ( = + + +

(7.3.3)

ABS(Absolute Sum)

max 1 2 n
R R R R = + + +
(7.3.4)

CQC(Complete Quadratic Combination)

1 2
max
1 1
N N
i ij j
i j
R R R
= =
(
=
(

(7.3.5)

where
2 3 2
2 2 2
8 (1 )
(1 ) 4 (1 )
ij
r r
r r r
+
=
+ +
,

2
The user may reinstate the signs lost during the modal combination process and apply them to the
response spectrum analysis results. For details, refer to Analysis>Analysis Case > Response Spectrum Analysis
Control in the Online Manual.

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j
i
r
e
e
= ,

max
R
: Peak response,

i
R
: Peak response of i-th mode,
r : Natural frequency of i-th mode to j-th mode,
: Damping ratio

In Eq. 7.34, when i = j, then ij = 1 regardless of the damping ratio. If the damping ratio ()
becomes zero (0), both CQC and SRSS methods produce identical results.

The ABS method produces the largest combination values among the three methods. The
SRSS method has been widely used in the past, but it tends to overestimate or
underestimate the combination results in the cases where the values of natural frequencies
are close to one another. As a result, the use of the CQC method is increasing recently as
it accounts for probabilistic inter-relations between the modes.

If the displacements of each mode are compared for a structure having 3 DOF with a
damping ratio of 0.05, the results from the applications of SRSS and CQC are as follows:

Natural frequencies,

1
0.46 e =
, 2
0.52 e =
, 3
1.42 e =

Maximum modal displacements : D
ij
(displacement components of i-th degree of freedom
for j-th mode)

0.036 0.012 0.019
0.012 0.014 0.005
0.049 0.002 0.017
ij
D =

If SRSS is applied to compute the modal combination for each degree of freedom,

{ }
1 2
2 2 2
max 1 2 3
0.042 0.046 0.052 R R R R ( = + + =


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If CQC is applied,

12 21
0.3985 = =

13 31
0.0061 = =

23 32
0.0080 = =

{ }
1 2
2 2 2
max 1 2 3 12 1 2 13 1 3 23 2 3
2 2 2
0.046 0.041 0.053
R R R R R R R R R R ( = + + + + +

=

Comparing the two sets of displacements for each degree of freedom, we note that the
SRSS method underestimates the magnitude for the first degree of freedom but
overestimates the value for the second degree of freedom relative to those obtained by
CQC. Thus, the SRSS method should be used with care when natural frequencies are
close to one another.

1 n
T
n
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
T
7
T
6
T
7
T
x
T
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
1 n
S
n
S
6
S
7
S


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74
Figure 7.3.1 Response spectrum curve and linear interpolation of spectral data

7.4 Time History Analysis

7.4.1 Introduction

The dynamic equilibrium equation for time history analysis is written as:

[ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) M u t C u t K u t p t + + = (7.4.1)

where [ ] M : Mass matrix
[ ] C : Damping matrix
[ ] K : Stiffness matrix
( ) p t : Dynamic load
and, ( ) u t , ( ) u t and ( ) u t are displacement, velocity and acceleration respectively.

Time history analysis seeks out a solution for the dynamic equilibrium equation when a
structure is subjected to dynamic loads. It calculates a series of structural responses
(displacements, member forces, etc.) within a given period of time based on the dynamic
characteristics of the structure under the applied loads. midas GTS uses the Modal
Superposition Method and Direct Integration Method for time history analysis.

The following describes the general concept of Modal Superposition Method and data
input precautions.

7.4.2 Modal Superposition Method

The displacement of a structure is obtained from a linear superposition of modal
displacements, which maintain orthogonal characteristics to one another. This method
premises on the basis of that the damping matrix is composed of a linear combination of
the mass and stiffness matrices as presented below.

| | | | | | C M K o | = +
(7.4.2)


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75
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
T T T T
M q t C q t K q t F t u u u u u u u + + = (7.4.3)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i i i i i i i
mq t c q t k q t P t + + =
( 1, 2,3, , ) i m = (7.4.4)

( ) ( )
m
i i
i j
u t q t
=
= u
(7.4.5)

( )
0
(0) (0)
( ) (0)cos sin
1
( ) sin ( )
i i
i i
t i i i i
i i Di Di
Di
t
t
i Di
i Di
q q
q t e q t t
P e t d
m
e
e t
e
e e
e
t e t t
e

( +
= +
(

+
}
(7.4.6)

where
2
1
Di i i
e e = ,
, o | : Rayleigh coefficient,

i
: Damping ratio for i-th mode,

i
e
: Natural frequency for i-th mode,

i
u
: i-th mode shape,

( )
i
q t
: Solution for i-th mode SDF equation

When a time history analysis is carried out, the displacement of a structure is determined
by summing up the product of each mode shape and the solution for the corresponding
modal equation as expressed in Eq. (7.4.5). Its accuracy depends on the number of
modes used.

This modal superposition method is very effective and, as a result, widely used in linear
dynamic analyses for large structures. However, this method cannot be applied to
nonlinear dynamic analyses or to the cases where damping devices are included such
that the damping matrix cannot be assumed as a linear combination of the mass and
stiffness matrices.

The following outlines some precautions required during data entry when using the
modal superposition method:

Total analysis time (or Iteration number): the time to analysis or the total

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number of iteration

Time Step: Time step can affect the accuracy of analysis results significantly. The
increment must be closely related to the periods of higher modes of the structure and the
period of the applied force. The time step directly influences the integral in Eq. (7.4.6),
and as such specifying an improper time step may lead to inaccurate results. In general,
one-tenth of the highest modal period under consideration is a reasonable value for the
time step. In addition, the time step should be smaller than that of the applied load.

10
p
T
t A = (7.4.7)
where, p
T
: the highest modal period being considered

Modal damping ratios (or Rayleigh coefficients): Values for determining the
energy dissipation (damping) properties of a structure, which relate to either
the total structure or individual modes

Dynamic loads: Dynamic loads are directly applied to the nodes or foundation
of a structure, and are expressed as a function of time. The change of loadings
must be well represented in the forcing function. A loading at an unspecified
time is linearly interpolated.

7.4.3 Direct Integration Method

The method of direct integration solves the dynamic equilibrium method by integrating it
over time steps. Without changing the form of the equilibrium equation, various methods
can be used to determine the solution.

midas GTS uses the Newmark method for the method of direct integration. The followi ng
are the basic assumptions and integration process:

( ) 1
t
t t t t t
u u u u t o o
+A +A
(
= + + A

(7.4.8)


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77

2
1
2
t
t t t t t t
u u u t u u t o o
+A +A
(
| |
= + A + + A
(
|
\ .
(

(7.4.9)

By solving above equations,
t t
u
+A
is determined from Eq. 7.4.9 and
t t
u
+A
is
determined from Eq. (7.4.8). Thus, the equilibrium can be expressed in terms of
displacement, velocity and acceleration of the current and previous step.

( )
( )
, , ,
, , ,
t t t t t t t
t t t t t t t
u f u u u u
u f u u u u
+A +A
+A +A
=
=
(7.4.10)

By applying the Eq. (7.4.11) to the dynamic equilibrium equation, Eq. (7.4.12),
equilibrium can be defined in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration of the
previous stage and displacement of the current stage. The displacement of the current
stage can be obtained from Eq. (7.4.13). After determining the displacement of the
current stage, the current acceleration and velocity can be found as shown in Eq.
(7.4.14). Damping is determined using the ratio of strength and mass as shown in Eq
(7.4.15).

| | | | | |
t t t t t t
t t
M u C u K u p
+A +A +A
+A
+ + = (7.4.11)

| | | | | | | |( )
| |( )
0 1 0 2 3
1 4 5

t t
t t t t t
t t t
K a M a C u p M a u a u a u
C a u a u a u
+A
+A
( + + = + + +

+ + +
(7.4.12)

t t
t t
K u p
+A
+A
(
=

(7.4.13)

where | | | | | |
0 1
K K a M a C
(
= + +

| |( ) | |( )
0 2 3 1 4 5
t t t t t t t t t t
p p M a u a u a u C a u a u a u
+A +A
= + + + + + +

( )
0 2 3 6 7
,
t t t t t t t t t t t t t
u a u u a u a u u u a u a u
+A +A +A +A
= = + +
(7.4.14)

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where
0 1 2 3 2
1 1 1
, , , 1
2
a a a a
t t t
o
o o o o
= = = =
A A A

( )
4 5 6 7
1, 2 , 1 ,
2
t
a a a t a t
o o
o o
o o
A | |
= = = A = A
|
\ .

a, o
: Newmark Integration Variable (Stable if
0.5, 0.25 o = o =
)
t A : Integration time step

| | | | | | C a K b M = +
(7.4.15)

where
a, b
: Coefficients of strength and mass for damping

For analysis involving the nonlinearity of stiffness and damping, the direct integration
method should be used in most of these cases. The analysis time is proportional to the
total number of time steps since the direct integration method is performed with respect
to all time steps. The data and noteworthy points are as follows:

Total analysis time (Iteration number) : the time to analysis or the total
number of iteration

Time step : Time step can affect the accuracy of analysis results significantly.
The increment must be closely related to the periods of higher modes of the
structure and the period of the applied force. The time step directly influences
the integral in Eq. (7.4.12), and as such specifying an improper time step may
lead to inaccurate results. In general, one-tenth of the highest modal period
under consideration is a reasonable value for the time step. In addition, the
time step should be smaller than that of the applied load.

10
p
T
t A = (7.4.16)

where, p
T
: the highest modal period being considered

The time step should not be unnecessarily small since the analysis time increases in

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79
proportion to the number of time steps Increasing.

Defining the damping using stiffness and mass : the damping is defined as
the proportional expression of stiffness and mass

Time integration method : Integration parameters for Newmark method is
inputted. While constant acceleration provides the stable solution that
converges in every condition, linear acceleration might provide the unstable
solution that does not converge. If possible, it is reasonable to use the
integration parameters for constant acceleration.
Dynamic loads : Dynamic loads are directly applied to the nodes or
foundation of a structure, and are expressed as a function of time. The change
of loadings must be well represented in the forcing function. A loading at an
unspecified time is linearly interpolated.

The following describes the fundamentals to help the user understand better.

Figure (7.4.1) shows an idealized system to illustrate the motion of a SDOF structural
system. The equilibrium equation of motion subjected to forces exerting on a SDOF
system is as follows:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
I D E
f t f t f t f t + + = (7.4.17)

I
f (t) is an inertia force, which represents a resistance to the change in velocity of a
structure. The inertia force acts in a direction opposite to the acceleration, and its
magnitude is ( ) mu t .

E
f (t) is an elastic force by which the structure restores its configuration to the original
state when the structure undergoes a deformation. This force acts in the opposite
direction to the displacement, and its magnitude is ) (t ku .

D
f (t)
is a damping force, which is a fictitious internal force dissipating kinetic energy
and thereby decreasing the amplitude of a motion. The damping force may occur in a
form of internal friction. It acts in the opposite direction to the velocity, and its magnitude

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is ( ) cu t .

(a) I dealized model (b) State of equilibrium

Figure 7.4.1 Motion of a SDOF System

The above forces are now summarized as:

( )
( )
( )
I
D
E
f mu t
f cu t
f ku t
=
=
=
(7.4.18)

where
m
: Mass
c
: Damping coefficient
k : Elastic coefficient

From the force equilibrium shown in Figure 7.4 (b), we can obtain the equation for
motion for a SDOF structural system.

( ) mu cu ku f t + + = (7.4.19)

Eq. 7.4.19 becomes the equation of damped free vibration if f(t)=0, and it becomes the
equation of undamped free vibration if the condition of c=0 is additionally imposed on the
damped free vibration. If f(t) is assigned as a seismic loading (or displacements,
velocities, accelerations, etc.) with varying time, the equation then represents a forced
vibration analysis problem. The solution can be determined by using either the Modal
Superposition Method or Direction Integration Method.
(elastic force)
(damping force)
(external force)
(inertia force)

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7.5 Complex Response Analysis

7.5.1 1-Dimensional dynamic analysis (theoretical solution)

midas GTS uses free field analysis to calculate the response of foundation during
earthquake before structure is constructed. The free field analysis is mainly used in
predicting the vibration of earths surface in calculating the dynamic stress and strain for
liquefaction assessment, and determining the earthquake load that will cause the
instability of foundation or earth structure.

The free field analysis is used to compute the response of foundation due to the vertical
radio wave of shear waves passing through the linear visco-elastic zone. The foundation
to analyze is composed of a number of stratum which are infinite to horizontal direction
and the semi-infinite bottom layers as shown in Figure 7.5.1. It is assumed that each
stratum is homogeneous and isotropic. The vibration is induced by the shear wave that
is transmitted through and reflected by the foundation in vertical direction, and the
displacement is produced only in horizontal direction. Therefore, the wave equation of
Eq. (7.5.3) should be satisfied in every stratum.

2 2 3
2 2 2
2
u u u
G G
t x x t

c c c
= +
c c c c
(7.5.1)

where
u
is the horizontal displacement in time t , and
, G , and are mass

density, shear elastic modulus, and hysteretic damping ratio, respectively.

Expressing Eq. (7.5.1) as harmonic function of Eq. (7.5.2), and transforming Eq. (7.5.1)
into frequency domain give the governing equation of Eq. (7.5.3). The stress-
displacement

relationship is given in Eq. (7.5.4)

( , ) ( , )
i t
u x t u x e
e
e = (7.5.2)
2
* 2
2
( , ) ( , ) 0 G u x u x
x
e e e
c
=
c
(7.5.3)

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82
*
( , ) ( , ) x G u x
x
t e e
c
=
c
(7.5.4)

where ( , ) x t e is shear stress, and complex shear modulus is
*
(1 2 ) G G i = + .

1
.
.
.
m
m+1
.
.
.
u
1
x
1
u
2
x
2
u
m
x
m
u
m+1
x
m+1
u
m+2
x
m+2
u
N
x
N
N
Particle motion
Incident wave
Reflected wave
h
1
h
m
h
m+1
h
N=
1 1 1
G

m m m
G
1 1 1

m m m
G
+ + +

N N N
G
Layer
No.
Coordinate
System
Propagation
Direction
Properties Thickness

Figure 7.5.1 1-dimensional free field analysis model

The free field foundation is generally expressed as shown in Figure 7.5.1 to calculate the
solution of one-dimensional wave equation. When the number of layer is given below
from the surface, and the response of m-th layer from the surface is expressed as
m
u
,
the response is expressed as a function of
m
x
which is the depth from the top of m-th
layer as shown in Eq. (7.5.5)-(7.5.6).

* *
( , ) ( ) ( )
m m m m
ik x ik x
m m m m
u x A e B e e e e

= +
(7.5.5)

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* *
* *
( , ) ( ( ) ( )
m m m m
ik x ik x
m m m m m m
x ik G A e B e t e e e

=
(7.5.6)

where
* *
/
m sm
k V e = ,
* *
/
sm m m
V G = , and
m
A
and
m
B
are the layer response factors,
where
m
A
is the elastic wave component that is transmitted upward,
m
B
is the elastic
wave component that is transmitted downward. The compatibility condition of Eq. (7.5.7)
and force equilibrium should be satisfied in the boundary of adjacent layers

1 1
1 1
( ) ( 0)
1, 2,..., ( 1)
( ) ( 0)
m m m m m
m m m m m
u x h u x
m N
x h x t t
+ +
+ +
= = =
=
`
= = =
)
(7.5.7)

Substituting Eq. (7.5.5) and (7.5.6) into Eq. (7.5.7) gives the relationship between the
factors as shown in Eq. (7.5.8).

* *
* *
1 1
* *
1 1 * *
1 1
, 1, 2,..., ( 1)
m m m m
m m m m
ik h ik h
m m m m
ik h ik h m m
m m m m
m m
A B A e B e
m N
k G
A B A e B e
k G
+ +
+ +
+ +

+ = +

=
`
=

)
(7.5.8)

Rearranging to derive the relationship between the response factors of adjacent soil
layers, the recurrence equation of Eq. (7.5.9) is obtained as

* *
* *
* *
1
* *
1
1 1
(1 ) (1 )
2 2
1 1
(1 ) (1 )
2 2
m m m m
m m m m
ik h ik h
m m m m m
ik h ik h
m m m m m
A A e B e
B A e B e
o o
o o
+
= + +
= + +
(7.5.9)

where
m
h
: thickness of
m
th
layer
*
m
o : ratio of dynamic stiffness between the adjacent layers.
* *
*
* *
1 1
m m
m
m m
k G
k G
o
+ +
=
(7.5.10)


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84
Since the shear stress is always zero, it is clear that
1 1
A B =
from Eq. (7.5.6). Therefore,
the response factor of
m
th
layer can be calculated by applying the recurrence equation
of Eq. (7.5.9) subsequently from the first to
m
th
layers.

1
1
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
m m
m m
A a A
B b B
e e e
e e e
=
=
(7.5.11)

where
1 1
1 a b = =
.

The transfer function between the boundary of layer i and
j
,
( )
ij
H e
is expressed
as

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
i i i
ij
j j j
u a b
H
u a b
e e e
e
e e e
+
= =
+
(7.5.12)

When the transfer function
( )
ij
H e
and the response
( )
j
u e
for the boundary of layer
j
are given, the response
( )
i
u e
for the boundary of layer i is obtained as Eq.
(7.5.13).

( ) ( ) ( )
i ij j
u H u e e e =
(7.5.13)

When the frequency domain analysis is used, the effect of nonlinear behavior of
foundation is generally considered by the equivalent linearization technique. The reason
for using this equivalent linearization technique is that the frequency domain analysis
basically assumes the foundation as the linear behavior.

Since the constant stiffness (shear modulus) and damping are applied in frequency
domain analysis, the change of stiffness due to the actual shear strain is not considered
as shown in Figure 7.5.2. Therefore, the nonlinear behavior of foundation is considered
by iteratively conducting the linear analysis that includes the change of stiffness and
damping ratio of foundation according to the shear strain which is obtained from the
previous step, as shown in Figure 7.5.3. To determine the stiffness and damping, the
effective shear strain that is given as constant value less than one(e.g., 0.65) multiplied

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85
by the maximum shear strain obtained from the previous step as shown in Eq. (7.5.5) is
used. The reason for using the effective shear strain is that the maximum shear strain
induces the more strain energy than the actual behavior does, as shown in Figure 7.5.2.
The method to consider the nonlinearity of foundation by using the equivalent
linearization technique is summarized in Table 7.5.1.

max
max { ( )}
t oct
t =
(7.5.14)
2 2 2 2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) { ( ) ( )} 6 ( ) 6 ( )
3
oct x z x z yz xz
t t t t t t t c c c c = + + + + (7.5.15)

Figure 7.5.2 Difference between maximum shear strain and effective strain


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86

Figure 7.5.3 The process to converge nonlinear shear modulus and damping factor by the equivalent
linearization technique

Table 7.5.1 The process for free field analysis using the equivalent linearization technique

Determine the initial values of the shear modulus( G ) and damping ratio( h ) of each
layer. In general, the values where the strain is very small are used.
Calculate the maximum shear strain
max
of each layer from the free field analysis
using the initial values.
Calculate the effective shear strain eff
of each layer.
max eff
R
=

where
R
is the ratio between the effective shear strain and maximum shear strain.
The 0.65 is used, or the following M is used according to the magnitude of
earthquake(Seed & Sun, 1992).

1
10
M
R

=
Determine the shear modulus G and h according to the max
/
eff
G G
curve and
eff
h
curve of each layer using the effective shear strain eff
.
Repeat the step 2 to 4 until G and h converge. In general, it is considered to be
converged that the relative error is less than 5%, and the iteration is less than 5.

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87
Slope Stability Analysis
Chapter 8

8.1 Introduction Slope Stability Analysis

Slope stability analyses for both embankments and excavation are subjects most frequently
encountered in geotechnical engineering. A slope naturally is subjected to potential energy
due to its self weight. If pore water pressure, external forces, seismic loads and wave
forces are exerted on a slope, slope instability may arise. When the shear stress due to self
weight and external load are greater than the shear strength of soil, either slip or failure
may occur. Determining such shear stress and soil strength can be summed up as slope
stability analysis.

Slope stability has been conventionally analyzed by performing displacement and stability
analyses separately (Duncan, 1984; Huang, 1983; Brunsden, 1984). However, actual slope
failure is caused by large displacements in local areas and develops slowly. It is known that
displacement and failure are not distinguished, but take place in the process of progressive
failure (Chowdhury, 1978; Griffiths, 1993). Therefore, it is important to formulate a slope
stability analysis method which can track the failure process from initial deformation to
ultimate failure.
step #1 geo static
potential energy (W)
(self weight + gravity)
step #2 external force action
W
step #3 shear stress
within the slope
Step #4 reacting on the shear
strength of the slope(S)
s
S
F
T
=
W
T
pore water pressure, applied load,
earthquake load, wave load, etc.
due to external load
shear force occurs

Figure 8.1.1 Slope Failure Diagram


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The following methods are currently suggested for slope stability analysis:

- Limit equilibrium theory by Mass procedure / Slice method

- Limit theory

- Finite element method by elastoplastic theory

In order to monitor the stability of slopes on site, it is important to determine not only the
minimum factor of safety, but also the failure behavior. For a progressive slope failure, the
locations and the control values for monitoring must be determined in advance and
managed appropriately. The finite element method provides suitable analysis results and
also used to determine the progressive failure behavior of a slope (Anderson, 1987;
Duncan, 1996).

The on-going development in computational technology, finite element methods have been
widely used for analyzing structural ground behavior for displacements, stresses, pore
water stresses, etc. The finite element method recently has extended its applications from
simple behavioral analysis for ground structures to evaluating slope failures in stability
problems as well.

midas GTS uses the Strength Reduction method, which is developed for solving slope
stability problems, formulated using finite element techniques.

8.2 Strength Reduction Method

8.2.1 Introduction

The finite element method is a precise numerical analysis method which satisfies the
force equilibrium, compatibility condition, constitutive equation and boundary condition at
each point of a slope. It simulates the actual slope failure mechanism and determines
both the minimum factor of safety and the failure behavior. It can also reflect real in-situ
conditions better than most methods. Moreover, it can determine the failure process
without assuming any failure planes in advance. (Griffith 1999; Matsui, 1990).

Chapter 8 Slope Stability Analysis

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There are two types of methods used in finite element method to analyze slope stability
Strength Reduction method and Indirect method (Pasternack, S.C. and Gao, S, 1988).
The Strength Reduction method is a direct method, which gradually reduces the shear
strength ( , ) c | of sloped ground materials until failure takes place. Failure is assumed
to occur when the analysis does not converge. Under this condition, the maximum
strength reduction factor where analysis fails to converge becomes the factor of safety.
The Indirect method determines the factor of safety by applying the calculated stresses
combined with the conventional Limit theory method.

8.2.2 Theoretical Background

The Strength Reduction method uses a finite element technique first proposed by
Zienkiewicz (1975). We now focus on a Gauss point, A, of an element in a sloped ground
structure to calculate the factor of safety of a slope as shown in Figure (8.2.1) The stress
state at this point is represented in a Mohr circle. In order to represent the sliding surface,
the shear stress at the point is divided by a factor of safety, F, so that the Mohr circle for
the stress state of the fictitious sliding surface becomes tangent to the failure criterion.
That is, the stress state of the point is corrected to the failure state. An increase in the
number of points results in a global slope failure. As soon as a finite element solution
diverges, the analysis stops and the limit value, F, becomes the minimum factor of safety
for the slope. This method requires stability in numerical analysis, but returns consistent
results and evaluates the actual failure behavior.


midas GTS
90
90
A
t t
' o
' o
Mohrs circle
for A
Modified
Line
Modified
Line

Figure 8.2.1 Strength Reduction Method

8.2.3 Method of calculating Minimum Factor of Safety

To determine the minimum factor of stability of slopes, the modulus of elasticity (E) and
Poissons ratio (
v
) are assumed to be constant. The cohesion (
c
) and friction angle (
|
)
are simultaneously reduced, and the factor of safety,
s
F
is determined at the diverging
point. The factor of safety for slope failure is determined on the basis of shear failure as
follows:

s
f
F
t
t
=
(8.2.1)

where
: Shear strength of slope material

This is computed based on the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.

tan
n
c t o | = +
(8.2.2)
The shear stress at the sliding surface, f
t
is expressed in Eq. 8.2.3.

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91

tan
f f n f
c t o | = +
(8.2.3)

where
SRF
f
c
c = : Coefficient of shear strength
1
tan
tan
SRF
f
|
|

| |
=
|
\ .
: Coefficient of shear strength
SRF : Strength reduction factor

In order to determine the SRF accurately, it is necessary to trace the resulting values of
s
F

causing the slope to fail. The incremental parameter
s
F
is increased in very small steps
even though it may extend the analysis time duration. Otherwise, calculating the minimum
factor of safety may face difficulties.

8.3 Stress Analysis Method Based on the Limit
Equilibrium Method

8.3.1 Introduction

Slope stability analysis is globally divided into two methods: simplified method and
numerical analysis method. The limit equilibrium which belongs to the simplified methods,
is one way to approach slope stability problems and is most widely used in practice.
However, this method cannot consider the stress hysteresis effects during the formation
of slope and the variation of stress for foundations due to the groundwater. Although the
finite element techniques considers the formation process of slope and the property of
foundation, the method requires high cost and long analysis time, and the slope stability
data for evaluation purposes is relatively insufficient. Recently, a numerous researches
are conducted to concentrate on the good points of the simplified method and numerical
analysis method. Among these, the slope stability analysis method using the finite
element method which has been proposed by Kim(1998) in KAIST is applied for slope
stability analysis.

In this method, stress analysis is first performed on the slope using the finite element

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92
method. Based on the stress analysis results, the factor of safety for potential sliding
surface is calculated, and the critical section is determined using the minimum Factor of
Safety.

8.3.2 Evaluation of Factor of Safety

The Factor of Safety in the finite element method is defined as,

f
S
s
m
S
d
F
d
t
t
I
=
I
}
}
(8.3.1)

m
t
is shear stress, and f
t
is shear strength according to Mohr-Coulomb failure
criteria.

( )
tan
1
sin2 cos2
2
f n
m y x xy
c t o |
t o o u t u
= +
= +
(8.3.2)


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93
where, the stress,
n
o
, normal to sliding surface is given as:

2 2
sin cos sin2
n x y xy
o o u o u t u = + (8.3.3)

c
:Viscosity,
| :Internal friction angle of material
u :Angle between horizontal and sliding surfaces.
x
o
and y
o
:Normal stresses directions x and y respectively
xy
t
:Shear stress.

t
xy
o
y
o
x
t
xy
t
m
o
n
u
sliding surface

Figure 8.3.1 Stress components of sliding surface

To calculate the Factor of Safety, stress integration is required with respect to the
potential sliding surface as shown in Eq. (8.3.1). Since the stress integration of
continuous stress field with respect to node is more reliable than that of Gaussian
integration point, the continuous stress field in every node is calculated using the global
stress smoothing method(Hinton & Compbell, 1974) in midas GTS.

8.3.3 Stress Integration Along the Potential Sliding Surface

The integration of shear stress along the potential sliding surface is required to evaluate
the factor of safety of the assumed potential sliding surface as shown in Eq. (8.3.1). This
process is performed by integrating over all elements along the sliding surface.

The shear stress of an arbitrary point within an element is expressed using the stresses

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94
of nodal points that are calculated by the global stress smoothing methods:

node
node
1
i i
i =
=
N (8.3.4)

where,
i
N
: Shape function at node i
node
i
o : Nodal stress at node i
o
:Stress of an arbitrary point within the element.

The stress integration over the potential sliding surface in two-dimensional global
coordinate system is given as the following by transforming into the integral in one-
dimensional local coordinate system.

( ) ( ) ( )
int
n
2 1
1 1
1
,
2 2
n
i i
n
i
L L
x y d d W t t t
=
I = =

} }
T T (8.3.5)

where,
:Coordinate variable in local coordinate system
i
W
: Integral constant in integral point i
T :Transformation matrix transforming the stress from local coordinate
system into global coordinate system
L :Element length
t
:Shear stress m
t
or shear strength f
t
on potential sliding surface


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The global Factor of Safety for the potential sliding surface is given as

2
1
2
1
nel
n
n
1
nel
n
n
1
f
i
s
m
i
d
F
d
t
t
=
=
I
=
I
}
(8.3.6)

where,
nel :Number of elements intersecting along potential sliding surface
1
n
:Starting point of potential sliding surface within an element
2
n
:Ending point of potential sliding surface within an element

Part 1 Analysis Case

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Part I - Analysis Case

, and hardening modulus

: Unit weight of water

: Ground weight density

: n-th mode eigenvalue

: mass per unit area : mass center

can be obtained from the equation of free vibration of an

obtained from the equations (7.2.2)~(7.2.3) into the equation (7.2.1),

: Damping ratio for i-th mode,

, G , and are mass

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