The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the Principle of Conservation of Energy.

The latter states that energy can neither be destroyed nor created but can be transformed from one form to another. The first law basically says that energy that goes into a system cannot be lost along the way but has to be used to do something. For example, a car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy (in gasoline) into mechanical energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.

The second law of thermodynamics states that energy has quality as well as quantity i.e. processes occur in the direction of decreasing energy. For example, a can containing a cold drink never gets hot when placed on a table while a hot cup of tea on a table loses temperature to its surroundings until there is thermal equilibrium.

The third law of thermodynamics states that every substance has finite positive entropy but at the absolute zero temperature, the entropy of all perfect crystals of an element is zero. At the absolute zero temperature, there is neither thermal energy nor heat. Since heat is a measure of average molecular motion, zero thermal energy means that the average atom does not move at all. It thus implies that the motion of every individual atom in the perfect crystal must be zero at that particular temperature. All processes cease as temperature approaches zero.

Differentiate between closed and open systems. Justify your answers, giving three examples of each. Closed system (control mass)
Boundary No mass exchange

Energy exchange

No mass exchange; fixed amount of mass no mass can enter or leave the system. Energy exchange between system and surroundings, in form of work and heat.

Examples 1. A bottle of soft drink at room temperature is put in the refrigerator to cool. There is only energy transfer for the cooling of the soft drink. There is no transfer of mass from it to the refrigerator and vice versa. 2. A piston cylinder arrangement where a gas is compressed by the piston and cannot escape. Note that the volume does not have to be fixed. 3. The greenhouse exchanging heat but not work with its environment.

Open system (control volume)

Boundary Mass exchange

Energy exchange

Both mass and energy can cross the boundary. Examples 1. A piston cylinder arrangement where a gas is compressed by the piston, but with an opening in the cylinder such that the gas escapes outside when the piston is pushed and the gas enters the system when the piston is pulled. 2. Boiling of water in an open vessel, where transfer of heat as well as mass in the form of steam takes place between the vessel and its surroundings. 3. Photosynthesis in plants infusion of energy and exchange of matter are taking place inside the chloroplast of leaves, resulting in the production of glucose which is in a higher energy level.

Explain the different forms of energy and state some real applications in practice. o Kinetic energy is motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects. o Potential energy is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position. There are several forms of potential energy. o Electrical energy is the movement of electrical charges. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the electrons move. Electrical charges moving through a wire is called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy. o Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy. o Thermal energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substancesthe vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy. o Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another. Objects and substances move when a force is applied according to Newtons Laws of Motion. Wind is an example of motion energy. o Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate; the energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.

o Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical energy. o Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy. o Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom, i.e., the energy that holds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion. Scientists are working on creating fusion energy on earth, so that someday there might be fusion power plants. o Gravitational energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

Bibliography and References Dehroff R. T., 2006, Thermodynamics in materials science, 2nd edn, CRC Press Ott B. J.& Boerio-Gates J., 2000, Chemical Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications, 2nd edn, Academic Press