HOW PROGRAMMABLE DIGITAL FUEL AND TIMING SYSTEMSWORK

permit (and require) systems Programmable enginemanagement a user to calibrate the basic raw fuel and ignition curves for an engine by defining tablesof numbers that specifyspark timing advance and base fuel delivery for pulse width-modulated (P\7M) electronic fuel injection as a function of engine speed and airflow. Such tables are typically representedto the user (tuner, calibrator) in graphicalor tabular format via user interfaceleditingsofware running on a'Windows computer (usually a battery-poweredlaptop). This PC-based engine management software simultanesoftwarethat hasthe abilously controls communications-driver ity to interact, via serialdata cable,with the onboard electronic control unit (ECU) that actually manages the spark and fuel requirements for an engine. The sofrware allows the user to move data back and forth berween ECU memory and the laptop for tuning purposes. Typically, programmable engine management systemsprovide both the abiliry to interactively modify many operating parametersand table cells in the ECU while the engine is running, as well as the abiliry to upload the entire set of all engine managementtables into a'Windows PC for subsequentoffline calibration and eventual download back to the same or alternative ECU(s). A programmable engine managementsystemis, therefore, comprised of the onboard ECU, firmware, and calibration an data, plus a'S7'indowslaptop computer (or, in a few cases, alternate dedicated interface module), laptop engine management sofrware,and data-link hardware. For full functionality of the system, all components must be present and operational. Once the ECU is calibrated, it is fully self-contained and will run the engine without additional components. However,without the laptop presentand connected,the ECU is in no sense programmable.

Although user-interfacesoffwareof various engine management systems may presentinternal enginemanagementtablesto the tuner with its own unique graphical appearance-and although the underlying resolution or granularity of the tables may, in fact, actually vary-behind the scenesthe basic engine managementoperating conceptsare exactly the same:\When it is managing an approaching time for the digital microprocessor engine to schedule the next fuel injection or spark event, the data to get a snapshot of how processor first checksenginesensor fast the engine is turning and how much air it is ingesting. The ECU then performs a series of look-ups to the appropriate entry for the current speedand airflow in the various fuel and timing tablesto determinewhen to open and closethe injector(s) to spraya pulseof fuel into one or more cylindersand how many degrees before top dead center to trigger an external igniter or coil to fire the next spark plug. If engine speedor loading fall somewhere in between rwo specified points in an engine managementtable, the ECU will provide basefuel or spark or corrections by applying a weighed averageof the closestseveral points on either side of the actual value. Regardless of the exact means used, the processof calibrating an engine managementsystemon a new engine has the ultimate goal of optimizing torque, fuel economy,or emissionsat each and every breakpoint ofengine speedand loading defined in the fuel and ignition tables (there are usually berween24 and 800 such points). In theory, this can be a laborious process,but it is one that can frequently be expedited with the use of automated mapcalibrations builder computer modeling algorithms,pre-existing from similar engines,intelligent extrapolationand interpolation berweenrpm rangesand load points, and even self-learningrouand dynamometers. tines that make use of wideband O, sensors it is worth keeping in mind that OEM carmakers Nevertheless, frequently spendmonths or evenlearscalibrating the enginemanagementsystemsfor a particular engine in a particular vehicle.

rbo J ohn Carmack's twin-tu FerrariF50 on the Norwood getting readyfor a Car Dynojet, magazine testing andDriver BobNorwood tweaked regime. the Ferrari's BoschMotronic system at lowerpowersettings, but whenit cametimeto crank levelson up theboostto higher the$750,000 vehicle's10.5:l V-12, the compression 60-valve Ferrariconverted to MotecEMS for ultimatecontrol.

122

ezL
Jo auo 3o Sunslsuof, aJrlap urrJl aJnlxrure arryndru?ru ot Jeunl E 1r\ollesruarsls ruaura8eueu aur8ua alqeuuerSord lue141 lcuarcgga frJtatun -lo^ prurou-radns ro -qns qlr^{ salrsproy-paads roJ senle^rltpp,\ asyndreaurl parnduor ./y\BJ Jqr ol srasJJo ro; apl,rord tsnur reunt JIqEI-EA aqt 'saur8ualsotu uo uoneJadogo a8ue: ogl ssoJJe reg lpcayrad aq pu elrnr anbror aqt arurs tarrarvroll llrw 'spaads aur8ua1p tE alrnf anbror reg lprajrad e or anp JorleJ E aq ot lou pauJnsse paads aur8ua qllrrr 'uaarruaq ul srulod Sulpeoy IF re qtpl,1 aslndaugep srurodo^\t asrr.lJ'peol orazre aslnd onze pue puol uonzlodrarur rtaurl aqr ruoU sarJBA IInJ lB aspd lead ure,/v\taq ll JI alpl tr aur8ua ar{r JoJ aurn uonfaful unrurur{u aql {?a.i!\t pup auuap uaqr lew pue (udr anbror leed re srncco) ezrsrol -oaful rgrcads E Surpeoy qrr^\ aur8ua IInJ l? arun uoura(ur unu -lxeur e 8ur,flcads lq sur8aqraunl aqr ,SIAIErlqet An ? uI

-r a d orua ua'e u e u,,,'s", ;:1;:fiilT,T li;il1T' ;1il::T

o
F

g =
f F

'aldoad eBurzrpn aruos 01 't*'il]1iffiIti':ff: or"^,orr,fAl""rt

z
o E
UJ

arerrdo.rdde aqr a:e1daror paads r{8lq tE nJE ar.p or papeoldn sr etep pegrporu agr rurod qllq.,'r re ,elepdn nJE alerperuulr uE seglunel_uJr{r Jaunl aql.uaarfs dordel aqr uo dru ua,rr8 e3o uoneruasaJda: repqet ro lerrqdr:8 e Surupa lq srqr saop raunl y'Sutuunt s autSua dW a/lqm lg aqr uo ,sderur,rrurqctiua puu 'Surrun 'lanJ E llprrueulp or lrrlrqe aqr Jo a8uer apr.,!\ 4tpo* JJunl e aru8rrrou sruarslstuaua8eueru aulSua llpntrrn 1p 'uonBrqrl?1./\^,au E IIElsuror aSueqr woud e parrnbarllprrdlr srualsls lrorry raplo '(paas lrrrncas e lq pararord p;oru,ssed sr rr q8noqr) lrrlrqudecao ad& eruessrql aprrrord snfE II-CSO drorceg 'snf,E luarua8eueu aur8uaJaqlo or rrodxa lo ,uone:gr -poru 'slsdpue ,Surrrrar,r JoJJd s,/v\opur/N ar{t olur sdru tuaplsa.r -nf,E arnua proldn u?r rasn e ,llreyrurg .nf,E preoquo aqt or dordel ? ur Isrp uo parolssdeu lrerqrl petrnnsuoc-ardaraldruoc peoldn ot aunnoJ E r.ltr./y\ Jasnaqt aplrro-rd suarsls luaua8eueu aur8ua ayqeurrurrSord,qrlu:rs ruo5 selqtl ruarua8euru aur8ua rrpe pue auuep or.,{rrpe3aqr sresnSurpr,rord ot uorrrppeul

rB sr teqr llllre; e apl,rord suatsls ruauraSeueu aur8ua petBf,u -srqdos ro sqlual IEraAas'rela./v\oH'(spuocaslyllur Jo sr.{rpaJpunq pue) spuorasrllnuur etuu sBsalqet1arylrrsuap-paadseJor.u Jo auo Jo sllar ur (qrprmaslnd)aun uado ronafur Iary au5ep lprarrp or Jeunre rrurad surarsls luaua8eueu aur8ua;o lrrrofeu aq1 'rvrog 'a:nteraduar ,bualrg3e rorra(ur pur rrJlerunlol ur suon -euet -repuryb-pnpr^rpur pue arnssaJd ur suonerrel roJ lrer-1an3 uollesuadruorapr,rord suatsls luaua8eueu aulSuaparerlrsrqdos luos 'snuaru uaarfs Jd pl^ pallonuol IIE ar? asar{J .ssedlq

aJuzrlduar aur8ua ted tou sur{ aqt

JrB aplorrp pallonuor-roloru-raddalszr,r uortraJJo) paads apr ot lplrdlr sraluoJrll uado-apr^\ tElgl pur JgU urllv\trq t'11 (pJElaJ puE uonruSr Josuas >llou)l 'loJluol snoJtru.1o:tuor uort eql (lonuol pea:ds puu Surlooluonsnquol IanJ roJ lloul 'luJlurllrrul dn-u:e,r,r -ru8r Jpr^ord sruarslsJer{toJtrrospu? snld:ns errnboJ lou soop leqr rurldranaod llpurou JJC e u1 pattrrdse janbrot 'a&up,t puB ']u3tur{rrruJ upts-lluB,tusr.uqluua Sur4uuD olut lueu pu B JaqlBJ ay8urs lnq lurod v st JnbJol rsag lsJq -r1rrrua Suruunr-p1or u,,!\op >lueJq s alrl suatsls sarnpord aurSua aql qJrq/y\ JaAO sorlrJ Lua) anuat tyt,srlpql IaJJV IJnJ/JruJ0 'a;nreraduel -(1gU) rreur sa8urqr roJ suortleJJo) uonruSr ro jo rnbrot lsaq qrrJ anbrot pw (Ig]) u?alSunnpord tsaq 1ary uoneJngguot 1y\olp ospsuralsls tsoy\'(lp^ azrroden lou opaurl oler ar.ll uee,,luaq aqt-uonsnquolur aurlose8Jo prards IanJ/rrE -oszfj0suonlug Jlr^uJrlJrlt Suuurado pues:8uzr psqlpsJ ,Qtrt4ruat aqrlq palelorlaur sr{sutsrql aq1 Jprurou Jo apnrru8rul

aturu alqrssod rsaq8rqse spaads aur8uaq8rq rr s/v\oJJeu peerds srqa'a8uer g'ZI ol 0'ZI aqr ur anbror lseq uearu r{rl^\ ,8.l

-ru orarayduoc Burnarrrr? or*r,,,r;ll;ffir:,Tit;f ;U ?:tX

\) dnuurslSuluunl-Pl03 u?Y puE r1rtur aqlurIanJ (ualsls purrrcJo

'paads sa8uBqllluappns rurSuJ rr{t uaqm) uonrralalle Surrnp luauglrru3 l?neds euusP or lrr -lrq? aql relJo I{E rJqzu IIEsuarsls -uerSord 'salq?ruonru8rpue IanJ asuq Sunerqrplor uonrppe uI 'selqsr lBurrlurs,nf,E
runrrqllrnbr l?urelur aqr Surtrasdn

'su\tilpuoT ,sasec snoJa|uep 0l suep lasuecnoA aw|sul .alqepear pue fuaa s,1t lo uJeM 'a1ed mtr1 uo etsp p lear7 l0l e s/alatil'arewl\s Sw/|,l deyylq / uags,pJJVw04uailJs !0 u}$taA st{4 illUWwrqanepeal AyIAU e u sntels rlsuasgy11 \uyAeldslp ,,Llsep lenU!^,, r0lleer| eresdoldel

eql SuruurerSorda: ueq.ry\ EaJE ualqo-rd P xU ot parrnbar sr tpqr a8urq: a8eruarrad aqt Surulurarap pue rsooq tunturxetu Jo 'Surrun 'lanJ ol sa8ueqr Jo rralJa IBI -rrrdruaaqt Jar{roro ,le1d Jo (s1oot -slp oulp 'a8ne8 arnte:aduat sr8 lsneqxa'Jalaru orreJ-lanJ/Jre eln) uoneururJalapluplsul ue 8ur1eu ur lool alqBnlB^ 3 rq u?f turJr qrns 'JaArJP,/v\aJfS E JoleJnqJBf e uo qlr,^{ .&\aJ)s tuarursnfpe-eJnlxrur aqr 8ul -urnl ot snoSopuesl s1{I'slrrp oqr 3o uorusod aqr lq paururarap a8e -tua:rad e dq-aprorqr uado-apm Jo alpr tE lsnl setunetuos Jo pJeoq aql ssorf,E lyyensn-SullanJ r.{f,rrur Jo uralue lyp:lueulp ot rapro ur sprp Jataruonuotodreaurl arou

An afternative to the laptopis a dedicated programmer module like thisuserinteffacefrom sDSor a similarunit fromEdetbrock andone or two otherfirms.You can accomplishmost of the functionality of a laptop,but youare peeringthrougha tiny windowinto the EMS environment. 0f course,oncethe system is calibrated, the user interfaceis of no consequence whendriving.

Simple Digital Systems

To tune a running engine tlat has an unfamiliar engine management sysrem without making rhings worse or risking damage ro the engine while you learn, youte going to need to gain a working familiariry with the engine management soflnuare rhat enables you to quickly grasp whar is happening and then react quickly. You definitely do nor wanr to be rying to read the manual to find out what to do when detonation or thermal loading is threatening a meltdown on your new hot rod powerplant. And for that, youre going to need patience, judgment, and experiencewith the software and ECU data structures, as well as familiariry with the datalogging sofrware you will dzf.nitely need in order to cdibrate power-adder engines in boosted-power ranges. The abiliry to work fast without making stupid misrakes is important, becauserunning engines do not necessarilyremain in a stead-y state: They heat-soak in all sorts of interesting ways that can affect the tuning and power. The oil gers thinner.-Resistance to detonation degrades.Engines in a dyno cell pollute the air with hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and heat, which affects intake air temperarure, volumetric efficiency, intercooler efficiency, combustion qualiry and other running paramerers. The abiliry to react quickly is important for reasonabletuning efficiency. Once an engine warms up out of a certain range on the warm-up enrichment map, for example, ir will probably be hours before it cools off enough to give you another crack at calibradng rhe colder start-uP temPerarureranges. If you're buying dynamometer time for tuning, slow tuning abilities can be cosrly. Slow reaction time can even be dangrous. A poor state of tune can damage the engine if it takes the tuner too long to recognize and figure out how ro correcr the problem, or if the correction is in the wrong direction. As Ray Kurzweil points out in The Age of Spiritual Machines, human beings are lightning-fast at recognizlng a parrern and taking specific preplanned action (like realizing a kid has run in front of your car and hitting the brakes), bui we think quite

o F
(,
I

z
o E
D F

IJJ

slowly when faced with new situarions that call for reasoning through a problem. To calibrate mosr programmable engine managemenr systems, you will first need to have at leastsome familiariry with the operating environment of a \Tindows laptop PC. In the first place, you're going to have to install the EMS sofrware that you'll be using to interface to the onboard engine managementsysrem in order to calibrate engine control tablesand parameters.Later, you will need ro use rhe laptop keyboard to enrer configuration data and ro use the arrow keys or pointing device (mouse, trackpoint, and so on) to changethe shapeor height of fuel and ignition graphs, and so on. Once the sofrwareis up and running, you'll need sufficient familiariry with a given engine management sofrware environment to be able to dynamically track (while the engine is run"i$) which portions of the main fuel, main ignition, cold-running, and transienr enrichmenr maps are being used by the engine management sysremto manage ihe engine.Virtually all engine managemenrsystems provide some kind of engine data page that can be used to monitor engine sensorvalues".td act,rator commands (such as currenr injection pulse width and ignition timing), and determine the map table cells and corrections currently being used in the engine management calculations. The main fuel, main ignition, engine temperarurecompensation and other tables rypically provide some sorr of highlighting, bolding, pointer, or other indication of which cell oi goph is the current one in a particular table. Many sysrems have some sort of trot key that a runer can press ro instantly jump to the currently acrive map or map cell for immediate editing.!o yoqte going ro have to practice working witli the user interface of the EMS software and calibrating ih. p"r"-.t.., and tables. The trouble is, even if you understand the sofrware environment, you still have to have tuning skills and diagnostic tools to do the job well. Professionalruners persistentlyiomplain of computer-savvycustomerswith editing access ro programmable engine management systems and linle or no tuning experience.

124

gzL
'Ef,EI s(alnouronralg o{rl snffl Surunr-g1as ruoryrgauaqor olqeaqderunol'alualradxaSurunlqtnu e Br{ lou op nodyl
(('Jel?l aru led urc nol Jo .&\ou aru

led uer no;1,,'8ull?s plo eqr puruJ ul daal1 'aSeurp rua,rard ol tleeJ Plnol ueunq B uer{r Jarsg seJnssaruJalunof Jarflo elnlnsur ro eltroJqt aqr >peq qsnd or-Surpuol lpurrar.{rsaJnlxru u?ol tuo.rya8erurp our8ua Surpuadulr yo su8rsSururrirr-lyr?ealq?rlar rsotu eqr Jo auo-saqord (1gg) arnreraduar sr8 lsner{xaruou "tep uo pesequorlce a{Br pue 'ssaoord,eAraJaJ ot uralsls tuaua8e .srl -uetu aur8ua ue Jo &11q" aqr eq ppo.&\ srr{rJo aldruexa uV ,rl3o1 -tuII aql gsnd or raJes tr aletu r?qr suJBIBpue ,salrryrqedec pa,rordul rago llpnsn suratsls luaura8eueu aur8ua artlsuadxa erour ter{l ragueuar 'a8ruep aulSua pJoJB louuer "91ll

g8rg re rseJoor Suruaddrq are s8urql'(erep z6 pueqapr^,'r 3o1 IIr,,!r\. {ooq srql ur srraford prales ur pasn SWE gTI I rarory aqr) SWE aql ruou Erep rosuas pa33o1or ErBp UCV putqrpr./y\ er{l otelerrol or le^,rr poo8 e eq plnoqs araqr .alqrssod yp te 31

'qrer-D

o
F

puolaqoBrou op puB'srrrdl'f,'rrr ,.orr"rr'lol:'JJ::',?l

I =
f F

z
o
=
IIJ

atrs \rq?yq E sr ttrl^\ arndruor or (raaulSua alnoruolnr ue llqe -rayard)r.radxaue ruou dlag ra8 'parrurl llararrasare sef,rnosar rnol 31 'uoseal Jaleleq,u JoJ rnJfo rr plnoqs aSeruepaulSua ot sarrnosarl?rrueug aqr a^Er{nod;r 3lasrnol 1sy qrIA Ieep 'qpilq 'trrpard or llnrgJrp pue u.,rlou>lun fltm pu? uat sSutqt er? reqr stnurl IBr.uJaqrpuB l?f,ruer1faruSurqsnd .lcaford Surunt -rnol qrrm splJo./tr. .rrrau a8uerrsSurroldxaare nol yl 'snora8uepoot lldrurs s,rr lspoqrau rorra-puE-leul qrr-/v\ aq touuer llarnlosqe paunr dyaSes sJolorusnoJlrupu? polsoog 'Jolotu snoJlruJo parsooqp uo uJ?al or lduane pu op'srualsls luaura8eueuraul8ua Sulterqlpc arua -rradxaa^Bqlou op nolJI :aurl ruollog '(lyddns lang arenbape pue uonBrqrlel petsooquou lrrpnb-1oos e annbat laql q8nop) lyrarror pelptsur jr aur8ua aqr Sur8euep yo alqedecurllpnrrrrr arc pue Surunr oraz arrnbar rer1rsuonnlos snoJlru {ooq>loor oJ?s -1ru3 ulal 3oordlooJ IIes slerv'p l1pnrl,,' slep asaqrsraJnrreJnuBtu -sls snonru rzqr snora8u?pos sr snoJlru ,pu?q Jaqro ar.lluO 'srJtr{$luuJruala Jo spoJ ,suolsrd ,ssa1 ro {BaJq pue ryen spuores ur seAIEA r{f,Jol uef uoltraful snoJlrN 'Suorrtrare SuruD Jo seJnlxnu IanJ/JrE uaq.^!a8euep aur8ua rlqdorrserer Sulsner 'pu"q auo uO 'nattad sr Surunl 3o ayqederlpuaurua sr snorlru parerdsr llprurou pun Surunl snorlru ur8aq ra^a plnoqs auo ou 'esrnorJO 'uorrerqrlBl jo sad& raqro uer{rrlnlrgrp arou puB JJrsEa r{toq sr Sulunt snoJlru puz 'as?f,plrads E sr snoJlrN '(uado lpuersuoc) rllels o3 srol -ca(ur aqr pue udr raq8rq re uonrafur ro3 arun alq?lre^Espaof,xa srapurllc aql ur IenJJo rg8rar'r urtlref, e ra8 or parrnbar qlpl^a aslnd aqr;l ro 'sdorp arnssatdIrBr IanJrer{t qlns ruatsls llddns IanJaqrJo lrrcedrc aqr spaarxalanyparnbet y.uattad qrprm aslnd uonrafur pue Surun uonru8r aqr ra8 or dlaq tou IIr^.r t1 'sderu uonlu8r pue aql uBr{t rnoqe ol aroru sr arar{rrng IenJ {ulql '(ualorq aq ueqr PUE 'atuo qoou{ aulSua l;eror e 'les laqr se :[1a7atpautu,q L-;pg I1l.,,r^ aql a>lrlaur8ua lreror ? uo spas xade aqr {Earq 11tmpue) snta -uu:rd uonBrqrler lferrorur ot enp qlou{ aulSua aqr llarzlp JI -aruurr rsoup spuel Surr >l?aJg uer saur8uapatra(ur-snoJlrupu? persoog 'uonlu8r-ard palyonuofun ur rlnseJ pue Jaqr.uBr.lf, uon 'uJnl ur 'uBJ ter{r >lfoul alelas alerpawrur -snguof, aqt rEar.lJalo afnpur u?c saJnlxru u?al pu" Sunurt tfeJJoful IanJ 1:eds 'dlprrqdonseler aulSua aqr a8eruep uEf, se>l?lsnu lpr.us uaq.&\ '8urpeo1-raq8rq re srueldramod parsooqW1,.'\ os roN 'aurlr 3uo1r roJ eltrorgr uado-eprmpue paadsdot re alJrr{a^aql Suruunr are nod pue q8rq ftart sr on?J uolssardtuof aqr ssalun Sulunt rood r.pr^\se^lasuaqrunq or Surpeol lprruerlf,aru pu? Ieurar.p q8noua ateraua8 uJoplas srueldrartrod raans parerrdse llprurop 'Soprep e rno -qrlr\ ueq./\,\ Suluaddeq sE^\req^\ rno arn35 0l rlnluJrp lrarr sr lr 'JeAo sr unJ uoneJalef,f,E uB uer.ll\ puE 'suonf,aJJof, e>leluor rsooq

aqt a>lrlJeleruorelarre uo-dens :o oulp E pu? (IleqpeaJ Ienraur .rse; e agg llqeragard tarau UCV pueqaprrvr 3o lrrlrqelrc^B roJ a8ue:re ol Ienuessa sr u 'aur8uaparsooqe uo rarrrodrgnads q3rq roJ aunl or dpear arB pue Surunr asrnrr rq8rl pue alpr rarsBa ar.p aralduoc nol uaqitr 'sdeur elnBlJasuoo alqrsnrld qrr^r ue^E '(Sulurn aroru pue IanJssaltueMpu IIrl!\tsooqJo slaml ra -q8H rBrp sr uo lunof uec nol Surqr auo) uorlralp Suorrrraqt ur papzar{ere soner lanJ/rrepue Surun ueq.&paralunorua llpnr:e nol rooq ur.13t(/ ral lou a.rreg tp utatftpuorbq slurcd pua srurod Surpeol-paads parerunocuaSuncalJof,put .Bwp aqr ?ugfi1euv,,h -olrrJal parsooq orur radaappue radeapsleroj lcrnb SurSSoprep 'suolllpuor persooq uo dn >leaus ol paau 11,nol,uaql ua,rg 'suon"ln)pl pueq ro arB,&\Uos Surlapou qrI^\ tlrnq sdewpalrlwl?r to,aulSua lBlrruepr llruau Jo lufrruepr uE ruou uon?rqrFf, B rer{lra arrnbe: I11l slql .aprs grrr aqr uo dya;es eg ot umou4 dew IenJ peol-rer{8g B pu? ,(os lysnolnrrpr_r tou lnq 'al?f,s ar{l Jo apls paprBral eql uo) alnrlresuor aq ol umouq deu Surrun E qrr^\ ue:s $nut nol ,aur8ua reppe-ra^\od'e uo llrelncnre4 .irotrlt SuqapoutpooS ut p4o0t tlutt{ ueld Surunl cr8arens? peau 11.nol,rr Surseurp tnoqrr/y\ srappe-rar'rod qtrrrr aulSua u? arBJqrlBl llarrncagga oJ lrsrg ln ol uonre lrrrorrd rsaq8lq aqr sr qrI{,4A.isuonf,EsnorJelJo saruof,lnoalqrssodeql eJEr?r.LA arv alqrssodeqr aJ?wqA\ ilua^a ar{tJo ;s1srrdue erJr.{r isuonte suorrurrldur aqr are l?q,4il. ;pauaddeq aleg leul luJla uB suosBar alqlssodaqr ere l?qA\ l1prr3o1>lugl pue .lparnb lrs ,roloru aqr u./doprnqs or &11q" ruaned aqr paru y1.nol ,uorseccoug 'Sunpun slslpu? pue ralel roJ selou poo8 daal ot peau 'luarulladxa ue Surop E aIIT '(lem snon8rqureun lsnuerrs 11,nod uB ur straJJa-puz-asnef, anJr r{srlqersa nol os erun p rE alqeue^ ,aldruexaro3) uorreruarulradxa -euo lluo pue-auo Sut?uey: se .prr8o1 pue ,ruaned qrr/y\r?rlruBJ se IIa.{4. Jo spoqrau f,Unuarf,s 'pazrue8ro .lou lral aq ol ro paau y1,nol paruarradxg 'uraqr e Er{ or a-re llqeqord nol llrrll sseleqr 'slool rlrsou8erp paau nol atou aqr 'lypcruorl 'a{ours lrelq qru easplnor laqr ssaluneluarogrp al{r ^,'rou>I rou plno^r aldoad lueytr iarusnu ol aulSuaaqr Sursnec sr wqr arnlxnu ueal B aur8ua Suruunr-q8noJ pue e Suronpord s,reqrarnrxru r{f,rJ B uaa.&\tag alueraJJrp eqr IIel nol op aoH :elpr poo8 e Joj IIe,/y\ Surunl sEqfns jjnrs aldrursar{rJo anJl osles,rrlnq 'srappe-;amoduorrcnpur-palJoJJo snoJlru qtvrr saur8uaJoJJenJl uale sr srql'uoneJqrlBf arenbapeuE op ol sJalauouleulp srssBrlf arnleradruarse8lsner{xa,srazlpue se8-rrpru .sJataru puB 'sJosuas 'rseg a>lrl sloot Sulunt parecnsrqdospaau nol UCV Pu"qaprrrr ilou eyt 'are nol pacuarradxe ssq eqt reql sr aJll Jo r)BJ V 's? ot/tautJotJa-pual?tu,,' outp-gnq,,slupd -acp-lo-wasr(q pu aur&uaup aunt ot aldoadrout nt a1qtssod 11am n q :3uu1t aqr saJaH 'sloor rrtsou8erp rq8rr aqr a,terqrnut nor{, 'asr.,vrrerfo'a8palrrnoulrsed uo peseq uorreJqrlef alqruoseeJp op or alqe aq luru uarsls luaura8euau aur8uaJo pu"rq rgrcads e pu? suonBr5rpor.u Jo sadlr rgnads qrrrn eur8uaJo pu?rq pue adlr relncrrrede qrrrtrt acuarradxa p pap laa8 ? qtr.zv^Jeunt V 'PaAIoAuraJe or{./r\ 'fruaprda llpnrrrl s lr uorutuor sJnal?ru? 1ue-lsleml? rou s(trpu? os sl Surunr-ap l?uorrualurunJo uos srql 'paxg aq or raunr ord aqr or llBq sallrqe^ rraqr 8ur:q lsnu uaql lr,{J .auntJo olels aqr Surper8apur lluo paDJns pue rartroderou a{Bru or lJolJa uE ur uoueJqrpr poo8 E r{rr,/v\ 8ur:eduer uo lsrsur sJetuolsnf, asar.lJ

on their engine manMany performance shops pride themselves it (perhapssecretlove They problem-soluing abilities' "g;.i, a problem created fixing hero, a be to a.h".r|. lfi *h..t ih.y g., (even better) a competing performance shop' du " .,rr,o-.iot be dangerous. eipecially if it involves selling expensivenew Partsor equrPment' how and It is certainly true that a good basic knowledge of "\if.'ll hau. to change out tf,e Framajigger for a'Whatsahoosits; ,"t. f,t.t ".,d sp",f timing at variousspeedand load*hy;;gi;;, isn't *:orth a damn and could never work on your Framajigger a engines irrj r"n[., is important. It is also true-a lot of carbureted i q r i lr'ttilbeere Super-60-poweredtrike. Squirrel.Performance tune' The *Jr..rt"operating atavery accurateand high stateof 60 counts shouli never have installed it, but since they're under terrible, with mixture iistribuiio' b.r*..n cylinders was often you get what incompetence, for sentence death a and fr",ra oi and others ,"-. ,irgfe carb cylinders .,rrrning much leaner than pay for." you ' directed toward -iki.tg sure the leanestcylinders i""i"f.Ff"rts in the Performancetuners can be very good at looking you were running safelYrich. about their ability to certainry absolute conveying and eye cubic \7hat's -or., the specific Power (horsepower Per trike' ".hi..r. lo*-."rih-Jrbit with a l9l2 John-Deere-powered engines was vastly less inch) of musclecar-.r" p.,fo'-""tt Many is' one what sure Performance actually aren't they if ."." horsethan recent sPort-compact et'gines, and even the gross rhopt h"u. " very hard time turning down targetsof opportuniturThtti are plenty of t'a-[9r l.sr. of,.., *", fo*., 'bo.h"rg.d specializationand expertise' | ,it", ar. outriie their ordinary Hondas making more horiepower than a 1970 426 to The deadly combination of pride and greed can lead Hemi elephant engine. onrequire definition' by shops taking on tuning projects^that, lessthan gday's suPerNot fnly *.rJold., engines-stressed old exPertiseon systemsthey ,[.];ob ,r"iiirrg"" (or d"usting fortunatelyun r o -off h i gh-o utp ut p owerplarrts, b",,t-fortunately shopswelcome the chance to time)]Some long in seen h"u.rrt for polrr,, igrritio.r, "rrd ."rburetors targeted by T1"yf":tYrers could g.. p"ia to learn .nJ* engine managementsystem'*!:h in their specific engines were' practically ipeaking' limited worst The changes' equipment and p"rl result in unnecesr".y leopt. *o.tld adjusi idie-air-screwsto set airlfuel ;'d;;;.;i3or vehicle engine yout damagtd shop if'a be would o.rr.o-. a little to mixture at idle, and they mightswap main jets around working on a systemwith a steeplearning.cu.rve' wide-open throttle, but they were fo, best accelerationne-ar *. to Tlie follo*ing are some rules of thumb that can help you like venl.*lik.ly to make radical changesto basic components tVhere heartache: of sort this avoid they iuri, ,t ", greatly affect midrange .airlfuel ratios' . I would not use a tuning shop that lacked extensiveexperience in ways that -"J. .h"n!.r, thesewere likely Io be incremental' system. Preferably,they specific e.,ginJ-"r"g.-.nt *i,h ;;* and that affected oni particular areaof th. timing or fuel curve dealer. a be should shapeor slopeof a fuel or timing curue'^ left alone the-basic . unless the tuner were a wizard who I knew to be a wizard, I (for really There *... .r.u.', many."rb,rr.t.d turbo motors from satisfiedcustomers.other would probably wanr references with boostgood ,."rons), and withoui the requirement to deal with a tunert technical expertsatisfaction verif' can customers approach 3d .ngi.r.r, hot rodders tended to follow a cookbook opinions about suPPort caPahave also will ise. and customers normally aspirated-perform,o p.r"fo.-ance tuning for- specific fairness' and "a policies, financial bilities, slock compression 350 Chevy "tJ. .tgirres. For, ."1-p1., . I would l.rot .ror-"lly use a tuning shop for engine manageand a headers, tube x2-inch grind, xl cams com a with moror "*4 chassis ment calibration that'did not have its own in-house ^ 'njets, x5 Power valve' with Holley x3 carb needsHolley rule might this circumstance, exceptional Under you need x7 &;;-;;.ter. the acceleratorPumP rod in the x6 position' and with a b! modified if a runer had a close working arrangement ad.r".r.e sp.ingr in your distributor and x8-degrees cenuifugal to do is possible it Vt', a dynamomett'' F have did ;t;; th;t ihat o total timing." (no' not thatkindof strap-on!) job straP-on a with r,rrrirrg F "!""a and costs actual Jet-swipping is smelly, time-consuming' pr..rdo-dyno fifth-wheel device (that is, G"i.lero-.,.i-ryp. ih. p..cirely machined jets (unlike key strokes ."rhj-o..y'fo, wideband airlfuel-ratio meter (or an engine "Ut. a poi T.ch) and to make = ;;; .;;p.rt.r, *hi.h are free), so tuners were lesslikely that supports a wideband O, sensor)' or' at system management fuel screw ii. kindr'of radical changesthat would completely lP desert3 " *irii-,rnl, #th a wideband AFR meter and a bunch or real work and J.irt.ty. Bo,,o- line, ii the old days it iook F has that shop a with comfortable more I am However, ed road. systems' moneFto royally screwup physical engine management dynamometerthan one a in $20,000-plus investment the made have so it did.rt h"pp." ", -.r.h ", it doestoday when computers not UJ that has not. \what's more, a shop th"t o*.tt the dyno does radicallv the efficiency with which people..can dyno extensive more get ;;;rry ;.r."lla to likely you're so time, dyno buy ,o h"rr. 3lr.*'rrp electronic engine management systemcalibrations' "rri prob"bly a better calibration than a situation where "*t, modifications is what I One trend in englne -"n"gi^.nt ".'irt,'r""I."rb,,"t-o'," that is' modifring a stock yor'rt i.tt.t is on the clock. like to call the . Possession of an engine dyno (for example,a Superflow) test cell to fix engine management system for power-adder conversions You can drive a car onto is a leading indicatolof griat seriousness. electronic U"[ OEV1 bJhavior with a potentiometer-equipped in a few minutes; an rwo or pull a off rip "rrd a chassisf,y.ro box that gi't'esa tuner the semi-automatedoption i",.t..p,"t easierin the somewhat was It .orrrplicaied' is ,,'or. dyno engine selectedrubi.t, of the fuel and timing 9lrves by turn;il;ilg attaching a but engines a"i, "f carbureted distributor-ignition a scratch i"* " f.rr"oU-and without the challengeof building or connecting and dyto. ingine an to powerplant i,rll-in1..,.d equal to the factory's. Comp-anieslike Techlusion do .;il;d." make it work outside the engine to takes it .rrirythi"g f"U.i."ti.rg changes a sreat iob of providing the abiliry to make incremental bay of a Jar ryp\rally"takes ho.urs'However, when they calibrate keeping-it ;"?;;,.4- "t ,p..ifi. "r".", of injiction and timing' in Deiroit or Munich or Japan or wherever, they start ."ii"o like in the ,irriple "nd piot..ting people from themselves-just wiih radically expensive warer-brake or eddy-current engine old days.

tunSome old-timers and bike tuners have a lot of experience people how about lot a know they and ins carbureted engines, b.f|re rhere were fart .*h",r.t gas analyzers,wideffiil;;l;;s dynos. This can band airifuel-ratio meters, or affordable chassis

VIRTUAL CARBURETORS

HOWTO HIRE SOMEONE ELSE TO DOTHE CALIBRATION/TUNING

c,

o E

126^

LZ'

F F

o
(9 =

z
f F

o
=
IIJ

uno^sxvSuguSNnroudvil lvHnl

aqr elpu?q sla>1uour asrarSJrar{rrel sJeu^\o-Jaunl srqr ssnfsrc 'Paurpur os sr aq JI ua^a aau roJ lI xu or elqsun aq lsoru os 'l1sr.r raqro rnol slo-rrsap aq uEf, suoneJqrFc aur8uE iercq ar{ saop sanrlrqrsuodsar rq8rur aq 'arua8rlSauq8norqr aur8ua re11op-q8ry aqr sl . Jaunl ? JI 'parruJrlllurerrar ar? Jeunl el{r Jo safrnoseJpuosrad rBqrfl\isuonErqrpr uo Surtyll l,reaq aqr Surop IIIrs rau./v\o 'rroddns rcnpord poo8 rago l(u?r ssaursnq rno oB reqr eqJ'uos?ar raqlo lue ro CI?9Uruory a3eurepaur8uaraloo plno^ Jo sJeunlPUE'ssaursnq s1l^o{I)I or{ \ auoauos l?r{t aou?rnsuraler{ or l1e1r1unsr raunl E 'plJo^\ par aql ul InJssalfnsE unJ or 1viog 'rng 'afuerradxa Jo uonelrpur u? sr tr Jo uonmrpur uE srqr sr lluo 'Suttun 'rarraq 'aur8ua 'ra8uol ord uon aqr aqJ Jaunl y rnol elzuoop pFor{s roN o tou issaursnqul uaaq ag seq 3uo1Aa.of{ 'JelnursJo 'Jataru)arotr 'eqrro11e pa{lel or{^\ Jeunl -ru8r Suorm Jo salnlxlru u?el qrl,rr\ aut8ua rnol rrnq fi(tau plnoqs J e Sursn reprsuof, rou ppo./r\ llarnlosqe I 'r{uoJ os puB 'sadors raunl eJuBr.uJoJJed puorssagord e 'poo/rJoN qog Jaunrradns -olpso 'srazlleue orrsou8elpII-CSO 'sraz,{puese8 rsneqxa'(eq ro arua8llSau q8nortp luatu sEI[eC or Surp.rocJv 'ssaussalaref, -!roH e 'aldruexaro;) srarau onpr-lonJ/rr?pu?gapr./\4,'rse; -drnba pue srred donsap ol lou pue 'asluadxa;o aar8ap r{8tq e apnlour e 'pueq Jor{roaqr uO a^?q or parcodxasr Jeunl leuorssaJoJd ppoqs reunl B roJ luaudmba cnsou8rrp leuorlrpp? alqerrsaq . 'raunl aql 'rsru t? prp laqr ueql suorssas Surunl Jo rlnBJ ar{t Sunuaunrop Jo qo( rarraq e op or Suruur8aq are soulp srsseqr Sulunt or pareleJune8eurp Jal{roro 'stalse8 P?Jtl u,/!^olq lou aJB 'arourlue r{Jnru se tr peeu 'suolsrd Jo spoJ ua{oJg 'aurSua aqr SurnnaJ-Jaloro Sunsooq ra(oulq qrr,,trsdoqs luetu torr.a^rrrog -rar'o s4earq eq ssepn (>FaJqelo lq arua8rlSau srrcd r,uop laqr ter{r palualradxa pup ruaprJuof,os are ,{aqr esnefag g8norqr 'lred ur :uonBlua(uncoppoo8 lra,r daal pu op oqa sJaunlradns -rqarrrnol uo surd plru?qr3lu rcu sI Jaunl V 3r elqrsuodsar 'c?gu euos ^,\oDI I ler{l pp? ol lu?^r op 1 'su8ls poo?,Oartarc tuollarxa PalIEl s,u lqi'r s,r?ql'uoga clnu ue ur sued auos uonetuarunf,op alnuareJ-leu? poo8 3o srol puz 'oulp srsser{f, Jo areldar ot e^?q &u nol rer{r pu?rsrepun pporls nol pue &t[q" aur8uauE Jeglrauo sunr oulp uoneJqrlBrJosrol 1(alcrqelJBInurs sg-to rsaq aqr or qof aqr op or raunr aqr Surrq lgerrseq or? no1 'srrrd E uo arnlnJ aqr ur InJasnlral aq uBf,r{f,ns a8ueqr Jo uorssassod; IBf,nrJf, Jo srrurrl IBuJaqr Jo Flruer{f,aru eqr aJnsJoJr'\eu>I s8uruaspue ruaudrnba sesprofar daal oq saoq ;sserSord Surunr aq Jou nod raqrrau pue 'ramod aJour paluBl\ no1 'Jaunl aql Jo 'poo8 dael eq saoq 'sunroulp luur Surqtatuos 'puets uec or.{l llntJ aqr rou llear sr srql pue {BaJq Jo uon?luarunlop rrJnuens st rarttod I{JnIIr salou unJ 3qr 3as ol >lsv'(es?l 3 r{3ns ur stueuoduoo aur8ua anbrot r{fnru aor{ Jo alq1ssod qlll\,\ ParElf,oss? rt,t,au aSurnsJo srrurl eqr slpd oulp fupu aq ppoqs araqr) oulp aqt uo rarnduo] prBoquo ,/tAOq rno Pug or Sunuaulrodxa 'sp1.rom aqr Sunerqrle] pa^lolur asaql 3o lueu ,,\,ror{ Surqsnd 'rcaford aur8ua CAU uz Surop are nol uel{^\ pue 'l1srr puv isrlrr.lrrt s5l ul a^Eq eq saop slpd ro sunroulp lueur rrroq 'oulp ? sug lpuaraqur sr saur8ua tndrno-q8rq-radns atuos Sutterqlpf, 'uorranb srqr uo sJaunl ag Sururnssv eq ser{suonBrqrlErr{rlens lueu ^.oH :alqe pJalas paaal^Jeru iauop I -Jrsapllatuarrxa 'asJnof 'sr afuarradxa rol ? qrl.l( Jaunl f e Jo Jo e3Ntt)Nf 'on?J lanJ/rrc rra;rad aqr llasnard re anbror rsaq ras ol (sarrttaans qrra peoJ eqr uo lelal Basr? alqelarqfe lou suonEurq -uroc uala) Surpeol pue paadsgouoneurgruor asnard lue rB lrus int mor( uo Sutytom ruam no,( aunaals s, uunl acll -seoeuse 3uo1se aur8uaaql ploq ol sraaur8ue alqeua reqr soulp tarptood tzu ry A(J autzu8rpy'saut8ueSunerqrpr rnoqe op larp uBrll Ud ra8 or.&\oqrnoqB asrlradxaerotu e^Eq oqr'r eldoad rnoqe araql lno salf,nr? 'uoueuotap dptl paadsaweg t161t1 at11q1m Auop ry09 aff arer{l Puv 'srosnre^PErnoqB ^l[el) pnllrc uep 'anbtoJ qcu qlns lo uo\ezuoden p teaqAwlooc saJntnw aLU'l:t t aaoqe -adsa'lrors aloq./v\ 6nl p oneJ el{r IIar tou deur sel3IlJB 'uoqeJado paads-ruelsuoo q1tr,t uncJo pn! awlose0 Jo]saAJne nnod >1ead lsaq qcuJo tlcu t.sn[ auroslng 'aralduor 11rrc3 put lseuoq ar? 'olteJ qdefi su.11ul pnl/Jrc /e-lanlsnstaapaadsawegpuenmod pctdll aasaAA oner(pnf xe 1ou/ sdoqs pue sraunl rnoqe salrnre plruqler pnj u! Jallew aqtlo ueaq aqt s,alaH aq qtut Apeat0 fueapaadsaweypueJaMod :uoneJquec lueyq 'eJar.{r rno s,tr pue 'll ra8 or r'loq r,.tou)lX4 aurzeS?rulu?^{ oqrrr srarlddns OL&VU IIIV-TEII*iI pue s.raunr poo8 ruatudmba-efueruJoJJad lsory 'sJOsnJO^pB lnoq? saoard-gnd aru laqr uagr'r llrelncnred 'seuols qo(-no1q Pall?J osP aJ? salf,nJPr{f,ns sauDauos 'FlJorrpe puB Sutstua,rpe spJol( aqr 'leuouelpe ,{ 3o punoduroc dddequn ue aurze8eu teqt su/lpurarur ol reJeraydoad D ! o 3 slep asoqrsalf,nr? 3o lruald ar? areqr rnq o t '8urqr poo8 e eq uBf,SII{I o u rl isaulze3eutnc ! o snorrerr ur Jeul{o aqr ro dogs af,ueruJoJJad o s o lueu uaaq araqr aA?f{ o aqr rnoqe selJnJe x t o g 'aurt lue lur aunt uBf, uIA4. aur8ua B c o leql sJel alBJ satEJql[P]oq,/t^euoauos It 3 G dauou auos (aleq or pasn ro) seq puu tt ! o o '3urop aI{ 'lgrluans s relllv\ pue B t InJaJBlsr o O }| slroul or{ sarrlrpur aruatradxa 3uruuy111 o o dauou aruos-aler1 ol pasn Jo-sBL{ Jaunl ? selef,rpurSurcer jo drorsrq y . 'uonzJqrlef rnol uo Suqrortr aeloldua ue or elqeraJardsr raunr-rJur o ur lurgr d1 -puosrad J 'sa^lasuaqr oulp aqr uo #nrs llorrr er{l Jo eref a{el pue suon?lprsur

'o r'

issueaheadof time and come to an agreemenr.If it would be catastrophic if your engine breaks,make sure the runer understands this. A tuner might work differently-more carefully, farther from the raggededge-if it is essentialto avoid damageversusif the highest prioriry were to searchfor the absolutelimits of deliverable maximum power. The bottom line is that the reasonfaaory enginesoften have the capabiliry to be hot rodded to higher power levels is that automakersmust warranr them and thereforealwaysdesignthem to run at power levels a conservatively safe distance from mechanical and thermal damage. Actually, in the distant past, back in the 1960s, there were a few vehiclessold by automakers for street or track use without uarranty for racing use with radical hairy engineslike Chrysl er's 426-ci RaceHemI, Fordt SOHC Cammer 427, and a few others.Today all streetable vehicleshave to passemissionsand have warranties, and no one sellsanything without a warranry. Basically,if something breakson the dyno while tuning and it is clearly the tunerk fault through egregiousnegligence, rhe tuner may want to fix it to protect his reputarion. If this happened essentiallythrough dishonesryor fraud (he sold you junk that was bound to break or to break the engine in your application), you could suehim, and maybeyou'd win. And if you won, maybe there'd be something to take. But those are big ifs. The best insuranceis to find a good, experiencedtuner with a good reputation, tools, and financial resources.Pay his high prices and expect him to do his best for you. And if something goes wrong that is beyond his and your "Thatt control, tell yourself, racing."

ENGINETUNINGTHEORY
To tune an engine effectively,you will need ro understand the theory of volumetric efficiency,burn rate, spark advance,airlfuel ratios, temperature, air-pressure, detonation, and fuels.

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY AND ENGINE FUEL REOUIREMENTS

A piston engine is, in a sense,a self-propelled air pump that breathesin a quantiry of air through the throttle related to the displacement of the engine, and exhalesnitrogen and combustion products through the exhaust.But even ar wide-open throttle (WOT), the amount of air that entersa spark-ignitionpiston engine variesconsiderablydepending on-sruff. There are many factors that affect how much air actually enrersthe engine'scylinders under various operating conditions (almost alwalys lessihan the static displacement of the engine excepr with highly optimized performance engines utilizing resonarion-effectstuned intake and exhaustsystems, or on turbo or supercharged engines, which may easily operate at 100 percenr or more of static displacement, also known as the uolumetic efi.cienqtor VE). Torque is the instantaneousrwisting force that an internalcombustion engine is able to impart to a crankshaft,averaged over the combustion cycleby a flywheel. Over time, torque can be used to do work such as acceleratinga car. Peak rorque occurs at the engine speedand loading at which an engine (with power-adders, if present) is most efficient at ingesting air into the cylinders. Therefore, peak torque is also peak uolumetricfficienry, or YE. Peak torque requires the largest amount of fuel per combustion cycle, hence, the longest injector open-time or pulse width. Even though engine breathing is less efficient at speedsabove peak torque and thereforeeachputt is lesspowerful, more combustion eventsare occurring per time, and the engine will make its peak power at fasterspeeds than peak torque. Due to the definition of

o F
(9 =

z
o
=
f F

IJJ

power as a function of torque 15,250,thesetwo measuremenrs are always the same at 5,250 rpm. A properly tuned engine will always use the most fuel per rime at peak power. On modern normally aspirated srreer engines, engineers strive to design engines to have as high a VE (torque) as possible acrossthe range of engine operating speeds.One hundred percent VE is the amount of air that would be in the cylinder of an engine at bottom dead center at resr,minus the combustion chamber clearance volume (the displacement of the engine). It is extremely difficult or impossible to achieve 100 percent VE when the engine is running, becauseit takes a certain amount of time for air to rush into the cylinders,and there is a limited amount of time (eight or nine thousandthsof a second at 7,000 rpm), and there are resrricrionsin the way. Most street piston enginescannor achieveanything like 100 percenr VE, settling insteadfor maybe 70 to 90 percent, but engineers work to build a high, flat torque/VE curve acrossthe rpm range. A number of factors conspire to prevent a full 100 VE in normally aspiratedsrreet engines.There is normally at least a slight pressure drop through a throttle body or carburetor, even at wide-open throttle (particularly with a carb due to the need for a restricting venturi). All carburetorsand fuel injection throttle bodies restrict airflow-producing a pressure drop-when the throttle blade is partially closed (and sometimes even when it's wide open). Intake ports and valvesoffer at least some restriction at some engine speeds.The exhaust stroke does not expel all burned gases because some exhaustis trapped in the clearance volume. The exhaust valves and exhaustpipes offer some restriction as well. The camshaftprofile of an engine has a huge effect on rhe VE of an engine at various speedsand loading. If a normally aspirated engine had a perfectly flat torque curve acrossthe rpm range, injection pulse width would not vary at all with engine speed, but would be a function only of engine loading. If VE is entirely independent of engine speed, then the amounr of air entering a cylinder on the intake stroke will depend entirely on the amounr of air pressure in the intake manifold, hence,injection pulsewidth is a linear function varying preciselywith the voltage from a manifold absolute pressure sensor,with peak VE and rorque at the highest achievablemanifold pressure.Since many modern srreetenginesdo havea prerry flat torque curve, a calibration in which pulse width varies in a linear fashion from zero atzero manifold pressureto maximum power pulse at full achievable manifold pressure is a good approximation of an ideal steady-stateairlfuel table optimized for peak power. Given the varying VE of an engine, rhe amount of air in the cylinder at any given breakpoint is not perfectly predictable. Again, you can assumethat the maximum VE occurs at the point of peak torque. This will be the point of maximum injection pulse width, with pulse width falling off both above and below this. Maximum power will occur at a higher rpm than peak torque where the engine is making more power strokesper time increment, although the power strokesare lessefficient at speeds above the torque peak and will therefore require less fuel to be injected per power stroke. In some cases, engine rorque and VE vary considerablywith rpm. Normally aspiratedenginesoptimized to run efficiently at very high speed with resonarion-effectsintake-runner and exhaust tuning at the expense of very weak low-rpm rorque capabilitiesare one example.Some such engineshave achievedas much as 10 psi positive pressureat the intakevalve from inertial and resonation effects. Anorher example of varying VE is

6ZJ
prrdlr V 'lsd 0gZ se qlntu se .luarrad 0E rq llrsea uer aur8ua uolssardwor I:0I E snsJalaurSuauorssardtuorI:E.g ur ul urcB arnssard ur afuaJaJJlp oqJ,.a;nssarduorssardruof, lBnrur eql sewn .l1pu-ro51 .arnr , oi g'g sr JsrJ arnssardrequer.lJ uorlsnguor -xru a8reqo IanJ/Jreaqr ruog lSraue Sunra8 lB luarf,rga aJo(u ar? loqt asnrcaq ra,,rrod aJor.u e{eru saur8uauolssarduol-q8lH

aqr rarear' aqr'paads r.lris.:il:'J:il:',il" r,,os ffilIJ'T;

o F
(9 =

o E
lrJ

D F

I{rrr ar{r ur llplradsa) srqr tuog rurod suonf,rrrp ueel pue qlrr .UCV aqr qroq ur dlprneuerpJJo 3u11p3 I:I.II rBau sernlxrru r{f,rr lE lselwJ sl paads auBIC 'u8rsap raqurBr{r uonsnguof, pue 'saset aS,reqoaqr Suoure aJualnqJu .onBJ uolssarduor trsuap 'olrer lany/rrB uo Sulpuadap ,puocos :ad laag gg 1 urrp aJoru ol puofas rad raa30ZurotJ lrurr sa.rnlxlu rrc-aurlose8 ro; spaads ruog-auelJ rBr{r Felar rapurylc B ul aloqr:od _ r q8norqr luale uonsnquoc aqr Surproral s?Jaruropreadg lparra pue dlqroous Suru-rnq(aprsrarpo aqr ser{f,Bal lr Inun JaquBr{J ar{l ssoJJ? sa^otu Jagtu?ql uonsnq -ruof, B ur ruory ar.uBlt aql ,uonsnqwo] IEruJouSurrnq .paurls s?^,arg eqr aJar.lv\ ruorglerr,re urnq ol sser8,ftp3o pleg E roJ arun sa>Ier rr se lpouxa 'arnlxrru lery/Jr? ar{r ur peards or arueu ar{r roJ etun sa>lpl lI 'plag u ur Sururnq sse:3/rp rril Surqrauos ,suorl -rerlp ul3n1d eqr p tuory ele.,n B ur speards lno etu?U r?qr ruory e Suruels 'eJnlxrur passardwof, er{r sarru8r 3n1d lary/rr? ryedi ar{r JaUBsJnJf,oaulSua uonruSr-1redse ur uonsnquof, [Er,uJoN

3M

NUnS'tfnl

frJlarunlo^ ou qtr1^larn llqerdaf,J? unJ or ap?u aq uBf (saurSua f,HO_C uJapou ua,ra) saur8ua uortonpord lso(u,, rBr{r lno sturod elnoruoJlf,alg rarlddns SWA ra{reurarJv .sunxtrartor gA 0u qqm uanaerueutrograd poo8 llarurelar Jrnpord leu aslnd 1ps .anb;or uonca{uy uon?urxorddu eurl-rg8rens e Jo 4uad-reau ro anb:ot >pad acnpord lyrrs 11rr',r aur8ua u? r{rrr{,/v\ tE saJntxur ,leg lou sr alrnr Iary/rlB yo a8uer peoJq llarrrrrlar aqr uarrlS 'JeAe^ .udr Je^,\ol anbrol aql uala o11 tE tsooq a>lerulouuer JI leqr uonerado paads-q31q ro3 pazrurlrdo saur8uapa8reqcoqrnr

t#i'il':;'ld# |jTH: .*'r1l' pa' e r{.a, .,r,,, Jl# uu ffi fi

'aur8ua aql orur ^ o[JJrB ss?ruuo stJega&rsuap rre srf,agallpearp Surpear{V eql erurs ,lrrsuep JrEJoJ uonfeJJof a.rnle.radruar ou arrnbal suon?lnlpl IanJ pa$q-{VIAJ rBr{t eroN 'urdr aur8ualq papr.,rrp a8erloir. {VI tr'aqruo pas?qsr uonelnf,lur .(paads aulSua uo luapuedap t7r7&q ,{t IanJ _rrseq aqr uaqr -uanbarg ro e8erlol Josu3s rndrno) ./\ ,o[JJrB ssetu (c-ilrrl) B sr rrrel -sls luaua8eueu aur8ua ue roJ alr^op Sulrnsuau-peol eqlJl 'aPPIru aqt ur arer,l/y\aruos lsar ar{r pue ,rvrols lrarr luacrad Et .(an qSrq) rseJlran ,Sulurr.lr?ru tuao:ad g sdeqrad qurra. rar{ro selgord pue aqol urer ur suoDpuE,rt rueogruSrs ol anp EA ul lpea-r8perJBA arreqsaurSua 'llporrorsrq rlmq-d-rorre3 te.rrrod ur rnq tuao;ad E.I ueql ssaldre,r .sJapur/o snor saur8ualrore; ruaudlnba-pur8rro \eu aqJ lse -rEAuaa^\teq ro sa8uerSurpeol pue spaads ssoJf,? lparra Jnoro IIE lou lru srqr rnq-sawalf,ap EA sll ,lno sJeas, aulSua uB sV

'lndlno 'aunc aqlp yed Aa||o11 pn! pwtutw Jol uotldwnsuoc Pql tlttM JaMod plnon pue acnpotd Aluo frurueaw 4ead z I pU aqtqZ puelOulrqot paqcuuo aq ota^eqppotAile,Z pue u uoleuotaprua^ard ol.uealootare pue pn] staputlAS I puenuiod ssal lunsern Z t 'uollnqlAslp iwtnpotd 't'lcuool areI pue '7 'g stapwlAS pnl pwqdoqns acnpotd sploluew lart (Et ro qtecl rutod-alflurs pr17 nel aqj syetlcqdeta 'Awouoca qfrnoqllewgdo s! 090'0 It16yaq1 rcnod ssalsacnpord pry $aq n7 'uo4dwnsuor pnl tsat4ol to ouerne-pry e eqt sarnpordO1O.,-S,O.O tuo\nqulslp pnllrc ]o olPJrle-Pry e tauod lsaqroJ PalJadqltil iluneradoaufiua ue q 'oBeJ awes aqtte rnJco lou op rlelqttA'(JJS1) uo4dwnsuoc pnl crycacls alerq pue (dl\d anssafi npwlAc aagcaga ueaw>1eaq >1ead s! )tseluo4erqtpcaqtle 4oolol Aeur raqpuv 10 sualary t16noryl

9r0'0

090'0

920'0

090'0

uolldtr|nsuoJ lanJ ctlt3ads alerS

uolld|,unsuoc lanJ 3tlrsads a{er8 3JS8

3J58

t d3W8
aJnssajd a^rlJallS

d 3W 8
aJnsseJd a^rl3ellJ

ueew
aIerS

ueaw
elerg

160 psi compression pressurerises quickly to over 600 psi following combustion. Pressurerise rates can exceed 20 psi per are highest at degreeof crankshaft rotation. Cylinder pressures wide-open throttle and are lowest at idle and light cruise, when intake manifold vacuum is very high and engine VE very low. Combustion proceedsfaster under higher compression. Turbulence is carefully designedinto combustion chambers. Some swirl will produce greaterflame speed,more efficient combustion, and even help resistknock by spreadingthe flame front more quickly. Too much swirl will produce undesirable disturbance of the quench layer around the combustion chamber, increasingheat loss into the cylinder walls. The actual performance of fuel in an engine is closelyrelated to the releaseof energy in the combustion process.This is affected by dissociation of the reactants and products of combustion (splitting of molecules into smdler molecules or single atoms or ions) and heat transfer through the combustion chamber. Increasedheat in the combustion chamber makespower, but heat can also be pro-knock. At wide-open throttle at high speed, heat transfer amounts to about 15 percent of the fuelt thermal with increasedbrake mean effecenergy.This heat loss decreases tive pressurein the cylinder. The heat transfer is maximized at with the higher fuel flow stoichiometric airlfuel ratios, decreasing rates of rich mixtures. Heat transfer into the block and water jacket also depends on gas turbulence near the combustion with knock and other violent chamber surfaces,and it increases combustion conditions. Given that enginesinduct a fairly constant massof air for a camshafttiming, and intake temgiven speed,manifold pressure, perature, the need to improve spark-ignition engine power for racing has led to two main strategiesin an effort to increasethe amount of fuel that can be burned in the combustion chamber. the massof orygen intake by superThe first has been to increase charging or supplementary oxygen injection, mostly in the form of nitrous oxide. The second has been to search for fuels with high specific energy. In addition to the octane number requirement of an engine in order to avoid detonation, high-performance engines have other performance requirements for fuels, including volatiliry flame speed,weight, and volume.

o
E (f

tr
0.075
) TU :)
LL

0.060
ECONOMY: Part-throttle

RPM

POWER: Wide-open throttle

cc
E

0.075

|.U :f
|.L

0.060

RPM

o F
(9

SPARK ADVANGE
Spark advance,which is optimally timed to achievebest torque ATDC, by producing peak cylinder pressureat about l5 degrees increases octane requirements by a half to three-quartersof an octane number per degree of advance. Spark advance increases cylinder pressureand allows more time for detonation to occur. affect igniEngine speedrange and fuel burn characteristics tion timing requirements. As an engine turns faster, the spark plug must fire at an earlier crank position to allow time for a given airlfuel mixture to ignite and achievea high burn rate and maximum cylinder pressureby the time the piston is positioned to produce best torque, which is dependent not only on engine speedbut on mixture flame speed,which, in turn, is dependent not only on the rype of fuel but on operating conditions that change dynamically, such as airlfuel mixture. Therefore, an independent variable affecting the need for spark advance as rpm increasesis the need to modify ignition timing corresponding to engine loading and consequent volumetric efficiency variations, which demand varying mixtures. Throttle position, for example, affectscylinder filling, resulting in correspondingvariations in optimal airlfuel mixture requirements.

z
I

o
=

2 D lUJ

(r (r
) tU
f tL

POWER: Wide-open throttle

0.075

0.060
ECONOMY: Part-throttle

RPM

volumetric efficiency and ldealair/fuelratiosvarywith the engine's to producemaximum the necessity in modernautomotive engines powerat full throttle,maximum economy at part throttleandidle,and gooddrivability Holley in all ranges.

rtl
paadseru?UaJu?que ot oluepqJnt Jo elnpur ot l'auoa8 lJrt\s Jeqtuer{l uonsngruol pue srualsls uonJnpur Jo esn apeu Buol .uonlsoduoc al?r{ sJaeulSua arulotuolnv ql8ua:rs ro lan+ If,EXO eJuxlur u?qt ,slrturl urqrra ,luelrodurr' ,r-o*_prads ,ueg ur srorreJ ruelrodun llauanxa aft pup elualnqrnJ lJr.&rs .dr1-rarro a I?Aol anp a8:egr ralur aqr Jo uonnlrp lsner{xa uror3 Bulrlnser suonrnpu prrd, aluBlt auss osaqt ot enp a,,rrssar83e eq osF uec saulSuaruer_8rq uo eJuE pe aFrorqr_ued .{rou1 or lcuapuat oqr Bunnpar pue sa;ntrreduraluo'snguoc SulralLol'uorrnllplsnBrlxa pue uorrsnq -ruof ,,v\ols ur sllnsal udr rvrol tE EA rvrol tlcrnb-pue arrlssa.l88e aq uer aluoJqr >1reds aql .r.uBrBlq e qrr.2X IInJ rE af,uEApB

o
F

(9 =

'EpqurEI aullose8JoJon?r rarrrod_rsaq 9.0 sl fi:7Zl er;r :ep ,a.royarar{J .BpqurEI sl sBor parraJer .9*"1 0'l U{V lularuorqrrols arp llpnsn 'rureurorr{rrols a8eruaciad" tr pi*ia", uaryo are (eirr Jo aqr lq (soJnl)ohl.sJequnu relprus lq paruasarder are .1fr-+o ssof,xa .sernlxruJ .sraqunu ue sr areql qlFI^\ ur rarplg rar{Bl{ ,e inrro pu, sJJnrxru wal pellBl eJ?f,rJlaruorr{f,ro$ uBr{r JreJo aSeruac:ad ralea;8 .I:E.2I_g.gl B qrr.,\4,^sernr{hl ,auedord go a8ue-r eW ul erB qrlr{,,!\ ',1,6 gue se8pJnleu or puolaq p* i,9.tzt re aurlose8 or ai.r slou?qre 'Jt9r'9 s<louer{raur (f oi .lary or lB aupqlauonru ^,\ol ? L'l ruog Jo Surp'locrelrrrr sarnlauJ frJleruorqlrors 'frJrar.uorr{Jro$ se peJJeJeJ or sr onBr slql.L.il or pepunor llpnsn sl qllf\4, ,1aryrred pue rp I sued g9'71 r{tl.&\_srnf,f,o uonsnquof, ur peunsuo, ,rr r.r,1orr8pu' rl' Ip qrlrfa te-pq81arrrlq) a:nrxur larylip pepr lprrurqr ar{J 'p-roua8ul lrrlrqerrup rnq luaurarrnbai ,rq*nu ,urrJi-lpo rou srtaJJ? slanJJolrllreloa er.lJ.srotteJporelarJo rase pu? slanJ prnbll uor'zuoderr Jo 3o r"rq'B.rryoo, ,gl 3o ,-g, Burjooc:arul aql dq {roDI r?quor soneJ .lg1iapuifc; aurr lary/rre Jaqrry

tl:^;l'ffij]j# 'sr oJJ nstrr1, u uue q ur o, r r;::lJj 3,1",','Ji; s, paz,

IrI

o E

f F

:[]irj:9 : osle rnq Sulpeol ot butprorc? or Burproccelluo r6u lrerr pporls 'l1pap1 -(t'0t or ftry/te I:6 ruor3les) oner ur ,r"rrru, ,uo :]1"t Jao z+ Aq srueuarnbar eu?lfo Sursearcur ,(utrto) ruarua'nbar raqunu auBlro aur8ua uo lredur ro(etu ;-;r,{ orrer IenJ/rrV

rz -rapur/c ,"1nlrred" .r, rurslrdli"yo',,r,io*" ,q,

so|lvu ]:tnJ/utv

-Kr.u lary/rresrar l\ .ICEpesuas_{v^ uo rlaJJe ou a^sqplno.{r, rnq suatsls uoncafuryeny lrrsuap_paads ,rri1" ppol *nnr"n pa8ueq3'aur'Buorm rp i, urdo or'rrrl"rr rr^"6d rq, ,rrr,", *r,n -i:l r,:f-r: uarl^\ saPrqa^ palalnqJer roJ suelqordacnp flu",{, -oJCt ,'?rus.',ef loH .sernlxr(u uealJoBururnq ^o1, ir"rrlunoJ or pa:lnbarsr aruelpe lrrds p.ronipp" ,pua rouBalaqr rV .re -qq1 aurlose8 PuEI:EI or ll Jo sarn1x,u, urnqxpddJqo'ieur8ua ,uo'nlrp eqr bur.{4,olle a8regc ssol ur Bultlnsa:'J.Irr.ri_rp ,*", 3tq Jo sraJJaprq rqi ,Burpeol p", ,prrdl *n,pr*'.iik

u o nq rs ",o r urs uo rr ? or1iil::'rTJ rE rtl,'fi :[i,}H';t:ffi:g

p^ue ap,JJo ur sarnrxrul aurlose8 gr-rrlrurrad 1,^':IT#"fr 'Surpeoy

s aI n, x rurar rn ba.r ;;

",jl;il'##il'

jn :,:,,rri ; :"ff iLT

"'"

.xoN.aprqappu,?r,p";l:;t;:TJI{I1:l':",:t#llJ:;;9,?

'aur8ua uE Jo srrsrJarf?r".1, 1ro.rr1-ir.r"xp"r.trr.rlr-tp'$;

ro pa^ads qrl^\^ln:B.rrr"r1-p,re 'se3 sarnlxrul 'ouedo-ld aurlose8 lanJ/rre IoqolF ro uo unJ o1 pelJa^uoc saulSue IEJnrBu ,Bur8rns 0'evgU reSunrels atBurru ourloseg 'sluaruarrnbarSururn pue .uo os pue lreds IIB ,lJaJJB 'suorss^ue,paads o.'BU,lrllrqeuueg lpejnerir"d .rr'rrrarf,Brer.lf, 'urdr q8lq roJ raqroue pue suorlrpuoipaads urnq ur lre,r s1an3 aJuer.uJojrad-qSi,{ snorJ? ,aseolue u1 ,,\4,o1 JoJ Pesnsr sagol ruel Jo res auo qlrq./$. ur ,a1go.ld ru?f,aporu -leT "^Jo esn a>leru ernrv ar{rJo reqr a{rl saur8ua XSN arueruroJ -rad-q8rq .suorssiru, -epun 'aproJqr lsn"q_xa lapou-erel Juros lsauBalr roJ elpl r:ed pue alpr lB eruelpe uoirru8r aroru,\rolle or lE seJnlnur JrJlar.uorr.lfrors rE un: leru saul8ua ,r"r_iroq5 puar srslprer lem-aa:qr 'sEBlsn?qxe ruou slu'rnllod Burrrotuar .uorrca[u1 rualqord e lou sr ,rqr;l1r.,o lg '(Jo porprr^rss1l,a>t IanJ r.pr,,!\ .o eqr ueq,{\^og 1arygo ,.,i'llrr"rpauur '(Eoq -l^qo alpjyo ue Bursner^,uonrsod Buo:^ aqr ur rrodpol, qrlq^\ 'saur8u-e parca(u1-1anJ ur r.ualq-.i "ir"; Burlaiarpor peal alpl-JJo agr_rnd leur rlcrqrn) Bulrras aFrorqt elpr eqr a$arrur u?) 'seJnlBraduatSunerado req8lq eqr qrr^r peurquoJ .r{JIr{^\ or Jounr e Sulrrnbal .aJnlxrur 'paads alpl alqBuoseer e roJ reqrreJ uado'pfrq j.i or eproJtp _aqrrno h.rr.r"r1 *rrri, ,1p, ,qi q8no;gr ,r.,r*i* ruengJns aqt sa:lnbal osl? suollrpuof asaqrrapun uonsnguoc 1pd .il alq?lr?^?pu8rs q8noua a,,req yo buan .sploJruBru toq qrr.{ sePrqa^ pararnqre] -gJaul 'xON erou ulonpord (pr?ler ra^r qrra i::-11Y :y::,burJJ?rs uo_lrru8r ^lftlnJru'd 3:o aso'drnd agr ruou Jolotu aqr dao>1 or JapJo ur aJnlxrru re rEaJaP s3JnrEraduat .ue-a1 uonsnquor raq8lq IIL,!\ oor saruo,aq -q3rr ue a'nba-r leu qrrqirr ,alpr le eJnlxrur IIEJa^O 'arueuroJrad 3Ur:ap ernrxnu aql IsnJ/Jr? aJpr_33o ruarap ra8 or Bunrai JI sualqord uonnqrnstp a_^?q tru tunnc"-i ^u1 qr,^ uretu pue elpr Jer{lu Sunerlssaceu,al1erllsneqxa Jr.{r :::: Surf?J : l:" .JaUegpazr.rode.r\ rno s.,v\olq sruBJ daa>1 or spuar unnrerr qSiq 1ary l seSururng IIIISsl l3ry aql eurosaf,urstrnr.l sr ftuouora Jo arnssa.rd yo rrragdsou'B lang Ja,i!\ol aqr elurs .urnnf,B^plo3ruru Burra puB 'suonlplo^c 1:eds peprerar Burrnp reaq alse^\ rarea;B'agi -^ol.lq arueruroJradpaads-rwo1 pue a1p,sunr{ osp diirrrro e^FA alorual or sa133nns rr s? pssseJls 'salclc a(uos sr uarsls 3ur100c agJ .ruelool uo sarusrurpue Buiurnq'ie'.red i"o! a"Lpsar arpr aqr q8norqr sade_csa lSjaua r"{ r, {rolq ualaun ldurnl eql tfeJelunof ol ol :11]""--t^ti:l1i'r3apu11lc I eulEua E.I I sBqlrJ seeJnlxrruE pue yo Hurreag.raq8lgpue .rarrrodpolnpeJ ,lurouoca lYl aruelpe lang lreds Jo rol e sarrnbarpue llmoys iur.,q lpuenbasuoc ra;ood Sulsneo,rualrg3assalsr uonsnguoc ,JoAO qlFI^\ 'alpr lreds popJeteJ r? ernlxnu ar{r uonnlrp -^oH 'suorssnua sed rsnrqxa lanJ/rre ssor8 Jo uoqretorplr{ s3lnpal osle l8arerls srr_l .aJns ur llnsar suer1q rng .ruellJru8rsur T syBugspi asrelar -sard ,Jq, ,roq, pue arnleraduer uorsng.'oc >1ead Blrra^o1xq ,u;rrr;. os sr delrarroaq] aJer.{,{.r turod aqr lelJalur ol seseeJJur udr lrrun .a;nsseld pu? ernlerrd*.1 xON selnpar lreds papr?rer q'a1q," rncro ot senunuol qlrq.&_a8regr ralur aqr ,UCE rrU lt BuJlnlrp ua8lxo qrr^\ seulquoc ua8orlru aau uer{,i!\ par.uJoJ are ua8o-rrru alerul aqt orur qsru ol arnssard PIoJIuEru .SurreaqraloJo crraqdioute uer{r _]:_eJ: Jo saprxoef,urs plol serrr aur8ua ,q,lt efuelp? raqblq re rapurlb eqt ur 11lrs sase8 lsner{xaatuos s,i!\olpdelrarro JJoru Sul,rrrolp .a.rnre.radurar Burrerado p*ro,r' 6,rrrnp Jo a^r'^ pes?eJJul'suoseer IeJa es JoJsJnf,folryJ'anbror'paads mo1 s:ee8ramol u_J aJuelpp runnf,el ,aldr.uexa rno Bullcol se.urrauros 'uonerelaf,le apr-go uo Bofllpeq elpl .uels ol PBqalnP.ordpu! tol 't1pl re Sululr uonru8r aqt prera-roi ue8aq lr.{I'.q8nol .spaads prer{ aq leu aur8uaaqr ,Je^a.,lrog qSrq Xp"r','rqgr r" rro* llSursea-rrur aJa.&\ -Bururdo'rrrJ"n leql sp^J'pu'ls suorss^ue la3ru or saul8ua aqrearq ol aur8ue eqr s^\olF delraao i rn",p"J7r1"r.r, eunr-op or ue8aq sraau,r8ua alno(uolne ,s0L6I aql uJ 'sdo .anb.rot puB 'ratuar peap pu? Url ra.,*rodrsaq' srr _aJou Srppv dor saqreorddeuorsrd aqr w "rr" qr,"l, ,gr -la^ap ,no aur8ua uE r{)rq/',r 3o spaads re aqr uo rlaJJerear8 e i"q d,rr*r, se ro erualnqrnr arnpur ol u.&\oDI a^lBA 'uJnq ol ouJn aJoru t::i%:t _a>lerur -lrr^\s saJrnbar arnrx^u Jeu?elB pue lplirnb uaaq Zuol lse8 aneq ,eare qslnbs a8rel e qrrrrr .saur8uapeaq ,Bpr/N aJolu suJnqaJnt*ru Jesuap E ,Jaq.''e.'ag .Bururr arrpa sr_paads aurelt llpnuarod pue-E1 srlaJJ? r"qr -tr"3 ruerrodur uy

o F
I =
f F

z
o E
IJJ

At high loading and wide-open throttle, richer mixrures give better power by making sure that all air moleculesin the combustion chamber have fuel presenr to burn. At wide-open throttle, where the objective is maximum power, all four-cfcle gasoline engines require mixtures that fall beween lean and rich best torque, in the 11.5 to 13.3 gasolinerange.Sincethis best t-orquemixrure spread narrows at higher speeds,a good goal for naturally aspirated engines is 12.0 to 12.5, p..hapt richer if fuel is being used for combustion cooling in a turbo/supercharged engine. Typical mixtures giving best drivabiliry are in the range of 13.0 to 14.5 gasoline-air mixrures,dependingon speedand loading. At higher engine speeds,reyersepulsing through a carb in engineswith racing cams tends to enrich the mixture asreversion gases passthrough the venturi wice. Naturally, this is not a problem with fuel injection. EFI engines are not susceptibleto hot wearher percolation, in which fuel boils in the carb in hot weather when a hot engine is shut down, flooding into the manifold. This is so-.*h"t dependent on the distillation curve of the fuel, which varies according to the weather for which it is intended. Hot weather percolation can be aggravatedby high vapor pressures produced !f fuel boiling in the fuel pump or fuel lines, forcing additional fuel past the float needle. Similarly, vapor lock-produced by mechanical fuel pumps supplying a mixture of gas and vapor to a carb and evenrually uncovering the main jets as fuel level drops-is not a problem with EFL The main difference between compurer-controlled engines and earlier modes of control is that with EFI engines,variaiions in speedand loading and other engine paramererstranslate into spark advanceand fueling pulse width values that at any particular point on the spark or fuel map can be completely indep_endent of other nearby points (and could vary quite abruptly, if necessary). This was impossiblewith older mechanicalcontrol systems. Computer-controlled engineseliminate compromisesin fueling and spark control. Multi-port injection eliminatesdistribution and inconsistencyproblems wirh handling wet mixtures in the intake manifold associatedwith less than one carb per cylinder, often resulting in improved cold running, improved throttle responseunder all conditions, and improved fuel economy without drivabiliry problems. Computer engine management with individual cylinderadjustableelectronic port fuel injection really shineson exrremely high-output engines with high effective compression ratios. Dallas supercar builder Bob Norwood points out that for peak power, any engine must be treated as a gang of single cylinder engines,each of which should be optimized for peak power. On NASCAR engines-restricted to single-point carburetion-this has been done by cusrom modification of the compression ratio, rocker arms, and cam lobes for individual cylinders. But using sequentialprogrammable EFI with fuel and ignition calibration on an individual rylinder basis,whatever the volumetric efficiency of each "single-cylinder engine," optimal timing and mixture can be provided by compurer. Individual cylinder calibration is good for 50 horsepower on a rypical high-output small-block Chevy V-8, saysNorwood. Not only does individual cylinder calibration improve power, but it savesengines from knock damage while allowing a higher stateof tune. By contrast, common practice on streetcarbureted engines or batch fuel injection is ro rune to the leanest cylinder (read best-flowing). A Chevy V-8 with its dog-leg ports tvpically varies 10 percent in airflow between best and worsr cvlinder,and it is typical that V-rype morors respondbetter than

in-line motors to individual cylinder calibration. On a dyno, best and worsr cylinders that are within 100 degreesEGT of each other is consideredexcellent.Leaning or'tt an engine on a dyno or track will frequently make more power until iuddenly one or two cylinders die. "You always burn one or rwo cylinders," saysNorwood. "In the meantime, the other slackers are running rich." Some advanced engine managemenr sysrems have implemented EGT:feedback closed-loop sysrems that equalize EGT from all cylinders ar a targer level with individual-cylinder calibration, simultaneouslyproviding best power across the board. \X/ith this system, every cylinder can reach maximum power ar very high compression ratios with the best high-octanegasoline. Testing by Smoky Yunick for Circle Tiack showed that the small-block chevy test engine was prone to detonation on three ofthe eight cylinders.This was thought to be due to unequal distribution or coolant circulation that causedthosecylinders to run "Now hotter. we could havecut thesethree cylindersto l4:l compression,"writes Smoky, "and maybe run the other five rylinders at 15:l and gained some power. Dont kno*, but I do know this, you are gonna get a safer,more powerful engine if you adjust the compression,timing, and distribution to each cylinder."

TEMPERATURE
Inlet air temperarureincreases octane requirementsby 0.5 octane number per 10 degree increase.Temperature affecrs fuel performance in severalways. colder air is denser than horter air, raising cylinder pressure.colder air inhibits fuel vaporization. But hotter air directly raisescombustion t.-pet"tutes, which increases rhe possibiliry of knock. EFI systemsnormally have sensorsto read the temperature of inlet air and adjust the injection pulse width and spark timing to compensarefor densiry changesand fuel volatiliry limitations. Engines will make noticeably more power on a cold day becausethe cold, dense air increases engine volumetric efficiency, filling the cylinders with more molecules of air. This is bad news for a carb, which has no way of compensaring (other than manual jet changes-one size per 40 degrees remperarure change). Piston-engine airplane pilots must always know the ambient air temperature in order to estimare take-off distance (much shorter on colder days), and aircraft fuel systems(including carbureted systems)allow dynamic manual adjustments of airlfuel mixture. As youd expecr, racing auromotive engine designsalwaysendeavorto keep inlet air as cold aspossible.Even stock streer cars often make use of cold-air inlets, since each 1 I degreesFahrenheit increasereducesair densiry I percent. Cold enginesrequire enrichmenr to counreract the fact that only the lightest fractions of liquid fuel may vaporize at colder temperatureswhile the rest existsasglobulesor drops of fuel that are not mixed well with air. The actual vaporization/distillation curve of various gasolinesand fuels differs, depending on the purpose for which the fuel is designed, and gaseousfuels like propane and methane do not require cold running enrichment and have no intercooling effect once in gaseousform. But in a cold engine, mosr of a fuel like gasoline-in liquid form-will be wasted. Liquid fuels do not vaporizewell in cold air (though the oil companies do change their gasoline formulation in an effort to counteract this by increasingthe vapor pressurein cold weather, which can lead to a rash of vapor lock in sudden warm spells in winter). choking sysremsin carbureted vehicles and .old-start fuel enrichmenr sysrems on EFI vehiclesare designedto produce a rich-enough mixture to run the vehicle e'oen *hen much of the

132

ttr
pasearJureqr_ot enp UNO SurseeJf,ur-rleJJaalsoddo aqr ffiq 'araqdsoune Surqrea-rq rasuap e saprlord r{ri,{^ .Bur8reqciadn5 'lr^al Ees a^oqe taeJ 000,I rad sraqurnu auBlro g.l rnoqe lq sruaua;rnbar Jaqunu euelfo selnpeJ apnrnlr Burseanul

sale^. {ror{s arnssard-g8rq sacnporduoneuolaq .{lou>I1.leds .ro >llou>lsEsf,ruer{f,eu lq or peJJaJOr osle .uonruorep sr slql lluarra Sururnq uetp raqrer ef,uo re 1p lpualorr' apoydxasasepua Bur 'turod urelJaf, -urBrueJ ? tB .speaforduonsnquof s?osrJsarnterad .saJuBtsr.unf,Jrf -ruer .eJntxnu ernssard pue se eruos Jepun rng agr q8norqt llqroous Sururnq tuoU aruel; ar{rqrr.i!\ lpu IanJ/rrB -rou sur8aq uonsnquof ,saleuotapJo $llou1 aur8ua uE uar.L6 'srods roq Jaqruer{fuonsnqruoJ o uorssrrusuerr yo adl_1.

SUnSSSUd UtV

ruose$e'u,aar'apslrad,'o*"';'J#;1"i":tit*"3:lr:l"

,," J;S'ili: : ffi:l:1"ffi ;"J]"::3

o
F

I z 2 l F

arnleradural a)prul . ploJru?ur srapur/r uaa^\"raq Surun pundo ur suontrrp1. lunpr^rpur rf af,uBApB Sunun1red5. Surrurr 1red5.
sfnsrJalf,sJBr.ll IrO . srapullb saulSua ue Suoue uonnqrJtsrp aJntxrrrl ur suonBrJEA. onEr IsnJ/Jry. sfnsrJalfeJsrll Ianc . arnteradual Jrg o

o
=

UJ

&rprung arnlosqv. arnssarderragdsoury . onBJ uorsserduor alrrlalJg . :,,!\olaq PersrlaJ" sluauarrnbal auElfo saur8uaue Sulruanuur sJorfec'uortru8rard pue uoneuolap lsrsalor lllrqe slr stuasardar Suner au?lfo s.lenJ V

slNfw3utno3u fNvrco

'uonvzltuole ofuuqua or pue ,Surxrtupry/JIB poo8 aruequaor u^/r\ornl are tp rualnqrnr 'pareag rndrno q]Hir' .sraSregcradns-oqrnJ 'alpr pue aprorr{r r:ed re

uollnqrnsrp arrordrur llqeqo-ld pue paads q8rq le rre a>l?lur llr,/rr lq paloo: aq lplcrnb lrar yp'r ploJrueur e>lBlur pateeq'pau8rsap l1:adord r q8noqrle ,tre asuap

-arrnbar euelJo asealf,ur arnleradrual lueloof ur saseeJJul 'salrrr{a^palarnqJef,a1r1Surzrr-rp uers-plol JoJ JIB talur r?aq ot alols e{oql e arnbar lcuop sual lpog aluorqr aqr r? lou ,a IBAa>lerurroq aqr ru (reaq ^sds1gg Surpars) sazrroder alurs Surcr or aygrrdarsns i" rou sl ICA IenJ 'asel lue u1 dpoq aprorr{t aqr ur sr.uroJ alrJr uala IenJJa^rlapIIr^\ suarsls 1gg taqrra^r plor ur grBr ar{r Jo srred praru ruo{ pue Jr? aqr ruog rBar{sa^otual 1an3 Surzr.roderr sr qJBJarp ur sruJoj ef,rJr uone^rers IenJ or alqlrdarsnsare r{lFl1r\,sgrBr aIIFn 'Jaqlea,&\ plor lrarr ur elpl rB uonezrrodel rsearrul or ploJrupur ar{r Buneaq luBlool Jo ,suollr;ado asn leu sploJlu,?ur dn-urren alqerdame 1gg q8nop aprr'ord ol arrnbar sqr?l Sulreaq reqr se8-lsneqxa aqr paau 11 .uonezrruolelrrpnb rsaq aqr ro3 -ltrurou rou saop sraldorp ICE IenJJo r?ar{sruallarxa-sernpord lsd 00E se g8rq se a;nssardleqr u^\oqs aAEqslueurradxE .Jarraqaql .uorlra(,rl arnssardeqt Ja Jo -,{SlI aqr 'praua8 u1 'uoltuzuode,r pue uon?zrruole sarrordul 11 -rear8 qrlr{trt'erar{l slsxa rre lrrcolan l?ql q8rg ruapqrnr Burlrlrrrs aqt orul e^F^ a>leruroqr tB rq8rerrs lany le-rds llpnsn suarsls uorlralul fruoJrfala '(dn-urer'r pu? 'uers rarye .8ul1ue:l ,aurr-ld plor) stuauqfuua tJers-plol aprnord ol JepJo ur a:nlr:adtual luelooJ asues sualsls luaua8eueru aur8ug .(Bunluen Burrnp 1:1 ua.ta) I:tZ ro se qrrr sBsarnlxnu Sulurnq sellrqa^ plot lq parnpord sl uonnlyod rrB lsohJ .srequBql uonsnguol puz slle/y\ ploJlu?tueqr uo ro rr? aqr ur papuedsns alqBurnquou prnbrl 1ary go sdorp sErnq tre qrrrrrpexrru ,rodel alq"uJnq sBlou stsxa IanJ

'asmJ ryfu pue ap le suotssuaAAol acnpofi ol \rolAJlalllop ol ltetaqppottspue6wurynarcd ng ssa/esn are sJosuas prepuels.sa1uet1c oueJ p afue1 aq ueq1n1eafi lcaua s! :r"tlr paga lanYxe a\ellort aq u0 lndlno ue seq t]ctots w04 'oueJ Aenetosuasadh-ptepuels aqt atntendwalaqr'aJow pn]/Jrc eu:.r,worrlltlrs s,lettl1A lo atlt't:gg.tt teaufuat rorcolpu! ueal-Llclr e setdacxaonerpn!/Jrco1sa1ueqcqslnAullslp ol hltge afiill a^etl_toul0 papaq-srosuaszgprepueg 'touro parcaqTosuaszg p1o lue se awes aqj lou s! 7gln ro pueqapmV

'l ot.LYu I njfutY

Bl Sl "l

ssalarnpord II1r'rrre ar{r rpar{ rer.{r sPIoJruBrualeruI'acueur:o3rad runturxBtu JoJ ePrslno ruou rre PIol 'qsau eqrBeJq or ParJrPou oq plnoqs put lndlno s aur8ua ar{t eJnpal IIr,/r Jr? luarulreduroc eurSua toq ur IJns tBqr srau?alf ly'Surqrearq sr aur8uaar{rrre aqr lq aur8ua 3o &rsuap aqr Sulroayge er{t Jo druarogya rrnarunlo^ aql uo rlalJa a3.re1 e al?q uef, rnolel ualsls e{erul 'orr?JIenJ/Jre lJeJror B olJrqre ot pa:rnbar IanJJorqSrarn aql llalJ? snqr PUE asuaP ssal auof,aq ot spuet aur8ua eqr olur lervr agr uo uosBJJlue ro3 PerBar{
sI fEI{f JIE Pue 'Jalllsa^t tuJ?1y\ uI

asuepssalsr rry'lrrpnunq a^n"leJ -raq8lq " qlrll. JrE sr sE .esuap ssal sr suonelala raq8rq le rlv 'asu3p ssel sr 'uonotu JBlnfalou ralrar8 qry 'lle toq .arnssard uaru8 B Jo{ 'suonrpuoJ Jar{lBa./vr put 'apnrnlB 'arnleradrual qrlrlr serJellrrsuap JqJr" ralur r?aq ot s:a8reqr.radns-oqrnr1o lcuapuar aql s? IIal\ se 'onEJ uorssarduor ,lrrsuap a^nf,aJJa raq8rg

lambda Table
Load\ 333 300 267 233 200 167 133 100 67 33 0 0,85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0,88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 50005500 6000 65007000 7500 8000 85009000
0,85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0,88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0,86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0,9 0.9 0.9 0,9 0.9 0.85 0.8s 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0,9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0,86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0,86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.S6 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0,88 0.9 0.9 0,9 0.9 0,9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0,9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0,9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0,9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0,85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0,9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0,85 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

o
F

(9
7

o E

= f F

UJ

in the combustion chamber that can accelerate wear of an engine or actually causecatastrophicfailure. Preignition is another form of abnormal combustion in which the airlfuel mixture is ignited by something other than the spark plug, including glowing combustion chamber deposits,sharp edgesor burrs on the head or block, or an overheatedspark-plug electrode. Heavy, prolonged knock can generatehot spots that causesurfaceignition, which is the most damaging side-effectof knock. Surfaceignition that occurs prior to the plug firing is called preignition, and surface ignition occurring after the plug fires is called post ignition. Preignition causesignition timing to be lost, and the upward movementof the piston on compression strokeis opposedby the too-early high combustion pressures,resulting in power loss, engine roughness,and severe heating of the piston crown. It can lead to knock or vice versa. Dieseling or run-on on carbureted engine is usually causedby compressionignition of the airlfuel mixture by high temperarures,bur can be causedby surfaceignition. Apparently identical vehiclescoming off the same assembly line can have octane requirements that vary by as much as 10 octanenumbers.The octanenumber requirement(ONR) for an engine in a particular vehicle is usually establishedby making a seriesof wide-open-throttle accelerations at standard spark timing using primary referencefuels with successively lower octane ratings until a fuel is found that produces rrace knock. The single most important inrernal engine characteristic that requires specific fuel characteristicsis compression rario, which generally increasesthe ONR +3 to +5 per one ratio increase(in the 8-11:1 compressionratio range). High compressionratios squashthe inlet airlfuel mixture into a more compact, dense mass, resulting in a faster burn rate, more heating, lessheat loss into the combustion chamber surfaces,and consequent higher cylinder pressure. Tirrbochargersand superchargers produce efectiuecompressionratios far above the nominal compression ratio by pumping additional mixture into the cylinder under pressure.Either way, the result is increaseddensiry of air and fuel molecules that burn faster and produce more pressure againstthe piston. Another result is an increased tendency for the remaining gasesto spontaneouslyexplode or knock as heat and pressure rise. Keep in mind, high peak cylinder pressures and temperatures resulting from high compression can also produce more NOx pollutants. Lower compressionrarios raisethe fuel requirements at idle because there is more clearance volume in the combustion chamber that dilutes the intake charge.And because fuel is still burning longer as the piston descends, lower compression ratios raise the exhaust temperature and increasestresson the cooling system.

Until 1970, high-performance cars often had compression ratios of up to lI or 12 ro one, easilyhandled with vintagehigh octane gasolinesreadily availablein the 98-99 ((R+M)/2) range. By 1972, engineswere running compressionratios of 8-8.5:1. In the 1980s and 1990s, compressionratios in computer-controlled fuel injected vehicles were again showing up in the 9.0-11:l areabasedon fuel injectiont abiliry ro supporr higher compressionratios without detonation, coupled with the precise airlfuel control and catalysts required to keep emissionslow. Race car enginesrypically run even higher compressionrarios. In airunlimited engines,maximum compressionratios with gasoline run in the 14-17:1 range. Ratios above 14:1 demand not only extremely high-octane fuel (which might or might not be gasoline),but experienced racers use tricls like uniform coolant remperaturearound all cylinders, low coolant temperature, and reverse-flow cooling. Extremely high compressionratios also require excellentfuel distribution to all cylinders,rerardedtiming under maximum power, very rich mixrures, and probably individual cylinder optimization of spark timing, airlfuel ratio, and volumetric efficiency.

MAKE SUREYOUR ENGINE IS HEAUTHYAND TUNABLE

Prior to performance tuning, a performance engine must nor burn oil, which will tend ro acr as a pro-knock agent.The engine must have low oil consumption pasr rings, turbo shaft seals, valve stems, and so on. Obviously, the engine should not be leaking water internally (which would turn oil white), nor should there be excessive scalein the engine cooling jacket. The motor itself must be mechanically sound, with adequate oil pressureunder all circumstances. Most powerful EMSs can monitor oil pressureand sound alarms and take counrermeasures to stop the engine if oil pressure drops dangerouslylow. There are labs with the abiliry rc analyze used engine oil to check for abnormal metal conrent and to analyzethe source of abnormal metals, which can be very useful in evaluating internal engine health. If this is a super-dury engine with power-adders,the pistons should be thermal-coated, or the engine equipped with oilsquirters, or the rods equipped with an orifice berween the big end at an angle toward the piston wrist pin designed to provide a pressurizedcooling spray of oil against the undersidesof the pistons to cool it. The engine managemenrsysremand sensors musr be working correctly. The external coolant system must have integriry with the radiator working efficiently. The fans and shroud must be working efficiendy, and if the car is on a stationary chassis dyno, there

134

9t1
aqr os q8noua 11am aulSuaJ?purs BJo sluauarrnbar [EnrJea]Erur -xorddr or pauSrsap selrnf, lanyrl:aua8 dlprrsrq are sdeu dnrrng

sdvw dnruvls AUVugt-l

o F
I =
f F

o
=
UJ

'eFporu -ru8r rurJl oJnlxrru E las pue tuaudrnba lsal Sulsn ,pue (peol puB peads uonuurquol rulod>1eerq qf,pa rp aur8ua aqr Jo rsnfpe sraunl 'oulp e uo lpapr 'Suruunl aurSuaaqr qrr/N 'JOlOluaql unr IIr&\ l?ql sarnlxrur lanJ/rr? rnoqB alqrxeu ,(1try1arBsaulSua ploJ uem pue 'I:0'ZZ Jeeusalnlxrru uBal ol dn uo I:0'9 sBr{lrr sEsaJnlxrurqlr^{ unJ 11vta, saurSua parra(ur-1arydn-paurJB/\4, l?ql rlEJ aqr dq rarseaepuru sl slr{J'dn paruren pue Suluunr alrrrle^ agr ra8 or g8noua qrrr aq or llarnd pau8rsapdeu dnrrers B plrnq lagl 'asrrrrragrg 'aulSue ro allrqa^ ftlrrurs B ruog deu Sullslxa -ard e asn daqr 'alqlssody1 ln uala l(uop sJaunl rsou .dru lang tf,orror lyponaroagr e Suru8rsap Jo lrrxalduor aqr ua^r3 'rotcaful ol roloafur uorg,{-re.ir uB] r{Jrrf\l,'sarrlasruaql srolcaful aqlJo asuodsar pcrslqd eqr pue srolra(ur eql salelnre r?qr &rmc .llpuolrrppy -rrr aql ar{r s erar{r plron-leal Jo ef,u?r.uJoSrad 'raqury ua^a Surunt arerrlduor suonsanbJo spur{ asaql .a1pralqerdorf,?uB roJ ornlxnu qcrr l1:epcllred e paau nol os arnlnr,u alpr eqr arnlrp urur rnol3o deyralo aqr saoq ro ltuouora palnpeJ isuorssrura nol ary iaptorrp Iary roJ lrqenb alpr atuos algrrrBs or 3ur11rm ued re lrualorga snsral asuodsaraprorqr rnoqe leqa puv 'se8peq qlr^{ uon?uolap lualerd dlaq ol rolf,g lragese ul u8rsap ot JapJour (ragrlr uarr.a ro) anbrot tsaq qlrr lE unJ or elq?Jrsap ag leu lr 'saf,uelsrunJJrf a(uosJapun rng '(anbror rs3q ueal) slqr qsrlduorru ot IenJ alqrssodrs?31 er.{rSulsn ,eprorr.ll uado-aprrn 'purndo re elqrssodronod runrurxpruaqt lue.&r sreppor rog rso1aq sr aJnlxnu IanJ/Jr?r?r{llt J?elJllrressarau lou sr lr .auJn uartr8e re srapur/r agr Surralua sr Jre qlnru ^\oq ^l$,ou>I nolgl uela teql ,asrnocyg sI aAJnf, IanJB Suru8lsapur JolJg Sunerrldruoo z '(oner lrry/rre lf,arror llprnuaqr Jo rrnaru -orr{f,rols l:L'rl eql sEqrns) rr? eqrgo rq8ra,neqrJo uonf,?UrBI -nrtued E sr ler{l Iery Jo lunotu? ue ul lurds or uado lurs ppoqs ropa(ur ue 3uo1r\oq rp ssan8poo8 p r{?ur or lsea l1:rc3 osp sr rl 'suonrpuor Sunerado luapr rapun rapur/r aql srolua ler{l rru aqr eroJeregr go rq8raru, pue rapur/r e Jo aunlo^ aql eleurlsa ro er"lnf,luf ol lsee lyarrrreyar sl r1 2dnr:ersuodn dlarerpaurur suon -Bulqruof, paads-peo1 roJ srlnsar ruellarxa ar'r8 ylrrr,r rBqr aurl IIE -lJo nf,E ue SurruurerSordroJ EInuroJ lpurq e apl,rord aa uBJ

'HIOtn 9Nil ill.qNV l Sstnd 'sotlvu l3nJ/utv l3t)uvr 9N[ndwoc

(+rudr000'0I) nputyb-V tud.r-q8rg rapur/r-g pa8reqcoqrnr lsol4l rapur/c-9 pa8reqroqrnl lsotr^{ npuy,b-V pa8reqcoqrru rsotr^{ rapurlb-g palJrporu ll.{8t11 rapuqfc-9pagrpotu llq8t11 npuq,b-Vpagrpou IHB111
f

r/JW gg&lnl 901JU1J 7gg1nl SCOW SCIOW 7AOW

raPurl^r-zl rsotrl ZICIS rapur/o-g rsotrAl 3CIJS rapurldr-9 rso141 9CIIS saur8ua npuq,{t-t7 rson 7CIS uolrucrlddy aurtug errreu d\11 [ 'swE u? roJ ra>lr?uJarJE pug rq8ru nol sdeu dnrrersyo rsrl prrdlr e sr Burru,olloJ er{I 'Palulu?f, PII/r\ sl rar{ro aqr pu? pallJlu?f, plFu q auo Jr-raqlo r{f?e or arB sOEo1t\.r uBql Tolq lFr.us rl-00, InaqJ paurusf, -pllur E ol sluaruarrnbar IenJ ul rasolr sr >llolq lletus ralor^ar{J p-09. petutuel-pllu u 'spro^\ rarpo u1 'aur8ua ue 3o srads ru?r aql uer{l luelJodur ssal sr tueruof,eldsrpaur8ue aql :arnd -ruof, BrApaunr-aug eq uef, lr os unJ pup patJ?rsaq uEf, aulSua

(sra8reqroqrnrloods llprlre8 -Jeuauagl pue) ranod a)pu or sJaqru?qf, uonsnguof ar{r w leJq aqr daa>1 rr saop rou '1lo aurSuaaqr pu? tuarsls Surloor arp 8ur -ssans ruo5 deal rou sooplSare.rrs rear{ srqt tnq .a8euep ler.uragl ruou su/\4,o-rc uolsrd aqr rcarord or sralrmbs 1ro Sulloor-uolsld asn lyprldlr saur8ua oqrnt I IEO 'pol?of, uaaq e^?q sraquBql uorlsnquor s eur8ua u? lou Jo Jar{roq,& Alou>Iot asrl\ sr Jaunl V 'lulql p,nol ueqr rarwJ slrurl pureqt rar{ro pue urarsls Surlooc qrpal uouo IIr^4. oulp srsseqr Surpeol-snonunuof,B uo rEf,V 'pa8ruep sr our8ua aqr aroJeq3uo1 spaads le.,rr ,rotou aqr -q8g snora8uuppur p8a11lqf,Bar IIr^\ allrqa^ e qlns 8uilpt llpnrua.,ra pue Suneaqrarto Surpeolleurar{l lnoqtr^{ paads runurrxeru r? aproJr{r IInJ snonunuoJ urplsns or lrllrqe eqr a Bq lou saop tsooq 1ry Suraew erdng oqrnl eqr a>lrlrec srrods rse3 llpar e q8noqt uala l?qt sr Baprer{J 'ararl rno dlag uec sBuneoc 'Surpeol lqr8ual llpurouqe 8ur Fr.uraql rnq leurraqrJo saposrda -pu?rsqrr.&\ alqrder llpnrce lou ere-srer pa8reqcoqrnr lpel 3o -no1gsd-sJ?f laaJls lueu '3urce.rro3 pau8rsapSuraq tog 'sJequBrll Jo su^ oJJ uol PEar{ -srd uo Sururoy uror3srodstoq pur Iptatu Surdaal lq uorrru8r-e-rd uoneuolap lsrsal osl? s8uneor Fr.uJarll'suorsrd aqt rsule8ee:ns -sard se8raq8rq Suronpordlq raru,od se>leru Surloor r?aH .ra>lref aur8ua ar{rJo tno pue reqtu?ql uonsnquor ar.ltur reag Surdaal lq uonsnquor dn paadspue ranodasroq eruequa s8uneor pu -Jar{l u./r\oJr-uotsrd pu? Jeqr.uBr{l-uorrsnqruof, glr.lr\saulSug 'sraqrueql aqr rarseJ rnoq8norr.p ruory erupl; aqr speards pue Surxrur saruer{ua aluapqrnr raqueqr uonsnq r?qr lary/Jre -uor Sulrnpo.rd 'a>1ons uolssarduoo Jqt go saSers FurJ er{t ur aql qrrrnlrrurxord asop lrarr olur satuof,uotsrd Sulslr aqr s? PBaI{ .qsrnbs seeJp urelJal tuog lerne paqsrnbsare sase8 a8rrgf, aJar.l^\ ruallef,xaarreqslernp rsoule sJaqueq) uonsngruor peaq-a8partr 'uoneuolap Sunsrsar pue uonsngruof, ruarf,rJJa Ieuorrrpe[ 'lse3 Suruoddns ur J^nfaJJa lral aq or puel sJequBqouonsnquof 'af,u?Ape Surun arou alnbar slrrrrp rsorulB Soonuad a^lB^-Jno{ soneJ (rsooq pur uorssardurocSullurrc 3o urns) uorssardruo: e^rrraJJere/$ol pue soroq ra88lq qrrr'r saur8ug .uonpuorap ro 'urng ar{r uorsnlruof, {Joul pel1el sr qf,rq^\ Jo l?rurou erogaq8ul -poldxa sase8 paurnqun Sururcuar Jo lrrlrqrssod agr rarear8aqr 'urng aqr ra8uol ar{J'alue^pe Surulr uolllu8l aJoru pue .uJng ol arun aJoruarnbar Jaqu?qJ eqr ur saseS puago luatxa rsar{ueJ ar{l or 3n1d. eqr ruory (lemqrud lrarrpuou Jo palf,nrlsgo -lo) aruelsrp 3uo1ll5nneleJ p r{rra sJequ?r{f,uonsnqruoJ pue ,euJnlo,r a8rel r r{rr^r sreqruer{ruonsnquo3 'raluar peap dor raryesaar8apEI lE uonsnguof, roJ uonru8r >1reds Sulrrrollojaulr 3r1 4ead or arnssard alp JoJ lunof,f,Bol sr eJuBApe uonlu8r 1o asodrnd r,{J d-rrauoa8 Jaqtu?ql uonsnquoc 3o rdaruoc poo8 B a^Br1ppoqs raunl V

suf gwvt{c Nottsn8ruoc 3zA]vNV

' (s8ulpearanbror pue rarrrodasJoq eleJnJfeurarnpord plno/!\ qllq^\ 'sa8ueqcarnleraduar ro; lp:ar -Jof alcsuodruocrou rg8ru uonuls Jar{I"e.&\ s,oulp aqr reqr lerrr E l{rns ul lluar'eun sdeqrad)rrt ar{l 8uryros-reaqlq acueurro3rad .sllaf,ur?Jq usunq Palf,JJJofununq IIr/$ uonBlnuarrarenbapsur 8.rilpl saprsag 'eplxouoru uoqr?r puB suogrerorplg as?arf,ur .eltlur aulSua pue rre Jo lualuof, ua8lxo eqr afnpal IIII!^r{1111\4. aql orur >peqSurpaalr.uog saseS rsneqxadaal or atenbapuaq osle rsnu doqs ro IIal oulp e ur suEJSurlooc .srooplno aqr or pa8ua 'rualsdsSullooc urrro -ABrs sr lou aur8ua llreynfrlrcd lsner{xe aqrSl aqr pJe.&ror JrpIoof, alnoJ or suBJ pyralrod ,poo8 aq$nut EelJrr{a^

tion timing and injection pulse width to achievelow emissions, best torque (lean or rich), or a specific airlfuel mixrure-or some combination of all three. Then they road tesr the vehicle and fine tune it under actual driving conditions, also fine tuning the enrichmenr maps. If your ECU has closed-loop capabiliry and is running in a speed-throttle position range in which closed-loop operation is activated, your ECU may be able to tell you *h"t th. mixture would have been if you were running open-loop basedon what amounr of mixture correcrio.t *ir required to achieve a stoichiometric airlfuel mixture. You can then make correcrions to the raw fuel map basedon this informarion.

TARGET AIR/FUEL RATIOS

Gasoline, .b.ing a srew of hydrocarbons of varying srrucrure, is not a single homogenous molecule that burns with orygen in a preciselypredictable fashion. Nonetheless,given unlimit"ed time for combustion and a perfectly mixed batlh of fuel and air, it takesbetween 14.6 and r4.7 pounds of air to burn a pound of gasoline in a reaction that produces 100 percenr -",.i and carbon dioxide (in this ideal reaction, rhe .ri rog.., in air is purely along for the ride). So an airlfuel ratio of t4.z:t is the chemically correcr or sroichiometric rario, sometimes abbreviated bv the Greek leu.r lambda, as in lambda of 1.0. For example,lamb'da of 0.9 translates as 0.9 x I4.7, or 13.23 airlfuel ratio. realiry in a high-speed piston engine, there is limited !n time for combustion, the air and Fuelare nolperfectly mixed, and tiny amounts of nitrogen will be burned by hot comLustion temperatures. and pressures. And inevitably some gasolinemolecules will not be burned and some oxygen will not find any fuel to burn. Best power alwaysoccurs*hin there is at leasta small fuel surplus above stoichiometric becauseair (orygen) is the scarce commodiry.in spark-ignition pisron engines.-The best power strateg'y is therefore always to make suri there is enougir fuel available so that virtually every molecule of oxygen finJing its way into the engine will be able to burn fuel. The best economy strategy is to make sure there is a small oxygen surplus so that every bit of fuel will get-burned. The best eirissioni strategy is complicated by the fact that lowest hydrocarbon (HC) emissions occu! asyoud expect,with an air surplus, but such lean mixtures produce hotter combustion, which burns more nitrogen and increasesoxides of nitrogen, known as NOx. The besi overall e,missions straregy,therefore, turns out to be to rarget 1.0 lambda, the stoichiomerric ratio, which does not minimize either HC or NOx, but minimizes the sum of both. Lett first consider rargerairlfuel ratios for sready-stare operation, when an engine is operating continuously at a particular spegd and power ourput and the-various engine fuel, air, and cooling sysremshave reachedequilibrium. Assuming the engine is not knockJimited and thereforedoes not requireadditional surplusfuel ro cool combustion via heat-ofvaporization effecrs,for best rorque with optimal fuel economy ar wide-open throttle, aim for a 12.5:l airlfuel ratio midway berween lean and mean best torque (12.8-12.2 AFR). If you're willing to sacrifice a little rorque,mixruresas lean as 0.92 iambda (13.5:l) on mild srrer .rgir., that are not turbocharged will produce excellen_t peak-power_fuel economy ar the cost o-fabout 4 percent power. Bob Norwood rypicdly saves up a calibration by removing 2-3 percenttiming and adding the samepercenrage oifu.l. turb_ocharged or other boosted po*.rpl"r, rs that are . 9l knock limited, ar a very minimum yo,r "r. "i-ing for mean best torque of O.82lambda (12.2 AFR), if not rich beit rorque of 0.g lambda (rr.76 AFR. This has the side benefit ar very high speed

of increasing. flame speed (which increases all the way to 0.75 llTb{"::r.which point a healthy flame front will -ou. through this airlfuel mixture at 80 feet per second). Under very high vacuum (deceleration condirions), run _ 15.5:l or 16.0:1AFR' (1.05-1.09 lambda) or evenfuel cut on decelerationro prevent lean exhaustsysrembackfiring. Mild-cammed engineswith tuned runners andlimle valve overlap will idle at .operating at full operating remperarures ^fairly 14.7:r, but such a 1.0 lambda mixture is closeto producing misfires, and most engines produce a betier, smoot'her idle and less stalling with richer airlfuel ratios. It is common practice to set idle lambda at 0.9 (within rhe correction range of th. o*ygen sensor) and allow the closed loop system to fuil mixrures leanerto stoichiometricat idle and light'cruise under o, sensor .olrrgl: I[ for any reason, the O, ,.rro, fails, the engine will only idle better. Big-cammed engires will not idle weli at stoichiometric mixrures, needing "i l."rt 13.0-r3.5:1 mixtures (0.88-0.92 lambda) to idle as-smoothlyas possible,even at full operating remperarures. Subject to enginevE distortions, for bestdrivabiliry, airlfuel mixtures should smoothly increasefuel in a linear fashlon from light cruise at low rpm roward heavier loadings and peak-torque speeds. Build in smooth increasesin mixt-ure as the ..rgirr. increases in speedtoward best torque and as loading increases. The lambda table u99dby the Motec M4g on rh"e MR6 proj_ ect in this book as tuned by Bob Norwood sersrarget lambia at 0.82 at.one armosphereof boost, decreasing to oI9 lambda at atmospheric pressure,and remaining at 0.9 lambda as manifold pressuredecreases to higher rangesof ta.t'rr'r-. During transienr operation-when an engine is starting, warming up, accelerating, or deceleratingrapidly-ordinary :rLr_ get airlfuel mixrures are.nolonger applicable;initead, the engine managemenr sysrem will apply correcrions to the base airlFuel ratios to supply additional fuel.

MANUALLY COMPUTING TARGET PULSE WIDTHS

But let's giy. up, lett acrually compure some rarget injection lgr pulse widths. Keep in mind that injectors are nor accuraremuch below about 1.7 milliseconds(a millisecond is 0.001 of a second). In addition, som.e injection sysrems will not open the injectors more rhan 16 millisecondsunder any conditions.Also keep in mind that the amounr of time available for injection is determined by the speed of the engine. At some point, the available time for injection and the required puls. *idth crisscross, and the injectors become sraric, that is, open all the time. \ff/hen in this realm, you have losr control of fuel flow in relation to engine "*ill fuel requiremenr changes, and additional engine speed decrease the total fuel injicted and available p.. io*., strok. p., cylinder. since this would most likely o...rr-urrd.r conditions of high loading at high speed,additional loading could lead to disastrously_lean mixrures. check to make sure-that the injection pulse width is lessthan 56,000 divided by rpm. For example,at 61009 rpm, the available time for injection is 56,000/6,000, which is 9.3 milliseconds, so a specifiedpulsewidth greaterthan 9.3 milliseconds would drive the injectori static.MosI oEM fuel injection sysremsare designed to never require an injector duty crcle greater than about 80-percent, and researchbyfuel inject.ion expert Russ collins indicates there is good ,..ior for this. According to collins, injectors can begin to hbrill"t. at such dury cycles,becoming nonlinear in fuel dilirrery, potentially causing lean-out problems. In practice, I've seen-"ny enginesrun grear to pulsewidths of 100 percenror above,but ii i, iot" good i"dea.

(9 =

o
IJJ

f F

136

LT,L

arn,r:edua"""o:""l"",,iooJ::[ j*[?,#fii:ff]li?l:;f;
e uo (arnrrradurar ptaq ro ruelooc) o8ne8arnleraduor eur8ug -

'larnreraduat aur8uase aues)

(rapur/r r.Iree tB a{or}s ram,od rad spunod) g1rzlgz100.0=g1 L7r/l60gl0.O suoqnloler o,ralrad aulf,ua tur.ralua rIBJo spunod LZVI6O910.0 = (rlp rooJ )rgnr rad sprmod) sgto., x ggg,gsvgJ,orru,

rr'ruo{ErBpsrqrsn"ro.{;,T';i,fi*"#,ru1,:i"il""J;"i'::;

o
F

(, =

z
o
=

D F
lrJ

olul urdBrPrr,BJoleeJ rrgnr cllgsvgtz.o = gTLl + g.g}v 'nJE ar{rreqr,!lra,r-paddors aur8ua'uo sJotBnlf? pue 'sJosuas anb.rol4eed re lal aqt qtr^{-pu? '(nCE) trun Ionuor rruonrale aqr ot are.&\Tos aurtua olur unaurp rre rr-9.gg7 = XI\6.0 x aurtua p-rSV g1,qg (uorsr,rar tsorel)arerrdorddeaqr qrr.iv\ dotdel E lrauuoJ o :aldruexa ue sJrrH 'uon?rqrlef, tas ot qtpl.,'rasynd;ospuolasrllrr.uJo 'sJolEnDE ragrunu aqt . ra8 or asynd :orca(urJo puoresrlllrurad IanJJo tq8rarur PuBsJosuas [EJnuf ot rar'lodluElsuof,puB peq]]r./tr,s,!1:a1 agr lq uoncafur rad 1ary3o rq8rarvr aql apr^rp ,{1pug ,puy '00'009' lq mog pue 'sra^ortuec'aur8ua eqr or suo'f,auuorpunor8po.s .rnoq rad spunod 4trr'liii IanJ Jo 'rlleeJ lsea urqtlru, raqsln8urtxa arg 8ur1ro./v\ E sr aJar.lt eJns JIEI^{ aqr Surpr,rrp dq aspd rorre(ur3opuolasrllrru . rad parca(ul IanJJo lsrpllaqJ lrels-ard l:eururla:4 spunod eqt arnduoJ 'uorlrofur rad IenJJotq8raru. aqr nol sa,rr8 qllqn^ '(uorr:afur e.rg-glteq roJ orru ,uonf,aful lertuanbas rrod NOtrvuSt'tvc roJ euo lllensn) JIoJrs rarr,r.od rad suonra(ur 3o Jaqunu aql stNS]vnlcv lq raqrunu srqt apr^rq 'alols ramod rad langyo spunod ra8 or 'nol ro3 qrer.ueqr oltur ra8reraqi lq ern8g srqr apr^rq '(rorca(ur)repurllc Jo lenJ/rre lueru ur 'asJnof, rsotu op IIr,{ pJ"zr^\ e 'soseJ yo 'sdepasaql qJEe1Ba{oJts rarnodJad rq8rarrr rlr ra8 or s:apul1lf,Jo JaquJnu 'sreqa13ue eluorrir rapr./(ro a:nssard ploJruuru.req8lqeql ur aqt lq srqt apr^rq 'suonnloleJ o,^t rad aur8ua aqr rotua ter{r sPuofasril[u 9'L ot p-rer'rdn llqroous r{tppr aslndSurdols,spuoresrl JreJo spunod nol sa,rr8 qtlqa 'alnssardpue oJnreraduer prep -lr.w -urrs or sa8ue; rudr Sunras lq deu dnrrrts rB )rqnr rad (tggtO'O rooJ le3o spunod lq srqrl1dnp41 S'Z 1p JoJsreqpeoy-rq8rl 'rae3rrqnl ur lueulereldsrpaur8ua nod sa,rr8 e Surplrnqpapuauuoca: lldurs r{ralltH slep p1oeqr ur 'sarn}xrul qrlq^ '(gzyD llaprm qtr^r unJ ol seulSua tooJ f,rqnf rad saqrur f,rqnr dq saqrur frqn) ur luaruareldsrp Iary/rr?8ur,{-re,r 3o llyrqrxeu aqr ua^r3 'saJntxnu apl^lC'(ruarrad )rrlrrunlol te ruatuaoeldsrp lefrraJoerp qrrl! ssau ol ]uel\ r,uop nol aqle61 00I-0g) lcuarcg3a 'deu dntretsaqr ur sturodleerqZlg ro 'srapulllc aqt ur JrE rq8rar'r. tas dlpnueu ot luaruareldsrprrrers tJa^uo3 9gZ IIE Jo or e^eq tou plnoqs no1 'odo1suartr8e ol Jo a8eruarrad ua,u8 e aqr arndtuof rsJU'stueruaJrnbar uortralul IanJatnduo: oT '(rosuas lq srurodaydrilnur or af,uo slurod pue aydn tE peol-paads req-nlnu E uo elers IInJ tE are:ado 4lpo* dVW -lnru ros or lrryrqe eqr nol sa,rr8arrnr3os ualsds d1a3es lsol4J ro elarr1fetouue) saulSua uonfnpur-pelJoJaruosq8noqr) ICE 'sPuolasrl alers IInJ Surprar sr rosurs dVIAI eqt ueq^\ qtpp\ asyndparnber -l1utL' I uBql rarear8 rnq 'udr lq papr,up000'9E ro spuolasrllru aql 'qrplr\r asynd alqersn(pe-rasn sllel rlnotuonf,alg rer.l1. 'sronafur 'stuer.uJJrnbar eql ueql ssalsr ritpp asynd aqr aJnsa>lttr ot uorr:aful 9I Jo rassal J le)rruaprsr pue IenJluad arnduor or dpoq-aluoJr{r Ja^\aJSursn arr nod Jr r{teru dressacauaqr r.uroJ pasn oq uer arn8g srql'seur8ua pa8:eqrradnsroJ aJor.u ro tuef -Jad 'a{oJts rarnodrad sa-rg -rad gg1 pue'saulSua o./r\lsasnuarsls uortcaful :nod qlrBq Sune;;o3 ruarrad001 or 96 ,anbrorlead 'preAdn Surpuno.r sdrmye 'aur8uaeqr roJ paads le aur8uateanse rot EA tuar:ad 0g aurnsse JI o.r,rruI srqr 3PI^IP ol ra3:o3 l,uoc 'lrrssacau ol atun srql tJaAuoJ 'arBJ yr 'puoras E Jo sr{rpuesnoql anbror lead aqr ^\ouI rnq 'u?r{r AA E a^Eq r,uop nolll ,/t\olJPeslnd aqr orul pa:n8u sr srqt etunssB rnq 'lpuersul uado rou op sror:a(u1'lanJJo 'wdJpue 'atnssatd '(o7etpnl/Jte)ua1Axo ploluew 'Au1wg lunorue rq8rr aqr t:afur ol JapJour rolrafur ryeds sei pneqxa'tllprui aqnd uoncalur aJeawqJouotlcun] e se alatl uMoqs elepaLU'stalaweted ue uado ot paau nol puoras E Jo uonfB{ palec4sttldos aut1ua l1t16g e saprnotd 6ut01olelep uo4ca[u1 aql nod IIal IIr./r\srrlJ 'arnrxru paJrsapaqr lecntJJ ]0 pJoJaJ ,suo1ryos aAaII{fB or parelnrleo rg8ra^,nr IanJeql lq aun rad rq8ram ur .,\.oltIanJ er{l apl^lp '^oN 'puofas rad spunod rnoq rad L999900'0slenba009'g lq papr,rrp spunod V7'alduexe roC '009' dq Surprnrp lq puocas rad ,nog or Jnor{ .Iad rq8rarn ul ,&\oU :olrafur lJJnuoJ '(uorrrasuonf,Jlas JanJ eqr ur srlnruroJ Sursn) rq8ra,r,r, or arunlol 'lressa:au 'a:nsserdploJruer.u IJnJ tJa^uoc 31 ol uonEIeJ ur tuelsuof rr daal or arnssa;d yany lre,r srotrln8a: 1gg tsoru 'Jaqr.uauag 'g.,1luac.rad rB aurSua 06 r?-VS, uo srolrafur rnor.I rad spunod 0g qrla anbrol 4eed re qrppil aspd sur 58'0I = 9800000'0 + LS7O60O0O'O puorasrlpu rad Iary sPunod = 800000'0 = 000'009' + s.rolrafur rnoq rad spunod 0 (arg qrreg 'uorlralur.rad leng spunod) = Z + 716081000'0 LSVO6OOO0'O .onur 716091000.0 = (anbror 4eed Iary/rIB ratrur) S'Zt + g7rtg16yyg

o F
(' z -

z
o
=
f F

IIJ

MAP (manifold absolute pressure) sensor Characterlstlccurues. should read atmosphericpressure I bar (100 kiloratio futween minimumand maximum injected lFl (dfnqmic flow range): Variation pascals). fuel quantityat maximumSvodeviationlrom the linearizedflow function.Peri6dic - The O, sensor should heat up (you should timeT = 10 ms. alwaysuse an electrically heated sensor),meaning % 10 the sensor body should feel warm after a little 8 while. If the O, sensor is out of the exhaust sys6 tem, you should see rhe tip get red hot shortly 4 after you energizeit by turning the key to on. If -.5 2 !v= you are using a wideband O, sensor,the laptop 5 8 o should display a 15.9 airlfuel rario once the wideDuration of injeclion rr E! -z band sensorhas heated and begun functioning. E-+ -The throttle position sensor(TPS) should move 35 from 0 to 100 percenr when you open the throtF-8 be.g-lo 30 tle; if not, virtually all EMSs now have a calibration faciliry that allows you to mark the closedand 253 fully open TPS voltages as 0 and 100 percent .! throttle. 2 0 9 . If the ECU hasinjector test functions like a Motec e M48, test each injector, listening for a rapid click1 5 E (! ing noise from everyinjector. g . Make sure the spark plugs are new, of the right 1 0 0 heat range, and gapped correctly for the engine in its current configuration. Turbo conversion engines usually run a much narrower gap than stock (that is, 0.029 or less,versus,say,0.044) t *!,",,8*" . Cranking an enginewhen the injectors arewashing the cylinder walls with raw fuel while there is Thischafteffectively illustrates theperformance of Boschfuel injectors at variouspulse no functioning spark to light offthe engineis not widths.Fora workablecalibration, it is criticalto stay withinthe rangeof excellent something you want to happen. If the ECU has repeatability for the injectorsin use,sincethe variation ratil between minimum and spark test funcrions, pull the high-tension coil maximum iniectedgoesbeyondthe critical5-percent limit at veryshortand verylong plug wire and set the end near a grounded metal pulsewidths. Bosch surfaceof the engine, run the tesr, and watch for rapid sparking. If the engine has direct-fire capabiliry, you may need to unscrew the spark plugs, re-insert each in the coil-on-plug connector, and ground the debris, or one or more injectorsare stuck open. Injectors that have plugs. In some cases-like the Motec M4-8 with direct-fire sat for a long time in a wrecking yard are particularly susceptible expandermodule-you may need to redefine the ignirion as sinto sticking. Vhen you're done testing, duct tape the pressure gle-coil and then jumper spark to each individual low-voltage gauge in place on the windshield or other location where it can coil wire at the ECU connecror ro watch for a spark at each plug. be seenafter the engine starts and eventually in early test driving If there are no spark test ECU rourines, disable the injectorsor on the chassis dyno. . If there is any possibiliry one or more injecrors are leaking, it or make sure there is no fuel pressure-and crank the engine to test the ignition as above. is critical to remoaethe sparkplugs and injector wiring and crank . Check the firing order one more time-for plugs, direct-fire the engine ro purge any gasoline from the combustion champlugs, and injectors if it's SEFI. Make sure you have the official bers-and then fix the problem by replacing or cleaning the engine firing order and know how the engine manufacrurernuminjector(s). V/hen a piston is stopped very near before top dead bers the cylinders.\With a distributor ignition engine stopped at center and a leaking injector is filling up the combustion chamtop dead center at number-one cylinder on the crankshaft timber, the crankshaft will have exrremeleverageagainst a combusing mark on the compression stroke (both valves closed), make tion chamber full of gasolinebecause the crankshaft movesmany surethe rotor is pointing at the number-onedistributor lead and degrees of rotation to produce the tiniest piston movemenr. This that the successive distributor wires in the direction of distributype of Hydro-lock may nnt just stop the engine dead in its trachs; it tor rotation are routed to the correcr cylinders in the firing order. can break rodsand pistons and smashbroken rods though the block. . Attempting to srarr an engine without an rpm or crank trigger A direct-fire ignition module is normally hardwired with certain pins on the connectorsdesignatedfirst to fire, secondto fire, and signal can be a really bad idea. Disconnect the injector wiring so so forth. Make sure the wiring is right. the engine will not start (unplug the injector harnessor .rnp1.rg . Attach a pressuregauge to the fuel rail. all the individual injector connectors),and crank the engine.VerJumper the fuel pump ro prime the systemand check for pressureof 3945 psi with no ify that the rpm display on the engine data page of the laprop Ieaks. De-energize the fuel pump and watch the rail pressure shows a plausible non-zero cranking rpm. . Once you definitely have a correcr rpm, connect a timing light closely.The fuel pressureregulator should hold steady pressure for a long time, meaning minutes rather than seconds(the shop to the number one cylinder and verify that the spark timing as manual for the car may havea designpressure drop per time specshown by the timing light matches the laptop's reported timing ification). If pressuredrops rapidly (secondsrather than minon the engine data page. If it does not, if the engine uses an utes), the regulator is defectiveor stuck partly open with dirt or adjustable distributor ignition, the distributor might be indexed

-' EE

138

6tt

o
F

os eff arar{t rnq 'papr aq plnor\ aulSua plnuapr ur ruor3 deu 'nf,E er{l otur rr 'errs qe/N sroPue^ ar{l lB ro v PEolulr\oPPu? CIJ uo gyrtrgrnod roJ olqplrz^e srtr{r uonerqrlel d-rerqrlrsasolr aqr llalas 'rualsls rnol ro3 aJ?,lrgos deru-orne ou sr eJar{r JI '11arv' arrnb alrrr{a^ aql a^rrP PuB unr llpnrce IIr^\ rEql deur ayqe1roru, e Surplrnq rB poo? hart ere auos '(uo os pue 'azls rotrafur tamodasroq parerunsa 'srapurlb Jo Jaqrunu) arr;ratur rasn dotdel ar{r Er^ rarua nol sralaurereduonern8guof Jo las E uo paseq-aturl rsru aqr Suruunr rr la8 or q8noua poo8 aur8ua rnol ro3 deur dnrrels ruotsnf B lfnJlsuof IIr,/tA rer.{rarengos 3ul 'drur dnrrers alqalro.,!\ lapour qrrm paddrnba are suralsls lueyrtr pue aJpse Sulplrnq 3o ssacordaqr parerrlotne^\ou arteqsuarsls >lleqpaaJ luaua8eueru aur8ua ralrer.urarJrlurur lnq-spoqleu Sursnpaunr llarerncre aq uul aur8uaaqr rulod qllqr rB-pelJels aulSuaagt ra8 ol elernrlt dpuanrgns uon?rqrlBr E paau III,{\ no1

(9 =

Notlvu8t]vc dnluvrs'tvlrtNl

z
f F

o
=
UJ

srqr rV'rosuas tO r,{t ruo5 BrBpuo pes?qrurn Jrnlxrur >llrqpeaJ or parn8guor uers IIra SWE ar{l 'rurrl arnlxrur dool-pasolo.&\ollu aur8ua aqr uaqr6 jl 'rraquarqeg saa-r8ap 07I lnoqe ser{f,Bar '(ua8fxo peurnqun jo srsn88rq qum rosuas'O t,{t IooJ uBr Surrgsru aJnlxnu-qrrr) Sulrgsnu osnef,ot purndo uor3 le.,rre q8noua rcJ are sarnlxrruJl palooJaq uBr (apou dool-pasop ro; rroddns .u\ou sSWE ^\aJ B qllqr ) srosuasputqapl.,!\ ua^E 'f,rJlauorr{frots llSutsearout lrert sarnlxnu sB altJnrftul ruog aJB srosues qrns :rosuas zO pueq-./v\oJJeu e lq PalsIuJ Sulaq 'uonf,eJrpparcadxaaql ur rurJl eJnlxrur ut sa8ueql qrl./n aJBA\ag l;err ol rnopeal Josuas'O r.{t esnerplnoqs eFpouJ rurn-arnlxrru aqr Sunsnfpu ((rurrl aJnlxnu fn?ruolne ou) apou dool -uado sr aur8ua aqr uer{^r'a^rlB ur dn Suru;e.,rr puE loq sr Jos pue -uas "o aqr eruo'ePqr.uEI onsr IanJ/rrE lnoq? sl I:E'I z6'0 Jo ue 'snr{J 'oner IanJ/rrElrrlaruorqlrors papr llpcluaql Vg9l/l aqr lq pap1,rlporrBrIanJ/rrBeqrJo onpr aql 'Bpqtuel se paleldsrp aq leur qllqr 'oner 1an37rre alqrsnBlde deldsrp or ur8aq ppoqs lnopBeJ Josueszg pareaq aga '8ursn alqeuoJurof aroru ar,nol ro3 dn res sr SIAJE ql1lrit uo Surpuadap 'snrsla3 ro rraquarr.{?C 'a8uer eql arns a>IBIAI 002 ol 081 arp ur arnleradurerSulterado arnreradual luarqu? ruou qurP or urSeqPlnoqs I?rurou PrB,/v\or lnop?eJ Josuasarnteraduat aurSuaaqr 'dn sruJB . aur8ua aqr sv './\^.olJJrE aurSuaerBturlsaol Josuesdvl I B sasnuarsls er{l JI ^\o[J-,{4.o1tunnre,r-q8rq sprstdolrl 0 ot rasolf qfnru alBr 1v\oltJIB e lyruersur plnoqs lnop?al Jos ol arnssard rrragdsoute ruoU r{frr./y\s -uas (4yyq) arnssardploJrueur egl 'suels aur8ua aql urrlt\ 'llqruasselfeJJofur ro 'lueloor 'arnssald ./yrol ruo5 Iro Jo {rBI pa8eurepra8 r,usaopaur8ua ^\eu E aJnse>l?u or parrnbar qlaql

;1rejaur8ua aqt e^?q 01 proJJpnol ue3 ;u gsnd or proge nol 'lseal rou lnq 'rsel puv ueo a8pa ,&req agr ol esolr ,/$,oq itsersee aqr tsnf ro arrld rsaq aqr ur rosues>l]ou>Ila{reureue rnol sr 'ald -ruexaro{ iraueru rq8ru rcrqtButqltuz uo lno lem lsea aql ueler nol aaug ;sarnteradual-Jalo uonsnguof snorJas JoJ r{lrp.&\ 01 srapeaqeqr ur saqord Suruunr aq nol ppoqs isural a3g -qord Jar{roro Surpeoyra^o roJ sunr lsal uea./v\teg leurrar{r3osuSrs s8nld aqr Sullcaqr nol eJV i'lra 's1ea1 'lsoogra,ro 'Sulteaq -Jalo 'eJnssard rrrol 'luacrad OOt le srolraful 'dorp ernssard 1ro '{loul 'saJnlxrru 'sa8ne83ur ueal snora8uep IanJ Jo astl ur ('cra 's8ururerrr 'srq8rl Sururer'r'alqrpnB'sa8neS; -r.lrreA (s)radyaq n3E aceld ul s8urure^rrr arteq nol oC itsooqJalo pu" unJJaAorsooq luartard or areld ur lSalens E aJar{l sl 'pJeral uonru8r q8noua pue 's8n1dg8noua plof, 'sarnleradurarlueloof, ayes'1an3 q8noua 'euelf 'lsoog o q8noua Jo sla^al aues Suruunr el nol y-Zut -c/tzN i{rou{ aur8ua aqr a>lBur plnol ler.Lfi\'r?er{ ol ayqrssodur ro llnruJrp aq uEf, r1 23uqron1 sr aur8ua er{l JI 1v\oDInol lyl1y\ ^roH 'aJnssard uonsnquoJ palsooq leqr por ar.puo JepJpqr.{Jnul dlprrdlr sr qrlens por pue 'uolsrd aql aloru Surdlag arnssard ou sI aJaqtuaq/v\e>loJts e>l?tur aqr uo f,CJ uror3ler're uorsrd aqr urdr r{rnru lynd or saul por aqr uaq.{\srloq por grrans or dn 11rrrr ooa;(stred lrnp-.radns qrrrrruala) ourlpar f,nsrleer e srret1,,X12(dr8 3n1d 996'9 Jo runrurxeruB pue {rors ueqr raplol sa8uerZ-I asn ppoqs uorsraluof, oqrnr u) q8noua l'rorJeu padde8 pue q8noua ploc s8nld aqr erv 'aur8ua ue dueu pailH sBqelurl ool lnq 'ouo -lue rrnq ranauau?lfo qlntu ool i(81I tnoq? ol papral 'autlro sr aurlose8 Surcerpapealun)rr Sunerq tI I rnoqe or dn alq?lre^B -rlef, aJEnol allq.,rruoneuolap uror3 aur8ua aqt tf,etord or 1an3 euelf,o q8noua q8rq a,reqnol oq '(l[^ rl 'Suorrn oB uat Burqr -aruos r e'I s,lqdrnynl regruaruar pue $lsu pnuarod az'(1euy. JI) 'arnssardparrnbar aqr rarrrodrunrurxeru lE r? IanJ q8noua ra -^llap or g8noua 8rq sr drund 1an;aqr rer.{r {pr1'uoneuolap puB seJnlxruru?al qrr./r\ aur8uasnoJlruro 'palsooq 'rndrno-q8rq-radns " ilDI plnol IIBursool aJel?qt sJotf,olurpue 'lle./y\ alpr Jaaaullr.M 3lg oor er? rBr.psroroafu1'a1clc&np ruaorad 0g ueqr sselre llqe -ra3ard'ra,r.odpue anbror runrurxerure aur8ueagr Ianj or q8noua a8rel puz IIa^\ alpr or q8noua IIBus are laqr os aur8ua aqr roJ llrrauoc pezrsJJEsrorcafurIanJ ar{r reqr {rra,r ot pJttxtJ sr ll o '8urun lueJJnf,s,nf,E er{r sar{Jt?ru Surtun lenrre SWE ar{r ur a13uera88rn {utrr aqr arn8guorar Inun ar?,,!\Tos 'uontu8r eJU-tJaJrp sasn aur8ue aqr Jr Jo parsn(p" rq louuBl Surxapur rolnqulsrp aql JI '8unun raSrer s,nf,A aqr saqlretu Sururn pntre ar{r Inun rornqrnsrp aqr arerog 'reslJo -ra38rn >luerr ro3 parn8guoo lpcarrof,ur aq rq8ru nf,E aql ro 'Suorrvr

e8efor-uapr?r.u raqlo aql Ip ruro3radpue $[Eal roJ {ool ol arns a{Bru 'tuuldrar*rodsalrur-g 'rvieu-pueJg e sr aur8ua aql JI 'ruJe,l\ I11rypun Suruunr u. daaqor ln 'Suruunr sr aurSuaaqr aluo 'dn-urrum 'aJnlxlru Itnrur aqr Surrnp InJasnlrarr aq url alnpour rulJr V 'Suruun: aur8ua aqt ta8 ueel B se1'r urolqord agr jr ,,{1-reyncrtred 'a8uer tuarrad dlaq leu Surluen allqr (s)rod urrl ar{l Sur8urrrrg 'tuatuuealua ro luauqfrrue 0 ol 0I snururro snld aqr ur llpnsn aprrrordol asn uec nol slBrPeJou Jo auo qtr,&\ PJBoq-aqr-ssoJfE appol.u turJr E a.,req leu swg 3r{l 'rou 31 'aulSua aqr rrers dlqe 'lurod slqr tV -qord llrlv\uonerqrpo deu-olne ro lrerqrl aql '(uo os :apro Surrg 'adlr uorr pue -ru8r 'srapurllc go raqunu) aur8ua aqr qrr^\ SWA aql rlrreru or Sunerado pqo13 urelJar seugeptegr ?r?p parrnbar sJnsrJalf,eJeqr uonern8guo) aruosJatua ol a,reqllauuuap lsorule III^\ no 'rtrogroroalur ur uonBrJB ar{r q]rBlu or qrprrtraslnd uoncafur s,deu eqr Surpcsar3o lem e llqeqord sr aJel{l '8uorn sr azrs .rolcaful er{l JI 'srolra(ur pazrs-Jelrulrs pue 'tuauaceld '8urun rues -srp '(s:nsrJJlf,EJ?r{f, tu\ou-pear{ pue Joaraqr >1ce1 aqr ro srappe-ra^&rod Surpnpur) scnsrralf,ereqf, AA rBlnurs 11a,,'n -?lal qrra 's.rapurllc Jeqrunu aues ar{l qum aur8ua uB uJoU Jo eq $nu detu dnrrurs areprpurc poo8 E 'esBJlue u1 'uolreJqrl?l ae{ e^Eq prundo aJoru B uror3 lurouola IanJ Jauaq pue .rartrod lueur.,trog Euruauuar{srp sr plnol t?qt punoJe Sul,urp are saulSua tI 'asef aqr sr srql Sur,rordaruapr.r'.a pruaulradxe lnoqlra rragrad sr uorrBrqrlet ,(ue atunssB louuef dldurs no1 'oudp aqr rE luaJaJ 'alduBxe roJ lpcayrad >lro1v\ -Jrp se.i!\ arnssa.rd lou Irer IanJagr 3r sazrs rorca(ul al{r jI rq8rur uoneJqrleJrrajrad aql 'arurs aql ala./r\ aSuate uarg '(aur8ua ualr8 B JoJ{Jo1v\ leqr sezts,lolcafur.1o IIr/\4. sleirrp llpnrrr,r sr arar{l pue) azrsruaJaJJrp ? eJe^\uorreJqrleror{r ur pasn s.lotra(urar{lJl Suorrrraq il1,1^ aur8ua lelnuepr osr,i\,Jaqlo uB ruog oulp gcrrasal Jellop-uolil1u ? uo sl?of,orrq^\ ut slradxa lq padolarrapdeur rear8 lypa.r e uala 'eroru s,lBrLfl\'prurtdoqns uE JepueJplnol suorrzfrJrpor.u Jounu uele deu t:a3rad aslrrr.lagro srorreJlueru SunraJJB leql uonerqrlEr lBundo aqr se>ltruteq.rrr

,{etteur adola,rua ,u,ouffi::ttHi.H lilll?] sw' arrr Jo

o
F

(,
I

o E

3 F

z z

UJ

point, the EMS will have some means of indicating that it is in closedJoop aod.: For example, a readour may begin displaying the amount of fuel the engine is adding or subiracting to achieu! stoichiometric ratios. Some EMSs havi airlfuel ratio-tables that allow. a runer to specify nonstoichometric rarger mixtures for closed-loopoperations in various speedand loaJing segmentsof the engine operating range. The trick with closed-loopoperationsis to tune the raw fuel curve of the engine so the engine runs great under all circumstances even if closedloop is turned off. Under no circumsrances should uncorrecredmixtures ever be leaner than stoichiometric. If the o.r.sensor fails, the system will default into open-loop l_odg, which you alwayswanr ro be perfect or on th. ii.h rid.. The basefuel maps should be construited so the closed-loopsystem.is {ways either idle or pullingfuel, never working rc aid furl to the basemap. Keep in mind that the o, sensorir ,ro, in the combustion chamber but rather is located downstream somewhere in the header(s)^or exhausrsystem, and there is a varying degree of.lag. in the O, sensor reading, depending on engini spegd and exhaust veloiiry. A properly calibrated Etrrts shJutd safe, which, in this ."r., o'.an s fail rich.Typically, OEM EMS ftil closed-loopsysrems are clamped to limit the'maximum fuel trim to a.rather small percenrage; if the sysremis adding or subtracting huge amounrs of fuel, somerhing is probably ieally wrong. Later on, we will talk about using exhaustgas remper"r,rr. ,."Jings to tune safelyat high power levels,but even gcrr have lag time, and combustion remperarures are rypically much hocter in the chambers than even a short distance downstream in the exhaust. Bottom line, the basefuel map should err on the rich side, but never by more than about 5 percenr. Vhether or nor you plan ro run Closedloop once the EMS is optimized, you ne_ed wideband capabiliry to dial it in. Keep in mind, narrowband o, sensorsare not capableof providing accurate readings very far from 14.68:1, that is, below 14 or-much above 15 (though they will immediately and clearly warn of a too-lean condition without the driver having to rhink through what it means). The automatic starr-up mapping faciliry may produce a map that will start and op.tat. ttre "ehicle wirh decent drivabiliry but airlfuel ratios and timing will almost definitely not be.optimal. Tlr.t*t:: you're going-to need wideband O, capabiliry to find the "free" po*.. "nd efficiency in your engi.rel It is a fact of life that virtually all pro runers *oik *ith wide6and O, sensordata in all tuning operations,and many Dynojet chassis dynos are now equipped with wideband capabilities'that log airlfuel ratio information and graph it along with powe, ".rd torque. Alternately, some of the newer EMS; ha.'. a wideband which may allow the EMS to read and log data from a lption, five-wire o, sensor (which rypically costs hundreis of dollars), though nor necessarilyto use for closed-loop feedback operations. Narrowband o, senso-rs deliver a voltagi becweentt."rly 0 and nearly I volt (a few are frequency-based). \fideband sensors typically deliver a 0-5 volt signal that is not comp^tible. More rarely, some EMS sysremscan now work with a conditioning processorthat converts wideband o, data to the 0-l volt signJ needed for actual closed-loop trim"operations (an .*r-pi-. i, Links UEGolink). Another oprion is employing a standalone wideband airlfuel-ratio meter that is not p"rt oirhe EMS but instead indicatesthe airlfuel ratio in real time on a digital display or analog gauge needle.\wideband sensingof any.,"ii.ry greatly increases rhe accuracyof tuning under all conditio.rr, "rd ii accurate in detecting airlfuel rarios from about l0:l all the way ro above 16:1. The trouble is, standaloneAFR merers .".rnoi b. correlatedwith datalogginginformation from the EMS, but they

are very good, nonetheless.Most ambitiously, some EMSs now have an auto-mapping capabiliry that enablesthe ECU to work with a wideband sensorto build correcrion tablesthat trim injection pulse width to achieve the values in a target airlfuel ratio table (assumingyou know the ideal AFRs, whici frequently vary accordingto the engine or engine wpe). Such systems aregood for driving around town and allowing the systemto tune itself at light and midrange power sertings,but I woul d not trust such a system optimal AFRs for high-boost, high-power opera_ro.find tiol^s. going ro wanr to sneakup on dangeioui high-power You'1. airlfuel ratios manuallv.

VE TABLES
vE tablesare useful for enginesthat are not equipped with mass airflow sensors,and which rely on manifold abrtlur. pressure and engine speedto estimate engine airflow vE tablesco.r.ct for the fact that only engineswith a perfectly flat torque curve have a perfecdy_ linear relationship bimeen manifold pressure and engine airflow acrossthe rpm range. vE tablesadd a kind of elegance to engine managemenrsystem design that does not exist on EMSs that simply liok up fuel injectio_npulse width or timing advancein a tatle of rpm and manifold.pressure cells.Altho ugh any speed-densiry table of timor pulse width data is gging to correlareroughiy with engine lng vE, a pure vE table describing the engine'sbreathing efficie"ncy across the range of operation is uncomplicated bylompeting purposessuch as the desire to optimize some poitions ir ,nI operating range for efficiency or low emissions and others for maximum power or the need to warp fuel delivery or timing to cool combustion or fight detonationln certain areasof the map. Any of rhese, for example, could cause a speed-densiry-pulse width table to depart from perfectly describing vE. An'engine managemenr sysrem in possession of reliable engine vE information in effect knows actual mass airflow into ihe engine and can use rhis information in a variery of ways to optimiz"eengine management in various rypes of self-learningand targeted optimization strategies. The engine management systemt volumetric efficiency .. table is a critical chart of numbers that representsthe .ngin.t breath.ingefficiency acrossthe range of engine speedsand ioading. The vE table e^ssentially tells the engine -.rr"g.-.nr sysrem what percenrageof the engine'sdisplaciment wi[ make it into the cylinders at each and every porribl. combination of rpm and manifold pressure. Manifold p..rr.rr. is itself a function of engine breathing,capabilities, throtde angle, and the operating status of installed power-adders.vE is dependenr on tire basil engine design, including head design, camshaft profile, power_ adders,and engine speed. Engine VE rypically variessomewharfrom 100 percent in a . positive or negative.direcrion (usually negative), depending on what the engine is doing and how it'is designed.once the system knows how much air there is in the .yli.rd.rr, .o-p,r,i.rg how much fuel the engine needsis simple. There are an infinite number of possible engine speedand numbers, so various engine management systemssettle F"{tlg for vE tablesof a fixed number oTcells(s,rc"h as t6xi6 or 20x40), with points falling in between the resolution of the table calculated asa weighted average of the closestdefined cells (sometimes referred to as breakpoints). If an engine is breathing an amounr of air equalto.100 percentof its displacement, the vi, is 100 percent. Depending on the table, this number may be represented as a_ percencage (1.00), or a plus-or-minusoffset (0.00), or even as the fuel injection pulse width (for a certain size injector) that

140

LiL

o
F

(9 =
7

o
=
lrJ

f F

'arnssard ploJruer.u udr pue ar{r or sllaf, tuaJJnf, Surlre,r roJ pazlulrdo sr qrprrtrasynduonra(ulJI gn eur8ua qrrrrr rsasoll Sulrtoru p urelure(u sSWA afurs lsoru lpcayrad alelerror osp rou elqer [EJeas aql ssoJfea8e:arre aql IIr^\ IenJureru e ur sregr.unu 'alqeqrearafi teqr syyar 'aloq? pauonueu sy'3ulun ro Surraproqrsasolreql olur pa8urartr aq luu qrpr^\ aspd uonra(ul aseqIBnlrE ,atac1mrharta sllar elq?qleaJun ur senpl er{l afurs sanp^ alqlsneld er.p urog pelotuar dals auo alqet arnd e a^Br.l sSWE atuos Er\ ratue pForls nol q8noqr ,(udr ggg .les ,re lsooqyo slar'a1 q8rq 11 lqm sr qtrI[46. 'seereaseql ur g1 aur8ua uorj rredap rlqBl IIr^4, -ruanxa 'olduexa ,uon?uotap ro;) alqerpper er? alqrr lou B ur sregrunu qrns eql lq8g ol pasn Sulaq llrepurs EA BJo sllaf,auos tBqr purru ur daay 'srataurered Jaqro pu? Sulrun lreds azrurndo sr pJEleJ >1reds;r Jo 'aJnseeruJalunor uonBuolapnup uB s" suonrp ol uo Surlotu aroJeq,fia'rr1ap -uor lrsBq azrundo or ayqrssod se repun palsooq uonsnquof, Iery loof, ot pasn Suraq sr Iary Bnxe .u1e8y'8urum s11ar duetu sEur sonlpl alern]ru Surrarualq ,ftarrr1ap 1eryrrage 11 Jr lpr.p pulu ur daal lreds ssalarrnbar pue rarseJ -tear8 elq?l reqr u.lnq lcuarf,rga JrJtaunlo,rt raq8rq yo srurod lE saJnlnru a8reqr IIL,\I, EA urpur aql Sulugap uo lsru {ro/!\ ot sr >lrrn .arnleradrual agl'deu Sulrun aseqalnelJesuof .alqrsneldE qrr^4, Jesuap aJurs'spaads snolrel lB uoneloJ aulSuayoaar8ap rad awlt Surreradopurrou t? aq pporls aur8ueaqr .aoeyd rsrg ar.{ruI lunorrp olur a{Bl pue aur8ua ar{rJo EA aql or lg8rq al?laJrof, 'Suruunr arers-lpears ur osle lsJg senlB^af,uelpe Surun lreds purndo Jo alqel aql IIr,,\4. 'srapurl^lJo raqunu aqr ^q aqr Sunra8 uo snfoJ pue s8urirasluatur{frrua ru3rsueJl rq8rr El pepFlp lueru 'arnparord srqr uI .lf,error lyqeuosear -aceydsrp ruar-rad rlneJap aqr qrr,,rr >lf,nsa^4. 00I ol pnba rr? Jo ssetutEr{l roJ lJarrof, sr 3o sr alqer IenJ uretu ar{r rer{r sasoddnsardsrqr .rala -r,.'oH ''JEI ellloruorlf,elE el{l a{II alq?l EA tgp anrlotxollcall'aAJnc anfuol -ads e qtl^\ leUe wo4 Surssau SWE uB uo alqpl EA ar{r qtr./\^, Apuecgu1ts salJe^ saw1uauo paadsaur\uatptn anfuolunwxeut lA awbuaaJaqlA eJoJeq luerur{frJua uoDeJalare Suruas puauruofaJ pa\al ot alqet u saduetlc e \unsntpe Aqparypow aq ueea^rncpnJ 11 alercdas stradxael.uosialq?l EA e pllnq nol op /v\oqoS Mel sltltMqtlsMotls 'suearuJar.poqrr.&r t1defiwogoqat11.a0e11ol dVW wnwxewte awy uadonlcalur JoJalesuaduof or r.llr1(a133nrts alqtssod wnwxew atlt ,,'tltpynaspd alqe$nlpynsg, wnwtxewaq Aqy10uaql uo dlarrrua rou s reqr Ioor 11,nolrpqr pur ayqepuadap '0 pue satlceofide aie4on aspd,, wnututw aql Aq 4a1 p ueqr rer{teJSurqrearqaur8ua at11 dVW se ,,aw!! nslJg tilpt^A lenrfe Jo Jelau alBr pauuap uo aq e qlpm swrat u! aqnd uo4ca[u met sauuap c10o1 -nffe uB olur Josuas ]0 ,311s,Auedwoc dvli\l rnol surnr rqSrr alqel g1 aq1 'sqdetA aNtowlrpa? asarlt ut papa|ar st uo\erEpc pn! p adocsaq1 agr Sunra8 'arnlralrqor? alqEl-EA e seq gygE rnol 'asecdue u1 'sarnlxrru 0'I ?pqr.uelraueal roy 3ur JI e8elol.rosues dVyI -unr dlqeqo:d ar,nol aJar.l ^,deu aqt3o sJol3as asrnJJ z -lqBI Jaqto ot uonpler ur searBramod-q8rq rar{rrJ
I

z
o (spuoeslttru) . rllpu^esnd:opaiut v I 9

su,l, = dvfl

ebelol.losues dvl l

! stll 00'l = IOd

z
? 9 (spuqcasrltu) t{fp!,!^aslnd .lopafu1

iispuoossililur z loN g = dvfl spuocesllllut

9 L

aqr ur raq8rg padrervr aq I11,l\ tr rBqr ldarxa elqel EA aulSua ar{rJo arBJrns aql a{rl rol ? {ool llrin ereJrns agt 'alqer qlpp aspd e arreqnol j1 .rarseraslaSulqr -l:arra a{?u ylrrnrq8rr rr Sunra8 (alqerEpqr.uEI E a^Br.l nol31 'as1a Surqilrale seuuap sauanxe aql lB san e r{rr^\Sulralurr 'alqer E1 poo8 e ro3 al nol 1e^ ,{\aJ j1 durouore rseq roJ uonelnopc aldrurs reqlou" tamod rsaq roJ uonBInJIBf,aldurs auo sr r{lp1lr{ 'aur8ua ue Sulratua Jrc sseru aspd uorlra(ur 1an3 Jo eqr ff\ou>lnolJl (^\ar^Jo turod Jar{rouBuroJc 'sturod o/t\t eseql auuoP ot st aulSuaaqr aunl or op or a,reqnol lp os .srurod Jeqro Ip slJasJarur llarernme rudr alpr re uortrafur runrurunu pue rudr anb:ol lead te uortralul run[u -lxeur uee^\taq u,,\Brp aurl rq8rens e ,(a1qet EA B sl a;aqr .ro) rBUsr anbror JI 'leg ag ol elrnr anbror aqr arunsse uef, $lsEl uorreJqrl"JJaqlo IF os ,of,EJJns reu e oluo (anbror 'arogaraqr) ,&roltJre aur8uaSurqrrcsap gder8 q-, e Jo areJrns patnlo^uor aql $zrler,uJou ;o stcafordalq?l EA e 'rr,ralrr3o lulod auo ruoJC 'a8parg8rense qrr^/r4. sJap -Joq aEJp pue sof,u?lsrp eJnsuaru uec nod os aJpJJns lEIt 3 otuo plro./rtar.pJo deu aqr Sulrcaford3o rdar -uor eqr a{rl alurl E loor luarueluoJ e sr.{lalernre u Sunras'elgpr EA p e^Br.l nolyl '(ruaurdrnbaSurppor Surqrearq loq ^ .euqrrru. aur8ua,frpou nolgr ro lno JEa^ ol sur8aqaurSuaaqr sBrdarxa) sa8uuqcJelau aur8uauEJo alqBrEA aql (paugapaluo ,luql sr s.&au poo8 aqa'Surpeoy pue aur8ua3o paads uoneurquor ,xoq ro reprnrud e sluasardarr.llrq./v\ Jo rllpa IIaf, r{fea ur Jeqrunu rurod Surreog auo qlra raaqspeards 8rq e a1r1 Surqraurosqool alqel g1e ,(1prr3o1 '(asln;r rg8ryre lcualcrga tunturxetu ,aproJr.p IInJ te rarrrod runturxBtu 'aldurexa ro3) s8urpeol aur8ua snorJel re sasodrndSullre,r alarr{f,eol sonpJIanJ/JrB

qJI josues dvyl sDutpBu

o F
(9 z -

o E

f F

UJ

One good way ro build a VE table is to use the O, sensorro target identical airlfue-l ratios in all speed-loading points, which is made easierby the fact that many EMSs now have a target AFR table. If you have a wideband O, sensor,you can set all cells in the target lambda (airlfuel ratio) table POWER ,. ExHAusT,CO,I|PRESS,Ow \ TNTAKE 'r-_1 to 12.8:1,which should be safely SIROKE t,.' SIR0KE L---.:,/ SIROKE S'RO'G rich enough to set VE in cells ref580* erencing high power and torque 3l0Target settingson all but the most radical Base Offset high-boost powerplants (but not TDC BDC TDC so rich as to harm idle qualiry or BDC TDC I 0* produce surging at light cruise).If 180* 720r /l you are using a narrowband sensor, l'. it will not have the authoricy to _ ?ltldu@n_t accurately distinguish airlfuel ratios this rich. Some people suggest that on a normally aspirated : engine without too much com--(J X(J - c!. pression and power, you can try o. I o-o setting up rarger ratios of 13.2 I P l . l (0.89 lambda) in all cells and run { I F t f the process, but standard O., sent t l t l sorsare not particularly accur-ate in t l this range so far away from lambEXHAUST IiITAKE OPS{S INTAKE da 1.0. Under no circumstances VALVE OPEI{S EXHAUST CLOSES cLosEs should you atrempr ro ser VE at the more dangeroushigh-boost VE cells with just narrowband data. Withsequential fuel iniectionyou will probably havethe optionto defineinjection phasing, in particula4 Turn off the parameter that positionin the 720-degree the engine four-cycle (or start). by whichinjectionmustconclude tnjection deactivates closed-loop auro timingcan typically be adjusted at various rpm points andoptionally at various points. efficiency Adjusting correction in conjunction with the the iniectiontimingallowsthe fuelto be injectedatthe optimum pointin the enginecycleso the fuetis targetAFR table, but make surethe usedmostefficiently. powe7emissions, Engine economy, andidlestability maybe optinized by adjusting O, sensorreadourstaysactive. the injectiontining. It is a good idea ro ger some idea of which cells are being used by the EMS to fuel the engine by using a cell highlight if there changes reflectedin actual injection pulsewidth, sincethe EMS is one to mark the speed-densiry cells as you operarethe engine. will averageour sharp peaks and valleys. So change one breakThis will enableyou ro concentrare on correctingthe appropripoint a modestamounr, then switch over ro graph mode and pull ate cells first. the surrounding cellsup or down as required to make a smooth 'Working cell by cell on the road with a runer riding shotslope.If this is not enough, do another iteration. \What wlll not gun with the laptop and a driver with one foot on the gas and work well is to yank one cell to ridiculous heights before getting one foot on the brake (hopefully on a deserredcountry road or around to other nearby cells. test track) working to achieverargerrpm and engine loadings (or, On some sysremsyou can datalog the actual airlfuel ratios evenbetter,using a load-holdingengine-or chassis-dyno), adjust asyou drive the vehicle through the range of speeds and loading, as many cells as you can reach in the VE table to bring the actuand have the systemtell you the pulse width required to achieve al values in the rarger airlfuel table back to the identical rarger entries in the rarger ratio table-or even do the actual pulse I2.8:l (or 13.2) airlfuel ratio. The trick is to work methodicalwidth compensarion.Using dataloggingthis way can be effiiient ly, staying away from sudden acceleration,stabilizing the vehicle becausea relatively quick rest run can be made to encounter at the various breakpoints before moving to the next. man! cells in the airlfuel or VE table, which can then be fixed If you have a fresh, accuratewideband sensor,a tankful of following the run, offline if you like. If is also safer, becausea racing gasolineand a known-conservarivesrartup map, it may be bri.efforay into eachcell is enough, with no requirement to linger feasibleto turn on auro-correct closed-loop operation and drive in high-power cellswhile you make sense of what is going o.r *d around, noting the amount of fuel the system is having to submodify the VE or injection pulsewidth. However yor'tdo it, work tract or add (hopefully not much) to achievethe target rarios, fixyour way through the table, adjusting VE to bring the actualAFR ing the VE table as you go. valuesin the fuel table back to 12.8:1 (or 13.2:l if narrowband). Keep in mind that the trick is changing not just one cell, Bewareof the most dangerous high-boost cellson a 2- or 3-bar but smoothing in the surrounding cellsto form a smooth slope boostedengine. or graph. If you do not changesurrounding cellsalong with the Note: Some highly sophisticated EMSs do not use a special target cell, you will probably not get the full magnitude of VE table. Instead, they use VE-type tables of pulse width and

END OF INJECT PROFILE

,,, To-

540*

/t I I

!F

142

evL

o
F

(9 =

o
lrl

f F

'sflaJJe uots.rarrar 3ul -1rods-a-1p1yo^rc dur eql azrurururor sdlaquotrcJTuryo pua aqrJo Sursrqd aqr Sur8ueqr l?ql pug leu nol la-re nol3r-pue .d1aq11 -lBarurr slql 'uonla{u1 plruanbaspeurn Sulsnlou ar? nolgl 1ary 'sJauunr a)ptur egt-orur >pBq aJnrxrruJqt a8reqc ,uolq uer rer.p uorsrelar parnpur-delre^o ol anp elpr or sEI eql ur sdCV ro IIe.&\ -r{Jrr paau leur sruec8lq .1gg-rrod saulSue qrrrvr ua^E qlr^\ 'suonerado zg dool-pasop pueq {reqpeeJ -./\ ,OJJ?u pue sJelJa^uoc rrrdpre) qrr.&\ algrreduor lsotu sr rr pu? '(rrrrauoqt^JorsJo ,a1pr srnrro r{lFI^\ qf,rr ernlosqu ayt pu rsarsey .suone llqeqo:d q8noqr) apr poo8 e aonpord plnoqs bne_r-srq1 -3d: IEnlrBrepun yarypd urarsls dool-pasolceqr lal pu' reqru [1tq&qs eunl ol ruerrrllqeqord nol lng .rrrlaruorgrtoit-se u^\ou{ osle 'I:gg't/l sr stuBf elqBraans ,pllru qlllr\ saulSua roJ ucv .u9 .O alpr.re8rrr aqJ paurnr rnopBer r,{t qrr.,\4. ,pi* rnq doq -uado ur.alpxrc aulSuaaqr Surunr lq rrerg .uBalor r{rrr ruo5 {ro^\ sftmp 'su.&opllatu aJntxnu-uBalpu? uoneuolap plo^B oI rEoJ IInJ re Suruonrpuof,rre eql pu? Burrelq oaralseqr qrr^\ aunr Jelau Surueaur 'uoneuorep Sur8euep-aur8ua -ro; ,r.rri1 stamla puv 'sarnrxrur ueal salefrpur r{JIq ^ ,Surl3srur pue ,Burq8noc '3ulrg>Prg J>lplur Jo .seJnlxnu r{rrJ selefrpur r{JIr{ \ .asuodsar ,{zel puv e>lotus rsnerlxe{lBIq roJ rnolool aqr uo aq rng .lnopeer .Surunl taaJls JoJ alq?nF^ur sr afr^ap Jele Pu?qapr^/\e sr s3 -uorelaf,f,E-uV'alpl Sununq ,Surlrrp re s? sr lreulpro ul Bur ila.&\ -8rns pue 'Sulyqunrs .uon?lrsaqal?unurle or ar,Jqrl'feJ pu? rsar pBoJ or paau 11,nol.uonergrpc oulp e qlr^\ auop are nol ueq/\^ 'suonrpuoc qroous arnpord oI.{lBJl pue Ip rapun aJuur,uroJJed taans eqr uo qrlr llpundoqns unr llalugap rsoup pur4luu 11lirr. rsoule Jo Jaleuoueulp e uo pa]eJqrlec aur8uaup tole.a\oH -Jrrurf,s no,( paau llpar rr ra8 o1 .purrdoqns aq 11lirr lq8g-r duur rnod reqr paarueren8 llpnrrr,r sr lr ,lou j1 .oulp ptrra,ri-uEotur allrqe^ rnol surnr llplruassa reqr qlal-g oql airl ef,rlep rale -ruoralerreu? roJ 0gz-0rl$ aql puedsp,1oulp EJo narl ur :srql Att rcu ppo,r\ I 'srpsar poo8 pyarduec qcrrrrrdors-"p,r" uoneru orwr IanJ/rrB'lBlrpoqrau puB luaned [lautatlxa are nod31 loJtt 'Sulunr roJ tnoprer poo8 e llarrugap ilyr\ nol ,oudp"e paau UCV aler{ lou op nodgl 'al?l oor sr rr aroJ3q 13g Burslrllsnora8uzp rlarep ol aJnsBaur lraSese se seqord arnteraduratse3lsnErlxaosn or aprlap leu notr 'anb.totrsaq uBel uela Jo ueeul ro3 Bullool peelsurtnq 'onEJlenJ/rl?rrlnonrrd e ro3 Surqcreas aq ra8uol ou no^ 'sanrlrqedel u{v pueqapr/r puB ralauoureulp E paeu III,/y\ 'tr luouoca rseq puB rr paeu nol araqrvr 11,nol tuern nol a-laq,,rr rarrrod aau ar{r yo ruarrad 00I pug or rng .sd"u asuq eunJ ro3 aresuadruorpu? lrrlrqerrr:p poo8 arnpord ueo srosuai >llou>l p1" 'O pueqapr,/v\ Sursnsuoneradodool-pasoll pue salq?lU{V ra8rer Jo uon?urquol aql.nzr{1eue se8 lsn?qxa rr"3 io Jalaru oneJ-lanJ/JrBpuEqepr.^rpu? JalauroruBulp e rnoqrrvr ruatsls tuaura8eueuraurSuaue azlundo l1p3 or lell, ou lldrurs sr arar{r

,t!tw tou,,r*'r'rllfi:fi"if;;lffiT{:; r^arraq op pue rou

'EpqurEI 0'I ro g9.r/lJo r{lrr ruacrad E uer{r aroru ou s1(oqslno -pBer araqr rr ploq pue aoeld UCV aqr Inun IanJ rurJt nod a1rq,,vr euo lE lp_ears paadsaulSuaaqr azrlrqzrs.rueuqlrrua uon?ralerf,? Surz*undo ur arun srqr r? pa^lo^ur pB pu oo 'f,rJraruoqlrors Jo qcrr lpq8rls qrpr^/\aslnd uorrca(uraqr ras pu' .paadsrar"r " re ,sa8ur.rrud.l raq8lq ot e^olAJ Sulzrylqns 'puo1oraz qtr.,v\ IIns sruelqord Suruonrpuor rr? elpu?q ol suonrunJ l?rl -adsezreq suatsls eruos 'ro1e dlaq uer urarsls f,VI eql Burutuer8 -ordag 'sl apl agr Suorm.uoq uo pasBquonfaJrp a nJaJJof, B ur ua>ltrdarspnrur aqrJo apntru8eu aqr sBIIJ.&\ s? ,uonf,?elnf,arJoJ aler upr rr aroJaqpaadsolpr seurwexaaruralsls eql qlrq,l\ le alBJ aqt pu?uruo: or nol salqeuareqr :r3o1 JVI palplnsrqdos eleq .Surpeolro peadsaulSuaul saSueqr ,/v\ou ssIAJE urapolu rso7,q a1t -qns or asuodsar ur Surturl ro Surlanyprcads aprlo-rdor ruarslsaqr /v\ollB ot pa;rnbar aJeq^\sa8uer.a4.oJJEu al?aJf u?f no^ .sa8uu:Bur -peol pue udr yo lrrrepuer8 reaurluou paurJap-rasn rog apl,rord rarol4Jar{ralrl suarsls S6JE parelnsrqdosleql uosearJotros srqr roJ sr rI '(ap_raqr ezrlrqers lpuersur or IanJro Surun aJoureprrl B qrrr'rsdeqrad; uo Suruonrpuor rrB eqr alpr qrr./t\ eqr lsaq roJ pazru '11ar -rrdo aq uel qlrr{1v\ Surpeol-paads rar{rou?ol r{rlr.,!\s ol SntrA aql asnEf, Surpeol Suruolrrpuof, rrE aqr lPnl ar,nol;1 11rrrr $llDl Suruonrpuof Jrpaqr uaq.,!\ rudr ur dorp .'uo r{reluaurou SurdouueuB tnoqlr.&\llssalureas elpr w sa8ueqcprol pacnpur-3ur.roirrp,ro, rrB glr./v\ pap or q'B.ro.r,t'irj rq rou leu tual 'suonrpuol -sls 3y1 aqr Ip rapun paadsalpl ra8rere urelurBruol palnbar aar8ap8ur,fierraqr or areld apro.rqreql punore rre ssedlq ol roloru-raddars OVI u? areln8ar uel ler{l rr8ol uonezrlrq?ts paads alpr a^Br.l,/v\ousSIAIE rsou q8noqr[V .uo seruof, .rossard -ruoc Suruorrrpuof JrE ar{r uaq./$, uo eruoJ ot lrnJJrf r{rlnlJ Buluolt -rpuof,rrE eqr ol Sulrlrrr lr ro SI{E alqeuurerSordro>lrer.ura3r rsnf uE r{tr.,lr tr Sursn Japrsuof, ol tuely\rgSru no .alpl rsEJB ateurur ol pazr8raua sl SuruonrpuoJJr? aql uerfy\ .ro ploJ lpar sr aur8ua eqr uaq.&rul llarelpaurur qlpl rBr{t rodqsrp patenrle-SlniE uE arreqsaur8uaauos 'reprEr{aur8ua eql p?ol llqracnou qlr{.I./r\ IIr,/v\ 'Suruorupuof, .a1pr JrE eqr uo urnl e arreqnol rr,71X poo8 'a8ueg: a13ue aprorr{r lpr.us ? roJ ^\ogrre ut a8ueqca8rel e sr arar{t qrlr{r!\ ur s?er?aFrorgr a8rel girrn sural -sls uo llrrpcrrred ,speolrq8rl re qlpy/r aslnd ur aseeJrur dears11 -rryJe paau leur uonrsod eprorqr uo pawq puol eur8ua elerunsa or dn las snJE '(arnssardolraqdsout? a^oqe sesrralnssardp1o3 -ru?ru uar{ \ uorlrrado parsooq Surrnp llrelncrrred) peol aur8ua Jo sla^al raqSrq re Surlany pas"q-dVIAJol suonrsuerl tng ,uon -rsod aprorqr uo paseqspeol rg8rl pu? alpr lB pelenJsla8 aur8ua aqr os ?lrp dVI l pue SdJ pualq or uondo aqr aprrrord g-rry f,ero/{ aqt pue ef,[J elnotrJoJlfalg eql a1r1 sruarslsetuos ,uos?aJ srqr roC 'uonrsod aprorr{t ul a8uego oaz eg rg8ru araqr uer{^\ sa8urqc Sulpeol rou^u uo pastq 3ur1an;or sarreqcr.r"rgr.l8,, a:rnbar teqr saur8uauo IIa.&r >lJo.&\ rou seop rr rnq ,saplcroloru ef,uBr.uroJJed r{I sallrqe^ rq8rl uo llrelnrn:ud ,saur8ua aruos uo $lro/y\ N-Br{dH .uonrsod eprorr.Psnsra^ rudr ro3 qlpp\ IIe,& aspdSo_salqer Sulsn aulSuaue a8eueursruarslsN-Br{dV:(aVru) arnssard ernlosqe ploJrutr.uJo p?alsur Surpeol aul8uago rolBf,rpur ue s? el?p (Saf) rosuasuonrsod eprorr{r Sursn pur pu8rs dVI I aqr.Surpre8arslplq saur8uallnrrsrp qrr,&\alpr rarroq E anarr{f,e ot l1a1r1sl ue os '8ur1pr sr aur8ua u? ueq,/v\ a8ueqr pu llrw SIAtrE talanog 'uollsod ellrorqJ .lle,/v\ alpr or aur8ua aqr roJ preq rr a>leru put >lJEq paa3,urc8e ,ppol.&oUJrB ur suon?rJel pue .CVW alp fteu eqnr lalur eqr ur aJualnqrnl puB uorsJarra: lq pas[uo:d -tuor .rosuas aq plnor uonrrodo lrernole pue CVI I CVI J B sBrl uE r{fns31 >1eads ol os,lret u.a.oslr esBr.{J or urarsli 11lrs_aulSua aqt Sursnec arnssard ploJruer.u Surrapuempue 3lq?rsunlpuaraqur uB ol anp soneJIanJ/rrBr{lrr r{rr,trua^e alpr tB lunq leu (delralo pue uonernp Jo ro1e qrrm) sru?f,IBrrpErlpn qurrr saur8ug

dvw

't3nJ

]HI CNtZilAilIdO

'srlnsal Jeuaq aonpord ppol uonfaJJof -ornBJo saar8apSurlre,r pu? rosurs pu?qepr,/y\ eyo dlag eqr qrr/!\ son?r ra8rer pootsrapun 11airr d1-rre3 8urra3:eryo pograu a^oge aqr (pefuauadxa pue tuarled at,nol ssalun ,pres tBr{J .r{JaI-D aql a>lrlefrlap JalauoJaleJte ue Jo Jalaruo(ueudpe asn leruaur ol sr {rrn ar{l (r?qt roC .aq IIr^^ soner IenJ/rrBpurrrdo eqr req,/v\ ef,uplpe ur rcrpard or alqrssodurrro llnrlJJrp sr lr ,aul8ur paUI -Poru p uo afurs 'soneJ la8:el aqr azrurrtdo ol luarul:adxa IenJ/JrB ol tue/( 1ps llqeqord nol ,alqet EA E e^Er{op nol jr ua .suors E -snua lsa,/y\ol ro ,buarcgya .:au.od rsaq JoJ lrtua qcea azlrulldo ot a^Br.l nol pue ,aulSuaaql a8ruetu ol BrBpafuEApE Bulurr 111,,n

F
F

o
(9 z -

z
o
=
f F

UJ

\[hen youve got the zero-load cells set, smooth any jagged transition to adjoining cells in the fuel table, find a helper, and go for a drive on a safe desertedroad or test track. Tiy to drive the car at a steady state at as many speed-loadingcells as possible. It will help the driver if the laptop can be setup with the display magnified so itt easyto read from a distanceand positioned so that the driver can use the screento home in and make a certain cell current-and then back off while the runer riding shotgun modifies this and surrounding cells.The targerAFR for light cruising is 14.5-14.9 or 0.99-1.01 lambda, though you may be able to successfully tune an engine with very mild camming for good fuel economy at light loading with airlfuel mixtures approaching 16:1. Again, a mixture trim module can be very useful for instantly testing percentages of enrichment or enleanment.You or the driver can just turn the trim pot(s) to optimize performance or home in on a certain AFR. Then you can note the actual pulse width fueling the car and the actual speed-loadingcell, or nore the percentageof change being made, and then back off and make the changesto the targer and nearby cells. At medium engine loading, you'll need to rargerricher mixtures in the neighborhoodof 13:1. As the midrange srarrs ro get fleshed out, bring up the graphing function and work ahead on the graph to keep higher throttle settingsin line with how the midrangeis shapingout and consistentlyricher than what is proving to work in the midrange. Again, the trick is to make brief forays inro high-loading conditions, watching the AFR and the rate of acceleration and drivabiliry, fleshing out the active cells and cells in adjacent areas. Some people find it much easierro rune tables in graphical format, using the mouse and arrow keys.Others find it easierto edit numbers in the table, perhaps flipping back and forth berween tabular and graphical format (there will usually be a hot key for this purpose). However you do it, getting an occasionallook at a 3-D graph of the fuel or VE table is very valuable,because you'll begin to get a senseof the overall surfaceof the map, and you'll also be able to see any anomalies in the surface that probably don't belong there. You'll probably find that only a relatively small portion of the fuel map is used much and that you have ro work to get the engine running very far off the beaten path, so to speak. If you started with a plausible srarrup map and have already mapped our a main VE table, whar we're doing here is just fine tuning, but alwayssray on the rich side. For normally aspiratedsrreervehiclesor boostedenginesrhat arenot severely knock-limited, mean best torque should fall in the 12.4:l range at the highest power settings, but boosted engines may require more fuel cooling to fight knock and meltdown. If, as recommended, you are running redly high-octane unleaded racing gasoline to minimize the effect of lean mixrure mistakes, runaway boost, or poor tuning technique, knock should not be a problem at this time, particularly with a conservarive timing map, and, preferably,a good EMS knock-sensingand retard EMS strategy or possibly an add-on device like the J&S Safeguard(which will actually retard individual cylinders only to the degreeneeded to stop knocking in that qtlindzr). At some point, you will have to turn off the knock-retard program in order to optimize basic safetiming and safe-uptiming, fuel, and boost to work with the gasolineoctane you'll be running, but nor quite yet. Bob Norwood points out that super-dury engines always make the most power asyou lean them out right before they burn down. Really experienced,brave tuners like Norwood working carefully for every last horsepower on a racecar will somerimes run high-powerAFRs leaner than 12.4:1 (sayas much as 13:1),

but such mixtures are more dangerous in really high-output engines,and-as Norwood, who has set a variery of land-speed records at the mile-high Bonneville Salt Flats, can testify-such tuning makes an engine more sensitiveto variations in altitude and relative humidiry. An engine is producing its most powerful putts at peak-torque rpm, ingesting the most air per power stroke, producing the highest cylinder pressures.The higher stressof increasedpeak-horsepowerrpm will definitely produce greaterstresson mechanicalparts like connecting rods, and peal< horsepower will result in more thermal loading to the cooling system and so forth (which can increasethe tendency for detonation). But peak rorque makes the most cylinder pressure,and it requiresslightly richer mixrures than peak power. Many runers recommend optimizing the high-power calibration by tuning from a known over-rich setting and then carefully leaning the mixture until torque falls off slightly, then moving in the rich direction until you achievepeak torque. If you develop the fuel map on a chassis or engine dyno, you will almost definitely need to lean out the map for best performance in the real world of either competition or srreer performance. For one thing, dynos cannot accurately creare real-world conditions like underhood airflow at speedor ram-air effects.\{/hatt more, dynos capableof holding the engine indefinitely at a certain speed and loading provide extremely high thermal loading that demands safe-rich mixtures that may be inappropriate for achieving optimal performance on rhe street under lesssevereconditions. Also, EMS fueling strategiesrypically involve averagingin nearby cells to a fueling calculation, so rich mixtures required at cells that are essentially unreachable except on the dyno can adverselyaffect the AFR on the srreet at nearby areasof the fuel map that are reachable. High-power tuning is when exhaustgasremperarure(EGT) data can be useful ro warn you of danger before it is too late. You can take it to the bank that a piston engine will make peak power at somewhere between11.8 and 13.0:1AFR. However,the EGT at the peak power AFR is lesspredictable and dependson many factors, including ignition timing, cams, pisrons, headers,erc. EGT at peak power might be anything berween, say,1,250 and 1,800 degrees, or even a bit hotter. Typical peak EGT on a performance automotive srreerengine would be more likely in the range of 1,350-1,550 degrees.Peak EGT rypically occurs at about 75 degrees Fahrenheitlean of besrpower, and temperature falls off from there in both the lean and rich directions. EGT is commonly used on piston-engineaircraft running essentiallyat steadysrarero lean the airlfuel ratio for peak power or best economy, and the procedure is always specific ro a particular engine rype in a particular aircraft. But pilots rypically begin leaning from a particular rich mixture (basedon a particular flow in gallons per hour on the fuel flow meter) used to provide a high-power climb out. From there they gradually lean the mixture for best economy in cruise flight manually until the EGT reaches a peak temperarure (rypically measuredat the turbine inlet), and then continue leaning until EGT is 50 degrees cooler than peak. Continuous EGT above 1,550 degrees would be a cause for concern on many engines.If you make a nore of the EGT on an engine working at a known optimal peak-powerAFR, then certainly a rapidly rising EGT moving out of the expected range could warn you that something is dangerouslywrong in time to take countermeasures. As an example, detonation will rapidly increasecombustion remperature and EGT, but this wouldn'r affect the exhaustgasoxygen contenr asseenon a wideband AFR sensor.A pyrometer has the additional advantagethat it is not

144

9VL

o
F

f F

I =

IJJ

l 5 ^ J lP t r t r ' J l V J q r u o s ^ r r o n r l t . D s ^ -uo: lot:efur rr l lrlr ^ \ o l l o C . U C V g ' Z l _ 0 . 2 1 ,i.rerllxur: l p l r o u r p p e u c s t l L l l l r s J J r A f , pS r i r r u r r. r o l J r . U I lt .rJplrrl,i: .racl-ra,,nodasjOq ,r-rc'l p:jrnba.r tLnroLLrf JrJl u o - P P r rl r r a p u a d : P r i l , i l a r r r u a [rt] Lllr,\\ 1an-1 3ur>1,rc'r,rt -Jo r:r: no,i -11 ot rlnLU,loJ l f J . r - r o l : q t , i l c l d r : p r r l r t s o o q r s c J - . r aa ctlt : r a u a Bo l t : r c l x r ' (s.r.-rp p1:-.1;ra1s..l ,JSr,&\.lJr.ll() no/i Jnbior ,ro ,r:,noclJs^,roLl :o-1Surrr-rn JAoLLTJ-r IuLrolrlppp JLII JlcLunsJ plrr lJl-l-J pprr ol ,i11erisn-seJlB Jefnul e8ueq--r 'qtpr,r:s1nd u o r l r a l u r J . n ' l s E J L ro rl p J S n J C ] L r P l l p r l l s . r J l J r l r ot 3ur1.ro,,t puc [ror]rJc1r1r:: ,i.ror:t'4 lLrJIlJlxJ-LrA\oLr>l t: qlr.,rt Fur Lllpr^\:slncl e:r J.rJqt .q]prm aslncl -l,rr?ls J L l t ^ \ o r r ) l r o r r o p n o , ( J r r r n o , i a : u r t ^ ' , l J r s r ' J , i 1 L r o ) ) r o t s s s : : o . r d 1 r : r r u o p r J L I Is r L r o n u j c l r l r f 'Alrfr?c'lrrr ^\oU-lJn-J _rot:alur rrr SJJLTJ-rJ-l-Jrp 'n:)E ,iut: .ro-1 Buu::.r.io: -JJ Jsr:f LlJrLlr\\ Lrl Jrrollrpurrls elc1r:ruurelSo.rd r:-1olprll sr ,lfJ,l,+J '15^oogrsd-.r:d L r r' L I J T L I A J\ J r l . r J l r r r. r J S l r lJl-l-JrritxJ ttra:-rrcl g 1 lstJI lE .rJ^rlJp or t r _ r r s : r cs l J f r ^ J p . r o t c J e : r r t u lJ L L T o S :)lV IIt lrs prrrr 'prtsooc'l rc'l ' la8rul aiyl IIr^\ lr?Llt slya: 3rilPuo1_p:-rcls ( 1 a n -r;n o ' 3 r r r 1 1 n c 1 L r o n r r . u p r L I l l o ,-r1c1rssoc1 -s Jo I oq .r L r r _ L [ ] p r ,:,s l r1 n d c l c r u LrrrLU JLII lno Lrr sr rronJJ,r.rof-olr-ltl l r n J os I I J L I I pJllll.u5^rrof JCI s^,(e.tr1r: Jlqpr pllroLls IJn-J rscl-.rad UITLU ALI]) tIOI]JJ,I.IOJ.O]II1I [JrU r.ro*r ]ur:racJ g1 Burprerr e,'Sq 'ri: .o,i iiuu.1 ;o ]LIIIOLLIT]JLI] JZITLIILIIUI O] JJC]lE] .JO IJN,J punocl :aci anb.ror lua:lacl g .ilercuuxo:dclp ':^ilar sp1'rr lrBrt:r[roc].nr] Jrll 1 lrJ.r,roJ u:r-lr snor.ru'\ rtr ulv rr8rrl JLll rJfpJ.rol 3url1dcil: tr Jfrrr\' 'JllAJp p.rclJ.rlsooc'l u rJlrA\ Bur>1,ro,rr :.rr: r.ro.i :-ruB,\pt .aur8ua LII sl Jr[] u o n r J l . r o J . J O J L I I t r r n o l r r p J t o N -Jr J Lnrj plrll S l , \ g ;Lrrrlrn J,rour rronJJ-r-rol 1.rn-; - J o L r o n J J . r r pJ L I I r r r S u n t a s B u r u - r u J , \ n r , \ . r J S r r o J clool-1-rJSo[] puB(lJpr^\ uo rrint LTJLII pLrE ,sJnFr,\ ll LUot-J - r o ' r r e J l o t L [ f r - rr u o , r 1 )-ro^\ o] sr.s,ir:,t1r:sr:,)lul U C V J l r i u . r l r - L r ^ \ o L r I J L [ ] L I t r ^ \, i t r u r : r , r J L I I L r rs l l J r J I q t r r g g y t a i Jrll 'ptrol e Llti,\\ .)lv JLIr Bun.^-rrul3ac1,(1p:n::r no,i uerlXX -rr:r -1111 ,\\oN 'spLn:lsr r J S 1 ) o o B - u , n o r r )J r l l 3 u u : a u u o : J f r J . n r sj p - l ' t l o . t pr , r r r s s : . r d r:.trrorlrrnr.rol.'r.'I rr lr r lr o r l p [ ) p - L i l l L l l o o r l r sr p l n ' l c 'o rllr p l p i . r r , L i r r . .r.c l l L r o n J r n . ru -J :L o r r r : 1 O c 1 . r : tL Lrrp r t , ( 1 q r c 1 o . rU J s l cr l: 'UlV slr su r a l s , i s , i l c l d n s - 1 a n- r 1L l tl l r L l t , ! r . r - r l o s l B J J r Uo l t L r J r J r l , J r l s n L L r t r o . \ r L [ ] J o r r p r r L r r o s J , \ r L [p u r ?( s 1 y aa : l8urs nn( tott) 1r:urnclo .(lrqr.rtl no,i'oLr,ip io prror rLIt LroSuns-rrpJpBOI F L r r l e n -t1 -rJ-r.roJ-J so p r r t : l s r - JO r J q L L n - lrL r ln rllnq:,r.no,( arug .1eur lculJrr r-rcl1Jg :c ,{yeurarrra l o r r r - r r r. o , i - 1 r s . o : o F u r : p . i : a , r n d o 1 o a q s r i l r y } u i r r i . r a d o p l r l o r r l r r r . r . r . n o . i r : . r r r o s F r r q i : s . i : . l r o d - q B , qp u . , 1 ' r o o L 1 . r o r 1 1 1J F r - rru I t . ; . r . c , i 1 1 B 1 1r 1 r? rfP Jl t o , i r ) s . r J r i l r - . t r r o JJ -Jrs tr otur Fur.ir:lcl5 s^ .rolfJlLrr 1 6 u E i p r r r r o n r r l p r r s l r o n P r r B A r l J O O Lrr J l l O ps uP Surunt dn J J n - J / . i lrE ,t.rosa. r sy ..i1 tr sr:1 I E r r o u l p p p r L l t - J oJ L r ot s r J I t t L I l r , \ \ ol lu-J.rs^u ,u-1,\Jq ut:: Luals.ir^ llv Jqr tsrl clOol_paso1: pupqJpr^\ v ;lalcls^ -prclu.r ..rdo:sorlrrrr^ 'Lrnr 3rrr1rr1: .ror:r-rlur L r p- r r J L I o l r r J r s r l p . r E L l r . r J l J r , i 1 . r t r r 1 r l r u r u r I r L r o n r p p r r ^ \ o . r c . l t q E r l a q pllroqs s8nld 1c[r.rou s.Jrr-rcrlJJrL 'rr13r c r Sursn pUr: '(s).ror::lur uoDrppp Jqt ot :-rnss:-rcl '-r.r.rxrLLr . r r r : s 8 r l r L F L r l l A . L [ ] r . r o o r , i l d r u r s8irld,iioos .>1.lrp "ilaluuiallv 'rurocJ pa:1c1 .ra33r.rr Jr-lr ol sJSr-r .r-nrssJrcl Lr-rL1.rr IJU-J-l-Jo J I r q , \ \ ' J n . l r x r L r r L r p J l r Jlp-rrprrr s S n 1 da r r r - 1 , [ . r o rq8rl ,iljano.s8n1cl or p:socldns e.r.,iar-1 r rrJ L I A \S L r n r l a c J o u r 8 : q s r o r : : l u r , i . r r l l r x r - r t : - r L I t p u r ( o r r . i P r L r o L r p L I l. r J L I t p jB u r , U : p , r 1 ) r J L l r . i y . r r r r p r l u r l r r -r o r : a l u r u r : i u r s n ' J . n - l : ^ s ^ J rc -ltnlJr B uJ r.ra33r.u IIP tPLll ,glJJl ol -rJls^J a . r . n o . ( 1 r 3 u r . r : r : t s ^ J r l t o , i r a . r n s S u r l e r u ) prol 11n-1 P 1 o l l o I t . u o 1 -n -tlsf,.rL[] parn8rlrio: JLlt ol cJruncJ purq rr qlr.\\ Jr-rrl"--r,,r.,.1"., ".,,.,, rr:.rr,rrBurrqr,l-Jo tnqs,iytclnlqr ol sr srrlt op o t , i r , n t r J L I,I .r-rntxrLrr - s r . r d p y o l r r r p L L r . r Lc Il tn c l r u n c .p l Lrr.prproy ,i1tqFr1 .rur8ur,,1, q t , , r , s8plcl 1.ruds IJn-J/.rrc -1o torlscfi:us r: ra8 ol rropr.rJlafJrr pJprl -rar-1r aFutl iud.r,raS8rlr r L r r L l r r ^-\l u l 8 u : a r - 1S t u r r rr , r n ..ri . 1t r L r nJ L p r s ^ J o l s JrF rl)q') '(-nrclJ[]rs lrs-) ra,\\ocllr:cl .Io anbror re Lrousn(lLUol 'r-ud.r.priS r :r r r p r o l - J o 1eac1 LroucLrrclrlro-r , i c 1 r p r . r a B B r r J r c l -rtt:ts-.i1'yp;11s^ lnoclp to1 r no,i I I r . \ \l l V r L l l _ l[J] Lrrr LronrprroJ Fnld >1-rrdq. ' , i 1 . r a d o . rS cu l ruorrru.-1 'JLrilt p u r : , i y r : a . r . , o lp J l I r ] r s L r s r r r r i r , L 1 ri 1 r . r : . r ig o r pJprr.ttxJ Lnt .r(4 Jlrrj)lot rruJ s-losr-lJ5put cl J sr 3r-rrrlr rLIl .-ross::o-rc ts-rrJ -.\\o-r-rrLr p i u l f , . r - r s o o cB l ururn .o (:lty) jJlIoj] .lJn-JpJpcJy ,ic1 ioLr pLruqrpr,\\ .rrLIlrJLrL[JrLl/r\ pa8uLrrup pu3r'|eJpau-, .,raln a6ueQJ_ :_

las_

lsn

fpu-,.

.(.) / | f ia:< i

alI

s-'i'-i tJdu

'Awouoca 1an1 'tattod )oJ afiloJtlll7Ar1 rc JoJaHloJLll uado-aprm le 1lplu aslnd aztutldo sAerye lsoale sJaunl leLltpu!w ur 0utdaa4 -Atuatcryla JulaanloA aut1uao1puodsaLtot ueqJ fit16notplnoLls aql J0 aselJnsaLu ueLls s!41ol )elrwts fuan ate 'sqdeL0 LlJtLl/rA Jo lsow J0 salqel Jarlya se saAJnJ pue lanl aLllATtpow MatAoJnoAuo11esgy111 'ujsuas lsow dvw req -z aql 0l anp anarxea aql s! 002 asEr stLtl ut) slecsedolt4 ur Aurpeol pue wdt aurAua Jo uotpunJ e se (ndfl) aslnd uo7ca[ur pauuap anatxea aq1 7o aAeluattad e se aslnd uo4calu1 s1o1d deyl lary u!ew 0t s,salow

( n d e l t e % )

rrI rld

r ErrJ

with careful forays into boosted territory, using a wideband O, senso! and preferably a knock sensorto help prorecr the engine from knock or lean-mixture damage.

OPTIMIZING SPARK ADVANCE

As EMS-builder Electromotive says in the TEC3 user manual, "Perhaps the most important step in tuning an engine is establishing the required ignition advance.An engine with too much timing will detonate, regardless of how much fuel is rhrown at it. An engine with too little timing will perform poorly and overheat the exhaust in short order." Late ignition timing can make an engine run roughly, and it will definitely increasethe exhaust gastemperature (sincethe mixture conrinues burning later in the combustion cycle). If the exhaustheadersare glowing, you know there is too little timing; if the engine is knocking, timing late may be too advanced. Optimal spark timing varies,with the overall goal being to light off the charge mixture in time so that peak combustion pressureoccurs when the piston is at l5 degreesafter top dead center on the power stroke. A critical overarching requirement, however,is also to avoid engine damage by delaying light-off to the degree required to avoid having unburned portions of the chargeexplode ascombustion pressure and heat build during the burn (as the piston may still be compressingrhe mixture). The optimal amount of timing advance varies inversely with volumetric efficiency because densermixtures burn fasterand require lesslead time to achievethe l5-degree peak. Therefore, engines need more advanceat low-load, narrow throttle settings when VE is poor. At rhe same time, when the engine is running at high speed, a combustion evenr of fixed length in time consumes more degreesof crankshaft rotarion, requiring more timing advance. Combustion speed and crank degreesper millisecond are thus independent variables.VE is poor at idle, but engine speedis slow, so 8-20 degrees of timing rypically works well. As the crank quickly accelerates off-idle, a huge infusion of spark advance produces the best torque and responsiveness, with some wild-cammed engineswith very poor low-end VE requiring as much as 28 degrees total advance. Engines cranking to starr turning 200-300 rpm require moderate spark advancewith nearly as much timing as idle. As the throttle opens and the engine speedsup toward peak torque-peakVE, combustion speedsup along with VE and thus requireslessspark advance.Peak timing usually occurs by 3,000 rpm on most engines.On the other hand, high engine speedsat very light loading require huge amounts of advance-as much as 40 degrees or so. If the engine is turbocharged,the onserof boost increases the effectivecompressionratio, and combustion speeds up dramatically, requiring less timing, and simultaneously increases the risk of detonation. Maximum timing at 1.0-bar boost is rypically in the range of 23 degrees at any engine speed, and 2.0-bar boost might only want 22 or even2l degrees of timing advance.All things being equal, bigger engines need more timing advancebecause it takes the flame longer to burn its way acrossa large bore than a smaller one. Engines with small combustion chambers need less timing (opposite reason),and engines with pop-up pistons or other irregularities that slow down flame travel in the combustion chamber need more timing. Spark advance maps plot spark timing as a function of engine rpm and engine loading (normally manifold pressureor massairflow). Unlike convenrional distributors with mechanical springs and advanceweights and vacuum-advancediaphragms, which are mechanical devices incapable of providing timing advance that varies excepr as a smooth curve or straight line,

o F

c
=

z
o E
3 F
UJ

computer-controlled timing can dance all over the place if thatt whatt optimal. It can certainly approximate a complex 3-D surface with various peaks and valleys if thatt what produces the best performanceon a complex engine with, say,muitiple poweraddersand numerous accessories and so on. Conventional distriburors smoothly increase timing with engine speed.Though rwo springs of varying strength may be used to bring in some timing advancequickly with initial speed increases, then bring in more as the rotating weights overcome the force of the secondspring. High vacuum at light loading was used to add timing. It would be a simple marrer for EMS designers to provide rwo separate timing tables-one for rpm advance, a second for load retard-but one additive timing table makes it simpler to calibrate, and, besides,the real trick is an exhaustive search for power on a dyno while the engine is running. Vho careswhy you need more or lesstiming? A modern EMS with knock-sensor/spark-rerard logic should be calibraredwith enough timing to provide peak rorque across the board using design-octane fuel, but may rely on knocksensor-feedback logic to pull timing ro prorecr the engine from occasionallight knock in caseof a poor tank of fuel or if the engine is unusually hot (or if anything elseunusualis happening that makes the engine especiallyknock prone). Howevei runers should work rigorously to calibratetiming conservarively enough that the knock sensornormally neuerbecoms5 x6siys-by eliminating excessive timing advancein any areaof the timing map where the knock sensorsounds off in order to clamp maximum timing within a normally safe range. Setting maximum timing by advancing timing as far as possible to the ragged edge ol knock-sensor activation will probably yield best fuel economy though nor necessarily best torque. (lt was once common to set timing on older carburetedengineswith distributor-pointsignition by advancing the distributor in actual road testing to the ragged edge of incipient spark knock.) Over-advanced timing may also causethe engine ro surge at cruise. Aftermarket mechanical hot rod valvetrain parts may generate enough background noise to falsely trigger the knock sensor. If this is the case, keep in mind that any knock sensor should ideally be selected to match the frequency of the detonation characteristics of a particular engine, which might not be true of a particular generic aftermarket sensor.There are a lot of knock sensors, and anorher one tailored for a different frequency might work betrer.For example,an original-equipmenrsensor selectedspecifically for your engine-or, if your engine has beenmodified and you aregetting falsepositives, perhapsspecifically a non-OEM sensor). Normally, a small four-cylinder engine should have a knock sensordesignedfor a small Fourbanger and so on. A possiblealternativeto changing sensors would be to experiment with changing the location of the sensorin the block or head(s)or evenmounting it with Teflon rapeor other insulating material around the threads to decrease sensitiviry. Some aftermarket knock-sensorcontrol systemshave the abiliry ro tune or condition the EMS or knock-controller response to various types of knock-sensorsignalsro narrow the responseto what is actually detonation as opposed to engine noise. However, if the engine is simply too noisy for a knock sensor and you have the bucks and like experimenting, you could install in-cylinder pressure transducers,some of which are bundled with specialspark plugs to detect knock and provide a readout of torque or brake mean effective pressure(BMEP). Measuting cylinder pressureis actually much more accuratethan listening for knock-like vibrations using a knock sensor.

146

LiL
'pazrrodenllnj u?r{r Jar{rersraydorplun ur sraquer{f, uonsnquof er{r punoJe Sulreou sl IanJr'\?r Jo rol p uoq^\ paads auelt pasearrapar{r JoJ alesuaduor ol tunurr ryeds ur sesuerf,ul peseg-ern;:adula4 .

o
F

(9

z z
o
f F

= ut

sE6luaurqf,rJua uolileJaleJru ur seseeJJurpaspg-emluradrua; . :8ulru,o11oy aqr aprlo-ld uBl SSIAJE auos luerugJrJua dtuat-.r1y . 'Surgrauos azl.rode,r or pe;lnba: aqr Sulueau ,uorlrzlrodr,r reer{ 'Sunerodrr'a Jo reaq ar.ll palFl osyy IanJ Jo rraJJaSurloor aqr rl,r aur8ua toq ? tf,arord dlaq ol luaurlJrJue aJnlreJaduratloH . 'p1or lrarr sr aur8ua aqr uaq,&\ paadsalpr esBarf,ul rqSlw lyperdlr qrlqr ,luaurrlruua lorluof, rrc-alpl . '8ur1prsluarra.ldor @gZ les) suorrnlorraraur8uaJo rrqunu pexu B roJ sanunuor dlpcldlr qllqr (luaurqor.ruailBs-raTV o 'srolraful lrod urcw agr q8norqt pera^rlepsr ]uauqfrJua Sulrurrd aqr 'flSurseatrur q8noqr ,(lpoq aptorr{r aqr r? paur? llprld& 'arr.1err le:ds r) rolcafur ]Jrrs-plol lBuonrppeue SurzlSraua pe^lo^ur slerrrp tsotule srql 'saur8uaICE llrea ug .plo]-euors sr aur8uaaqr uaq./v\ dn tsey aJU or pepaau saJnlxnu aqr Ja rlap or 8ul qcrr-radns -{uerf, pue plol sr aur8uaeql alrq,/$,luaurqf,Eua tururrrd prcadg . 'aqnr a>letur-rre Jo ploJrupure>ptur ar{l Jo arnrerad 'oJnt?Jadtuat -uat eql lou Jr? e{Elur aqt Surrnseatu sr aJar{.^l lr areyd r ur rosuas (fVf) arnreraduel rrB a>lBluraql eltrol or IEI -IlrrJ sr lr :aloN '(upos-reaq rualsds a>ptureqrJI :eaddesrp luu

r{r*^\)arn,e;adruari::,1H:XJ,'fi}1",'#nr:i j#;:ll?":

aqt lrrun a.rnleradtuar peaq-Jepur/c ro luBIooJ ur sawaJfur qttrrr Surulpap a8erua:rad aqr qtvrr ,uon?lnllef qrplrrl, aslnd ? selueuqJrrue tururmr-plo3 . langdreurpro ar{rJo a8eruecrad :3urru,oyyo3 aqr apr^oJd rrrou uec suatsls luaua8euuu aur8ua rsolnJ 'sr:ed poJ roq ,lerrper ro .alye.n uorrBurq[uoJ a{Erur Jo lensnun aqr ruo5 lBnsn uer{t JequeJeJ?t?qr srorcafur,l:tauoa8 Fnsnun r{rl^\ sJorlaful 'su8rsapploJrurr.u 3{erur pnsnun ,ruauareldsrp a8relllper 'slollafur a8rrl dlpar Suruun: are nol3r ann lypnadsa aq mr\\ srql '8ur1pls ou pue lrrllqerrr.lp poo8 qlrr aur8ua rnol uo IIe.&\ llpar ur:o3rad or pa>lro.&\ar aq or paeu llarruuap rsourlB salqBtuBrs-plol-(il.{^ rnq ,alqBurpour-rasn) salq?r uoD?s IIr./v\ -uaduoc a8erlo,r-lraleq ,les (a>lrlun-tnq ,"rBp llneJep r{rr^rJop -,ue^ selqertrers-plo3 .Surypts{uoU rr SWE ar.ptuog alrrre IIr^4. daal or dn Sunuremsr tr elrq./y\ pur plol sr lr uaq \ aur8uaaqt uets .suralslstuarua8eueu aurSuE ot EJlxeJalrlap rsnu 'aJoJaJaql IanJ 'plol ere saf,BJJns aur8uapurelur Jo rre eqt ueqa 11am azr-rodel lou op :eFrrued ul 'sluauoduor JarAEag eqJ.uorlrsoduror [EJruar{J pue rq8lam snorrcAJosuoqJufoJplq snorrerSo^^.als B sr aurlos?D

'(fgU 'anbrol tseq r{3u uBr{l raqru s1qolqzn)arnlxrru aurloseS-rrcI: I.I I ue or le1l\ aqr .Sulturl uJng seJnlxru IanJ/JrE IIB sseuqlrJSurseanur qrrl\ JersBJ ,paads aru?lJ srlaJJE arnlxnu IrnJ/rrE osntraq Ieapr stlelJe r1llrlt pue '{rou>1 or aur8ue u? lcuapuar aqr uo rlalJa uE a^eq Jo qtoq laqr asnBf,aq al?lerrelur pue Sururr .uonerqrlef, IEru T IanJ -ttdo ur uo ur auoq laqr se sdeu Sururr pue IanJ arp ue3./\^teg r{uoJ pu? >llzq a^ou poo^rroN qog e{[ sraunlradns parua -rradxa 'uorlsnguoc 3o paadsarueg ar{t put uon?uolap or l:uap .8uorr* durrrse,,vr -uer aqr srJeJB orwJ esnpfeg deur lreds IanJ/JrE eql_ puu nol3y llrelnrn.red .dru 1an3 ar{r or urnlal ot spuopr^rp led uec lr 'deur Sulurn aqr Surzrulrdo auop arr nol uar.L[\ 'u^,l\op s8nl rarrarruol aqt arar{./r\ s11ac Surprol-paadsur Surull 'rurod qsEU 8ur1nd_ure8e JJua^uoc anbror aqr qlretu or a8uerprur aqr uJ Sururngo saar8ap 0t u?qr aro(u ur paplp eleq sr3unrauos 'saurSua eqr tuou uoDrsuBn f,EJn uo uIBf, paads-q8lq or -^/r4.ol aqr rno qroous or srr{rJoetuos saop,/y\ou epuoH .ellrqs uorssnu -sueJl-f,neruolne uE uo ruaSol -lea8luou suor]rsuBJl JaAoqtoorus or (Surseqd ruef uale ro) Sunun asn arunaruossraaur8ua Iz\lflO . 'saorSap yE,'{rrzs 'ol srqt Jelr\ol uBl spBar{ unurunlB uJnq-rsBJ qSnoqr ,8u[un plol runrurxeru saar8apg slue./v\ sp?eq lnoqe qrvrr laaq3 ltuonrpeJr >lrolq-lprus f r Irolq-ller.us leuonrpen eql a{rl g-n peaq-13pe,,!\ ^tuouof,e IanJalu?qua plnol afu?Apr Surrun saa:8ap,, se qlnru sE .asrnJrrq8rl ry . 'aur8ua>lfors e uo ra.rra.od eJou eprrl e a>Fruor burun ppp pue lanJanouat sarunaruossJeunl lqrrr sr gcrqn ,l3a -reJrs IAJEOpcrdlr " sr srr{J :arrrod aprrl B Jo lsor aqr rE aur8ue ar{l a Es ol luBly\ pur reaS dor ul aprorr.p IInJ lB Suop aSrr or alry llpuolsecro nol3r alogB ro ra.,'rod 4ead re IenJarour Burppe pue Sulurn 8ur1pd lq aur8ua rnol dn-a3rsol lue.lr rq8rur nor\ o 'srea8 ur?lrar roy lreds rurrt ol sdeu pnads a^?q sSI trE auos pur 'taa7 arlt lq pacuangur og uef Sururt aJBs uInuJrxEI[ . 'sseuelrsuodsar ro JJu?ruJoJJad urnrulxeu qlrft\ rrrltuof leu pue Surl.ult pulrdo rlalJE IIr./\^, suorrBJaprsuos suorSSrrufo

:oNil t Nt dltf)l

dn-wuvMoNv luvts-o'toc
'qruar llajes rsr.&Jar{lo ppol nol ueqr lang pue lreds Jo suon?urquof aloru r{lr1'rluaurradxa ueo nol :yan3 au"lfo q8rq llpar qlr^ luaurradxa ol uosearrear8 auo sr rflrryl\ '>lloul or alqelrr^e rq8g 1an3Surzrroder snldrns ssel pue sla -^al raq8rq aqr rB sarnsse:d rapurllc rag8lq aq UCV Z:Z:ZI raru.od p,araqrosn?req1an;8ur1pd arotaq I: I I lB Surun preler or paeu rq8ru nod'1:II rE uonzuolap rq8g or lany parrnbaraur8uaagr 'pu"q reqro aql uO 'uonsngruor JI Z'ZI go paadsatueg raaols ar{r JoJ dn a>1euor Sururn aqr Suroueztpe lq ;emod aloru a{Eru nol reqr ralofsrp uaqr p,nol .g8noua q8rq serra. plno_J auelJo IanJ aqr Surunsse'1 :1 1 ro3lpcarror Surun pazrundo peq nolyr rnq 'VZ'ZI te ra.rtrod aJou aleg./\4.ou p,no1'aJnlgtu eqr peu?alnol se u^.op Surmolsaq ppo,,\. paadsau"lC .rarrrod a>leruot 1Z-ZI Jo uonf,arrp aqr ur IanJrno a{Br or ue8aq ueqr ,dJV I: I I rp aur8ua pa8reqcoqrnr e Sulunl pauBls nol les s,ra1.aldtutxa roC

'(rl3o1 Ionuot aulSua rosues->lroul lq pasn l8a -tBrtsaqr sl Surulr lreds Surprerarlllrerodurar) aouelpe 4teds ssal sueaurll 'SururrlJo esef,ar{r uI .r.lfrJsu?arualnelJasuol <lanJ jo aser er{l u1 'Sururlr palue^pe pundo roJ r{rreasor nol Buryqeua 'prela.r qrr^\ llpcrqder8 nol {)ou>I Sunq8g sr af,rlep aqr uaq./y\ ,/v\or{s rnq aur8ua aqr rcarord 11r.,'r pren8a3"SS?gf eqr a{rl rorda: .at?l oor aq pFol lr ,op nol -relur pr?rar pue Sursuas-{loul V atun aql lq pue '>lfoul J?eq or pJ?q seunaruos slr rnq ,>ltou>l ool sr Sunurr pue lreds af,BrrsrrqrqxaaulSuaaqr ueq/y\paJuE^pB 'epls p_apJeror or{r uo urls or a*1d alnelJesuor .poo8 ? aq plnoqs dutu Surup SI trE llneJap eql .ra^\od ayrs runrurxpru prelv\ol dervtrnol IeeJpu? lla,rrrerrrasuoftJ?ls ol Jauaq qtnu sr lr .uon 'Jeglou? or -BJqrlBl IanJ qrr.&\sV lcrnuapr dp-rr sr aur8ua ou os 'glnos l1mo1s spear{ gn llpnrua^a rnq ,ur r?a.&\ s8ul.raqr sEselru saur8ua^\au pueJg 000'02 se q)ntu sE roJ EA ul asBeJf,ur 'paadsauIEUuonsnquof sasBaJfur r{llq,l\ .onEJuors -sardruor eql sasrBJ sJaqueql uonsnguro: ur dnplrnq uoqrcr pue 'En sna#a rearrr aur8ue:aqueuer .tng .aur8uaplrruapr Jo JEInurs E r.uo5 deu pazrundo ue qlr^\ uels or Jenaq qlnru sr tr .Burlan; qlfi y'(pea-" aqr aIII raleruorelerce SurSSoprep E puBle,l.rq8rg adlr-drns8erp e ro) raleruor.upulpe paau nol ,sunr uonrralafft aprorqr-llnJrnoq8norql Sururrllreds azrundo oI .rol E sarrrnaruos -8urun pazlrulrdo ul ranod aaU sr aJor{lasneraq ,Sururr azlru -lrdo_ or uoga_eqrquo.{\ q ll puv .deu acue,rpe lreds prundo aqr ,s.lappe-raru,od ,surel ,speaq 3o adeqsaqr a8ueqr 1un (uorssarduor 'ruauaceldsrp)douanlfa ro gn aulSuasrrege reqr Surqrluy

. Temperature-based limitations to maximum boost to prevent engine damagewhile the oil is still thick. . One-second temperature-based start enrichment . One-second constant enrichment . Fixed one-second starting pulse width Many cold-running tablesare designedas a final percentage modification to the ordinary fuel and timing calculations,which is why it is essentialto get the EMS working really well at normal temperature before you messwith the cold tables.However, once the engine is running great under ordinary conditions, it is really simple to wait until the engine is fully cold, bring up the warm-up map as a graph, start the engine, and adjust the map up or down at the current temperature (an arrow or something similar will highlight the current coolant temperarure) until the engine runs smoothest, then repeat the process as the engine warms up and the temperature increases. A cranking engine will rypically be affected by both warmup and cranking enrichment, and initially it can be hard to tell if you need more cranking fuel and lesswarm-up or the reverse. Immediately afterstarting, it can be hard to tell if you need more or lessafter-start enrichment or if you should be modifring the main warm-up map. One clue would be to watch what happens when the cranking and after-start enrichments disappear.Does optimal warm-up enrichment suddenly decrease or increase? A rypical engine might need 10 to 15 percenr enrichment immediately after a cold start in order to achievea l2-12.5:I AFR on a mild streetengine(perhaps aslow as I 1:1 on more radical engines),and this requirement will decline to nothing somewhere at or abovean engine remperarure of I40 to 180 degrees Fahrenheit, with more enrichment required in really cold climates.Vhen cranking in really cold winter weather, the engine may need grossly rich primine AFRs in the neighborhood of 4:1 to start the engine fast. Beware a sudden cold snap or, say,a trip to a mountain ski area from palm-lined Los Angeles when you have never had a chancetune below 50 or 60 degrees. You might be unable to start the engine without a laptop. Though in a pinch you could probably start the engine by spraying starting erher, carb cleaner, \7D-40 (or perhaps even gasoline, somehow, if you're ingenious) into the manifold plenum through an unplugged vacuum referenceline. The engine must be stone cold to set cold cranking and warm-up enrichment accurately,which means you will want to attack the problem first thing in the morning after the engine has cold-soakedover night. You really want the coolant temperature at 70 degrees or lower to begin the process. It may work best to adjust the throttle plate to a reasonable setting for cold-running idle and later work ro program the IAC for an ideal cold idle speedafter the mixture is right. As always, a wideband O, readout may be useful, though the goal of coldrunning enrichment is purely to eliminate stalling and improve drivabiliry you never need more fuel than what is obviously neededfor this purpose.A mixture-trim module could be very useful when you are working to optimize the AFR for fastest cold idle. Start the engine and try dialing in greater or lesser cold enrichment percentagesuntil the engine runs best. As always, modest trim changesare best, since a few percent can make a large difierence in how the engine runs. The EMS will not have an infinite number of temperature cells. Stay on top of it as the engine warms up and moves to a higher temperature range.You may see the engine change speed or change audibly when the engine moves to a new discretesegment of the warm-up map.

If an engine with reasonable timing will not srart, ir is either becausethere is too little enrichment or becausethe engine is flooded. A flooded engine will rypically smell strongly of gasoline. To confirm flooding, you can remove the plugs to check if they are wet. If the engine will not start when cold and the plugs are not flooded, there is probably not enough fuel.

AGCELERATIONENRICHMENT
Some people compare acceleration enrichment on a porr-EFI system to the acceleratorpump rypically used to squirt raw fuel down the throat of a traditional Holley four-barrel carb when the throttle rotated. Though EFI rypically needs less acceleration enrichment than a carb because bogs in air velociry that affect a carbt mechanicalabiliry to get fuel in air have no effect on EFI. The accelerator pump was something of a Band-Aid heavily related to air velocity and problems with the fuel equilibrium in a wet airlfuel manifold. Acceleration enrichment (or enleanment) is critical ro responsivedrivabiliry and all EMSs will arrive with plausible default data designed in. However, there is almost always room for improvement, and sophisticatedEMSs offer a large and powerful set of accelerationenrichment functions to make sure there is never a problem with transitional enrichment that cannot be handled in some way. Thansitional enrichment is the final major sysrem to optimize and should be attacked when everything else is in good shape. If you messwith it before the main fuel tables are right, it could confuse the process of calibrating normal operation. Tlansient enrichment is normally used to keep the engine from stumbling when you suddenly open the throttle (not normally a problem on port-EFI systems),and to make sure that the engine is as responsiveas possiblewhen you suddenly stab the throttle. Most EFI systemscan now provide accelerationenrichment based on increasesin throttle angle and/or sudden changesin manifold pressure.Providing enrichment basedon falling MAP is somewhat analogous to the way a Holley carb used a power valve to fix a lean hesitation and surge when rhere was a large drop in vacuum (for example,if you started up a sreephill) prior to a corresponding increasein throttle angle. The main components to accelerationenrichment are basically attack (sensitiviry)and sustain,and there the EMS may provide separate rules for enrichment at low rpm (when the vehicle can probably accelerare very hard) and at higher rpm. Attack is the percentageof enrichment that should be commanded while the throttle angle is increasingat or above a threshold rate. Sustain specifieshow fast to phaseout the enrichment. Electromotive points out that the rypical duration of required rransient enrichment on acceleration is around one second. There is no diagnostic tool that will tell you when the accel is right. Inertial chassisdynos like the Dynojet will measure increases in torque and power as you roll on the throttle. But the Dynojet is not very good at dealing with partial throttle situations because it is difficult to distinguish the human factor in banging down the gas a certain amounr, versushow the engine responds when you bang it down at a certain rate (one imagines robots increasing the throttle an exact amount at an exact rate of increase). However, if you have the time and the dyno, the Dynojet could possibly help you optimize accel enrichment. In any case, sooner or later, you'll need to hit the road, and the trick here is basically a lot of patience and intuition, and plenry of trial and error with a laptop attached and availablewhen you discover a problem. If you are working on the dyno, it may be easierro see

o F
(, =
f F

o E

IJJ

148

6VL
teor8 aruosa1r{l6. 'treJJof are nod ,1.lorvr jo tol E elrl spunos uon -erqrpr poo8 l11ear u Sulplrnq ter.{r rvroulq Surlurqr are nol31

xuoM lo ro't v

-rorqr ul urnl lq8r1se qtr^\ ornssard ploJruetuaseerrur lpear8 11rrn (rapuryfc rad apqq aprorqt euo sE qcns) eare aprorqr a8rel l.la,r qrv'r saur8uE'uorrecrlddernol ro3 8uo.rmsr are,it.pr?q IIJE ar{t ro '8uor.u sl uonern8rluol EtBpaulSuaar{r .araqrrraruos Jo ueal ool sr deu 1aryoseqaql:rg3.orJ.r"r1 ylor air,Bua,gi p.r" (ruauqcuua uoneJalaffe tunturxptu ro) asrarculluocrad 00I qcearnol31 'paadsaurSua qlr/y\ luJrurlfrJua Sursea-lcap arlnba-l ol nol Surlqrue PasseJsur 'rudr ro Surprol 3o sa8ur-lsnorJE le luauqfrJua uoneJJlefr? .udr auuap or sllar aldrrynu apr,rord il1a\ SI trE rnol ,{ypap1 aqt Jalv\ol aqr rueuqf,rJua arour erlnbar IIr.,!\ pu? rudr ggg.7 rarro luaurr{fuue uoneJalacrr due arrnbar rou IIrl\ saur8uatso14i 'lua[UqfrJueJa^o

o
F

o E
IIJ

f F

z z

(,

'lr nol araqm luB1yt slers alpl Inun sJala -ure:ed l,rorl pue sr peads f,VI eW qlr,/rr Iro/)N'8uo.rmos ro8 lr rsEJ aypr 8uo-r,,nt ^\oq uo Surpuadap llqlssod ,uonfu elnfaJrof, rr{l ar{ruerSord or alqe aq osp plnoqs no1.uonf,Ealrl yo apnrru8etu -ferrof roJ sploqsergr/v\olpue qSlq arnSguoc or lil1rqe ar{t 3^?q ,uou sstttrEeuros 'azrlrqprs or 8ul1le; ,reAaJoJ u1v\op pue dn a8-rns uer elpr paads pue 'slfeaJJalo ueqr tnq ,peads apl ul a8uegr e or lleeJ ol ,,v\ols sr ratnduor aqr uaql\ sJnr3oSurrung 'runq leu rr ro '(paadsalpl f,VI ra8reraqr r^oqt udr acroyor q8noua pauado .alduexa dpearp sr areld aptorr{r aqr ro3) Sulqrou op leur u JI '8uor'r parn8guoc sl .olpr rE ud-r aur8ur ezrlrqels ol f,VI er{lJI IJol\ rerlt loJtuof ratnduroc Japun sJoloru raddarsaJesrrun JVJ

louINOC O3ltds f-tol

' urc8-go-arer-elqeuB^ (Saf 'ualup--rea8e 'aldurexaro3) udr ra,/y\ol a13ue re aprorr.ltul a8ueqr aqr Surdydnln{uJo poqtaur auos llqlssod ro ,EarEallroJqr ssal 'luaruglrrua uoneJalalJepaspq-dvy,q arrnbarrg8ru pue ,a13uu ayr

ur llnsal suonrpuof ar.uosJr sa8uer urdr ro Bulpeol snorJel J_9 r{rptrn aslnd pror 3o ruarrad ? ol luatur.{frJuauonEralaff? duelc or alqB aq osle leu notr .8oq lpq8rls padrlap e sr rJaql ,8oq luersur ue sr aJaqt pre,,rrdn palpl Jr ulrlsns eqr or pp? pue Jr sr lr Je^al?qrrr ro 'Al^Ilrsuas ,asBaJfur uonBJalallBar{r rsnfpy (uolreralacap uo llrepcnred ,saurBg rsneqxallqls -sod pu_e) luauqrrrue uo a1o{us>llelq roJ Surguerrrallrqa^ aser.{r e ur radyaqB a^?q ot InJasnlra,r aq ppol lr ,uonurqrpc aqr Bur -lsal pror aru nol uar.L6 'latfr r.lf,nu ool tuou elotus >llElq ,qlrr

'ueal0t tlcUwo4'asrnoo '0ur4tou ,sanetpnJ wel paads_Mol pue _UDlq elepuoH pp atll lo s,tos 1'911 anwqdool pilp1M syodsolnV 1welv se (rosuas pueqaptlvi s,ouAp wo$ oqetpn]/rrcpuetanodasrotl plouAg1oulew slttt epu,Hst1defisuntouAp

(000 tx) uudu

9'L O'L 9'9 0'9 9'9 0'9 9'V O'? 9'e o'g 9'Z A'Z I'L

0't

0t IL ZL
o
*t

0 9Z 09 m 9L o 00r E o
{ -

(tt

0t

= tL
l-

t 6

vl
9t, 9t LI 8t
lFg ol. uoDngezwF(BIAtr {cllC ro qdsrD {cllf, elqnocl

a
o

9Zr o
-l

09t 9LL

suodsolnv ouelv

get Ultimate control. lt doesn't moreultimate thanan engine dyno,whereyoupull the engine fromthe vehicle andmateitto a computer-controIIed Ioadholdingwaterbrakeor eddycurrent dyn amometer with nsiveinstrumentation. exte

o F
I =

3 F =

o
IIJ

tuners like Norwood can build a pretty good scratchcalibration in a few hours on a dyno, they are also likely to spend significant time test driving the vehiclewith a laptop connectedto fix problems, and they may well return to the shop for more dyno time where optimal performanceis critical. Beyond this, they will also need some cool mornings to optimize the warm-up maps, and they cannot really know if the winter-weather calibration is truly right until the really cold weather rolls around. Automakers often spend months or even yearsbuilding the perfectcalibration that will be massproduced in hundreds or thousands of vehicles.Tuners and their customers certainly cannot afford to do this. But an individual hot rodder or club racerwho does it for fun can take the time to do it right and staywith it until the calibration is really right. If you are patient and scientific and willing to buy or rent diagnostic equipment, if you keep notes of what you have tried and the resultsand attack one variableat a time, if you take pride in your work, you will home in on a great calibration.

ADVANCED STUFF: INDIVIDUAL CYLINDERINJECTORAND TIMING TRIM

feaSomeenginemanagement systems provide a set of advanced tures that can be useful if you want to optimize engine performance under all circumstances. Examples of such features include the following: . Individual-cylinder fuel trim . Individual-cylinder timing advancetrim . End-of-injection phasing (crank angle) . VE correction to target air/fuel ratios . Engine coolant temperatureVE correction . VE correction coefficient versusestimated intake port temperature (density deueases with temperature, but hotter air pumps more easily) . Knock-sensorfunctions (threshold definition, rate of knock-

induced advanceretard, rate of advanceincreaseon recovery, maximum retard allowed) Many of theseadvancedfeaturesare useful only within the lab-typeenvironment of an engine dynamometerequippedwith substantialdiagnosticequipment, or on an exhaustively instrumented race-rypevehicle with a large datalogging capability. As an example,individual-cylinder trims can be useful to correct for minor variations berweencylinders in volumetric efficiency,thermal loading, and so forth. Even on a well-designedand built engine, some cylinders may run a little hotter or colder, some cylinders may have slightly more tendency to knock, some cylinders may haveslightly different intake or exhaustrunners that can affect VE under certain circumstances. In the days of high-output single-carbureted V-8 engines with points ignitions, fuel distribution could be terrible and certain cylinders almost always had better cooling than others. Unfortunately, there was no choice but to tune the carb rich enough to avoid dangerous mixturesand detonation in the leanest cylindersand to set timing to avoid detonation in the hottest cylinders.Modern port-EFI enginesobviouslyavoid most problems with mixture distribution, though testing and matching injectors for perfect flow definitely makessenseif you are gearing up to optimize individual-cylinderperformance. There can also be minor differences in cooling and VE that are not practicalto eliminate,but which can at leastbe optimized: an eight-cylinder engineis actuallya gang of eight single-cylinder engines. To make any sense, individual-cylindertuning requires individual-cylinderinstrumentation.Accurate,freshEGT probeson each cylinder are critical. \Wideband O, probes cost as much as $ 1,000 each,so itt clearly not practicalfor most people to run individual-cylinder AFR probes.In-cylinder pressure transducers areextremely effectle in measuringthe effect of individual-cylinder tuning strategies, and therearesparkplugswith built-in pressureprobes. You clearlyneedthe ability to measure small changes

191
aseql 'ragraSor>lro,rl, or rseq rrer{r Sulop ,aurl B ur dn peloorl saur8ua -ropur/r-a13urs tq8lg ;lpar ,aur8ua g-A " sr l"rldf,

lNfl tScvNVW fNtcNf uf oNt't^c--tvno|ntoNt:'t-tv uol Att'tvnof Nt

o F
(9 =

o E
UI

:) F

'elnf,age eJotu sr Sulsegdpnuenbas ,sJotouJ 4ead re lplncrrrud uonnaduoo Surslnd l1p[^'udr-q8rq uo .a4elur eqr ur Surspd ePrrl qrr/$.saurSua -rapurllenpu urdr-raruol uo luerflga llqeuos -?or sr (ecuo re Surrg srolra(ul 1p) uoncafur qlruq allq,46. (('prluJJegrp Surqreargrq8ryssrqr or anp suonerr?Aalnlxrur aleunurla or parmbar sr uonf,alJooruauad Z ot lJo rurrl r{tpp\ 'saur8ua 'sJar{loueqr SurrtrtJoJ aspd Sunur enJr uO aJoruaJB lany seqnr lsneqxe euros,,'uJalsalx! uJ?TIBJD uadxe 1gg sles ,..ql3ua1 raPBaq pfrluepr qrlr\{ uaAE, 'buarclga f,rnelunlo^ Surl-rurr lpq8rls ur Surrpsar 'srapurllr ruaragrp ro3 lpuaragrp lpq8rp alruosal ol Al,oltJr? asnef 'sJauunJqr8ual-pnbe qlr/v\ uarra,uralsls rsn?qxepue 'peaq rapul/c ,uralsls e{Brur Jqr ur suon?rJe1 'erun tf,eJJoJ er{r rB aruanbasur llasnard arg pu? sl[E^\r.rod qlru,lf,?luof runurrunu qrL\{ sa^F^ arpJo 1]eq ar{l l? rurr plnoqs srorra(u1'sraldorp ur aulSuaaql orur unr puz lood 'allerr a>lpturpasol] e lsurc8e Jo ilp\ Iary I[8./r JauunJ e uo lerds srolcafury1 'Sulwrt uonru8r parrnbar ssalpue rarnodas:ogarou serldul qrry \'luala urnq aqr Surrnp paedsaruelJ-raq8yg sernp -ord arnlxru .sernl IanJ/rrB snoauaSoruoq pa)otu-1ar'.lllpar V .1ary lnoqrr^,r -xru lary/rru llera^o raqf,rr roJ paau aqr Surenpar arnlxrru lenJ/rr? aqr ur rrc Jo spu?lsr pezrplol rJ/$eJ 3ft aJaql lBqr srns se)plu uonBz[uol? ruall3f,xg .uJnq ol Iery atuos spuu aur8ua aql otur leru su sa{Eu rBr{rJrEJoalnf,aloru lrale r?qr sppo aql aseeJf,ur ol JapJo ur :amodTanbrol >pad re saJnlnru lery/Jr? Jularuorqf,rorsu?qr Jar{f,u lB unJ are seur8ug .lary Jo lunoru? uartr8e roy rarnod aJou atnpo,rd gurr uonezrruole poo8 llpar pue 'uonsngruor luarfrga ot lef,nrJ) sr uon?zr[uore Iary poo5 'saur8ua uo raruod Jeu?elf pue rndrno lefrruepr asr.&uaqlo raq8rq arnpord suarsls qcng 'Surtun lreds pue ,(Surseqd)aurr lJ?ls uonf,afur '(grprll aspd) aurD uado roDafur Jo uorr?rqrpr rapur/r lenpr^rpur lnq 'uonra(u1 prruanbas lluo lou rego sra -qro pue 'sarSolouqra1 ,g7htr f,arol4J ICE urorg ruarsls alBU ar{r aqr e{rl 'suralsls luatua8eueu aur8ua ra{JeruJeur paretlrsrgdos rsou aqr lqm sl srr{J'Ja ai oq'saur8ua plnuapr lou are srapur/r

'd1aqrsotu aqr paau l?qr sauo aqr uo lluo Sururn Surrrouar qlu'r luaurradxa uer nol '(auord-1:oul aror.u er? rer{l srapur/r pnpvrrpul { -nuapl or Ioor rear8e sr eFpotu pr?rer->lloul rapurfo-pnpwpur pren8ageg Sryf B) srapur/r rrpcnred lq parrurl-{roul sr aur8ua ,yl JI 'rra3.radIary eql ro8 errnol uaI'L[\ .esle aJar.ilytaruos asJo^4. s8urqr a)pu luplp nol reqt arns a{eu ol sllnser ilutaq qrurr a.red -ruof, pue '-eu[per or .pexg aq uE] lr se 1pd aplorr.ll-flry e 3o1 ila.&t' se ualqord eql paxrJarrnol ryHl nol uaqr6 .anbror ur saseerf,ap ro saspJrrulro; oulp aqr Sulqerern,uJur Iery Fnpr^pur qrr^\ tog ool Jo plol oor Suruunr eJ?rBr{l sJa>lf,Bls pnprlrpur lue rurn or >porrrnol 'x\oN TarrBu r"qr slurod lrrsuap-paads tr ,spllueJaglp lsro^&\eqr roJ 3un1oo1er,nol .(rapur/r r.lrea roJ deu 1an3arere -das 'aralduot pu) p e e8eruerrad se rurrl repuqb-pnpr^rpur trtu -rad lpo sSI lsoru ef,urs'srapur/r ro roJ Suntcagrpue rorl plol trE '(tuuuodur arc sagoJdqsar; .poo3; azrlrqers or seqord JDE aql Surruolp 'a8uer Surpeol pue tudr Jr{r r{f,r?esor sr {rrn eql 'oulp aur8uaSurploq-peol E uo saqord or Suro8 arB-lIE 1gg SursnSurunr rapuqlc-pnphrpur uo e>[Er rp srqr op lagr 3l-srerer pue sraunl ra{rBtrrraup ,Suqeads lpcu -f?Jd 'sJaaur8ua alnoruoln? pelufnsrqdos lsou aqr lpo yo aror -:adar eqr urqrl!\Jnrs edlr-uorDg-afuarf,slsoup sr srqrrnq ,oulp u.lv\o str orur pue aurSuauB uJnl dlarruraga um 5IAJEu? qlns slnJE 'uEq$lu?rl ar{r Jo uonBrelafep puE uonBralef,f,Bur saf,uareJJlp lun re 3un1oo1 lq anbror rapurllc-pnpr^rpur ur sa8ueqc-orf,rr.u elerunseot drrlrqe eqr qrr,,\,SWE u? ro .ryeqs tndur uorssrursuen aqr_uo sa8ne8ureJls Surrnseau-anbror qrt,r peruawnJrsurllnJ aut8ua adlr-arer e :frrlrqudrc Sulploq-peol qrr./$, rarauroureudp e ruerr llrualr no 'Jurl uolloq aql .l[B reUB .ar? q]lq1ll ,anbrol ur

tamod tldlqp 0u1peo1 snonuyuoc lo ilaq aqt u!ilasil uanofi seq ouAp awduaue uoAen slql paPJqIec awouaue 'q1nd puocas-gtol -g s,ouAp ouAp stsseqc leluau!ue oilpn'saqel Dulwgwew puepn! uew sSWl aql ultltytA silac 0u1peo1 pue wdt lo uoncapsaptM e p peole Awploq filenuew p JaBewe st uoryeJqqec pneqxa aAqsneqxJ'yod tlcea u saqofi 193 aqt apN 'ouAp nopadng s,0wceg ueg wtv uo Dulttlsl!plp Neptanod u7 3elwodpaloocJalut puepafuequadns stql

torque where tuned intake and exhaust sysremsare most efficient. On racing engines, where charge densiry of atomization can be improved by taking advantageof the intercooling high heat of vaporization by injecting farther upsrream, spraying at the wrong time can result in fuel being blown back out the stacks or directly through into the exhaustsysremon valve overlap,producing distribution problems or wasredfuel and high emissibns. In order to eliminate standoff distribution problems, it is critical to inject fuel when the intake valve is open so that fuel does not hit the closed valve and bounce back along with the decelerating, bouncing air column. On a plenum-siack turbo engine with compressedair entry ar one end, depending on the resonant frequency,standoff fuel can be blown to the stacksfarthest away. Individual cylinder pulse width or injection-phasing adjustment can correct for distribution problems related to resonant differences in the airflow to each cylinder (particularly when the injectors are open a lot)-realizing as much as 8 percent.morepower.According to \(/estern,a 60 to Z0 percent injector duty cycle usually makes best power. Larger injectors get all fuel in while the valve is open, but the tradeoffwith short injection time is poorer vaporization and cooling. 'Western saysyou alwaysseepower increases over batch fire injection at mid- to high-range rorque; a six-cylinder rruck that tested at 280 horsepowerwith batch-fire injection will pick up 20 ft-lbs of torque at peak rorque and 12 to 16 horsepower at peak power with sequential injection. A 200-hor..po*i. racing engine might make up to 5 percenr more horsepowerdue to general phasing correcrness. Individual spark trim is usually associated with detonation-limited engines. Retarding timing on just the offending cylinders (rypically 2 to 3 degrees)lowers peak combustion remperatureand cylinder pressure, helping fight detonation. Vhere exhaust gas remperaruresare roo high on turbo motors, tuners may run a little extra fuel or spark timing in the cylinder causing problems-or increase overall compression ratios. Raising compressionis preferableto advancedtiming. The increasedexpansion ratio of gasesfrom a smaller combustion chamber resultsin greaterlossof temperarurethan retarding timing, and the increased compressionratios improve peak and average cylinder pressures instead of simply peak cylinder pressures.
F
F

o
(' =

AIR/FUEL OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURES ON A PISTON-ENGINE AIRCRAFT

Modern turbocharged aviation piston engines, which rypically run at 75 percent power settings more or less constantly, and which must run at high takeoff power settings for long minutes or tens of minutes at a time on takeoff and climb-out, rypically leave airports full-rich, which would rypically be 100 to 150

o E

3 F

degreesrich of peak EGT (75 degreesrich of peak rypically makes maximum power). The EGT gaugeis critical to the leaning procedure used to arrive at an optimal power and AFR setting for cruise flight and illustratessomething about the meaning of safe.Obviously, ifyou burn down an aviation engine,you cannot simply coasr over to the side of the road. Engines with poor mixture distribution are sensitive to leaner mixrures and will run roughly on the lean side of peak EGT. Many aviation engines, which typically still use carburetion of constant mechanicalfuel injection, vary in AFR by 8 to 12 percent among the various cylinders But on wellbalancedaviation engines,an excellent procedure for arriving at mixtures producing high levels of safe power is to begin the leaning procedure with the engine running more thin 100 degreesrich of peak EGT, with manifold pressure slightly down from full throttle. The pilot or flight engineerthen carefully leans the turbocharged engine Lntil EGT peaks (which would often be in the neighborhood of 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit.At this point, the procedureis ro continue leaning until EGT cools to 40 to 60 degreesbelow peak EGT (this would typically be only 15 to 30 degreeslean of peak on a normally aspiratedengine). Consulting an aviation EGT chart for a common piston engine, we see that EGT falls off fairly evenly on both the rich and lean side of peak EGT, whereascylinder head temperarures on an air-cooled engine were 35 to 40 degrees cooler on the lean side of peak EGT, and fuel flow was markedly lower. However, power is down on the lean side, right? \fell, yes, assumingyou continue to run the samemanifold pressure. If a plane requiresmore power in cruise flight, in this piocedure, the pilot increasesthe throttle to raise manifold pi.rr.rr. to the required power setting with a few more inches of manifold pressure. High-performance aircraft enginesrypically have consranrspeedpropellersthat use hydraulics to vary the angle of attack of the grop to maintain a particular manually adjusted prop speed \flithin a particular envelope, such engineswill not inciease in speedwith more throttle. This procedure requires good mixture distribution, or rhe engine will run a little rough due to uneven mixture distribution. But the implication of this procedure is interesting for EFI automotive engineswith excellenrmixture distribution, running high octane gasoline.Leaner mixrures srress the cooling systemleis, and the EGT is not highen Power might be down a mite, but more boost handles that, at less fuel flow. Something to think about, because a piston aviation engine pulling againsta constant-speed prop is a lot like a piston automotive enginepulling against a steady-loadengine dynamometer.

UJ