210 Towards ~ a 2 paleogeography and tectonic evolution of lran

MANUELBERBERIAN AND G. C. P.K~NG Department ofEarth Sciences, University ofCambridge, Bullard Laboratories, Madingley Rise, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB30EZ, England. Received February 19,1980 Revision accepted July 8,1980 Maps of the paleography of Iran are presented to summarize andreview the geological evolution of the Iranian regionsince late Precambrian time. Onthe basis of the data presentedin this wayreconstructions of the region havebeenpreparedthat take accountof the known majormovements of continental masses.Thesereconstructions, whichappearat the beginningof the paper, show some striking features, many of whichwerepoorlyappreciatedpreviouslyin the evolutionof the region. They include the closing of the Hercynian Ocean by the northward motion of the Central Iranian continental fragment(s),the apparentlysimultaneous opening of a newocean(the High-Zagros AlpineOcean) south of Iran, and the formationof small rift zonesof oceanic charactertogetherwiththe attenuation of continental crust in CentralIran. Withthe disappearance of the Hercynian Ocean, the floor of the High-Zagros AlpineOcean started to subduct beneath southern Centrallran and apparently disappeared by LateCretaceous-.Early Paleocene time(65 Ma).From this timethe compressional motion between Arabiaand Eurasiahas beenaccommodated in Iran by shortening and thickeningof the continentalcrust. This crustal thickening is accompanied by a progressive,though eventful, Uansition frommarine to continentalconditionsoverthe whole region. Astrikingfeaturehighlighted in this studyis the existence of extensive alkalineandcalc-alkaline volcanics, which appear to be unrelated to subduction. Theintrusionof these rocksstarted in Middle Eocene time(45 Ma) andextended to the present.It is clear that some majorfault systemshaveplayeda continuous but varied role fromthe Precambrian until the present, and whatever controlled the originalfold orientation at the onsetof continental compression (65 Ma) apparently still controlsthe orientation contemporary folding. Onpr~sentedes cartes pal6og6ographiques de liran pourr6sumer et revoir l6volution g6ologique de la r6gioniranienne depuisla fin du Pr6cambrien.En se basantsur des donn6es pr6sent6es de cette fa~on,on a pr6par6 des reconstructions de la r6gion pour tenir comptedes grands mouvements des massescontinentales. Cos reconstructions, qui apparaissent au d6but de larticle, montrent certainescaract6ristiques frappantes dontle rble a 6t6 malappr6ci6 jusquicidansl6volution de la r6gion. Parmicos caract~ristiques, on note la fermeturede l"oc6anHercynien" par le mouvement vets le nord du ou des fragments continentaux du centre de lIran, louvertureapparemment simultan6e dunnouveloc6an ("loc6analpin de High-Zagros") clans le sudde liran et la formation "de petites zonesde rift avecdes caract~ristiques oc6aniques" aveclatt6nuation de la crofite continentale du centrede lIran. Avec la disparition de loc~anHercynien, le fond de loc~analpin de High-Zagros a commenc~ sa subduction sousle centre de lIran et apparemment il a disparu au cours du Cr6tac6sup~rieur-Pal6oc~ne inf6rieur (65 Ma).Apartir de ce moment, mouvement de compression entre 1 Arabieet lEurasiea 6t6 accommod6 en Iran par le r~tr~cissement et l~palssissement de la croflte continentale.Cot6paississement de la crofite accompagnait unetransition progressive bien qu6pisodique des conditions marines ~ continentales sur route la r6gion. Une caract6fistique frappante r6sultantde cette 6rudeest lexistence sur de grandes 6tendues de rocbes volcaniques alcalineset calco-alcalines qui semblent navoiraucune relation avecla subduction. Cosrocbesapparaissant d~s lEoc~ne moyen (45 Ma) s~tendent jusqu~ nosjours. II est clair quecertains syst~mes de failles importants ont jou6un r~le continumaisvariabledu Pr6cambfien jusqu~ maintenant et quelque soit le m6canisme qui a cont616 lorientationoriginaledes plis depuisle d6butde la compression continentale(65 Ma),ce m6canisme semble encorecontr61erlorientation des plis actuels. Can. J. Earth Sci., 18, 210-265(1981) [Traduit par le journal] Introduction The political boundaries of Iran completelyenclose a short section of the orogenic belts between the ArabianAfrifan unit and the Asian block. If the events asso~CambridgeEarth Sciences Department Contribution No. ES 29. 2ToJovanStocidin, for his vaiuablecontribution to the Iranian geology. ciated with the closing of Tethysin this area are to be foundin the geological record, they should be reflected in the tectonic and stratigraphic features of Iran. New sketch mapsof the geological evolution of Iran inside the gradually closing Tethys are presented here using the paleocontinental reconstructions of Smith et al. (1973) and Smithand Briden (19"/7) as a basis. mapsare based primarily on geological data, whichare also presented in a series of conventional paleogeo-

0008-4077/81/020210-56501.00/0 @1981 National Research Council ofCanada/Conseil national derecherches duCanada

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graphic maps. Wepresent both sets of mapsto allow the significance of the data on whichour reconstructions are basedto be easily assessed. This examination of the paleogeographyand the paleotectonics of the region has clearly excluded someof the previous reconstructions, whichscarcely considered important geological constraints. Our reconstructions, whichare geometrically as simple as possible, are more consistent with the available data, but the data are limited and more workwill be required to confirm someof our suggestions and extend others. In particular, large strike-slip motions such as those nowoccurring in Central Asia and Turkeycould have occurred, but are undetectable. In this study we assumethat ophiolites may represent the site of either a large old ocean or a small Red Sea type ocean. Evidence to distinguish between these for our reconstructions comesfrom large-scale geometric contraints and not from any known difference in the field observations of features left by their closure. Our account of the region, which starts in late Precambriantime, is divided into two sections. The first section describes the general evolution of Iran and the significance of various geological features in its interpretation and is intendedto be an overview that is easy to read. The secondsection provides a detailed geological reviewand contains the data on whichthe interpretations of the first section are based. ThemajorIranian tectonosedimentary units together with their characteristics and the localities cited in the paper are givenin Figs. 1 and 2. Correlation charts of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary formations, and sedimentary gaps and unconformities discussed in the text are given in Tables 1 to3. 1--Evolution of the region

The HormozSalt was deposited in basins on the peneplaned Arabian shield during Late PrecambrianEarly Cambriantime. The distribution of these sedimentary facies suggests that during the Late Precambrian, Central Iran and Zagros together with the Salt Rangesof Pakistan and Arabia were all part of the same landmass and were partly covered by a common shallow sea (Table 1). The present Main Zagros reverse fault probablymarksthe site of a normalfault controlling the sedimentation (see Fig. 10) and was associated with the formation of a passive continental marginto the north, recognizable by the Cambrian(Fig. 3). The Late Precambrian orogeny (around 850-570 Ma) and its associated magmatism represent an earlier compressional phase much before the HormozSalt deposition. The Upper Precambrian acid and basic alkali-volcanics (Figs. 3 and 10) are subsequentto the Late Precambrian orogeny and presumably developed during the rifting that formedthe sedimentarybasins in which the Hormoz Salt and the Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian sediments were deposited, and maybe associated with this rifting.
1.2--PALEOZOIC

The first recognizabletectonic event in Iran occurred near the end of the PaleozoicEra, with the onset of the Late Paleozoic (Hercynian)orogeny. Prior to this time, the wholeregion was a relatively stable continental platform with epicontinental shelf deposits, and lacked major magmatism or folding. After deposition of the Upper Precambrian Hormoz Salt-dolomite, shallow-water red arkosic sandstones and shales of Cambrianage were deposited over a wide area from Arabia in the south to the Alborz mountains in the north. These deposits also occur in Pakistan, I. 1--PRECAMBRIAN Afghanistan, and Turkey (Fig. 3; Table 1; Section It is not possible at present to producea paleogeo- II.2a). The red sandstone sedimentation was followed graphic mapand continental reconstructions prior to the by the deposition of dolomite, marl, and shale (with salt in shallow sea conditions. The first fully UpperPrecambrian. However,somefeatures of Iran are pseudomorphs) recognizable from this period. These include a possible marine carbonates were deposited in the Middle and fossil island-arc (Chapedony, Posht-e-Badam), late Pre- Late Cambrian Epochs, and in the Ordovician or the cambrian deformation followed by alkali-rift volcan- Silurian the marine transgression was terminated with ism, the Hormoz Salt deposits with epicontinental red the deposition of sandstone (Table 1). elastics, and someacid magmatism. Somemajor strucAll of these terrestrial to very shallowmarinedepositures such as the Main Zagros, High Zagros, Chape- tional environmentsare consistent with a passive and dony, Posht-e-Badam, and Naybandfaults apparently continuously connected continental marginat least beformed facies dividers in the Upper Precambrian and tween 600 and 400 Ma. The fragments of the margin Lower Paleozoic(Figs. 3 and 10; see also Section II. 1). that we can now identify may not have been in the Like the Arabian craton, the Precambrian basement of positions we suppose in our reconstruction. However, Iran maybe the crust from Precambrian calc-alkaline this wouldrequire large strike-slip motionto have ocisland arcs (see Section II.1), and if this is so their curred subsequently, for which, as yet, we have no cratonization must have taken place prior to the deposi- evidence. Duringthe sameperiod the Asian part of the tion of the UpperPrecambrian - LowerCambriansalt, Caucasus, south Caspian, and KopehDagh(north of the red detritus, and carbonates. Hercynian suture line, not shown in Fig. 3; see Fig. 10)

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Fie. 1. Iranian major tectono-sedimentaryunits. 1. Stable areas: Arabian Precambrian platform in the southwest and Turanian Hercynian plate in the northeast. The low dipping, relatively flat lying beds south and southwestof the Persian Gulf comprise the Arabianshelf over the buried Precambrian stable shield. 2. Neogene-Quaternary foredeeps, transitional from unfolded forelands to marginal fold zones, with strong late Alpine subsidence. ZF: Zagros Foredeep in the southwest; KDF:KopehDaghForedeep in the northeast. 3. Mainsector of the marginal active fold belt peripheral to the stable areas (Zagros and High-Zagros (HZ)in the southwest, and Kopeh Daghin northeast). 4. Zabol-Baluch(east Iran) and Makran(southeast Iran) post-ophiolite flysch troughs. Late Tertiary seaward accretion and landward underthrusting seem to be responsible for the formation of the present Makranranges. 5. Alborz Mountains,bordering the southern part of the Caspian Sea. 6. Central Iranian Plateau (Central Iran) lying betweenthe two marginalactive fold belts. In the northwesternpart of the country, Central Iran joins the Transcaucasian early HercynianMedian Mass(TC), the Sevan-Akera ophiolite belt (SV), and the Little Caucasus[A: Armenian (Miskhan-Zangezurian) late Hercynian belt, with a possible continuation to the Iranian Talesh Mountains(T) along the western part of the Caspian Sea; AA:the Araxian-Azarbaijanianzone of the Caledonianconsolidation, with the Vedi (V) ophiolite belt]. SS: Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, narrow intracratonic mobile belt (during the Paleozoic Era) and active continental margin (Mesozoic), forming the southern marginof Central Iran in contact with the MainZagrosreverse fault (MZRF). Thebelt bears the imprints of several majorcrustal upheavals (severe tectonism, magmatism, and metamorphism). The Central Iranian province joins Central Afghanistan in the east. 7. Postulated Upper Cretaceous High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite (75 Ma)and the Central Iranian ophiolite-

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was undergoingcalc-alkaline magmatic activity, deformation, and simultaneous sedimentation. This is completely different from the sedimentsof the stable platform (of Arabia and Iran) in the south. Therefore two completely different tectonic and sedimentary regimes are represented (Fig. 10). Thusthere is evidencethat in this period, Iran, southeastern Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan were connected (via Arabia) to Africa, and the HercynianOceanwas to the north. This stratigraphic evidenceis consistent with the paleomagnetic data (discussed in Section II). 1.2.l--Early Paleozoic movements (450-370 Ma) Because of the deficiency of data, no reconstructionis given for the time of the Early Paleozoic (Caledonian) movements.The deposition of Upper Silurian (395 Ma) continental sediments together with the lack of Lower Devonian rocks in Central Iran may indicate a Late Silurian movement (see Section II.2.1), the cause whichis not yet understood. 1.2.2--Late Paleozoic and Middle Triassic orogenic movements The Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) orogenic belt is presumablyassociated with the closure of the Hercynian Ocean (we choose to name oceans after the orogenic episode caused by their closure). The ocean was to the north of lran (as indicated by the foregoingstratigraphic evidence). It seemsclear that subductionwasrestricted to the northern side of the ocean in the Middle East region and resulted in prolonged deformation, metamorphism, and magmatism. The deformation apparently started during Carboniferous time (about 330 Ma)and finished during the Triassic Period (about 220 Ma). Most of this deformation appears to be associated with the northwardsubduction and closure of the HercynianOcean. Towardsthe end of the period Iran apparently moved as one or a few continental fragments across the Hercynian Ocean, leaving new oceanic crust behind to form the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in the south (Fig. 4). There is stratigraphic evidence (continental rift volcanismand sedimentationconsistent with stretching along the SanandajSirjan belt; Fig. 11; Section II.2.2b) that Iran and

some surrounding countries were becoming detached from Arabia in Permiantime (possibly around 240 Ma). However,paleomagnetic poles indicate that lran remainedclose to Arabia during at least the early part of this period. The UpperTriassic - Jurassic pelagic sediments along the active Central Iranian and the passive Zagroscontinental marginsprovide the first sedimentary evidence for the appearanceof a true oceanic environment (Table 2). Sometime prior to the MiddleTriassic orogenic phase (210 Ma), the late Paleozoic ophiolites were emplaced in the north, presumably at the time of the collision of the continental fragments with Asia (Section II.2.2a). By Middle to Late Triassic time (200 Ma) a major difference in sedimentaryenvironmentbetween[ran and Arabia on either side of the High-ZagrosAlpine Ocean is evident. While marine carbonates continued to be deposited in a passive environment on the Arabian foreland, shallow lagoonal coal-beating detrital sediments were deposited in Iran (Table 2). Furthermore, these were apparently continuous with similar deposits in southern Asia (Kopeh Dagh - Turan) suggesting that Iran and southern Asia were connected and formed a single sedimentaryprovince by that time (Fig. 5). It is therefore concluded that the late Paleozoic- early Mesozoicphase in Iran and surrounding countries was a period whencontinental fragments travelled across the Hercynian Ocean to becomeattached to Asia (Fig. 5). The time taken does not appear to be greater than 40 Ma and, based on paleomagnetic data and our reconstructions, the continental fragments covered a distance of about 4000 km. The necessary rate of movement of I0 cm/yearis reasonable, since India split from Africa and formed parts of the Indian Ocean at a rate of 18 crn/year. There is someevidence of late Paleozoic low-grade metamorphism along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt at a time whenthe paleomagnetic data indicate that the HighZagros Alpine Oceanhad not formedin the south (Section II.2.2b). This could be interpreted as an error in the paleomagnetic data, with somesubduction occurring on the southern part of Central Iran along the SanandajSirjan belt, prior to the MiddleTriassic orogenic movements. Alternatively it could be associated with the late Paleozoic closure of the rifts formedin the secondPal-

mrlange belts (65 Ma),with outcropsindicatedin black. Thesoutheastern parts of the Middle Cretaceous (110 Ma) Sevan-Akera andVediophiolites of the Little Caucasus are shown in the northwestern part of the country.Theextensivebelts of ophiolites mark the original zoneof convergence between different blocks. Thepositionsof ophiolites are modified by post-emplacement convergent movements. 8. Major facies dividingbasement faults, borderingdifferent tectono-sedimentary units. Contrasting tectono-sedimentary regimes,belts of ophiolites, and associatedoceanicsediments,togetherwithpaleogeographic contrasts along the Main Zagros(MZRF) and the High-Zagros (HZRF) reverse faults in the southwest, and the SouthKopeh Dagh fault (SKDF) in the northeast indicate the existenceof old geosuturesalong these lines. TheChapedony and Posht-e-Badam faults delineate the possible Precambrian island arc in eastern CentalIran. SJMF: SouthJaz Murian Fault in the southeast.9. Late Alpinefold axes. 10. Postulatedactive subduction zoneof Makran in the Gulf of Oman. 11. Provinceboundary. (Figure basedon Berberian(1980a). Lambert Conformal ConicProjection.)

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RG. 2. Localities in Iran cited in the text (Lambert Conformal ConicProjection.) eozoic extensional phase (Section II.2a.1.2). The absence of any late Paleozoic ophiolites in this belt and consistency with the paleomagnetic data maysupport this second conjucture and we adopt this view. TheMiddleTriassic features of Iran are shown in Fig. 5. They include linear metamorphic belts in southwestern Central Iran (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, with its probable continuation to the Tauros belt of Turkeyand the Wardak-Nawarzone of Central Afghanistan), and general compressional phase of folding and mountain building throughoutthe country (Figs. 5 and 13). This presumably associated with the onset of subduction along the southern margin of Central Iran, resulting fromthe cloggingof the Hercynian belt in the north with continental materials. The onset of the MiddleTriassic events in the southern Central Iranian marginwas probably a direct consequence of the ending of subductionin the north. The ophiolites and basic and granitic complexes of Triassic age exposedalong the southeastern marginof Central Iran (Section II.3a) seemto be remnants of the crust of the Triassic subduction systemof the northern part of the High-ZagrosAlpine Ocean.
1.3--EARLY ALPINE OROGENIC EVENTS

The Early Alpine orogenic events lasted from 200 Ma to around 65 Ma, and apparently represented the period during which the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in the southern region of Iran closed (Figs. 5 and 6). Following the Middle Triassic compressional phase, the whole region underwenttensional movements characterized by the UpperTriassic continental alkali-rift basalts in Central Iran and the Alborz. A compressional episode occurred around Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous time (140 Ma), at the middle of the period whenwe suppose

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TABLE 1. Correlationchart of the majorPaleozoicrock units, sedimentary gaps(blank areas), and unconformities (indented lines) in Gondwanian Iran andneighbouring regions.Notethat the stable platform shelf depositsare underlain by the alkali-acid volcano-plutonic complex, which marks the late Precarnbrian intracontinentalrifting. Datasourcescited in the text. Therock unit symbols used are the sameas those used on the paleogeographic maps.H-Z:High-Zagros belt; S-S: Sanandaj-Sirjan belt

the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean to have been closing (Section 11.4). The cause of this phase is unknown. Duringand after the MiddleTriassic phaseof activity, andesitic-basaltic volcanism and acid granitic intrusions formedalong the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (the active marginof Central Iran; Figs. 5 and 13), and presumably represents the full establishmentof the southern subduction zone. The arc is partly exposed, being coveredwith Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments, which have been

removedby erosion only in a few places. There is a similar situation in the northern Hercynianbelt in the Kopeh Dagh.Its eastern continuation is completely visible in northern Afghanistan, but in this case only one small inlier (Aghdarband) is exposedin Iran (Figs. and 12). During the MesozoicEra two very different environments existed in the Arabian Zagros foreland and the Iranian unit attached to Asia. The Arabian foreland is

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ATE PRECAMBRIAN-

CAMBRIAN

FIG. 3. A simplified reconstruction of Iran during Late Precambrian - Cambriantimes (570-540 Ma), showing a broad continuity of epicontinental shelf sedimentaryfacies over the Arabian-Iranian continental crust (cf. Fig. 10 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). The original position of the Central and north Iranian continental fragmentsrelative to Arabia is not entirely clear, and it is possible to postulate a position adjacent to eastern Arabia. The Hercynian Ocean is in the north of the AlborzMountains (south of the CaspianSea). Lines of latitude and longitude (in Figs. 3 9) only provide approximateinformation about the orientation in regions wherecrustal extension or compresssionhas taken place. 1. Oceaniccrust area. 2. Continentalareas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation.3. Continentalcoarse clastics. 4. Zaigun and Lalun epicontinental-marine red sandstone-shale formation (LowerCambrian).5. Precambrianophiolites of Saudi Arabia. 6. UpperPrecambrian alkali granitic intrusions in Iran. 7. UpperPrecambrian post-orogenicrhyolitic flows in Iran. Therhyolitic

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subject to progressive subsidence and uniform thick shallow marine sedimentation (Table 2). There are very striking simple linear facies boundariesparallel to the old continental margin (Figs. 5 and 14). These were presumably normal faults formed during extensional movement at that time. In the north the sedimentary environment was more complex,with rapid facies changes and unstable conditions. There were large areas of shallow sea and small Red Sea type oceanic basins (the sites of the Central Iranian narrow ophiolite belts) with a few small land areas. Presumablythese basins and shallow seas were associated with fragmentationof continental crust during the period of movement of the continental massfrom Arabia to Asia (Figs. 4 and 5). There appears to be evidence on which to base speculation about whenand howthe Central Iranian narrow oceanic basins formed. However, the stratigraphic evidence suggests that the Central Iranian continental fragmentswere never widely separated (Tables 1, 2, and 3; Figs. 10 to 17). 1.3.1--Late Cretaceous orogenic phases The Late CretaceousEpochin Iran is characterized by two episodes of ophiolite emplacement.The emplacement dates and the associated change of sedimentary conditions from oceanic to shallow marineare critical, since they determinethe time of oceanclosure. Detailed argumentsoutlined in Sections II.5.2b and II.5.3b constrain the dates of these changestogether with the HighZagrosand the Central Iranian ophiolite emplacement to be nominally around 75 Maand 65 Ma(Fig. 6; Table 2). The latter phase was associated with regional metamorphism,magmatism, and extensive folding and uplift throughoutthe country and is taken here to represent the final closure of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. The High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt, which was emplacedin the form of a thrust stack around 75 Ma, is apparently the remnant of the High-ZagrosAlpine Ocean extending from southeastern Turkey via High-Zagrosto Oman.The Central Iranian ophiolitemtlange belts were emplacedaround 65 Maand resulted from the subsequent closure of the small ocean basins created by fragmentationafter the separation of Iran from Arabia. They form a complexsystem in the country (Fig. 6). The Makranophiolite-mtlange southeasternIran (Figs. 1, 6, and 14) is not interpretable as a continental closure, since subductionof ocean crust

preceded and succeeded its emplacement. It may be speculatedthat it wasassociated with the collision of an island arc of the eastern High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. The Sevan-Akera and Vedi ophiolite belts of the Little Caucasus, which were emplaced around 118-105 Ma, were the remnants of the western part of the Hercynian Ocean in the northwest, and presumably were emplaced during the collision betweennorthwestern Iran and the Caucasus (see Section 11.5. lc). The Central Iranian ophiolite-mtlange belts are associated with glaucophane-schist metamorphism (along the belt north of the Zagrosfault line and in Makran), and simultaneously the active Central Iranian continental margin (the Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt) was affected by greenschist metamorphic overprint (see Section II.5.3b; Figs. 6 and 14). Extensive magmatism is not found associated with the closure of the internal ocean basins. This could be because the volcanism is concealed by later sediments, or because the area of ocean crust consumed was too small to allow significant volcanic arcs to becomeestablished. The second explanation is a plausible confirmation of the view that the internal ophiolites do not represent the remains of the large ocean basins. Wetake the Late Cretaceous events to represent the disappearance of the oceanic crust between Asia and Arabia. Fromthis period to the present, all continued convergenceof these plates apparently has been accommodatedby processes that have progressively thickened and shortened the continental crust and caused its gradual emergence (Figs. 7 to 9). The compression has been accompaniedby extensive volcanism and various tectonic episodes, but nonehave the characteristic of a closure episode and no ophiolites and pelagic sediments have been emplacedlater than 55 Ma. 1.4----MIDDLEAND LATE ALPINE EVENTS The Middle Alpine orogenic events started at the close of the Late Cretaceous movements(65 Ma) and ended at about 20 Ma. The Late Cretaceous movements created the mainstructural features of present-day Iran (Figs. 6 and 7). During the closure of the High-Zagros Alpine Oceanin the south, acid plutonic activity took place in Late Jurassic time (140 Ma)along the southern marginof Central Iran (the Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt; Figs. and 14). Later plutonic activity and deformationin the

volcanicsand the comagmatic alkali granites apparentlyare the productsof post-orogenic rifting. 8. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 9. Basement faults (N: Najdleft-lateral fault system in SaudiArabia;Z: Main Zagros and High-Zagros reversefault system in Iran; and C: Chapedony fault delineatingthe western part of a possiblePrecambrian island arc in the easternpart of CentralIran). 10. Presentcontinental shorelines. Principal sources of data: Reconstruction(Mercat6rProjection) is modifiedfromSmithet al. (1973). The Iranian tectono-sedimentary data are basedon our Fig. 10. Dataoutside Iran come fromAbu-Bar and Jackson (1964), Wolfart(1967), Ketin (1966), Gasand Gibson(1969), Brown (1972), et al. (19 74),and Frisch and A1-S hanti (1977).

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PERMIAN

DCE

IZ,, I~15 ~I0,---L--11 ---~--12 ,"----13." ..........

FIG. 4. Reconstruction of Iran during the PermianPeriod (possibly around 240 Ma), showingthe detachment of Iran from Arabia-Zagrosfollowing rifting along the High-Zagros and the Sanandaj-Sirjan (SS) belts; formation of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean and the Central Iranian narrowRed Sea type oceanic basins; and the consuming of the Hercynianoceanin the north (cf. our Fig. 11 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentarydata for the sameperiod). 1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marinesedimentation. 3. Coarse clastics. 4. Sandstoneand shale. 5. Carbonates with anhydrite. 6. Shallow marine shelf carbonates. 7. Permian-Triassic intrusive rocks. 8. Permian volcanics along the rifted Sanandaj-Sirjan mobile belt (SS) in the south, and along the Great Caucasus - southern Turan

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TABLE 2. Correlation chart of the majorMesozoic rock units, sedimentary gaps (blank areas), and unconformities (indented lines) in Iran, Arabia,andthe Little Caucasus (for which the lowerpart of the sectionis notcomplete). Thepelagicsediments the High-Zagros AlpineOcean(H.Z.A.O.),Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt (S-S), Central Iranian narrowoceans(C.I.O.), and Sevan-Akera (S-A)of the Little Caucasus, are shown by the wavy lines. Thearrowsindicate the emplacement of the ophiolites and pelagicsediments as thrust sheets (thick lines withtriangles) ontothe continentalmargin ArabiaZagrosH-Z H.Z.A.O. I ST,~qI C.I.O. IC~ntrcal I. Alborz TaleshS-A L.Caucas

sameregion occurred during Late Cretaceoustime and is presumablyassociated with the final stages of subduction. During this period, north and west Iran were subject to little activity, withslight erosionandlittle deposition suggesting low relief. After the emplacement of ophiolites onto the continental marginin Late Cretaceoustime, a major flysch basin formed in east (Zabol-Baluch), southeast (Makran), and southwest Central Iran (along the Zagrosfault line), and very rapid erosion and deposition of material took place. The nature of the basement of these flysch basins could be oceanic crust. The general environmentwouldappear to be relatively subdued topography near sea level, except near the flysch basins where, at the very least, steep scarp slopes wouldbe

neededto provide the rapid erosion to supply the basins with sediment (Fig. 7). Continental accretion of the overlying Tertiary flysch deposits by the successive oceanwardmovements of the site of the active subduction zone along southern Makran(Fig. 1) presumably gave rise to the subduction complex, which has continued from Late Cretaceoustime to the present (Figs. to 9). Extensive volcanism, with a wide range of composition, started in the EocenePeriod (50 Ma)and continued for the rest of the period with the climax in Middle Eocene time (about 47-42 Ma). Despite their great thickness (locally up to 6 and 12 km)and wide distribution (Fig. 7), the volcanics and tufts were formed within a relatively short timeinterval. Since the plutonic

eugeosyncline north of the Hercynian subductionzone. 9. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 10. Spreading centres. 11. Subduction zonewithtriangles on the upperplate. 12. Major normal faults activatedduringthe Permian rifting phase, controlling the sedimentary facies. 13. Reverse faults withbars on the upperplate. 14. Presentcontinental shorelines. 15. Epigeosyncline orogenicregion in the north. SS: Sanandaj-Sirjan rift belt. t.c.m.m.: Transcaucasian Median Mass. Principal sourcesof data: Reconstruction (Mercator Projection)is modified fromSmithetal.(1973).Thetectono-sedimentary data within the Iranian boundaries are basedon our Fig. 11. Dataoutside Iran come fromWolfart(1967), Nalvkin and Posner (1968), Adamia (1968, 1975), Gass and Gibson(1969), Kamen-Kaye (1970), Brown (1972), Belov(1972), et al. (1977), and Saint-Marc (1978).

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RHAETO-

LIAS

:CENTRAL

IRA

10,"-11, ~12,---13,----lZ,,-"--"-15

,"Z, lG, . ........

17

FI~. 5. Reconstruction of Iran immediately after the Middle Triassic orogenic movements (around 210-190 Ma), showing collision of Iran with Eurasia in the north by the final closure of the Hercynian ocean, and shifting of the subduction from the north (Hercynian) to the south (High-Zagros Alpine). Compression with regional metamorphism occurs along the southern active margin of Central Iran (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt: SS). The western part of the Hercynian ocean, south of the PontianTranscaucassian island arc (P-Tc), is not closed. Coal-bearing sediments cover south Eurasia and Iran (cf. Figs. 12 and 13 for detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). 1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Rhaetic-Liassic plant- and

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magmatismassociated with it would have ceased not much more than 10 Ma after the end of subduction (about 65 Ma), with the absorption of the downgoing slabs, the cause of this extensive post-collision volcanic activity is not clear. Becauseof the wide-ranging compositionof these volcanics (rhyolite, dacite, andesite, ignimbrite,and basalt) it is difficult to explainthem simply as crustal melts due to rapid uplift and erosion, andit is necessaryat least in part to invokea lowercrust or mantle source (Section II.6b). Although the nature this volcanismis enigmatic, volcanismof the sametype continues to the present day (Figs. 17, 18) and is evidently not related to subduction. It is suggested in the absence of alternative hypotheses that this volcanism mightbe related to processes of crustal shorteningor to strike-slip faulting and sheafing, or to both (see Sections II.6b, II.Tb, and 11.8). Duringthe period of mostactive volcanismIran was subject to an overall right-lateral shear and relatively little shortening (comparing Figs. and 7). Assuming either of the foregoing mechanisms it is not clear whythe volumeof volcanics has diminished with time. It maybe due to changes in the amountof shearing. Alternatively the source conditions may alter as the crust thickens or, if volcanoescease activity whenthey reach a maximum height, larger volumes of lava will erupt whenthe crust is near sea level than on crust more than 3000 mabove sea level. The marinecarbonate and marl deposition in the narrowingsedimentary basin of the Zagros continued after the Late Cretaceous collision (Figs. 6 to 9 and 14 to 17), with the folded and uplifted Central Iranian active continental margin (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) acting as barrier between the Central Iranian shallowbasins in the north and the Zagrosbasin in the south (Figs. 6 to 9). The late Alpine orogenic events followed continuously from the Middle Alpine and extended to the present. Progressively more of Iran becameland with separate mountain-divided narrow basins (Figs. 8 and 9). Neogenetime (10 Ma), continental deposits supplied fromthe rising orogenic belts characterize the sedimentation in Iran (Fig. 9).

During the Middle and Late Alpine orogenic movements, folding and uplift occurred followed by subsidence in central and northern Iran (Tables 2 and 3). The episodes of major activity defined in the literature and discussed in Section II refer to the unconformitiesassociated with subsidence and marine transgression. Thus, although the overall relative motionof Arabia and Asia caused compression and uplift, there are clearly defined diachronous episodes of subsidence and extension. This indicates that the tectonic forces were not supplied from the Asian-Arabian motion alone, and presumably must have resulted from motions in the upper mantle or lower crust. However,throughout the period, the major fold belts grew in size, with fold axes continuing to form parallel to those initiated during the Late Cretaceous movements.
1.5--DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Iran and someof the surrounding countries were connected to Arabia and Africa from the late Precambrian until the late Paleozoic. At that time these fragmentsof continental crust split from Arabia, crossed the Hercynian Ocean, and collided with the Asian block. During this passage and the subsequentsubductionof ocean crust to the south of Iran, the continental crust was stretched. At the time of onset of continental compression (about 65 Ma)Iran was entirely belowsea level and marinesedimentaryconditions prevailed. This is consistent with the crust being thin. Post-colIisional convergence could then have resulted in progressive crustal thickening and shortening by folding, reverse faulting, and the gradual rise of the mountain belts above sea level. Redistribution of material laterally by sediment transport and large-scale strike-slip motioncould also have occurred. If the Late Cretaceous crust was nominally 20 km thick and 100 or 200 m below sea level, a compression by a factor of two woulddoubleits thickness to that at present and accountfor the present mean elevation of the Iranian plateau of 2-3 km. This simple view assumes that thermal changeshave not altered the density of the crust or mantle. The thermal processes associated with

coal-bearingsandstones and shales of the Shemshak Formation with Asiatic flora and faunacoveringIran andsouthernEurasia via Kopeh Dagh belt. 4. Continental clastics withmarineintercalations. 5. Sea marginal flats, sabkhas,and shallowmarine deposits. 6. Shallow watermarine carbonates and shales. 7. Shallow to moderately deepmarinesediments of the GreatCaucasus (miogeosyncline basin). 8. Volcanic arc of Pontian-Transcaucasian (P-Tc). 9. Upper Triassic - Jurassic intrusive rocks. Upper Triassic - Jurassic andesitic-basaltic volcanicrocks. 11. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 12. Spreading centres.13. S ubduction zonewithtriangles onthe upperplate. 14. Reverse faults withbars onthe upperplate. 15. Major normal faults activatedduringthe late Triassic rifting phase.16. Middle Triassic regionalmetamorphic rocks alongthe active Central Iranian continental margin, the Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt (SS). 17. Present continental shorelines. P-Tc: Pontian-Transcaucasian island arc; C-C:Crimean-Caucasian marginalsea; SS: Sanandaj-Sirjan belt. Principal sourcesof data: Reconstruction (Mercator Conformal Projection) is modified fromSmithand Briden(1977). tectono-sedimentary data withinthe boundaries of Iran are basedon our Fig. 13. DataoutsideIran come fromVereshchagin and Ronov (1968), Razvalyayev (1972), and Adamia et al. (1977) for the northwesternmost part, Beinand Gvirtzman (1977), Biju-Duval et al. (1977)for the westernmost part.

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LATE

CRETACEOUS

1-~10, =11, +12,"---13, -~-I~, "---15, ........

16

F~o. 6. Reconstruction of Iran during Late Cretaceous time (around 70 Ma), showing emplaced ophiolites along the Sevan-Akeraand Vedi belts of the Little Caucasus(100 Ma), High-Zagros-Oman belt (80-75 Ma), and prior to emplacement the Makran and the Central Iranian narrowophiolite belts (65 Ma). Duringthat time most of the country was near sea level. The Zagros and Kopeh Daghsedimentarybasins have their ownseparate shallow marine shelf carbonate sedimentation (cf. Fig. 14 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentarydata for the sameperiod). 1. Oceaniccrust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marinesedimentation. 3.Emplaced ophiolite-radiolarite belts of the High-Zagros-Oman (the former High~Zagros Alpine oceanic crust) and the Sevan-Akera and Vedi (a part of the former Hercynian oceanic crust). 4. Shallow marine shelf carbonates and shales (Aruma Formation). 5. Neritic to basinal marl shales (Gurpi Formation) in Zagros. 6. Shallow water anhydritic reef limestone (Tarbur Formation) in Zagros. 7. Upper Cretaceousflysch. 8. Isolated small intermontanesedimentarybasins of Central Iran with marl, shale, and carbonate; tuffs and volcanics (mainly in the Talesh area). 9. Shallowcarbonate shelf deposits in Kopeh Dagh(Kaiat Formation)and its northwestern continuation (the Great Caucasianmiogeosyncline). 10. Chitral island arc, north India, and the Little Caucasianeugeosyncline northwestern Iran. 11. Cretaceousintrusive rocks. 12. Cretaceousvolcanic rocks. 13. Approximate boundarybetweendifferent sedimentaryfacies. 14. Subductionzone with triangles on the upper plate. 15.Reversefaults with bars on the upper plate. 16. Present continental shore lines.

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the post-Cretaceous deformation and the cause of the Eocene volcanism are not understood; therefore the foregoingarguments,althoughconsistent with the stratigraphic evidence, must be treated with caution. A striking feature of the evolution presented here is the apparent control of later fold episodes by the structures formedin the earliest fold episodes. This maybe explained by regarding the early phase as introducing or reactivating structural anisotropy that later phases have also been forced to follow. Since these structures are not everywhere perpendicular to the relative motion between Arabia and Asia and since this motion has, in any case, changeddirection since Late Cretaceoustime, it follows that structures other than folds must have played an important role in the deformation. Many of the major faults have been inherited from earlier periods. Those that are most easily recognized formedfacies dividers, presumablywhenacting as normal faults during tensional, down-warping, and depositional phases. The MainZagros, I-Iigh-Zagros, Tabas, Kuh Banan, Chapedony, Posht-e-Badam, and several recent faults were probably major bounding normal faults since late Precambrian time but have operated as compressionalfaults during the overall shortening and crustal thickening of the last 60 Ma. Particular questions that require further study are the time of onset of the late Paleozoicsubductionin northeastern Iran, the possibility of the late Paleozoicmetamorphism along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, the time and mannerof formation of the Central Iranian narrow ocean basins (that became the Central Iranian ophiolitem61ange belts), and the reason for the lack of extensive exposure of the magmatic arc along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt for the late Paleozoic and MiddleTriassic events. Finally a detailed and systematic investigation of the petrology, the radiometric ages, and the trace- and major-element composition of the magmatic(including ophiolites) and metamorphic rocks of the country, together with paleomagnetic studies for certain crucial periods and sites, will carry us further towards a true understanding of the paleogeographyand tectonic evolution of Iran. II--Review of the geological data The Iranian plateau extends over a numberof continental fragments weldedtogether along suture zones of oceanic character. The fragments are delineated by major boundary faults, which appear to be inherited from old geological times. Eachfragmentdiffers in its

sedimentary sequence, nature, and age of magmatism and metamorphism, and in structural character and intensity of deformation (Fig. 1). In this section the evolution and effects of different orogenic phases since Late Precambriantime are reviewed and discussed separately for each unit. A brief review of the previous paleogeographic and tectonic reconstructions of the region is also included (Section 11.9). II. I--PRECAMBRIAN The continental crust of Iran was metamorphosed, granitized, folded, and faulted during the Late Precambrian by what is called the Hijaz or Pan African orogeny (around 960-600 Ma). These metamorphosed rocks, which are scarcely exposed, form the basement of the region (Huckriede et al. 1962; Stocklin 1968a, 1974, 1977; Nabavi 1976; Berberian 1976a,b). This orogenic phase is considered by Brown and Coleman(1972), A1-Shantiand Mitchell (1976), Greenwood et al. (1975, 1976), Neary et al. (1976), and Frisch and AI-Shanti (1977) to be an episode of plate collision and arcmagmatismterminating about 600-550 Main Arabia. Following these movementsthe Upper Precambrian CambrianHormozSalt (Stocklin 1968b, 1972) was deposited in a basin(s), parts of which nowlie along the north and eastern side of the Arabian Peninsula (Fig. 10). Since the different orogenicphases recognizedin the crystalline shield of Arabia(Greenwood et al. 1976) are not recognized in Iran, no detailed correlation can be made between the basements of Iran and Arabia. Hence the consolidation of the Iranian basementis not well understood. The Precambrian Chapedonyand Posht-eBadamcomplexesof east Central Iran (Hushmandzadeh 1969; Stocklin 1972; Haghipour 1974, 1977; and Haghipour et al. 1977), which consist of metagreywacke, metadiorite, meta-andesite, amphibolite, pyroxenite, serpentinite, and calc-alkaline intrusive rocks (Fig. 10) may represent the crust of a Precambrian calc-alkaline island arc (Berberian and Berberian 1980). The nearly north-south arcuate mountainbelts in east Central Iran mayrepresent the original pattern of the Precambrianarc belts. Like the Arabian basement, the island-arc cratonization of the Iranian Precambrian basementshould have taken place prior to the deposition of the Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian Hormoz Salt and detritic sediments. Because of subsequent orogenic movements,the few attempts to date the Iranian basement using mainly

Principal sourcesof data: Reconstruction (Mercartor Conformal Projection) is modified fromSmithand Briden(1977). tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are basedon our Fig. 14. Dataoutside Iran come fromVereshchagin and Ronov (1968),and Adamia et al. (1977)for northwesternmost part, Saint-Marc (1978), and Powell(1979)for the north part.

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E OCENE

I~G. 7. Reconstructionof Iran during Eocenetime (55-40 Ma), showing the closure of all oceans, onset of the post-collision extensive Lutetian (45 Ma)volcanic activity in Central Iran and southern Alborz, and formation of the major flysch troughs eastern and southeastern Iran. Shallowmarine shelf carbonate deposition in the narrowingZagrosand Kopeh Daghbasins is still noticeable (cf. Fig. 15 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentarydata for the sameperiod), Thepresent-day physiographic features were already shaped by the Late Cretaceous (65 Ma)orogenic movements and were noticeable during the EoceneEpoch. 1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Lagoonal and shallow marine carbonates, marl, and shale with anhydrite and gypsum(Rus and Dammam Formations) on the Arabian shelf. 4. Neritic basinal marls (Pabdeh Formation) in the Zagros basin. 5. Shallow marine carbonates (Jahrom Formatidn) in Zagros. Evaporites (Sachun Formation) in Zagros. 7. Paleocene-Eoceneflysch deposits. 8. Widespreadpost-collisional volcanic activity. 9. Shallow water shelf carbonates of Kopeh Dagh(Chehel Kaman Formation) and its northwestern continuation (the

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TABLE 3. Correlation chart of the major Tertiaryrockunits, sedimentary gaps(blankareas), andunconformities (indentedlines) in Arabia andIran. TheMakran andAlborz units are dividedinto north(n) andsouth(s), andthe Talesh into west(w)andeast
S-SCentral I. Lut Makean Zabol-Ba ~b iJrnz ~ TaleShwl$ Caspian KopehD~

._-..-.:..-~

......................, vU.R.~.,.~.~., **** k:::--:5:,""~ ~ ~~ ~. ~. ~~~~~%* ..... ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - ~--:.!i ~::---:--: ~

~:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:
I

i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"::::" "~ "" ..... I -~. .... ,. ...: ............. .~.-~ t~*,. ~ ..:._ "~ .... .......... oo, ., .. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::: }::::::}::::}i :: iIil :::::::::::: }}}

* ~ : * ......

....,o,~a* .............. +,,,~ ~.++++~ .o,:i:~r":::i:i:i:!:~![ :::::2:: 2:::2::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

,~... o.o.~...-.......-.t:.............................,
.-.-,-.-.~v.v ,:::+~"~~"v" :::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

Rb/Sr total-rock techniques have failed (Crawford 1977), and the Precambrian rocks remain geochronologically unclassified. At this stage the Precambrian metamorphic rocks of Iran can only be categorized into high-grade (amphibolite facies) and low-grade (greenschist facies) groups (Stocklin 1968a, 1974, 1977; Hushmandzadeh 1973; Haghipour 1974, 1977). After the metamorphism of the Precambrian formations and the establishment of the Arabo-Iraniancoherent platform at the end of the Katangan orogeny(Fig. 3), the compressionaltectonic activity ended with granitic intrusions and alkali volcanism (Fig. 10). The Upper Precambrian alkali-enriched Doran granites of Iran (Stocklin et al. 1964) seemto be equivalents of the 600 MaYoungerGranites of Arabia (Schmidt et al. 1973, 1978; Sillitoe 1979). The Dorangranite cuts the Upper Precambrian low-grade metamorphicrocks of the Kahar Formation (Stocklin et al. 1964) and is covered by Lower Cambrian sediments. Late Precambrianpost-orogenic volcanics, which are partly the extrusive equivalents of the Dorangranite, and are mainlyalkali rhyolite, rhyolitic tuff, and quartz porphyry, form the GharadashFormation in northwestern Iran (Stocklin 1972), the Taknar Formation in the Kashmar region, northeastern Iran (Razaghmanesh 1968), the Rizu-DesuSeries (or Esfordi Formation)

southeasternCentral Iran (Huckriedeet al. 1962; Forster et al. 1973), and the HormozFormation in Zagros (Stocklin 1972; Kent 1979). The late Precambrianvolcanics also include some andesite, basalt, and tuff. These widespread post-orogenic volcanic rocks, which overlie the Precambrian metamorphicrocks and are overlain by the Upper Precambrian - Cambrian sediments, mayindicate the stretching of the AraboIranian coherent continental crust during an extensional phase. This could have been associated with the formation of the epicontinental platform from Arabia to A1borz prior to the deposition of the UpperPrecambrian Cambriansediments. Similar post-orogenic rhyolitic pyroclastic rocks, lavas, and subordinate basaltic volcanics of alkali affinity have been developed on the Arabian-Nubian Shield (the ShammarGroup) during 663 to 555 Ma(Brownand Coleman 1972; Sillitoe 1979; Brownand Jackson 1979; Table 1). Although alkali basalt is a typical member of the rifting magmatism, extensional tectonics in the continental crust also permits rapid rise of rhyolites and acid plutons (Bailey 1974; Eichelberger 1978). Duringthis general rifting and sinking phase of northeastern Arabia, the Main Zagros, High-Zagros, Nayband, and someother major faults appear to have acted as facies dividers separating the mainHormoz evaporitic

Great Caucasian miogeosyncline). 10. Intrusive rocks. 11. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 12. Subduction zone,with triangles on the upperplate. 13. Reverse faults, withbars on the upperplate. 14. Present continental shorelines. Principal sourcesof data: Reconstruction (Mercartor Conformal Projection)is modified fromSmithand Briden(1977). tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are basedon our Fig. 15. Dataoutside Iran come fromGrossheim and Khain (1968),Ricou (1974),andBij u-Duval et al. (1977)for the westernmost part, andPowell (1979) for the northIndianpart.

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~10,---11, ----12, " ........

13,

~14

Re. 8. Reconstruction of Iran during Oligocene-Miocene times (30-20 Ma), showinggradual thickening of the crust, and decrease of the area of the intermontanebasins in Central and northern Iran. TheCentral Iranian volcanic activity diminishes. Active flysch-molasse basins occur in the southeast, and gradual narrowingcontinues in the sedimentarybasin of Zagrosin the south (cf. Fig. 16 for the detailed tectono-sedimentary data for the sameperiod). 1. Oceaniccrust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation.3. Sandylimestone, sandstone, and shale in Arabia, and platform basins in the Turanplate. 4. Oligocene-Miocene marinecarbonates. 5. Red silty marls with subordinate silty limestone and sandstone in Zagros. 6. Marineflysch-molassesedimentsin the Makran basin. 7. Intrusive rocks. 8. Volcanic rocks. 9. Approximate boundarybetweendifferent sedimentary facies. 10. Spreading centres. ! 1. Subduction zone, with triangles on the upper plate. 12. Reversefaults, with bars on the upper plate. 13. Present continental shorelines. 14. Caspian facies sediments and epigeosyncline orogenic regions in the north. Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercator ConformalProjection) is modified from Smith and Briden (1977). tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are based on our Fig. 16. Data outside Iran comefrom Grossheim and Khain(1968) and Biju-Duvalet al. (1977) for the westernmostpart, and Powell(1979) for the Indian part.

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NEOGENE

----10 , ------ 11, ""-"12 ," ........ 13

FIG. 9. Reconstruction of Iran during Middle-Late Neogenetime (about 10-4 Ma). Shortening and thickening of the continental crust has narrowed the intermontanecontinental basins. Mostof Iran wasabove sea level and the mountainsystems were extensive features. Thegradual uplift of the Zagrosbasin from northeast to southwestis noticeable (cf. Fig. 17 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentarydata). Subductionof the oceanic crust of the Arabianplate beneath the Makran coast was presumably responsible for the calc-alkaline andesitic volcanism in northern Makran. Seaward accretion and landward underthrusting of flysch deposits possibly elevated the Makran range of southeast Iran. 1. Oceaniccrust area. 2. Continentalareas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation.3. Terrestrial red clastic rocks in Zagros (AghaJari Formation), and gypsiferous saliferous red continental deposits in Central and northern Iran. 4. Marinemolasse coastal Makran,southeastern Iran. 5. Marinesediments of Caspian, northern Iran. 6. Intrusive rocks. 7. Volcanic rocks. 8. Approximateboundarybetweendifferent sedimentary facies, or mountain-basinboundary. 9. Spreading centre in the Red Sea. 10. Subduction zone, with triangles on the upper plate in Makran,southeastern Iran. 11. Reversefaults, with bars on the upper plate. 12. Rifting in the Afar region. 13. Present continental shorelines. Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercator Conformal Projection) is modified from Smith and Briden (1977). tectono-sedimentarydata within the boundariesof Iran are based on our Fig. 17. Data outside Iran comefrom Biju-Duvalet al. (1977) for the westernmost part.

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F~o.10. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Late Precambrian - Cambrian times (around 600-530 Ma), after the late Precambdan orogenic movements. Regional fragmentation and rifting of the region were followed by alkali acid volcanism and transgression of shelf sedimentation. The Upper Precambrian- LowerCambriansalt deposit and shelf detritus are the most persistent rock units in the area. Their distribution and broadcontinuity fromArabiato northern Iran indicate a coherentplatform. The fundamentalunity and platform continuity continued to Permiantime (cf. Fig. 3 for reconstruction). 1. Known outcrops of the Precambrian basementmetamorphicrocks, where the Upper Precambrian- Cambriansediments are missing. 2. Upper Precambrian HormozSalt basins. The knownfacies divider faults apparently controlling the Hormoz sedimentary basins are indicated. Theboundary of the Hormoz Salt deposits is identified mostlyfrom its manifestationsat surface and presumablyis not the real basin boundary. The salt laterally changes into dolomite. 3. Upper Precambrian- Cambrian detritus and carbonates (Soltanieh, Lalun, and Zaigun Formations). 4. Known outcrops of the Upper Precambdan- Cambrian sediments in the areas covered by the Late Precambrian Hormoz Salt. The Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian sediments seem to wedge out towards the Caspian Sea region. No sediments of this age are found in the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts (Khoi in the northwest, Doruneh-Joghatai in the northeast, Nain-Baft in Central Iran, Zabol-Baluchin eastern and Makran in southeastern Iran). 5. UpperPrecambrianalkali rhyolite, rhyolitic tuff, and quartz porphyry, with some alkali basic lava flows (Gharadash-Rizu Formation)indicate the onset of rifting phase. Similar volcanics are also foundfrom the emergentsalt domes of the Zagros fold belt. 6. UpperPrecambdan intrusions cutting Precambrian schists and overlain by UpperPrecambrian- LowerCambrian sediments. Granite, tonalite, gabbro, and diabase, together with Precambrian

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basin and the coeval dolomite(Soltanieh) in Central Iran and the Alborz. Thus, these tectonic lines appear to have been in existence at least since late Precambriantime (Fig. 10). The trend of the Main Zagros and HighZagrosfaults is parallel to the northwest-southeast leftlateral Najd wrench fault system (Brown1972; Moore 1979), and like them might have developed during the Najd orogeny (about 560 or 540 Ma). During Asir (1050 Ma), Hijaz or Pan African (Aqiq (960 Ma), Ranyah (800 Ma), Yafikh (650-600 and Bishah (550 Ma)orogenies, the rocks of the Arabian shield were folded and faulted about north-south axes. These north-south trends were later cross-cut by the Najd northwest-southeast left-lateral wrenchfault system (540-510 Maaccording to Greenwood et al. 1976, or 560 Maaccording to Schmidt et al. 1978), which affected large parts of the eastern and northern Arabian Shield. Displacements of more than 100 kmtook place in the northwestern part of the fault zone(Schmidt et al. 1973; Greenwood etal. 1976). The northwest-southeast Najd fault system along the northeastern Arabian shelf was responsible for rifting and subsidence of the Arabian-Iranian block during the Late Precambrian, Permian, and Late Triassic - Jurassic extensional periods. The northeastern sets of these faults presumably behaved as multi-role faults at various times: as wrench faults (during the Najd orogeny), normal faults (Late Precambrian, Permian, Late Triassic - Jurassic, Cretaceous), and thrust faults (Late Cretaceous,Plio-Pleistocene, and Recent; Berberian 1979). I1.2 PALEOZOIC (570--230 MA) ll.2a---GondwanianIran (Zagros, Central lran (including Lut), and Alborz) Following the Late Precambrian (Katangan) orogeny and the consolidation of the basement, the Precambrian craton oflran, Pakistan, central Afghanistan, southeastern Turkey, and Arabia becamea relatively stable continental platform with epicontinental shelf deposits (mainly clastics) and lack of major magmatism or folding. This regimepresumablylasted until late Paleozoic time, although there was someepeirogenic movements in the Late Silurian - Early Devoniantime (Table 1; Section 11.2.1). The Upper Precambrian HormozSalt and its nonevaporitic equivalents (Soltanieh Stromatolite Dolomite in Iran (Stocldin et al. 1964), and Jubaylah Group in Arabia (Brown and Jackson 1979)) are found from

Arabia (Huqf Group; Murris 1978) to the Alborz mountains in the north (Fig. 10; Table 1) and to Central Afghanistan (Lower Bedak Dolomite (Lapparent 1977; Termier and Termier 1977)), and Pakistan (Penjab Saline Series or Salt RangeFormation)in the east. This and the Lower Cambrian shallow sea deposits of the Zaigun-Lalunred arkosic sandstone - shale Formation in Zagros(Setudehnia 1975), Central Iran (Huckriedeet al. 1962), and Alborz(Assereto 1963) and its (possibly time transgressive) equivalents (Table 1), the Saq Sandstone in Arabia (Steineke et al. 1958; Powerset al. 1966; Powers 1968), Quwiera Sandstone in Jordan (Quennell 1951; Daniel 1963), Sadan, Kaplander, Cardak Yalu-Calaktepe in southeastern Turkey (Ketin 1966; Ala and Moss 1979), Tor Petaw Sandstone in Zargaran, central Afghanistan (Lapparent 1977), and the Purple Sandstone and Shale in the Salt Range of Pakistan (Cotter and Khan1956), suggest that at least fromlate Precambrian to late Paleozoictimes, Iran wasa part of Gondwanaland and possibly an extension of the Afro-Arabian continental platform (Stocklin 1968a,b, 1973, 1974, 1977; Nabavi 1976; Berberian 1976a; Kashfi 1976;see also Figs. 3 and 10). Theclastic deposits were mainly provided by the Precambrian uplifted granitic and metamorphic highlands in Arabia, Iran, and other nearbycontinental areas. In late Early Cambriantime, widespread dolomite, marl, and shale with salt pseudomorphs were deposited in a shallow, shelf-sea (Member 1 of the Mila Formation) in the Alborz mountains (Stocklin et al. 1964; Kushan1973, 1978), in Central Iran (Ruttner et al. 1968), in the Zagros mountains (Harrison 1930; King 1937; Setudehnia 1975), in the Salt Rangeof Pakistan (Schindewolfand Seilacher 1955), and in the Himalayas (Reed 1910). The disappearance of the salt pseudomorphs in Middle Cambrian time indicates a steady subsidence of the Cambriansedimentary basin. By the beginning of the Late CambrianEpoch, a fully marine environmentwith the deposition of fossiliferous limestones prevailed (Members 2 to 4 of the Mila Formation, Middle to Upper Cambrian). During Early Ordovician time (Member 5 of the Mila Formation) the sediments changedfrom marinecarbonates to quartzitic sandstone, suggesting the regression of the sea (Table 1). The Cambrianof Iran, Pakistan, and north India is marked by fossils of the WesternPacific (Redlichian) province (Kobayashi1972). Trilobite fauna indicate that during the Middle and Late Cambrian Epochs marine commu-

metamorphosed basement rocks, havebeenfoundas erratic rock fragmentsbroughtup by the Hormoz salt domes in the Zagros belt. Themagmatic activity in the eastern part of CentralIran alongthe Chapedony andPosht-e-Badam faults seems to be related to the Precarnbrian island arc cratonization of Iranianbasement. 7. Geosynclinal areas in the north. Principal sourcesof data: Stocklin(1968b);Kellerand Predtechensky (1968);Kent(1970);Brown (1972);Setudehnia Berberian (1976a,b);Huber (1978);Berberian and Berberian (1980);Berberian (198I); and all availabledata fromthe cal and MineralSurvey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal ConicProjection.

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nication existed betweenthe Eastern Asiatic (Chinese) region and Iran (Kushan 1973, 1978; Wolfart 1967; Kobayashi 1972). The Iranian Upper Precambrian Cambriansedimentary rocks, which are widespread and dominantin south, central, and north Iran, apparently pinch out northwardin the northern Alborz mountains. During early Ordovician time, Arabia (Tabuk Formation (Powers 1968)), the Zagros (Zard Kuh Formation (Setudehni 1975; Harrison 1930)), and parts of Central Iran and Alborz (Lashkarak Formation (Gansser and Huber 1962)), were covered by marine graptolitebearing shale deposits (Table 1). Parts of east Iran were covered by the marine carbonates, marls, and shales of the Shirgest Formation (Lower to Middle Ordovician; Ruttner et al. 1968). The rock sequence deposited during the PaleozoicEra in Iran (Table 1) has all of the characteristics of a true platform cover (predominance of pre-Permianterrigenous clastic deposits and Permian carbonates). They are epicontinental deposits and contain important sedimentary gaps and thickness and facies changes indicating repeated epeirogenic movementsor possibly eustatic sea-level changes. The Paleozoic platform deposits of Central Iran, which generally lack major magmatismand metamorphism, were presumably separated by some rift-like narrow mobile belts (Haghipour and Sabzehei 1975). These mobilebelts, like the Sanandaj-Sirjan (intracontinental) rifted basin (Fig. 1), were presumablydeveloped between platform blocks by fragmentation of the platform along the majorold active faults and are characterized by extensive alkaline continental volcanic activity and increased subsidence at the end of the Paleozoic Era (Figs. 11 and 12). H.2a.l--Paleozoic volcanic activity Following the Late Precambrian alkali acid volcanism (discussed in Section II. 1; see also Fig. 10), some basic to intermediate volcanic rocks appeared in Central Iran during the Paleozoic Era. Three Paleozoic extensional phases are identified within the continental crust of Iran, whichare indicated by tensional faulting, sedimentation, and volcanism (Table 1). There is evidence for subduction to explain these volcanics. Extension and uplift appear to follow each other sequentially. Folding or other types of compressionaldeformation do not occur except in the Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) phase. H.2a.l.l--Late Precambrianto Middle Silurian extensionalphase--The first Early Paleozoic volcanic activity accompanied normalfaulting and stretching of the continental crust. The start of this phase is markedby Late Precambrian alkali acid volcanism, with some basic volcanism (Section II. 1; and Fig. 10), and later diabase in the Soltanieh DolomiteFormation(see Table 1) in the north Tabas area (Ruttner et al. 1968). An

ignimbritic sequence about 400 m thick (Mohamadabad ignimbrite) overlies the late Precambrian Gorgan schists, and is underlain by the CambrianLalun sandstone in the Gorganarea of the northern Alborz, southeast of the Caspian Sea (Jenny 1977). The Cambrian basic volcanics occur near the base of the ZaigunFormation in the Taleqan area and in the Vatan Formationof the Djamarea (Annells et al. 1975; Alavi-Naini 1972); diabases occur in the Lalun-ZaigunFormation in north Tabas and Avaj (Ruttner et al. 1968; Bolourchi 1977), and basic volcanics (olivine basalt, olivine-augitehornblendedolerite) in the KalshanehFormation of the Tabas region (Ruttner et al. 1968). Ordovician dacite and andesite volcanics appear in the Makuregion of northwestern Iran (Berberian 1976c, 1977b; Berberian and Hamdi 1977). About200 mof thick basic (spilitic) volcanics appears in the OrdovicianGhelli Formationin the Ghelli region, northeastern Iran (Afshar-Harb 1979). Somebasic volcanics are also observed below the Ordovicianlimestone of the Tatavrud area of Talesh mountain, southwest Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). Ordovician olivine basalt, quartz keratophyre, trachyandesite, and olivine andesite are reported from the northern Tabas region of Central Iran (Ruttner et al. 1968). The Soltan Maidanbasalts (250700 m thick) are developed above the Ordovician and below the Devonianbeds in the Gorganarea of northern Alborz mountains, and are probably Silurian in age (Jenny 1977). Silurian spilitic to basaltic (with some andesitic) lavas and tuffs occur beneath the red Orthoceras limestone in the Kolur area, southwestCaspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). There are also Silurian volcanics of the Niur Formation (olivine basalt at the base of the formation in the northern part of the Shotori area (Ruttner et al. 1968), basic volcanics at Ghelli and Robat-e-Gharabil area, northeastern Iran (Afshar-Harb 1979),dolerite and basalt at the base of the formation in the Soh area (Zahedi 1973), trachyandesite in the Torud area (Hushmandzadeh et al. 1978), and trachyandesite at the top of the formation in the Djam area (Alavi-Naini 1972)). Ordovicianvolcanics (Chalki) have been reported in one section from the western Zagros in northern Iraq. The Chalki volcanics occur within and towards the top of the Pirispiki red beds (Bellen et al. 1959). Unlike the Upper Precambrian thick alkali volcanics in Central Iran and the Upper Paleozoic volcanics along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, the Iranian Paleozoic volcanic rocks form a few thin layers interbedded with sediments (Table 1). ll.2a. 1.2--Early Devonianand Carboniferous extensional phase--Theknown volcanic activity of this phase is represented by the Lower Devonian basic volcanics in the Qazvin area (Annels et al. 1975), and the 150m thick Upper Devonian basalts in MemberA of the

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Geirud Formation in the Alborz mountains (Assereto 1963; Sieber 1970), in the KhoshyeilaghFormation of the Jajarm area, northeast Iran (Bozorgnia1973), in the Talesh mountains (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975), and in the Anarakregion in Central Iran (Reyre and Mohafez1972). Post-Silurian pre-Carboniferous basic volcanics under a cover of Permo-Carboniferous limestone, together with a LowerCarboniferous andesite, are reported from the Talesh mountains,southwest of the Caspian Sea (Clark et al. 1975; Table 1). The Devonian-Carboniferous basalts along the SanandajSirjan belt (Berberian and Nogol1974; Berthier et al. 1974; Berberian 1977a; Alric and Virlogeux 1977) suggest rifting during this phase. Subsequent closure of the rift seemsto be responsible for the late Paleozoic(Hercynian) low-grade metamorphismalong the belt (see Section II.2.2b; and Fig. 11). lI.2a.l.3--Permian-Triassic extensional phase--This is an importantrifting phase whichapparently marksthe onset of the opening of the High-Zagros Alpine and the narrowCentral Iranian ocean belts (see Section 11.2.2, and Figs. 4 and 11). Noprevious extensional phase left any evidence of having produced oceanic crust. This phase is mainly developed along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt with basic (basalt, diabase, and someintermediate) volcanic activity (Thiele et al. 1968;Dimitrijevic 1973; Berberian and Nogol1974; Berthier et al. 1974; Berberian 1977a; Alric and Virlogeux 1977; Table 1). Some Permianandesitic volcanics are reported from the Talesh mountains of the southwest Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). LowerPermianbasic volcanics also occurred in the Dorudand RutehFormations of the Qazvinarea (Annells et al. 1975). There is only one exampleof basaltic flow of Permian age reported from the High-Zagrosbelt, west of Dehbid (Hushmandzadeh 1977). H.2a.2--Paleozoic paleomagnetic data The geological observations indicating a coherent Iranian-Gondwanaland continental landmass during the late Precambrian to Permiantime interval are consistent with the paleomagneticresults. Paleomagneticevidence from the UpperPrecambrianrocks and iron ores of the Central Iranian Bafq area (Becketet al. 1973), from the Lower Paleozoic rocks of Kuh-e-Gahkom and Surmeh of the Zagros belt (Burek and Furst 1975), from the CambrianPurple Sandstone of the Salt Rangeof Pakistan (McElhinny 1970), from the upper Devonian lower Carboniferous Geirud Formation of the Alborz mountainin north Iran (Wensinket al. 1978), and from the UpperPrecambrian, Ordovician, and Permian rocks of Central Iran (Soffel et al. 1975; Sorrel and Forster 1977) showsimilar virtual geomagnetic poles with those of Afro-Arabia. This and the widespread similarity of Paleozoic sedimentation (Table 1) indicate that during

the late Precambrianand Paleozoic, Central Iran, the Alborz in northern Iran, the Salt Rangesof Pakistan in the east, the Zagrosin south Iran, and much of southeastern Turkey, were parts of Gondwanaland (Fig. 3). However, they do not eliminate the possibility of large latitudinal differences. H.2b--Asiatic northern Iran (Kopeh Daghbelt) during the Paleozoic Era There is a major difference betweenthe Paleozoic early Mesozoic history of Iran in the south and that of the Kopeh Dagh and Great Caucasus - Transcaucasian median massin the north. In contrast to the Iranian Paleozoic stable platform-type shelf sedimentation (absence of granitic intrusion or widespread volcanic activity and unconformities), an eugeosynclinal regime with widespread subsidence, uplift, granitization, volcanism,regional metamorphism, and folding existed in the Caucasus and KopehDagh during Paleozoic time (Keller and Predtechensky 1968; Nalvkin and Posner 1968; Adamia 1968, 1975; Belov 1972; Khain 1975; Adamia et al. 1977). The geosynclinal regime in the Great Caucasusbegan in early Cambriantime. This Paleozoic geosynclinal basin encompassed the areas of the Front Range, the Main Range, and the South Slope of the Great Caucasus. In the north, it was bordered by the Cherkassy-Kislovodsk uplift and in the south by the Transcaucasian median mass (Belov 1972). Adamiaet al. (1977) assumed that the axial part of the Tethys Paleozoic and Mesozoic times ran across the SevanAkeraophiolite belt of the Little Caucasus,northwestof Iran (Fig. 1). ll.2.1--Early Paleozoic (Caledonian) movements(450390 Ma) During the Ordovician - early Devoniantime interval, the Caledonianorogenyaffected the North Atlantic region. The Caledonianfold belt in northwestern Europe originated with the closure of the Caledonian(Iapatus) Ocean. The Iapatus Ocean, which separated Laurentia (North America)and Baltica (northern Europe), closed along the Acadian-Caledonian eugeosynclinal belt of northern Europe and eastern North America (Dewey 1969; Bird and Dewey 1970; Ziegler et al. 1979). North America,Greenland, and the Russian platform were united into a single continental mass, Laurasia. Farther east, Hamilton(1970) suggested that the Russian plate and an island arc collided in early Devonian time. Iran being far from this collision zone suffered only epeirogenic movements characterized by regional regression of the Silurian sea (Table 1) and regional disconformity and some local unconformities (in the north) at the base of the Middle-Upper Devonianrocks (Stocklin 1968a; Nabavi1975, 1976; Berberian 1976a). The large Silurian--Carboniferous sedimentary gap in the Zagros (following the Ordovician and (or) lower

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FIG. 11. Paleogeographic mapof Iran during the PermianPeriod (around 260 Ma). Duringthe Paleozoic Era a broad continuity of shelf sedimentary facies existed from Arabia to northern Iran. The extensive alkaline basalt-diabase volcanic activity, thickness, and facies changes, together with flysch-type sediments along the Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt (SS) presumably indicate the fragmentationof the continental crust by rifting. Thefundamental unity and platform continuity within Arabo-Iraniancrust ends during this rifting phase and the High-Zagros Alpine Oceanopenedalong the southwesternedge of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (see Fig.4 for paleoreconstruction). No Permiandeposits are found along the High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt in Kermanshah (k) and Neyriz (n) areas of the High-Zagros (HZ), or in the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61angebelts (Sevan-Akera (SV), Vedi (V), and Khoi, in the northwest, Doruneh-Joghatai in the northeast, Nain-Baft in Central and southern Iran, Zabol-Baluchand Makran in eastern and southeastern Iran). 1. Known mountainsformedduring Late Precambriantime and the Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) orogenic movements identified as areas of erosion and non-marinesedimentation. 2. Transgressive Permianbasal sandstone unit (DorudFormationin Central and northern Iran; Faraghan Formation in Zagros), together with the main marine carbonates (Ruteh and Nessen Limestone Formations in Central and northwestern Iran; Gnishik and Khachik Beds in northwestern Iran: Jamal LimestoneFormation in eastern Iran; and DalanFormation in Zagros; a: organic carbonatereefoidal shelf facies mostlyin High-Zagros (HZ), b: restricted carbonate shelf in Zagros). 3. Near-shore carbonates with clastics in High-Zagros (HZ). 4. Nar Member of the Dalan Formation in .Zagros,with morethan 75 mof evaporites (anhydrite and anhydritic dolomite with oolitic dolomites). 5. Volcano-sedimentary umt with continental alkaline basaltic flows, diabases, and flysch-type sediments deposited along the Sanandaj-Sirjan

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Silurian deposits) is apparentlythe effect of epeirogenic movement, which led to a regional regression and general emergence of the region by Silurian time. Deposition of thick continental red sandstone and gypsum (Padeha Formation; Ruttner et al. 1968) during Late Silurian - Early Devonian time in Central Iran (Table 1) indicates emergenceof the Central Iranian platform. Subsequentsubmergence is markedby deposition of the Middle Devonian carbonates in Central Iran (Sibzar Dolomiteand Bahrain Limestone; Ruttner et al. 1968) and by the UpperDevoniandetritus and carbonates in the Alborz mountains (Geirud Formation; Assereto 1963, 1966). A Late Silurian unconformityis reported between the Silurian and Carboniferous rocks from the Talesh mountains, southwestof the Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972;Clark et al. 1975;see Table1). A slightly metamorphosed shale, sandstone, and volcanic sequence containing Ordovician fauna (Berberian 1976a, 1977a; Berberian and Hamdi 1977) has been discovered in the metamorphiccomplex of the north Maku region of northwestern Iran (previously mapped as Precambrian by Alavi-Naini and Bolourchi 1973). They are covered by Lower-Middle Devonian rocks (Muli Formation), and apparently indicate the effect the Caledonian or Bretonian movements(435-390 Ma) in northwesternIran. Further research is neededto confirm this possibility. Movement at this time is known to have caused a greater consolidation of the Araxianzone of the Little Caucasus(north of Maku;Fig. 1) and the Great Caucasus (Adamia 1968). The LowerDevonianbasic volcanic activity (Section II.2a.1.2) indicates the end of the lata Silurian movements, and initiation of the secondextensional phase.

Gorodnitskiy 1977; Kanasewich et al. 1978; Zeigler et al. 1979). Geological evidence (Hamilton 1970) paleomagnetic evidence (Briden et al. 1974) suggest that the Siberian landmass existed as a separate continental unit for much of early Paleozoictime, and that a major ocean basin was consumed on the site of the Urals prior to its final disappearance during the PermoTriassic interval. Unlike Appalachian/Hercynian/Uralian orogenic belts, the late Paleozoic movements in Iran (except in the KopehDagh, northeastern Iran) generally had the character of the epeirogenic movements(Stocklin 1968a, 1974, 1977; Berberian 1976a). However,Thiele et al. (1968) and Berberian (1977a) introduced evidence of a possible Hercynian metamorphism in the SanandajSirjan belt of southwest Central Iran (Fig. 11). The Middle to Upper Paleozoic volcanogenic sediments in the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt characterize a narrow belt of crustal extension, rifting, and spreading of continental plate along the MainZagrosfault before the late Paleozoic (Hercynian) movements (Table 1; Figs. 4 and 11).

H.2.2a--Kopeh Dagh - South Caspian - Caucasus Hercynianbelt of Asia Hercynian orogenic movement is knownin the Turan region of Russia (northeastern Iran), Paropamisus,west HinduKush, north Pamirs, and Tien Shan. There is only one late Paleozoic metamorphic outcrop at Aghdarband in the KopehDaghfold belt of northern Iran. This is separated from Central and northern Iran (eastern Alborz) by a line of UpperPaleozoic ultrabasic rocks near Mashhad(Majidi 1978), northeastern Iran (Fig. 11). Thesehave been explained as oceanic crust (Stocklin 1974, 1977), or basic volcanism associated with narrow intracratonic rifting (Majidi 1978). The Upper H.2.2wLate Paleozoic movements (327-275 Ma) Gondwanaland rotated clockwise and collided with Paleozoicophiolite belt, whichis at the northernfoot of Laurasia in Late Carboniferous time. The rotation of the Alborz mountains between the Arabo-Iranian block Daghin the north, is exposed these two continents widenedthe TethyanOceanin the in the south and the Kopeh northeastern Iran (Majidi 1978) and Talesh east, and the collision resulted in the formation of the in Mashhad, Ouachita, Appalachian (in North America), Mauritan- mountains, southwest Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; ide, Hercynian (in Europe and Northwest Africa), and Stocklin 1974, 1977; Clark et al. 1975; Fig. 11). BasicUralian (between the Baltic and the Angara craton) to-ultrabasic plutonic bodies (gabbroand peridotite) and orogenies and fold belts. The late Paleozoic (Hercynian) LowerCarboniferous and Permian andesitic volcanics fold belts of Central Asia developedat the site of the havealso beenfoundin the latter zone. This and the late Paleo-Asianocean in a collision of the Siberian, East Paleozoic metamorphicrocks could be evidence of the European, and Chinese continents (Zonenshayn and closure of the Hercynian Ocean(Crawford 1972; Stockintracontinentalrift belt (SS)of southand southwestern margin of CentralIran. Some scattered volcanicactivity is reported southwest of the Caspian Sea. 6. Outcrops of the supposed LatePaleozoic(Hercynian) ophiolites in Mashhad, northeasternIran and Talesh, southwest of the Caspian Sea, presumably indicating a southernKopeh Dagh - south Caspian Hercynian collision. 7. LatePaleozoicgranite in northeasternIran. 8. Supposedly Late Paleozoic(Hercynian) metamorphic rocks. 9. Late Permian and early Triassic miogeosyncline. 10. Late Permian and early Triassic epigeosyncline orogenicbelt. Principal sources of data: Adamia (1968, 1975); Nalvkinand Posner(1968); Berberian(1976a,b); Huber(1978); andKheradpir (1978); Setudehnia (1978); Saint-Marc (1978);Berberian and Berberian (1980); andall available data Geological and MineralSurveyof l.ran to 1980. Lambert Conformal ConicProjection.

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lin 1974, 1977; Stoneley 1974, 1975, and 1976) in provided flyschoid sandy argillaceous and coarse-clastic northeastern Iran (Figs. 4 and 5). Accordingto Majidi materials for the Southern Slope geosyncline of the (1978) the Devonian--Carboniferous sediments of the Major Caucasus (Adamia 1968, 1975). The ViseanMashhad area (northeastern Iran) underwenttwo phases Namurianphase was also responsible for the formation of metamorphism and deformation (east-west b-lineation of the Araxian median mass (Fig. 1), which became and thrusting). The first phase causedtransformation of area of erosion during Viseanto late Carboniferoustime sedimentsinto slates, whereasthe secondphase, mainly (Adamia 1968). The widespread and regional Permian transgression of thermal character, has yielded minerals such as almandine,staurolite, and feldspar. In the samephase, laid downred clastics, conglomerateswith Carboniferultrabasic rocks were transformed into serpentinites, ous granitic boulders, volcanics, and molasse facies basic rocks into amphibolites, and a granitic magma rocks in Turan and KopehDagh during the Permian and Triassic Periods (Volvoskyet al. 1966; Stocklin 1974; (granodiorite-tonalite of Mashhad)was formed. At present the different crystalline basement (Precam- Fig. 12). During the Triassic a thick mass of over 1500 brian in the Arabo-lranian block on the south and Her- mof black dislocated argillites with volcanic lenses cynian in Asia on the north) together with the Upper containing Carnian (early UpperTriassic) Habobiawere Paleozoic ultrabasic rocks along the Masshad- South deposited in the southern part of the TuranPlate (BezCaspian - Talesh line, may represent the line of collision nosov et al. 1978). The Triassic of the KopehDaghin (Figs. 4, 5, and 11). The Hindu Kush - Tien Shan the Aghdarband area is composed of a thick sequence of northern Pamir Paleozoic ophiolites, deep-sea sedi- green tuffaceous limestone, conglomerate, red sandments, and Hercynian metamorphism and magmatism stone, shale, and tuff. According to Seyed-Emami (Burtman1975; Stocklin 1977; Boulin and Bouyx1977) (1971) the sediments below the Anisian (early Middle could be the eastern continuation of the Iranian Hercyn- Triassic) nodular limestone are cut by a great number of ian ophiolite belt, indicating the Eurasian-Iraniancolli- dykes, whichdo not enter the Anisian nodular limestone sion zone. However, paleomagnetic evidence from itself. The fossiliferous shales above the Aghdarband UpperDevoniansedimentary ironstones of the Chitral coal seams (Oberhauser 1960; Seyed Emami1971) are area of eastern Hindukush, Pakistan (about 120 km of Late Ladinian - Carnian age (late Middle to Late southeast of the supposed Hercynian collision zone) Triassic), comparableto the lower part of the Nayband indicates that the area wasalready attached to Asia in the Formationof Central Iran (Stocklin 1972) and the Ashin Formation (Davoudzadeh and Seyed-Emami 1972) Devonian Period (Klootwijk and Conaghan 1979). Mgre information, from paleomagnetic, geochronolog- the Nakhlakareas of Central Iran. The late Paleozoic ical, petrochemical,and geologic studies, is neededfor collision zone and the units to the north (KopehDagh the Iranian Hercynian collision zone before the situation Turan) and south (Central Iran, Lut, Alborz) were later can be fully assessed. covered by Liassic coal-bearing continental clastic deThe metamorphic rocks of the Talesh mountains posits (Shemshak or Kashafrud Formation) (Afshar(southwest Caspian Sea) are assumedto be of Devonian Harb1969, 1979; Madani1977). This indicates a united age (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). Gneiss and Iranian-Turanian landmassin late Triassic-early Jurasphyllite samples from Qaleh Rudkhaneh of Talesh give sic time (200-170Ma) and the end of the late Paleozoic radiometric ages of 382 - 47 and 375 --- 12 Ma(Craw- collision processes in the north (Figs. 5 and 13). ford 1977). This presumably indicates the onset time of the late Paleozoic (Hercynian) movements in the northH.2.2b---Central Iran during Late Paleozoic time ern part of the country, and the Talesh metamorphic Upper Carboniferous sediments have not yet been rocks could be the western continuation of the Mashhad found in Iran (except the Sardar Formation(Table 1) (northeastern Iran) metamorphic rocks. A possible post- the Tabasarea of east Central Iran; Stocklin et al. 1965). Devonian pre-Permian syenite is reported from Mero Possible late Paleozoic (Hercynian) movements in Cenmountain(northwest of Tabriz) and from the Julfa area tral Ixan are demonstrated by isotopic distttrbances. The northwest of Central Iran (J. Eftekharnezhad, M. 315 -+ 5 Ma(Late Carboniferous) age from a single Qorashi, and S. Arshadi, personal communication, biotite analysis of the SaghandPrecambrian metamor1979). phic rocks (Crawford 1977) perhaps indicates the late The northern part of the Great Caucasus(the Hercyn- Paleozoic movement. Froma total-rock and biotite anian Border Zone) was consolidated and folded during alysis of a Precambrian metamorphicrock of the SagLower Carboniferous movements (Visean-Namurian, hand area, Crawford(1977) reported an age of 240 -+ 330 Ma). In this zone the LowerJurassic sediments are Ma(Middleto Late Permian). This does not fit with any transgressive on the Hercynian crystalline basement. orogenic movement in Central Iran. This zone and the Transcaucasian-Bretonian median The discovery of the lower Paleozoic Trepostomata mass were areas of erosion during Visean, Namurian, Bryozoan, Devonian pollen and spores, DevonianHexand early Middle Carboniferous time (Fig. 11) and agonaria, somecrinoid stem fragments and Blerophon-

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OFOMAN o 6o

FIG. 12. Paleogeographicmapof Iran during Early Triassic time, prior to the MiddleTriassic orogenic movements (around 230-220 Ma). 1. Known mountainousregions formed during the Late Precambrian and Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) compressional phases. 2. Triassic clastics and flysch-type deposits (mainlytuffaceous-carbonaceous marine, littoral fine clastics, shale, and sandstones with basal conglomerate,and subordinate stromatolitic limestone), deposited mainlynorth of the South Kopeh Daghfault system in northeastern Iran, along the southern margin of the Turan plate. 3. Calcareous and tuffaceous sandstone-shale (Alam Formation, lower member of the NakhlakGroup)in the central part of Central Iran (east of the Nain ophiolite-m61ange belt). 4. Shotori dolomite-limestoneFormation,mostly in the eastern part of Central Iran. 5. Elikah limestone-dolomiteFormation, mainlyin Alborzand Central Iran. 6. Carbonateswith shales and volcanics (mainly basalts with diabases) in the Sanandaj-Sirjan rift belt (SS). 7. Shelf carbonates of the KhanehKat Formation (shallow water dolomite and limestone) in Zagros High-Zagros belt (HZ). a: erosional limits of the DashtakFormation.8. DashtakFormation,mainlyrestricted marineto intertidal sabkhafacies of carbonates and evaporites in Zagros(b: erosional limits of evaporite "D"member of the formation, c: erosional limit of the Sefidar Dolomite member of the formation). 9. Possible Triassic quartzite in the southern Taleshregion, southwestof the CaspianSea. 10. Triassic volcanics (mainlybasaltic and diabasic) along the Sanandaj-Sirjanrift belt, northeast of the Main Zagrosreverse fault. Principal sources of data: Adamia(1968, 1975); Berberian (1976a,b); Adamiaet al. (1977); Huber (1978); Szabo Kheradpir (1978); and all available data from the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. LambertConformalConic Projection.

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tid gastropods in the Middle Complex metamorphic Salt Range (Shahpur System) of Pakistan. Paleomagrocks of greenschist facies in the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt of netic results from the early PermianSpeckledSandstone southwest Central Iran (with the present-day east-west of the Salt Range(Pakistan) agree well with the paleob-lineation) provides a little moreevidenceof late Pal- magnetic pole position derived from Indian rocks of eozoic movement (Berberian 1977a; Fig. 11). The data about the same age, and give no reason to postulate between the Salt Range and Indian are not conclusive and further work is needed. The relative movements absenceof ophiolites maysuggest that a significant Her- basement since Carboniferous time (Wensink1975). cynian Ocean never existed in this region. It is possible H.2.2c--Zagros basin during Late Paleozoic time that the observed metamorphic features are associated Most of the Zagros basin, which emerged during with the compressional closure of rifts openedin the (around secondextensional phase of the Paleozoic Era (Section Upper Ordovician - LowerSilurian movements 440 Ma), remained above sea level and underwenteroII.2a. 1.2). The LowerPermian intermediate-to-basic lava flows sional activity until the end of the late Paleozoic(Her(Section II.2a. 1.3) indicate the end of the late Paleozoic cynian) movements(Table 1). Following this large compressional phase and the start of the third Paleozoic middle Paleozoic (Silurian-Carboniferous) sedimentary extensional phase. The regional transgression of the gap, the regional shallow marine transgression of PerPermiansea (Figs. 4 and 11) deposited basal sandstone mian sea with basal coastal clastics (Faraghan Formation), overlies with a low-angleunconformity the Ordoand thick limestone (Table 1) in Central Iran (south the northern Hercynian collision line) and in Alborz vician and (or) Silurian rocks (Szabo 1977; Szabo Kheradpir 1978). The unconformity observed in the (Jamal basal sandstone and limestone in Central Iran, indicates the earliest known activity of the Dorud basal sandstone and the Ruteh-Nessen-Jamal High-Zagros limestones in the Alborz (Stocklin 1972), Speckled High-Zagrosbelt along its northern (Main Zagros) and Sandstone and Products Limestone Series of the Shah- the southern (High-Zagros) fault systems (Fig. 11). pur Systemin the Salt Rangeof Pakistan (Pascoe 1959), Szabo and Kheradpir (1978) defined the High-Zagros Wajid Sandstone and Kuff shallow water limestone in an uplifted belt during Early Permiantime, with a major and facies distriArabia and Qatar (Powers 1968; see Table i)). Con- controlling effect on the sedimentation tinental rift volcanism, and calcareous and terrigenous bution. Unlike the Permian basal sandstone of Arabia flysch-type sedimentationwith considerable lateral and (Wajid Sandstone; Powerset al. 1966), no clastics of vertical facies variations along the Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt glacial origin havebeen foundin Zagrosand (or) Central during Permiantime (Thiele et al. 1968; Dimitrijevic Iran. This suggests that the late Paleozoicglaciation of 1973; Berberian and Nogol1974; see Fig. 11 and Table southern Gondwana (Africa, India, and Australia) did 1) mayreflect rifting of the Central Iranian landmass not affect the Iranian continental fragments. Clastic defrom the Zagros-Arabia platform during and (or) after posits, which were mainly provided by the south and the Permian transgression. The passage of the Central central Arabian hinterland and other local highlands, Iranian continental fragment(s) from the south to the increase towards central Arabia (Murris 1978), while north must have taken place prior to the late Paleozoic shelf carbonates were deposited in Zagros. ophiolite emplacement along the northern suture line Isotopic age-dating of the upper Precambrianvolcan(Majidi 1978; Davies et al. 1972; Stocklin 1974, 1977; ics of the Zagrosbrought up by salt plugs confirms that Clark et al. 1975) and deposition of the Rhaetic-Liassic they suffered disturbances around Early Carboniferous coal-bearing Shemshak formation on the Central Iran - time (340 +-- 15 Ma;Crawford1977). This seems to in Zagros. Alborz - KopehDagh (united) continental fragments. the effect of late Paleozoic movements During late Paleozoic time, the east-west central The onset of this passage and therefore opening of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in the south possibly took Arabian and Hadhramutarches bordering the Rob al place during and (or) after the Permiansedimentation, Khali depression in Arabiaand south of the Zagrosbasin but prior to emplacement of the Triassic Sikhoran oph- were formed. The east-west Mardin arch in the Syrian iolite complex (Sabzehei 1974) along the Central Iranian platform was also formedat the same time (Saint-Marc active continental marginand the UpperTriassic pelagic 1978). During the PermianPeriod, the Arabian foreland sedimentation (Ricou 1974) in the south (see Sections gradually subsided and the sea transgressed over much of the area. The PermianWajidSandstone(Powerset al. II.3b and II. 5.2b). Paleomagneticdata from Central Iran (Soffel et al. 1966) with clastics of glacial origin (Helal 1965), 1975; Soffel and Forster 1977) and from the Helmand the Khuff limestone (Steineke et al. 1958) were deposover the older rocks. This marks a block of Afghanistan(Krumsiek 1976) indicate that Iran ited unconformably and parts of Central Afghanistan were part of Gond- significant change in sedimentation over the Arabian wanaland during early Permiantime. It is interesting to foreland from dominantlyPaleozoic clastics to Permian, note that Rivi~re (1934) noticed similarities in the Per- Mesozoic,and Tertiary carbonates (Powers 1968). Folmianfauna of the Alborzin north Iran and those of the lowing the Permiantransgression in Arabia, the early

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OMAb

FIG. 13. Paleogeographicmapoflran during Rhaeto-Liassic time, after the MiddleTriassic orogenic movements (around 195 Ma). See Fig. 5 for paleoreconstruction. 1. Knownmountainous regions formed during the Late Precambrian, Late Paleozoic, and Middle Triassic orogenic movements.The central mass and the main trend of the present mountain belts were already formed. 2. Rhaeto-Liassic continental paralic plant-beating sandstone and shale with coal-seams in Central Iran, Alborz and KopehDagh,indicating a coherent continental massafter the MiddleTriassic orogenic movements, in contrast to the subsiding marinebasin of Zagros in the south. 3. Middleto UpperJurassic marinecarbonates of the Surmeh Formation,with thin shallow-waterLiassic shaly unit at the base (Neyriz Formation) in Zagros subsiding basin. 4. Mainly carbonates and shale in the northwestern segmentof the High-Zagros.5. Mainlyshale and anhydrite with minor carbonates in west Zagros. 6.Upper Triassic - LowerJurassic volcanic activity (mainly andesite with somebasalts) along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (SS), and in northwestern Iran (mainly tuffs andesites with sandstones and carbonates). 7. Jurassic oceanic sediments, mainly radiolarite along the High-Zagros (HZ), Sevan-Vedi in northwesternIran (Little Caucasus). Similar sedimentswere possibly deposited along the Central Iranian RedSea type narrow oceanic belts (blank). 8. Triassic - early Jurassic and someMiddle or Upper Jurassic calc-alkaline granite, granodiorite, diorite, and gabbro intrusions exposed at surface. 9. MiddleTriassic metamorphic rocks. 10. Little Caucasian eugeosyncline. 11. Great Caucasian miogeosyncline. Principal sources of data: Vach6(1968); Vereschagin and Ronov (1968); Stazhilo-Alekseevet al. (1972); Sborshchikov et al. (1972); Shevchenkoand Rezanov(1976); Berberian (1976a and b); Muratov(1977); Saint-Marc (1978); Setudehnia Huber(1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all available data from the Geological and Mineral of Iran to 1980. LambertConformalConic Projection.

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Triassic was a time of regression under arid conditions (Murris 1978). Clastic deposits wereincreased in central and north Arabia, and the carbonate-evaporite platform was restricted in the Persian Gulf area and the Zagros belt. Carbonatesof the High-Zagros (Fig. 12) nowsuggest an open marinecondition along the northern margin of the Arabianplatform. In someregions (i.e., central Arabia and the DeadSea) a slight MiddleTriassic transgression is recorded. Furthermore,in both Iraq and the DeadSea region, numerousbreaks without visible unconformity are known,of which the one at the end of Middle Triassic time seems important (Saint-Marc 1978).
II.3---MIDDLE TRIASSIC MOVEMENTS (210-195MA)

The Mesozoic Era started in Iran without a great change in structural or sedimentary environment. The rifting of the Iranian Paleozoic platform and the sedimentary cycle beginning with Permian transgression (Section II.2.2b) continued and ended in the Middle Triassic (Figs. 4, 11, and 12; Tables 1 and 2). At the stratigraphic boundary of the Middle to early Upper Triassic rocks (post Landian-pre Norian, 210-195Ma) there is evidence of a major compressional phase. Regional uplift, folding, metamorphism,and erosion took place and were followed by the formation of a new sedimentary basin with rapid facies changes. Apparently the Middle Triassic movementsended the late Paleozoic oceanic closure between Iran and Turan in the north and both regions became a united landmass (Fig. 5). H.3a~Central lran during Triassic time A syntectonic regional metamorphism of greenschist facies, indicative of strong compressional deformation, developed along the southern margin of Central Iran (along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt), in the Saghand (Haghipour 1974), and probably Deh Salm (Berberian 1977a)regions of east Central Iran (Fig. 13). The linear metamorphicbelt of the Sanandaj-Sirjan could have resulted from subducting High-Zagros Alpine oceanic crust beneaththe Central Iranian active continental margin. Thearea west of Sirjan (at the southeastern part of the Sanandaj-Sirjanbelt) is characterized by twodistinct metamorphic regimes. In the immediatevicinity of the MainZagros reverse fault line, there is a metamorphic belt of thrust slices containing metamorphosed basic and ultrabasic rocks and widespread Barrovian-type metamorphic assemblages (Watters and Sabzehei 1970). Twomiddle Paleozoic ages (362 + 7 and 404 -+ 8 Ma; K/Arbiotite) were found using biotite-bearing quartzofeldspathic gneisses from the Kor-e-Sefid mountain, west of Sirjan (see Fig. 2 for the location). The ages have been considered minimum values (by a substantial margin), and a Triassic age of metamorphism has been

favoured for the Barrovian-type assemblages (Watters and Sabzehei 1970; Ricou 1974). Petrographic investigations and analysis of mineral paragenesis of the Sanandaj-Sirjan metamorphicrocks led to the conclusion that there were two syntectonic regional metamorphic phases during the middle Triassic movements.The first phase could be older, and more workis neededto date and separate the events. The first phase was Barrovian in type and low grade (lower amphibolite facies), and the secondphase was a retrograde metamorphism(Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; Ricou 1974; Sabzehei 1974; Alric and Virlogeux 1977). The Middle Triassic syntectonic metamorphism was associated with strong isoclinal folding and axial plane schistosity (Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; Berberian 1977a). The metamorphicrocks are covered transgressively by non-metamorphic Jurassic volcano-detritus and flysch-type deposits with basal conglomerate.Compressional movements that closed the Hercynian Ocean in the north nowcreated a subduction zone along the southern margin of Central Iran, with compressional components along the active margin represented by regional metamorphism, folding, thrusting (Fig. 5), and accompanied by acid plutonic and intermediate to basic volcanic activity (Fig. 13). The Sikhoranbasic to ultrabasic complex of probable Triassic age in the southeastern segment of the Central Iranian active continental margin (east of Hajiabad in Fig. 2), represents a sequenceof layered intrusive rocks (dunite, harzburgite, pyroxenite, gabbro) originating from a basaltic magma of tholeiitic composition. They produced a hot metamorphic aureole of pyroxene-hornfels facies and were covered by the Jurassic sediments(Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; Sabzehei 1974). The Triassic Sikhoran ultrabasic complex,the upper Triassic (Carnian-Norian)tuffs, andesitic and basaltic lava flow in the Abadeh area (Taraz 1974), the Jurassic andesitic-basaltic lavas and tuffs with someacid volo canics in Sirjan, Hajiabad, Borujerd, and DehBid area, the late Triassic - Jurassic granitic intrusions all along The Central Iranian active continental margin(Dimitrijevic 1973; Berberian and Nogol1974; Berthier et al. 1974; Sabzehei 1974; Alric and Virlogeux 1977), together with the Jurassic granitic batholith of Shirkuh, and the Upper Jurassic diorites and the Cretaceous granites-diorites of Alvand (Valizadeh and Cantagrel 1975) could all be considered as arc-type magmatism along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Berberian and Berberian 1980; Figs. 5 and 13). The Middle Triassic regional metamorphism in the Saghand area of east Central Iran (Fig. 13) is characterized by one metamorphicphase of a low-grade greenschist facies in Paleozoic-Triassic rocks (with an eastwest b-lineation and maximum temperature estimated to have been about 500C), and retrograde metamorphism

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in high-grade Precambrian metamorphicrocks. A new generation of biotite is formedin the UpperPrecambrian Sefid granite and granodiorite of the Saghand area during this phase (Haghipour 1974; Haghipour et al. 1977). Isotopic disturbances around 240 to 190 Maare observed by Crawford(1977) in the rhyolite samplesfrom the Upper Precambrian Gharadash Formation (in Azarbaijan, northwestIran), in the Precambrian rhyolites of the TaknarFormation(in the Kerman area), in the Upper Precambrian rhyolites of the Rizu Formation (also in the Kermanarea), and in the Precambrian metamorphic rocks of the Saghand area. Thesetogether with disturbances around 203 + 13 Ma observed by Reyre and Mohafez(1972) in the Precambrian metamorphicrocks of the Anarak region are apparently the effect of the Middle Triassic compressional movementin various parts of the country. The slaty and phyllitic structures observed in the upper Paleozoic rocks of the Talesh mountains(Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975) seem to be the result of the same movementsin the area southwest of the Caspian Sea. Following the Middle Triassic (210-195 Ma) compressional phase, Central Iran and the Alborz region underwenttensional movements. The initiation of this extensional phase is characterized by the UpperTriassic continental alkali rift basaltic lava flows and melaphyres preceding the deposition of the Rhaetic-Liassic (200 Ma) coal-bearing continental clastic deposits of the ShemshakFormation (Assereto 1966) in Central Iran and Alborz (Fig. 13; Table 2). Twodoleritic flows, about 100 m thick, interbedded in the UpperTriassic Dolaa Group of Syria (Daniel 1963) presumably belong to this extensional and rifting phase. H.3b---Zagrosbasin during Triassic time During the Middle Triassic orogenic movements,the whole country was folded and uplifted, except for the Zagros basin where the movements were less intense. The Zagros basin steadily subsided along faults inherited from Permiantime and earlier. The marine carbonate sedimentary regime persisted throughout Permian and Early Triassic times (Dalan and Kangan Formation; Szabo and Kheradpir 1978). Regressive conditions then occurred in the MiddleTriassic Epoch,resulting in the deposition of the evaporites of the DashtakFormation, indicating hot and arid conditions (Fig. 12). The reddish green shale separating the Permian Dalan Formation from the Lower Triassic KanganFormation was first interpreted as an unconformity by Szabo (1977). This was later corrected to a temporary cessation in carbonate deposition (Rosen 1979; Szabo and Kheradpir 1978). There are still some similarities between the LowerMiddleTriassic stratigraphic succession of the Abadeh area in Central Iran (Taraz 1974) and those in the Zagros basin (Setudehnia1978), but the UpperTriassic rocks

Central Iran showmarkeddifferences from those of the Zagros. The Triassic evaporite and dolomite sequence in the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf is an extension of the evaporite basin of Arabia and Iraq (Murris 1978). Towardsthe High-Zagrosin the northeast, the evaporites are replaced by dolomites (Setudehnia 1978). The Middle Triassic movements in the Zagros (Middie-Upper Triassic unconformity)were not as intense as the movements in Central Iran. The uplift and erosion were apparently stronger in the High-Zagros belt (most of the Triassic and someUpperPermian sediments were presumably removed from the High-Zagros), while to the south erosion was less severe. The Middle Triassic evaporite beds of the Zagros (anhydrite/dolomite and red shales) are unconformably overlain by the Liassic terrigenous clastics and transitional terrigenous-to-open-madne sediments of the Neyriz Formation. No Upper Triassic beds have been found in the Zagros so far (Szabo 1977; Szabo and Kheradpir 1978), probably indicating an apparent drop in sea level owingto an eustatic sea level change(Murris 1978). The lowest part of the Neyriz Formation (sandstone, silty shale, limestone, and subordinate coaly shales in someplaces; Jamesand Wynd 1965) is roughly similar to the ShemshakFormation of Central-north Iran, and represents Liassic shallow water (tidal flat) sediments. The deposits of coaly shale and carbonized plant remnants with bauxite pebbles are only found in the Dopolanarea of the High-Zagros(Szabo and Kheradpir 1978). The Central Arabian hinterland and other elevations such as the Qatar arch (Murris 1978) presumably provided detrital material for the lower part of the Neyriz Formation. During the deposition of the Neyriz Formation, the Zagros basin with marine carbonate platform sedimentation became established, with the greatest subsidencebeing in the northeast, possibly along several faults (Figs. 5 and 13). Marinecarbonate sedimentation then continued until Miocenetime. This continuous episode of subsidence and sedimentation in the Zagros marginal basin was possibly an isostatic adjustment in response to the spreading of the lithosphere following the Middle Triassic movements.From Jurassic to Miocenetimes the subsidence possibly along inherited faults allowedup to 14 kmof sediment(mainly marine carbonates) to accumulatein the basin. Someof the faults along whichsubsidence took place controlled the sedimentary facies in the Zagros basin. The only evidence of volcanic activity associated with rifting of Zagros is a few amygdaloidalbasaltic flows of Permian age in the High-Zagros (Section II.2a. 1.3). The Middle Triassic movement affected central and southern Arabia and Oman as well as the area of the DeadSea. There the transgressive Jurassic beds are discordant upon the Triassic beds. This unconformityand the absence of deposits in central and southern Arabia

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appear to be the effect of the Middle Triassic movements, which presumably led to the emergenceof most of central and southern Arabia. The unconformityis not reported from northern Arabia and Syria (Powers 1968; Saint-Marc 1978). LowerLiassic marine deposits have been reported in Iraq and Oman,and the widespread Jurassic transgression in Saudi Arabia began with the deposition of the marine Toarcian Marrat Formation (Powers1968). UpperTriassic rocks are believed to unconformable on the Middle Triassic in all known localities in Iraq (Bellen et al. 1959). H.3c--Kopeh Daghbasin during Triassic time The KopehDagh sedimentary basin was established after the MiddleTriassic orogenic movements, whenthe closing process between Iran and the Turan had apparently ended(Fig. 5). DuringLiassic time, the (coherent) Iranian - Kopeh Dagh - Turanian landmass was covered unconformably by the Shemshak (coal-bearing) Formation and the unconformity is visible in the Aghdarbandregion of the eastern Kopeh Dagh (Fig. 13). The basal conglomerate contains detdtal rock fragments of diabase, granite, mica-schist, Triassic sediments(red quartzose sandstone, tuffs), and basic dykes (Madani 1977). The KopehDaghbasin started sinking along major longitudinal faults, forming a subsiding basin in northeast Iran. Afshar-Harb(1979) recognized four major basement faults (Khorkhud, Nabia, Takal Kuh, and MaravehTappeh), which were active at least since the Jurassic Period. In mostcases the blocks north of these longitudinal basementfaults subsided morethan the blocks on the southern side. Thefaults changed their character from normal to reverse during later compressional phases. Similar cases indicating reversal of fault motion during tensional and compressional phases are also documented in Central Iran and Alborz (Berberian 1979, 1980b). 140 MA) The period of the Late Jurassic movements is presumablyknownto be the time of separation of India (extrusion of basaltic flows), Australia, and Antarctica from Africa, and the real opening of the Indian Ocean (Le Pichon 1968; McElhinny 1970; Veevers et al. 1971; Zonenshayn and Gorodnitskiy 1977). During this period Iran underwent some compressional movement.
II.4----LATE JURASSIC MOVEMENTS (~

H.4a~Centraland north lran during Late Jurassic time As a result of the Middle Triassic movements,the sedimentary environment in Central and north Iran changed from shallow marine to lagoonal-fluviatile conditions. The latter producedthe coal and detrital sediments of the Rhaetic-Liassic Shemshak Formation. Duringthe Liassic Stage, Central Iran, the Alborz, and the Kopeh Dagh were covered by dense forests with Asiatic flora (Assereto et al. 1968). These were the source of the coal. The Liassic coal-bearing deposits

later extendedto west Siberia (Beznosov et al. 1978). In Middle Jurassic time a marine sedimentary regime overcamethe lagoonal-fluviatile environment, and an ammonite-beating limestone was laid down. The Liassic coal and the Jurassic limestonesrich in fauna indicate the position of Iran in an equatorial belt. Davoudzadeh et al. (1975) inferred another orogenic phase, of Middle Jurassic age (pre-Middle Bajocian, around 176 Ma), responsible for the metamorphism of the Rhaetic-Liassic sediments of the Mashhad area (northeastern Iran) and the intrusion of the Mashhad granitic batholith. However, as discussed earlier in Section II.2.2a), Majidi (1978) related this metamorphic and magmaticactivity to the Hercynian movements.A Middle Jurassic orogenic phase is therefore questionable. The late Triassic - late Jurassic volcanic activity (195 to 140 Ma)is indicated by the tholeiitic basaltic lava flow that preceded the deposition of the RhaeticLiassic Shemshak Formationin Central Iran and Alborz, the Middle Jurassic basic volcanicsand tuffs at the top of the Shemshak Formation in the Ramsararea (Annells et al. 1975), and the UpperJurassic basic lavas in the Lahijan region (Annells et al. 1975). There are two Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous volcanic series consisting of diabasic andesites and pyroxene diabase flow in the Deh Sard region of southeastern SanandajSirjan belt (Berberian and Nogol1974), and the Upper Jurassic - LowerCretaceous augite olivine diabasic flows (melaphyres of the Gypsum-Melaphyre Formation; Allenbach 1966; Steiger 1966) in the Alborz. Their stratigraphic position is not clear becauseof uncertainties about their real age. The Lower-Middle Jurassic andesite, dacite, basalt, and rhyolitic tuffs southeast of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Dimitrijevic 1973; Berberian and Nogol 1974) could be related to the subduction zone, but more detailed petrochemical and geochronological workis neededto understandtheir relationship. Thelate Triassic to late Jurassic tensional regimein Central Iran and Alborz cameto an end during the late Jurassic (140 Ma) compressional movements. The sea regressed from many parts of Central and north Iran and manycontinental areas emerged(Table 2). The boundary of the Jurassic and CretaceousSystemsis generally markedby an unconformity,significant hiatus, or by red continental detritus (GareduRed Beds, Ruttner et al. 1968; Bidou Formation, Huber and Stocldin 1954, and Huckriedeet al. 1962; RedTerrestric Formation,Stocklin 1961), and evaporitic sediments (Gypsum-Melaphyre Formation, Allenbach 1966, and Steiger 1966; Upper Jurassic Salt Beds, Stocklin 1961). The movements were accompaniedby a few granitic intrusions (Lut magmatism in east Central Iran; Stocklin et al. 1972; Berberian and Soheili 1973; Berberian 1974, 1977c), lava flows (Gypsum-MelaphyreFormation), and slight metamorphism in someparts of the country. A

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regional greenschist-facies metamorphism in the Tomd area is thought to be the result of the Late Jurassic movements (Hushmandzadeh et al. 1978), but there is not enoughevidence at present to prove it. In the Ardakan area of Central Iran, the Jurassic rocks are intensely folded, exhibit slaty cleavage, and are cut by quartz veins. They are unconformably covered by Cretaceous conglomerate (Haghipour et al. 1977). It seemsthat the UpperPrecambrian salts of the Ravararea reached the surface as diapirs during the Late Jurassic movements (Huber 1978) and were the source for the Jurassic-Cretaceous evaporites. Evidenceof continuous Jurassic--Cretaceous sedimentation is only found in the Shal Formation of the Talesh mountains southwest of the CaspianSea (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975; Table 2), and in the southeastern part of the SanandajSirjan belt in the Calpionella limestone (Dimitrijevic 1973; Berberian and Nogol 1974).

Central Iranian active and the Zagrospassive continental margins. The sedimentary evidence of the continuous Upper Triassic to Upper Jurassic pelagic deposition along the subsided continental marginsapparently indicates a long period during whichundisturbed ocean floor existed. Presumably at the end of the Triassic Period and the beginning of the Jurassic Period, an ocean extended through the Great Caucasus(Khain 1977). Deposition the Jurassic-to-Neocomian (190-140 Ma) radiolarian cherts and volcanicactivity (spilites and diabases) along the Sevan-Akeraophiolite belt of the Little Caucasus indicate the existence of oceanic crust during Jurassic time (Knipper and Sokolov 1974). This ocean seems be the western part of the Hercynian Ocean (Fig. 5). During this time the northern slope of the Great Caucasus was a continental marginof the Atlantic type, the southern slope a marginal sea, and the northern Transcaucasia an island arc (Adamia et al. 1977). The period H.4b~Central lranian active continental margin dur- is known to be marked by a general extension and subsidenceof all tectonic units of the Caucasus. ing Late Jurassic time After the Late Jurassic movements, the two separate The Jurassic rocks of the west Sirjan area along the Central Iranian active continental margin(the Sanandaj- basins of Zagros and KopehDagh continued their subsidence with marine carbonate deposition. Sirjan belt) are affected by an important schistosity, whichis not present in the Orbitolina limestone of Ber- H.4c--Kopeh Daghbasin during Late Jurassic time riasian-Valanginian age (135 Ma). This mayindicate Like the Zagros, the Kopeh Daghbasin started subsiLate Jurassic tectonic phase (Ricou 1974). The K/Ar ding in the Jurassic Period, and after deposition of the ages of the Abukuma type metamorphic rocks of the area Liassic Shemshak (Kashafrud) Formation, the sea deepwest of Sirjan (along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) range ened along normal faults depositing the Chaman Bidfrom 186 to 89 Ma (Watters and Sabzehei 1970). Al- MozduranFormation (carbonates and marls; Afsharthough some of the metamorphicrocks are definitely Harb 1969, 1979). The fault-controlled subsidence in Middle Triassic (Section II.3a) and Late Cretaceous the KopehDagh, from Jurassic to Oligocene times, al(Section II.5.3b) in age, three samplesindicate a Late lowed up to 10 kmof sediment to be deposited. The Jurassic - Early Cretaceous compressional movement Jurassic marine carbonates also covered the southern and metamorphism possibly related to subduction zone part of the Turanian plate (Beznosov et al. 1978). processes. Haynesand Reynolds(1980) suggest 170 --During late Jurassic time, the Kopeh Dagh basin 5 Maas the date of collision processes including meta- became shallower, and emergence took place over the morphism and ophiolite obduction. This is based on one area, producing a continental red unit, the Shurijeh date for hornblendetaken from an amphibolite enclosed Formation (Afshar-Harb 1970, 1979). The late Jurassic by ultrabasic rocks in the area northeast of Minab (east regression of the sea laid down red clays and sandstones of the Minabfault). However, it seems that there is no of lagoonal and fluvial origin in the southern Turan disruption in the sedimentationprocesses of the Zagros (Beznosovet al. 1978). The Jurassic rock units of the and Central Iran during MiddleJurassic time and that Kopeh Dagh sequence in the south extend to the ophiolite emplacement took place during the Late Creta- Binalud-Aladagh mountains (geographic continuation ceous Epoch(Sections II.5.2b, II.5.3b). It is possible of Alborzin east; Fig. 1) and possibly indicate a united that the radiometric age has been disturbed by later landmass in the north (Central Iran - Alborz - Kopeh retrograde recrystallization and argon loss. Dagh - Turan plate) with more subsidence in Kopeh The upper Paleozoic crustal extension, which led to Daghthan in eastern Alborzor Central Iran. The reason the development of continental rifting along the High- for this greater subsidenceis not clear and no Mesozoic Zagros and the Central Iranian continental margins, or Tertiary ophiolite belt is exposedalong the southern apparently created marginal oceanic crust in late Per- part of the Kopeh Daghto assumea passive continental mianand Jurassic times. Subsequentpelagic sedimenta- margin regime. tion (radiolarite, turbidite, black marl) during Late Triassic and Jurassic times (Ricou et al. 1977) reflects H.4d--Zagros basin during Late Jurassic time passive continental margin subsidence and the full Following the deposition of the Neyriz Formation, establishment of the High-Zagros Ocean between the marine limestones and marls of the Jurassic - Lower

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60*

FIG. 14. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Late Cretaceous time (around 65-70 Ma). See Fig. 6 for the paleoreconstruction. 1. Known mountainousregion formed during the previous orogenic phases. Area of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. Note that after the Late Cretaceous orogenic movements,the main physiographic features of Iran were formed. 2. Upper Cretaceous flysch basins. 3. Late Cretaceous (late Santonian - early Campanian; 80-75 Ma) High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt, with ophiolite outcrops markedin black. Mainly composedof strongly imbricated sheets of deep water radiolarite, shale, turbidite, and pillow lava series. 4. Post-Maastrichtian-pre-Paleocene (65 Ma)ophiolite-mrtange of the Makran and the Central Iranian RedSea type narrowbelts, with Maastrichtian pelagic pink limestone, radiolarite, pillow lavas, and diabase series embodying numerous shallowwater olistoliths. Thelower part of this series reaches glaucophane-schist facies. 5. Limestoneand marl. 6. Tuffaceousvolcanics and impure silty shaly limestone (mainly forming the Little Caucasus eugeosyncline). 7. Shale and marl. 8. Limestoneand marl. 9. Upper Cretaceous flysch with volcanics. 10.Late Maastrichtian shallow carbonate shelf deposits of Kalat Formation in KopehDaghand the Great Caucasian miogeosyncline. 11. Tarbur shallowwater anhydrite reef limestone. 12. Neritic to basinal marls and shales of the GurpiFormation.13. Shallowmarineshelf carbonates of Tayaral limestone with minor shales (Aruma Formation).14. Cretaceousgranite and diorite intrusions exposed the surface. 15. Upper Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. Principal sources of data: Milanovsky and Khain(1963); Minaet al. (1967); Vach6(1968); Vereshchaginand Ronov (1968); Vogel(1971); Stocklin (1968a, 1977); Sampo (1969); Zakhidov(1972); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); Dimitrijevic (1973);

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Cretaceous KhamiGroup (James and Wynd 1965) were laid downin a steadily subsiding basin in the Zagros. The Jurassic carbonate platform extended from the High-Zagros to northern central Arabia and the climate seemed to be more humid than previously (Murris 1978). The late Jurassic movementswere of minor tectonic importance, causing slight and short-lived marineregression of the sea. This regression laid down a sheet of anhydrite (Hith Anhydrite) from the Arabian platformto the present foothills of the Zagros,indicating an arid climate (Murfis 1978). In the interior of the Zagros basin, near Shiraz, there was more or less continuous sedimentationduring late Jurassic and early Cretaceous times (James and Wynd 1965; Setudehnia 1978). As a result of the late Jurassic movements, the whole western part of Arabia was uplifted and heavily eroded. Subsequentmovements associated with the reactivation of faults led to the extrusion of basalts in northwest Arabia until Albian times (Saint-Marc 1978).
II. 5---CRETACEOUS MOVEMENTS

High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite in this study) south of the MainZagros reverse fault line, and the northern or inner subbelt (the Central Iranian separated ophiolite-m61ange belts; Figs. 1 and 14). H.5.1--Lower Cretaceous movements (118-105 Ma H.5.1a--The Zagros basin Despite the continuous Jurassic--Cretaceous marine carbonate sedimentation in Shiraz and northern Khuzestan area, the Cretaceous sequence of the Zagroscovers the underlying Jurassic sediments (Surmeh, Hith, or Gotnia Formations) disconformably (the late Jurassic disconformity) with deposition of the Fahliyan (Neocomian-Aptian) and Gadvan (Barremian-Aptian) marine carbonates over the greater part of the Zagros (Table 2). In Lorestan and northwest Khuzestan, LowerCretaceous grey-black radiolaria-bearing shales and deep-water argillaceous limestone (Garau Formation) were deposited disconformablyover the Jurassic Gotnia anhydrite. The basin shallows towards Arabia (Murris 1978). The siltstone, sandstone, and glauconite found at the upper part of the Fahliyan Formation, and the strongly iron-stained sandy and glauconitic sedimentson top of the DariyanFormationindicate a period of regression, emergence, and erosion at the end of Aptian time and an Aptial-Albian (105 Ma) disconformity in the Fars area (James and Wynd1965; Setudehnia 1978; see Table 2). A widespread emergence is reported from Arabia during Albian time, but was followed by the Cenomanian Wasia (sandstoneshale) Formation (Powers 1968). ll.5.1b---Central Iran during Early Cretaceous time The Lower Cretaceous rocks in Central Iran are detrital limestone, reef limestone (Aptian Tiz Kuh Formation, Stocklin 1972), marl, shale (Biabanak Shale, Stocklin 1972), and volcanics, frequently intermpted by conglomerates and red beds. Large sedimentary gaps and unconformities reflect an unstable sedimentaryenvironmentin Central Iran (Table 2). lI.5.1c--Little Caucasus(northwest Iran) during Early Cretaceous time The extensive Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanics in the Great and Little Caucasus, northwest Iran, showan apparently subduction related variation of alkalinity. The K20/Na20 ratio in comparable rocks north of the Sevan-Akera ophiolite belt (Pontian-Transcaucasian island arc) also indicates subduction (Adamiaet al. 1977). The Sevan-Akera ocean was consumed during late Neocomian-Albiantime (118-105 Ma; Knipper and Sokolov 1974; Adamia et al. 1977), whennorthwestern

The Cretaceous System was introduced to Iran by marinetransgression over most of the country. In multibranched rifts, deep-water sediments, diabasic pillow lava, and continental slope deposits accumulated.Following the Lowerand Middle Cretaceous marine carbonate deposits, the whole region underwent strong deformation towards the end of the Cretaceous Period (Table 2). The Cretaceous movements are divided here into three phases: the late Neocomian-Albian (118-105 Ma), late Santonian(77 Ma), and late Maastrichtian Ma). They were associated with episodic imbrication and ophiolite-radiolarites were emplaced along the Sevan-Akera (and Vedi) belt in the Little Caucasus, the High-Zagros-Oman belt, the Central Iranian belts, and in the Makran region (Figs. 1, 6, and 14). The Iranian Mesozoicophiolites have been explained either as remnants of a large oceanic crust (Pilger 1971;Takin 1972; Forster et al. 1972; Ricou 1974; Glennie et al. 1974; Haynes and McQuillan 1974; Stocklin 1974, 1977; Stoneley 1974, 1975; Lensch et al. 1975; Pilger and Rosier 1976; Alavi-Tehrani 1975, 1976, 1977; and Khain 1977, or as narrow intracratonic Red Sea type rifts (Sabzehei 1974; Nabavi 1976; Beloussov and Sholpo 1976; Hushmandzadeh 1977). Stoneley (1974) and Stocklin (1974) emphasized the existence of two ophiolite-m61ange belts. Stocklin (1977) divided the MiddleEastern Cretaceous ophiolite-radiolafite belts into two subbelts: the southern or outer subbelt (the

Shevchenko and Rezanov(1976); Yegorkinaet al. (1976); Berberian (1976a,b); Huber(1978); Saint-Marc (1978); Setudehnia(1978); Afshar-Harb (1979); Berberianand Berberian(1980); Berberian(1981); and all available data the Geologicaland MineralSurveyof Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal ConicProjection.

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Iran apparently collided with the Pontian-Transcaucasian island arc (Figs. 6 and 14), leaving JurassicNeocomian (190-140 Ma) radiolarites, volcanics, and ophiolites in the resulting serpentine-m61ange thrust sheets. The thrust sheets were pushed southwards and were transgressively overlain by an Albian to CenomanJan (105-95 Ma) sedimentation (Knipper and Sokolov 1974; see Table2). Detrital rock fragmentsof the Sevan ophiolites have been found in the Cenomanian olistostrome complex (100 Ma) of the Kylychly area Armenia (Grigoryev et al. 1975). Subsequent movements of the Sevan-Akera ophiolite thrust sheets produced the LowerSenonian (85 Ma) olistostrome complex and new thrust sheets, which both were transgressively covered by the Upper Santonian to Upper Senonian (75-65 Ma) carbonate deposits (Knipper Sokolov 1974; Beloussov and Sholpo 1976; Khain 1977; see Table 2). Campanian-Maastrichtian calcalkaline volcanism in the Little Caucasusaccompanied the final oceanic subduction in the Sevan-Akerabelt (Adamia1975; Adamiaet al. 1977; Biju-Duval et al. 1977). Pecherskiy and Tkhoa (1978) believe that Sevan-Vedi ophiolites of Armeniaare autochthonous and indicated that their virtual paleomagnetic poles are similar to those of Europebut differ from the African poles for Late Cretaceous time. They therefore concluded that the Little Caucasusformeda unit with the Eurasian continent in Late Cretaceoustime. H.5.1 d--Kopeh Daghbasin during Early Cretaceous time A more complete Cretaceous sequence composedof marine limestone, shale, and marl, with subordinate detrital sedimentswas deposited in the subsiding sedimentary basin of the KopehDaghin northeastern Iran. The LowerCretaceous epeirogenic movements caused a sedimentary hiatus in the western KopehDagh(Table 2). In the east, the UpperTuronian sediments (Abderaz Formation) were deposited on the lower Cenomanian rocks of the Aitamir Formation (Afshar-Harb 1979). 11.5.2---Late Turonian (88 Ma)and Late Santonian (77 Ma) movements H.5.2a--The inner Zagros The LowerCretaceous sedimentation in the Fars and the Khuzestan areas of the Zagros began with a new transgression of the sea carrying shales and limestoneof the Albian KazhdomiFormation disconformably over the top of the Dariyan Formation (Upper Aptian- Lower Albian disconformity; James and Wynd 1965; see Table 2). The sedimentation continued with the shallow marine carbonate of the Sarvak Formation (late Albian to Turonian). Towardscoastal Fars and the Persian Gulf area a shaly unit of Cenomanian age (the northern extension of Arabian AhmadiShale) was developed. There wereregional uplift and a resulting disconformity at the end of Turonian (88 Ma)time in most parts of the inner

Zagros (Fars and Bandar Abbas area) marked by conglomerates, breccia, ferruginous materials, and a weathered zone on top of the Sarvak Formation. In Lorestan, the deeper water sedimentation continued from Albian to Turonian times. The Late Turonian movements (88 Ma) reactivated northwest-southeast trends in the northwest Zagros (Lorestan and northwest Khuzestan), and northeast-southwest trends (parallel to Oman) central and southeast Zagros, southeast Khuzestan,and Fars areas. Thesetrends had existed since Permianand Triassic times (Setudehnia 1978; James and Wynd 1965). A post-Turonian pre-Campanian Maastrichtian emergence is also reported from Arabia. Renewed transgression in Arabia began in the Campanian and reached a maximumduring the Maastdchtian Age (Powers 1968; Murris 1978). 11.5.2b~High-Zagros belt during Late Santonian (77 Ma) time The High-Zagros Alpine Ocean along the High-Zagros-Omanbelt presumably started opening in the PermianPeriod (Sections II.2.2a and b). By Late TriassicJurassic time the High-Zagros basin had subsided by rifting to the depth of radiolarian chert accumulation, and oceanic crust was clearly developed. The deposition of the late Triassic black marls was followed in early Middle Jurassic to early Cretaceous times by a thick sequence of red radiolarian cherts, and siliceous limestone (Ricou 1974) along the High-Zagros-Oman belt (Figs. 13 and 14, and Table 2). The High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt in the Neyriz and the Kermanshah area (Figs. 6, 13, and 14) is composed of three main imbricated units (Ricou 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976; Hallam 1976; Ricou et al. 1977; Braud 1978). Like the Othris mountainin Greece (Smith et al. 1979) and the Omanmountains (Glennie et al. 1973; Welland and Mitchell 1977; Glennie 1977; Gealey1977), these units are progressively thrust onto the carbonate platform sedimentsof the northern Zagrosalong a series of northeast-dipping thrust sheets, whichtransported material from the northeast (the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean) the southwest(the continental rocks of the Zagrosbelt). Theseunits are (i) the radiolarite-turbidite, (ii) m61ange (with limestone), and (iii) the ophiolite. The upper Triassic to lower Cretaceous radiolariteturbidite unit, whichseemsto be the equivalent of the Hawasinaallochthonous unit of the Oman and the pelagic sediments of the Othris continental-margin sequence(Greece), is the lowest and earliest thrust sheet above the Coniacian-Santonian (88-80 Main Neyriz, or Santonian in Kermanshah)authochthonous rocks of the Zagrosbelt. It comprises radiolarite, turbidite, black marl, and limestone. The next sheet, the m61ange unit (similar to the Oman exotics), is mainly composed tectonically mixedPermianand Triassic limestone, radiolarite, pillow lava, serpentinite, and somemetamor-

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phic rocks (in the Kermanshah region only the Bisutun Ma)movements, Central Iran was an assembly of contilimestone,which was possibly deposited on oceanic isnental fragments and small narrow oceanic or subocelands or seamounts,is the representative of this unit). anic basins, possibly formed by back-arc spreading. Finally the ophiolite unit, which is mainlycomposed of Mostparts of Central Iran werebelowsea level (shallow harzburgite, lherzolite, and gabbro (with somemicro- seas and shoals) with unevensedimentationresulting in diorite and spilite) formsthe highest part of the tectonic rapid facies and thickness changes. stack. This unit seemsto be the equivalent of the Semail The Mesozoic granitic intrusions along the Sanandajophiolites of Oman and the Mina Group in the Greek Sirjan belt (which forms a plutonic belt along Central Iranian continental marginparallel to the High-ZagrosOthris. The thrusting order mayroughly indicate an ordered Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt; Fig. 14) have been lateral transition from the Zagroscontinental carbonate dated at 144, 80-78, and 75-65 Ma (Valizadeh and platform in the southwest to the passive continental Cantagrel 1975). This presumably represents the magmargin with pelagic sediments and the oceanic envi- matic arc formedduring subduction of the High-Zagros ronment in the northeast (the High-Zagros Alpine Alpine oceanic crust (Berberian and Berberian 1980). Ocean). The radiolarite-turbidite deposition, which H.5.2d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Late Turonian probablyoccurredat least in part on oceanic crust during time the tensional and spreading phase of 200-140 Ma, Important evidence of a post-Cenomanianpre-Maasceased abruptly in the Cretaceous Period, presumably trichtian movement was found in Takal Kuhnorthwest because of the effect of the compressional movements of Kopeh Dagh by Afshar Harb (1979), where the Kalat and closing processes of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. Formation (Maastfichtian) overlies unconformably variDuring Upper Campanian - MaastriChtian (70-65 ous tilted horizons of the Sanganeh (Aptian-Albian) Ma)time, the High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite thrust stack in the Neyriz area is unconformablycovered by and the Aitamir Formation(Albian-Senomanian).In the the post-emplacementshallow-water reef limestone of west central KopehDagha disconformity is reported on the Tarbur Formation(Ricou 1974; Table 2). This indi- top of the Abderaz Formation (Upper Turonian - Lower cates that the obductionof the ophiolites along the High- Senonian)and the base of the Kalat Formation(Table 2). Zagros belt took place during late Santonian - early Campanian time (80-75 Ma). In the Kermanshah region H.5.3--Late Maasterichtian movements(65 Ma) (Brand1978) the High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt H.5.3a--The Zagros basin is unconformablycovered by the Paleocene volcanics The UpperCretaceous sedimentation in most parts of and the Eocene shallow-water limestones. the Zagros Basin usually beganwith neritic carbonates The High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt has a of the Ilam Formation (Santonian- LowerCampanian). sharp tectonic boundaryin the north with the adjacent This was followed by deeper water marls and shales of Mesozoic magmaticarc of the Central Iranian active the Gurpi Formation (Campanian-Maastrichtian; Table continental margin (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) and the 2). Duringthis period the northwest-southeast trend of Maastrichtian-Paleocene ophiolite-m61ange belt of the northwestern Zagros (Lorestan area) extended south Central Iran (Figs. 1 and 14). Subsequent collision through Khuzestan and Fars, and the present Zagros of Zagros and Central Iran have caused renewed trend was fully developedand established. At the end of southwest-directed thrusting of the High-Zagros ophio- Maastrichtian time a general regression of the sea crelite belt. Owing to lack of detailed work,it is not clear ated a major unconformity throughout the Zagros whether the subophiolite rocks (greenschist to amphib- (James and Wynd 1975; Setudehnia 1978). olite facies) of the High-Zagros,Central Iran, and the The Mesozoic trend along the High-Zagros was deMakran region were metamorphosedduring ophiolite stroyed after the Late Cretaceous collision of the Araemplacement onto the continental margin (Malpaset al. bian and the Central Iranian continental crusts. The 1973; Woodcock and Robertson 1977; Jamieson 1980), major Late Cretaceousuplift, folding, upthrusting, and or formedby thrusting and related metamorphism within erosion of the High-Zagros orogenic belt and its ophioocean lithosphere (Spray and Roddick 1980), or are lite-radiolarites provided the detrital material of the remnant slices of older metamorphicbasement. Ages UpperMaastrichtian - Paleocene AmiranFlysch (James found for biotite and muscovitefrom psammitic layers and Wynd 1965), which was deposited in a long, linear in an olistolith in the area 8 kmwest of Neyriz (High- trough along the northern part of the Zagrosbasin (Figs. Zagros belt) are 98 1.2 Ma(for biotite) and 96 14 and 15). The flysch at some localities consists almost Ma(for muscovite; Haynes and Reynolds 1980) sug- entirely of radiolarite and someophiolite debris. The gesting late Cretaceous compressional movements and present scattered flysch deposits along the northernmarpossibly metamorphism along the High-Zagrosbelt. gin of the High-Zagros suggest a seawayfrom northwest H.5.2c---Central Iran during Late Santonian time of Makran along the present MainZagros reverse fault During Late Turonian (88 Ma) and Late Santonian (77 line to northwestern Iran. A Late Cretaceoushiatus and

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FIG. 15. Paleogeographicmapof Iran during Paleocene-Eocene times, after the Late Cretaceous orogenic movements (around 55 to 40 Ma). See Fig.7 for the paleo-reconstruction. 1. Mountainous regions formedduring the previous orogenic phases. The mainphysiographicfeatures were established by this time. 2. Red clay, sandstone, and siltstone of the KashkanFormation (a) and marl, gypsum,and dolomite of the Sachun Formation(b) in Zagros. 3. Widespread post-collisional (Eocene) volcanic activity (with tuffs and shallow water clastics). Eocene volcanic activity is knownfrom Zagros and KopehDaghmarginal sedimentary basins. 4. Paleocene-Eoceneflysch sedimentstransgressively deposited over the ophiolite belts. 5. ChehelKaman early-to-middle Eoceneshallow shelf carbonates in the KopehDagh, northeastern Iran, and massive shallow marine carbonates of Jahrom Formation in the Zagros basin, southwesternIran (together with the Great Caucasianmiogeosyncline).6. Mixedtransitional shallow marine Jahromcarbonates and neritic-to-basinal Pabdehmarlyfacies in Zagros. 7. Neritic-to-basinal marls of PabdehFormationin Zagros. 8. Lagoonal and shallow marine carbonates, marl, and shale with anhydrite-gypsum (Radhumma,Rus, and Dammam Formations) on the Arabian shelf. 9. Shale and graywakefacies in northwestern Iran. 10. Eoceneand late Eocene- Oligocenegranite intrusions exposedat surface. Principal sources of data: Milanovsky and Khain (1963); AbuB akr and Jackson (1964); Jamesand Wynd (1965); et al . (1967); Grossheimand Khain (1968); Stocklin (1968a, 1977); Ahmed (1969); Sampo(1969); et al. (1972);Zakhidov (1972); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); Berberian (1976a,b); Ricou (1976); Huber (1978); Kotanski (1978); (1978); Afshar-Harb (1979); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all data from the Geological Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert ConformalConic Projection.

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a possible disconformity are reported from Arabia type metamorphic rocks in the area west of Sirjan (along (Powers 1968). the southeastern part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) was H.5.3b~CentralIran during Late Maastrichtian time reported by Watters and Sabzehei (1970). 4Ar/39Ar age obtained for a biotite froma garnet amphibolite In the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts (Khoi, specmam Nain-Baft, northeastern Zagros line belt, Doruneh- assemblage of the same area (Kuh-e-Ceghalatun) gave Joghatay, Zabol-Baluch, and Makran;Fig. 14), the pro- an age of 87 Ma(Haynes and Reynolds 1980). Although rocks are Middle Triassic and cess of ophiolite emplacement extended until late Maas- someof the metamorphic Late Jurassic in age, the effects of the Late Cretaceous trichtian time (Gansser 1960; Sabzehei and Berberian seem to be evident. The Late 1972; Stocklin 1974, 1977; Stoneley 1974, 1975; and compressional movements were responsible for Sabzehei 1974). The ophiolite-m61ange is mainly com- Cretaceous orogenic movements ophioposed of ultrabasic rocks, diabases, pillow lavas, pel- the formation of the early High-Zagros-Oman lite-radiolarite mountain belt, early Alborz ranges, agic sediments, and metamorphic rocks. Unlike the High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt, the pelagic sedi- central-east Iranian ranges (Shotori, KuhBanan, Anarak), together with the Soltanieh and Takabmountains ments of the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belt range in age from Upper Turonian to Upper Maas- in the northwest. By this time the present physiographic features of the country were broadly established (Fig. tdchtian (88-65 Ma; Dimitrijevic 1973). Absence pre-Cretaceous deep-water sediments along the Central 14). Based on the difference from the virtual geomagnetic Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts does not necessarily inpole positions for Early to Late Cretaceous and Early dicate that rifting and deepeningto oceanic crust took Tertiary times between India and Central Iran, Soffel et place in the Cretaceous Period. The tectonic setting of the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts also differs al. (1975) indicated that Central Iran had a muchmore from those of the High-Zagros. The former belts have northerly position at that time than India. The "Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous (140-65 Ma) undergoneintensive tectonic m61ange deformation, and volcanic activity" in Central Iran and Alborzis indicated no complete and ordered tectonic stack and ophiolite alkaline basic lava flows in the Pol associations appear to be present. Theyare unconform- by the Aptian-Albian ably covered by the Paleocene-Eocene shallow- Rud-Alarnkuhregion of the Alborz mountains (Annels water sediments. The presence of ophiolite-m61ange et al. 1975), the Maastrichtianbasic lava flows (mostly pillow lava strucand glaucophane-schist detrital fragments in the basal tholeiitic basaltic andesite with some conglomerateof Paleocene-Eocene age indicates a cer- tures) in Lahijan region, southwest Caspian Sea (Antain end to the emplacement of the ophiolite-m61ange nells et al. 1975), and the UpperCretaceous tuffs and and formation of associated metamorphic rocks, and the volcanics of the Talesh mountains, southwest of the disappearence of ocean crust within Iran. The separated CaspianSea (Clark etal. 1975). The Aptian andesites in ophiolite belts in northwest,central, east, and southeast Deh Sard region of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Berberian Iran (Fig. 14) could be the remnants of a narrow and and Nogol 1974) could be related to the subduction smaller ocean or RedSea type rifts developed during the process of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. multibranchedrifting following the late Paleozoic and H.5.3c--Zabol-Baluch basin during Late MaasMiddleTriassic compressional movements (Figs. 4 to and 11 to 14). trichtian time During the Late Cretaceous movements great masses During Upper Maastrichtian - Paleocene time, the rocks of Central Iran underwentstrong folding, mag- of ophiolite-m61ange were emplaced along the Makran matism, and uplift, over which the late Paleocene - active continental marginof Central Iran in the southern Eocenerocks nowlie with a pronouncedangular uncon- Lut, apparently due to arc-trench collision and tectonic formity. During this phase, closure of the rifts of central accretion at the base of the active trench slope of the and east Iran obducted ophiolites and produced two eastern High-Zagros Ocean (Figs. 6 and 14). At the phases of the Late Cretaceous metamorphismin the same time the Zabol-Baluch ophiolite-m61ange was ophiolite-m61angebelts (Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; emplacedalong the eastern Lut marginof Central Iran. S abzehei 1974):(1) a high-pressurestatic phaseof glau- A thick sequence of Upper Cretaceous - Paleocene cophane-aegyrine-aragonite- lawsonite-pumpellyiteflysch deposits with submarinevolcanics was laid down flysch along the pectolite-jadeite facies; and (2) a dynamothermal phase in the basins of eastern Iran. The Eocene Zabol-Baluchand the Makranbelts unconformably covof albite-epidote-biotite facies. The Late Cretaceous movements also created a green- ers the ophiolite-m61angesequences. Local intrusions schist metamorphism along the northern segment of the of the UpperEocene granodiorite are found (Fig. 15), Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Berberian 1973; Berberian and and fragmentsof the samematerial appear as boulders in Alavi-Tehrani 1977; Berthier et al. 1974; Fig. 14). the younger conglomerates of the Zabol-Baluchflysch Late Cretaceous (89 + 7 Ma) K/Ar age of the Abukuma basin (Huber 1978).

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H.5.3d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Late Maastrichtian time Following the Neocomianmarine transgression, a more complete sequence of Cretaceous sediments was deposited in the KopehDagh basin. Except for some epeirogenic movements,the continuous sedimentation in the Cretaceous time suggests a steadily subsiding basin and a stable marine environment during this period. In MiddleMaastrichtiantime, a third regression started in the KopehDagh (Table 2). The Late Maastrichtian movements, which produceda regional unconformity at the base of the Tertiary deposits in Iran, only caused a short marineregression (the UpperMaastrichtian Neyzar-Kalat detrital materials and the Paleocene Pestehleigh Red Beds) associated with a minor disconformable contact (Table 3). The Paleocene red sandstone, shales, and gypsiferous mudstones with intercalations of green shale were deposited in a lowland area (Afshar-Harb 1970; Huber 1978). The Jurassic-Cretaceous sediments of the Kopeh Dagh basin, whichalso cover the northern part of the Eastern Alborz mountains (Binalud-Ala Daghrange), suggest united landmass.

time. However, the interior Fars, northeastern Lorestan, and Persian Gulf area remainedabovesea level for most of the OligoceneEpoch.By late Oligocenetime, the sea covered most areas except northeastern Lorestan, and carbonates of the Asmari Formation were deposited (James and Wynd 1965; Nabavi 1971; Setudehnia 1972; Berberian 1976a; Fig. 16). Gradual narrowing of the northwest-southeast trending open marine basin of the Zagros owing to the convergent movements is evident throughout the MiddleAlpine (Figs. 14 to 16). After deposition of the Lutetian Dammam Formation (Steineke et al. 1958) on the Arabian platform, there was a widespread emergence (Table 3). The stratigraphic sequence above the Lutetian beds consists of a relatively thin succession of Lower-to-UpperMiocene and Pliocene sediments (200-300 m), almost entirely nonmarinein origin (Powers 1968).

H.6b--Central Iran during Middle Alpine time The Tertiary Systemin Central Iran has a basal conglomerate and sandstone resting unconformably upon older rocks, followed up-section by a widespread volcanogenic unit consisting mainly of submarineand continental lava flows (fromrhyolite to basalt) and dacitic II.6----MIDDLE ALPINE MOVEMENTS (65-22 MA) tuffs indicative of the most extensive and intense volThereis no evidencefor the existence of oceanic crust canic activity in the whole geological history of Iran following the Late Cretaceous movements.Apparently (Fig. 15; Table 3). The main mountain belts formed during the Late Cretaceous movements controlled the by the end of the MesozoicEra, all of the existing volcanogenic sedimentary basins throughout the Eocene oceanic crust between Arabia and Asia in the Iranian Epoch. Therefore most of the main physiographic fearegion had been consumed. The ophiolites and associated rocks and glaucophane-schist metamorphic tures were established by that time (Fig. 15). Thick rocks were emplaced and covered unconformably by rapidly accumulated terrigenous sediments of flysch facies were also deposited along the continental the Paleocene-Eocene shallow-water detrital sediments, indicating the end of the ophiolite emplacement margins and in somebasins within the Central Iranian and the mrlange process in these regions. Presumably continent. The extensive Eocene volcanic activity of Central subsequentconvergenceresulted in steady thickening of Iran was explained by Vialon et al. (1972), Crawford the continental crust, with a major mountainbuilding (1972), Dewey et al. (1973), Forster (1976), Jung et al. phase around Late Eocene (37 Ma) time, during the MiddleAlpine movements. The onset of the first phase (1976), Alavi-Tehrani (1976), Brookfield (1977), of the RedSea rift (30-15 Ma;Girdler and Styles 1974, Farhoudi (1978) to be the result of northeast-dipping 1978) corresponds with the uplift of the KopehDagh subduction along the Zagros reverse fault, which was region and establishment of the UpperOligocenemarine active until Pliocene time, and Nowroozi (1971) claimedthat the subductionactivity continued in recent limestonebasin in Central Iran. times. Jung et al. (1976) have postulated magma generall.6a--Zagros basin during Middle Alpine time tion for the Central Iranian Eocene volcanics at a depth Following the Late Cretaceous movements,the Pal- of about 120 to 150 kmresulting from the subductionof eocene-Eocene Pabdeh(neritic to basinal marls and ar- the Arabian plate underneath Central Iran along the gillaceous limestones) and Jahrom (massive shallow present Zagros fault. However, the timing of the volmarinecarbonates) Formationswere deposited (Fig. 15; canic activity and the variety of its composition are not Table 3). During the Late Eocene movements (37 Ma), consistent with it being related to the Mesozoic subducwidespread regression caused the greater part of the tion zone, and the volcanics are not suitably distributed relative to the supposed plate margin(Fig. 15). The time Zagros basin (except for the most central part) emerge.This regression is markedby the disconformity interval between our supposedcollision of the Zagros at the top of the JahromFormation, and was followed with Central Iran (based on the paleogeographicdata) rapidly by a transgression starting in early Oligocene and the onset of the volcanismis about 20 Maand we do

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FI~. 16. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Oligocene-Miocenetimes, after the Late Eocene movements (around 30-15 Ma). See Fig. 8 for paleoreconstruction. 1. Mountainousregions, area of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 2. Oligocene-Miocenemarine carbonates: Qom Formation in Central Iran; and Asmari back-reefal neritic carbonate facies in Zagros. 3. Sandstone, shale, and back-reef limestone in the Persian Gulf region. 4. Continental littoral sandstone (Ahwaz sandstone delta). 5. Continental red beds Central Iran; and Razakred silty marls with subordinate silty limestone and sandstone in Zagros. 6. Flysch-molasse sediments. 7. Molasse(Zeivar Formation and Maikop Series composed of conglomerate, clay, and tuffaceous sandstone) in northwestern Iran, and Vindobonian marls in the Caspian region. 8. Volcanics in Little Caucasus(northwestern Iran); and in Central Iran (basalt, andesite, dacite, tuffs). 9. Acidic and basic intrusive rocks exposed at surface (Upper Eocene - Oligocene Zabol-Baluch,central and south Afghanistan; and Miocene in Central Iran and northern Afghanistan). 10. Platform basins in the Turanplate (northeastern Iran). Principal sources of data: Gansser (1955); Milanovskyand Khain (1963); AbuBakr and Jackson (1964); James and (1965); Minaet al. (1967); Grossheimand Khain (1968); Sampo(1969); Ahmed (1969); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); Zakhidov (1972); Dimitrijevic (1973); Ricou (1974); Berberian (1976a,b); Shevchenko and Rezanov(1976); et al. (1977); Kotanski (1978); Huber(1978); Murris (1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all the data from the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. LambertConformalConic Projection.

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not believe it to be trench related. A similar substantial gap betweenthe end of subduction and the beginning of igneous activity exists in the Old RedSandstoneextrusive andintrusive activity of the northernBritish Isles. It has been suggested that the LowerOld Red Sandstone volcanics of Scotland and northern England(about 2 km thick olivine basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite; Rayner 1967; Groome and Hall 1974; Gandy1975) were developed during the major Devoniansinistral wrenchfaulting movementsof the region (Morris 1976) and mayindicate a genetic connection (Leake 1978). Takin (1972), Milanovskiy (1974), Amidi (1975, 1977), and Conrad et al. (1977) related this volcanism the melting or mobilization of sialic crustal material during a rifting process. The widespread volcanic activity following the high erosion rate of thickened continental crust during a considerable development of the Late Cretaceous folding and mountain-building phase could indicate the rising of the geothermsand onset of volcanism due to high erosion and peneplanation. However, the composition of the volcanics, which include basaltic members as well, does not suggest remobilized sialic crust being the only process involved. To produce the basaltic memberssome of the mobilized material must be approaching the composition of mantle rocks, since there is general argumentthat basaltic magma is a product of partial melting of ultramafic material in the upper mantle (Presnall 1969; Carmichael et al. 1974; Ringwood1975; Yoder 1976; Kushiro 1979). The volcanic activity cannot easily be ascribed to plumesrising from hot spots fixed in the deep mantle (Bailey 1977), since the Iranian crust moved a considerable distance with respect to the mantle during the volcanic period. The Eocene period of volcanism in Central Iran was followed by Late Eocene (37 Ma) movements, represented by a regional unconformity at the base of the Oligocene rocks. During this phase the Lut zone in east-Central Iran underwent uplift (major Lut uplift) and no Oligocene-Miocenesediments were apparently deposited (Berberian and Soheili 1973; Berberian 1974, 1977a; see Fig. 16 and Table 3). The Upper Oligocene transgression of the sea deposited the Upper Oligocene - Lower Miocene marine carbonates of the Qom Formation (Bozorgnia 1966) Central Iran (Fig. 16 and Table 3). No Eocene-Oligocene deposits were laid down along the northern flank of the Alborz mountainswhile the southern part was subsiding (Figs. 15 and 16). The UpperOligocenebeds rest unconformablyon the Eocene rocks in the Alborz region, indicating the Late Eocenemovements in northern Iran (Stocklin 1968a; Nabavi 1971; Berberian 1976a). ll.6c--Zabol-Baluch and Makranflysch basins during Middle Alpine time The Late Cretaceous subduction zone of the eastern

High-Zagros Alpine Ocean along the Makran active marginof southeast Central Iran was shifted southwards during Eocene time. This created newbasins to the south of the obducted Upper Cretaceous ophiolite-m61ange zone of the Makran (in the southeast) and to the east the Zabol-Baluch ophiolites (in the east), in the form marginal seas, with a branchingarm extending along the northern margin of the High-Zagros (Fig. 15). Olistromatic flysch deposits with terrigenous and turbulent clastic rocks from the emergent east-west ophiolitem61ange source north of the Makranbasin, and northsouth mountains of the Zabol-Balucheast of the Lut, indicate rapid erosion and sedimentation in an active tectonic environment during an orogenic period along the continental margin of the Makranand Lut. In the Makran the tectonic unrest (oceanwards episodic thrusting) accompanying the voluminous flysch deposits gradually shifted the main axes of the Makranbasin towards the south (Huber 1978). The southwardsshifting of the Markan basin axes and therefore development of youngerflysch and molasse in the south, the northwardincrease in elevation, and the formation of the Jaz Murian depression north of the Makranrange, indicate an accretionary prism from Early Tertiary time to the present. The prism is presumablyformedon top of the subducting oceanic crust (eastern part of the High-ZagrosAlpine Ocean) with subsiding upper slope or fore-arc basin (the Jaz Murian and Mashkhel depressions) and an "uplifted lower slope" across which the accreted sediments become youngertowards the trench (Farhoudi and Karig 1977). The strongly deformed Eocene-Oligocene Lower Flysch (Falcon 1974) and the Panjgur units (Ahmed 1969)are therefore interpreted as "trench-fill deposits" forminga narrowribbon of turbidites at the base of the continental slope (Farhoudi and Karig 1977). Norocks older than the UpperCretaceous ophiolitem61angehave been recognized underlying the EoceneOligocene Makranflysch. The presence of conglomerates with serpentine boulders together with exotic blocks of ophiolite-m61ange in the Lower Flysch (wild flysch), and the transgression of the lower sandstone and conglomerate of Eoceneflysch over the ophiolite-m61ange in the Jagin valley and Fanujarea of the Makran (Falcon 1974; Huber 1978) have been used as evidence to suggest that this flysch basin is floored by ocean crust. The present Gulf of Oman is assumedto be floored by oceanic crust (Farhudi and Karig 1977) because of its depth, the acoustic character and velocity of the basement (White and Klitgord 1976), the possible easttrending magnetic anomalies (Taylor 1968), and the strongly positive Bouguergravity field (USSR Academy of Sciences, 1975). A Deep Sea Drilling Project hole bottomedin Paleocenebasalt on the crust of the Gulf of Oman (Whitmarshet al. 1974).

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The sedimentation of Makranflysch continued until Oligocene time (Fig. 16). According to Ahmed (1969) the Oligocene Epochmarkedthe beginning of the final regression covering the marginsof the Makran basin and a fundamentalchange in sedimentation, with an absence of carbonates and the deposition of thick sandstone and shale units. It is known that a substantial thickness of Paleogene and Neogene sediment is present off the Oman coast, where refraction profiles in the westcentral Gulf of Oman are interpreted to indicate 3.7 km of sedimentson oceanic crust (Closs et al 1969; Gealey 1977). Towardsthe end of the Middle Alpine, the ZabolBaluch flysch basin progressively dried up, and the sedimentswere folded, thrusted, and uplifted by the end of the Oligocene Epoch. Absence of Tertiary arcmagmatismin Makran may indicate a very low angle descendingoceanic crust. H.6d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Middle Alpine time In the KopehDagh basin, like the Zagros, Eocene volcanic rocks are absent, indicating a non-volcanic basin in which marine sediments were deposited (Fig. 15). In late Paleocene to early Eocenetime, the last marine transgression covered the northern and eastern part of the Kopeh Dagh basin. The Middle-Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene Khangiran Formation (shale, gypsiferous mudstonewith limestone concentrations, and siltstone) is the youngest shallow marineor brackish water deposit in the eastern and central Kopeh Dagh(Afshar Harb 1969, 1979; see Table 3). After the deposition of the KhangiranFormationthe last epeirogenic movement occurred in late Eocene - early Oligocene time (37 Ma), uplifting the entire region, and causing the last regression of the Tertiary sea. The regression started in late MiddleEocenetime, from west Kopeh Dagh,and reached the east at the end of the late Eocene or probably in early Oligocene time (Afshar Harb 1969, 1970, 1979). Therefore the Kopeh Dagh formeda mountainbelt since early-to-middle Oligocene time (Fig. 16). The post-Lower Oligocene (probably Miocene) continental red beds (similar to the UpperRed Formation of Central Iran) conformably overlie the Khangiran Formation in Sarakhs and Daregaz areas (Table 3). II.7--LATE ALPINEMOVEMENTS (<20 MA) After the Oligocene-Miocenemarine carbonate deposition in Central Iran (Fig. 16), there waswidespread emergence, and continental conditions appeared and have remainedover Central Iran and the Alborz (Fig. 17 and Table 3). Overthe greater part of the country, the Neogenecontinental red clastic sediments rest on a regional angular unconformity surface inherited from earlier movement. Volcanic activity, which reached a

climax in Eocene time (Fig. 15), continued into the Neogene (Fig. 17) and Quaternary(Fig. 18) in parts Central Iran and the Alborz, but with apparently diminished intensity. Active erosion presumablyassociated with rapid orogenic uplift occurredin Pliocene time and was accompanied by the formation of conglomerate units along mountainfronts and in separate basins. During Late Miocene movements(5 Ma) the whole country, in different zones and with different tectonic histories, underwentmajor orogenic movement.Interestingly these movements correspond to the commencementof the second phase of spreading along the RedSea rift and Gulf of Aden(5 Mato present day; Girdler and Styles 1974, 1978; Le Pichon and Francheteau 1978). 11.7a--Zagros basin during Late Alpine time During the Neogene, the Fars Group (Gachsaran, Mishan, AghaJari Formations; James and Wynd 1965), consisting of sandstone, marl, limestone, and evaporites, was laid downconformably on the Asmari limestone in the Zagrosbasin (Fig. 16 and Table3). Nearthe end of early Miocenetime, an evaporitic environment prevailed, producing the evaporites of the Gachsaran Formation. During late Mioceneand Pliocene times, regression of the sea and rising mountains(folding and thrusting) produced an estuarine and lacustrine environment,and great quantities of clastic materials, red beds, and evaporites were developed in adjacent synclines formingthe AghaJari Formation (Fig. 17). As the Mio-Pliocene uplift of the Zagros and the upheaval of individual structures progressed, erosion and sedimentation produced localized unconformities within the Agha Jari Formation. This formation is unconformably overlain by conglomerates of the Bakhtiari Formation (possibly Pliocene in age; James and Wynd 1965) indicating a Mio-Pliocene unconformity. The deposition of the Bakhtiari conglomerate was concurrent with the growthof the foothill structure of the Zagros. Towards the end of the Pliocene Epoch, the whole Zagros belt was folded and uplifted (James and Wynd1965; Stocklin 1968a). Based on surface geology, the thrusting and folding of Zagros mountains represent a shortening of about 20%. In Arabia, the Miocenesequence forms a thin wedge of lacustrine, fluvial, and coastal plain deposits, peripheral to the mainarea of the Zagrosbasin. In spite of the severe Plio-Pleistocene diastrophic phasein the Zagros, little trace of tectonic activity has beenfoundin Arabia, where rocks of presumedPliocene age have a low average dip, whichincreases only gradually towardthe Persian Gulf (Powers1968). H.7b--Central Iran and the Alborz during Late Alpine time The Neogenesequence in Central Iran is mostly composed of continental red clastic sediments and some

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Fie. 17. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Middle-Upper Neoge.ne time after the Late Miocene orogenic movements (around 5 Ma). See Fig. 9 for paleoreconstruction. 1. Area of erosion. 2. Evaporitic red beds with clastics deposited in extensive and strongly ramifyingcontinental basins in Central, northwestern,and eastern Iran; terrestrial red clastics (AghaJari Formation)deposited in Zagrosin front of a slowly rising Zagrosmountains.Depositiontook place under arid climate and repeated episodic folding. A progressive uplift, flooding, and thrusting of Zagrosbelt fromnortheast towardssouthwestis noticeable. 3. Neogene lavas and associated tuffs of andesitic, dacitic, rhyolitic, and basaltic composition.4. Neogene marinemolasseof coastal Makran.5. Marinebrackish sedimentsof the Caspian basin (Tortonian-Sarmatian). 6. Intrusive rocks. Principal sources of data: Abu Bakr and Jackson (1964); Ahmed (1969); Zakhidov i(1972); Berberian (1976a,b); Schevchenko and Rezanov (1976); Huber(1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all available data Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. LambertConformalConic Projection. volcanics (Fig. 17 and Table 3). In the northern foothills of the Alborz mountains, Cretaceous and older formations are unconformably overlain by marine deposits of Vindobonian-Sarmatian (Middle Miocene; 15-10 Ma) age. The south Caspian region was subsiding at this time and the subsidence has continued until the present. Several thousand metres of marine and continental MioPliocene molasse of Caspian facies (Cheleken Formation of the Pliocene (Ognev 1938), Akchagyl Formation of the Upper Pliocene (3-1.8 Ma; Andrusov 1896), and Apsheron Formation of the Lower Pleistocene (1.8-0.9 Ma; Barbot de Marny and Simovich 1891)) and Quater-

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nary post-orogenic marine beds accumulatedin the region (Smolko1958; Stocklin 1972). Similar deposits overlie the Sarmatian (Upper Miocene; 12-10 Ma) beds with a markedunconformity in Dasht-e-Moghan area of northwestern Iran (Mostofi and Paran 1964). The Caspian Neogene beds were folded during the late Pliocene compressional phases (1.8 Ma). H.7b.1---Central Iranian Neogenevolcanism Neogene lava flows and associated tuffs of andesitic, dacititic, and basaltic composition are developed in the Lut zone(eastern Iran), Azarbaijan(northwesternIran), and south of Quchan (northeastern Iran) (Fig. 17). usually overlie unconformably older volcanic rocks of Paleogene age. The predominantly Neogenecontinental volcanism of Central Iran, which produceda thick sequenceof both lava flows and pyroclastic rocks, culminated in Pliocene-Pleistocenetime with the formation of large stratovolcanoes, composedmainly of andesite, dacite, and basalt, and with the intrusion of subvolcanic intermediate and acidic rocks (Figs. 17 and 18). There are two radiogenic age determinations (K/Ar) for the Neogenevolcanics of Central Iran. These are 10-11 Ma (Middle-Upper Miocene) from the quartztrachyte and trachyte lava flows of the Qasr-Dagh stratovolcano of northwestern Iran (Alberti et al. 1976), and 8-9 Ma (Upper Miocene) from dacitic and rhyolitic volcanic domesof the Bijar region, northwestern Iran (Boccaletti et al. 1976-1977). The Upper Miocene(8-9 Ma) high-potassiumcalc-alkaline phase in Bijar region (Boccaletti et al. 1976-1977) seemsto be the final product of the calc-alkaline volcanismin Central Iran. Absence of an active descendinglithospheric slab in Central Iran during the Middleand Late Alpine period (65 Mato recent) suggests that the gradual shortening and thickening of the Iranian continental crust maycause partial melting of the lower crust and upper mantle.

sedimentaryenvironment was neritic at all times in the Makranbasin, and the basin continued to subside as large amountsof LowerMiocenesediments were deposited. The sediments formed a wedge thickening seawardsat a rate of 160m/km to a total thicknessof at least 10000 m along the coast of the Arabian Sea (Ahmad 1969). The MioceneUpper Flysch is overlain unconformably by more than 1 kmof Pliocene molassic sediments (Fig. 17). During Pliocene time the Makran region together with the wholecountry suffered folding, thrusting, and uplift. The Miocene-Pliocene Upper Flysch of the Makran (Fig. 17) is interpreted as "trench-slopestrata" deposited in narrow basins betweenthe accretionary ridges (Farhoudi and Karig 1977). At present, in the Gulf of Oman, relatively fiat-lying sedimentsat the northernedgeof the abyssal plain are deformedand accreted to the lowermost continental slope as a series of northward-dipping submarine ridges, presumably suggesting that active subduction of oceanic portions of the Arabian plate beneath the Makran coast continues (White and Klitgord 1976; White and Ross 1979).

H.7d--Kopeh Dagh during Late Alpine time Following the conformable deposition of the supposed Miocenecontinental red beds over the Eocene early Oligocene Khangiran Formation of Kopeh Dagh, the region was unconformably overlain by Pliocene conglomerates. As in the Zagros, no important orogenic movement took place in KopehDagh after Liassic time (except someminor epeirogenic movements;see Table 2). If the correlative ages of red beds and conglomerates are correct, the post-red bed, pre-conglomerate orogenic movementcan be dated post Middle Miocene or post Miocene (Afshar-Harb 1979). In the western part of the KopehDagh, northeastern foothills of the Gorgan plain, the UpperPliocene (3-1.8 ll.7c--Zabol-Baluch and Makran flysch-molasse ba- Ma) deposits of the Caspian Sea (AkchagylFormation; Faridi 1964;Stocklin 1972)rest with visible angular unsins during Late Alpine time In the Makran region the Eocene-Oligocenesedimen- conformity over different horizons of Cretaceous rocks tation changedinto molasse-typefan and delta deposits (Afshar-Harb 1979). The folding of the Pliocene conwith concurrent uplifting, folding, thrusting, and ero- glomerate and the Upper Pliocene AkchagylFormation sion of the ophiolite and Lower Flysch range during the suggests late Pliocene (1.8 Ma) orogenic phases. Neogeneperiod (Figs. 16 and 17). The basin axis was shifted to the south, owing to orogenic movements in II.8~PLIO-QUATERNARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL IRAN AND ALBORZ early Miocenetime, and caused regression of the sea. Accompanyingthe continuous convergence of the Belowand between the delta fans in coastal Makran, gypsiferous mudstones and marls of Middle Miocene Arabian-Eurasian plates and the thickening and shortage were deposited in great thickness in a shallow but ening of the Iranian continental crust, volcanic activity subsiding basin. The absence of carbonates and the has continued from early Tertiary time until the present volcanism reached presenceof argillaceous sandydetritus suggest a consid- in Central Iran and Alborz. Neogene erable relief and subaerial erosion of northern mountains a climax in the Pliocene-Quaternary Periods with the formation of large volcanic cones of alkaline and calc(Ahmed1969; Falcon 1974; Huber 1978). Unlike other parts of Iran (except the Zagrosbasin), alkaline composition. The Quaternaryvolcanic cones of the Makran basin was the site of the continuousdeposi- Iran were formedduring active shortening, but after the tion from Oligocene to Miocenetimes (Fig. 16). The major Plio-Pleistocene (Zagros) orogenic phase (Fig.

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~.

QUATERNARY

VOLCANISM

CASPIAN

SEA

ALKALINE CALC-ALKALINE 100 200km /

Fie. 18. Unfolded Quaternary volcanicrocks of Iran formed after the Plio-Pleistocene orogenicmovements. Bythis timethe Iranian plateau reachedan averageheight of about 2-3 km,as a result of continental thickeningand shorteningfollowing continental-plate convergence after closingof the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in LateCretaceous time. TheLateAlpine fold axes (Berberian 1980) are shown bythin lines, andthe elevationsof the volcanic conesare in metres.Datasourcescited in the text. 18). There is no volcanic activity in the Zagrosand the generation for the Damavand volcanic cone in the AIKopeh Dagh active fold belts of Iran. Somerecent borz (Fig. 18) at a depth of about 250 km,and related (Plio-Pleistocene) flood basalts cover the Diarbakir to Pliocene-Quaternarysubduction of the Arabian plate (Dikranagerd) region of Zagros in southern Turkey underneaththe Iranian plate. Brousseet al. (1977) prowherethe Zagrosactive fold belt is in the apex zone of posed the hypothesis of an oceanic lithosphere, broken the impingingArabianplate and the region seemsto be downduring the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian subject to somelithospheric fragmentation and sideways plates, responsible for the formation of the Damavand volcano. It wouldbe surprising in our viewif, after 65 motionof the continental blocks. Dewey and Bird (1970), Crawford (1972), Ma, a single volcanic cone formed 400 kmnorth of the Dewey el al. (1973) related the young calc-alkaline Zagros line could be related to the UpperCretaceous volcanism of northwestern Iran to subduction of the subduction zone. Arabianplate. Jung et al. (1976) have postulated magma The recent Iranian volcanic rocks are divided here

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into calc-alkaline and alkaline series (Fig. 18). These volcanics cannot be related to subductionexcept for the calc-alkaline rocks of the Baluchestan volcanic arc, southeastern Iran (Bazman and Taftan volcanics in Fig. 18). The calc-alkaline activity in northwestern Iran (Sabalan and Ararat, Fig. 18) cannot be associated with a descendingslab, since apparently the collision ended during Late Cretaceous movements (65 Ma). The continued existence of alkaline and calc-alkaline volcanism in the absenceof trench tectonics supports our viewthat earlier (Middle Eoceneto Pliocene) volcanism(Section II.6b) was also not subductionrelated, but does not help in understanding the origin of the magmas. Various mechanisms for the Plio-Quaternary volcanism can be suggested. It mayhave been due to modification of geothermalgradients owingto uplift and erosion, or to strike-slip shearing motion created by sideways movement of fault blocks in response to the continued convergenceof Arabia and Eurasia, or to the existence of large strike-slip faults whichcould developa region of relative tension at their ends. The suggestion that strike-slip sheafing processes can relate to volcanism has been used to account for the Owens Valley volcanics in California (Pakiser 1960). Brief descriptions of the major Plio-Quaternary volcanic rocks of Iran, shown in Fig. 18, follow here. H.8a~Calc-alkaline series Three groups are recognized in this series (see also Fig. 18): (al) "Sabalan" high K calc-alkaline explosive volcanism, mainly composedof andesite, dacite, and somerare rhyolite (Alberti and Stolfa 1973; Alberti et al. 1974, 1975, 1976; Didon and Gemain1976; Dostal and Zerbi 1978); (a2) "Ararat and Suphan(Sipan)" canoes with somelava flows covering northwestern Iran (Lambert et al. 1974; Innocentiet al. 1976;Bocaletti et al. 1976-1977); (a3) "Baluchestan Volcanic Arc": Bazman, Taftan (southeastern Iran), and Soltan (southwestern Pakistan) volcanics of tholeiitic to rhyodacite basalts, with isotopic ages of 4 Mato historic time (for Bazman). The rocks are similar to island arc calcalkaline series and are possibly related to the subduction of the Arabian plate underneath Makran in Oman region (Girod and Conrad 1976; Conrad etal. 1977; Dupuyand Dostal 1978; Jacob and Quittmeyer 1979). The Makran active volcanic arc with a trend of N68E makesan angle of 24 with the Makran coastal line. This mayindicate that the considerable change in the dip of the shallow descendingoceanic crust does not occur parallel to the east-west trend of the trench. H.8b--Alkaline series Eight groups are recognized in this series (see also Fig. 18): (bl) "Sahand" volcano in northwestern Iran, presumably associated with Quaternary northwestsoutheast trending rifting that was possibly due to

doming of the region (Berberian and Arshadi 1977); (b2) "Tendurak and Nemrut" basanite to alkaline basalts with somelava flows covering northwestern Iran (Innocenti etal. 1976; Vossughi-Abedini 1977); (b3) "Damavand" volcano in Alborz, an olivine trachybasalt to trachyandesite and trachyte of an early WiJrm (70 000-10000 a) to Late Holocene (Recent) age, forming a peak 5670 above sea level (Allenbach 1966; Sussli 1976; Brousse et al. 1977; Vossughi-Abedini1977); the volcano is located in a region of the Central Alborz mountains where the Alborz trends bend from northwest to northeast (Fig. 18); (b4) "Kamku" olivine plateau basalt sheets in eastern Iran, situated in a zonewherethe accretionary prisms of Eocene flysch of the Zabol-Baluch tectono-sedimentary unit bends from northwest-southeast to north-south; (b5) "Aj and Dehaj"dacito-andesite with "Masahim" pyroclastic hornblende andesite in south Central Iran (Dimitrijevic 1973), located in a region between two parallel faults (Shahr Babak in the southwest and Rafsanjan in the northeast); presumably the right-lateral motionalong these faults could create some sheafing in the Aj-Masahim block; (b6) "Bijar" potassic alkali basalts and rhyolites with isotopic ages of 1.3 to 0.5 Main west Central Iran (Boccaletti et al. 1976-1977), and "Miandoab"basalts and trachytes, possibly associated with right-lateral sheafing along a northwest-southeast fault systemdue to north-northeast convergenceof Arabia and a greater sideways motion of the blocks in northwestern Iran; (b7) "Nayband" alkali basalt (Conrad et al. 1977), formedalong the northsouth Naybandfault in east Central Iran, in a zone betweentwo en echelon segments of the fault; lateral stretching in the zonebetween two en echelonsets of the Naybandfault may have created a lower pressure region, whichpossibly led to this volcanic activity (Fig. 18); and (b8) "Quchan" augite-diopside olivine basalts in northeastern Iran (Afshar-Harb1979) along the junction zone of KopehDaghand Central Iran; development of a region of relative tension in the southernends of the Quchan and Baghan-Germab northwest-southeast faults, owingto their considerableright-lateral motion, seems a possible mechanism for the formation of the Quchan volcanics in this region (Fig. 18).
II.9-~PREVIOUS RECONSTRUCTIONS

Many workers have published reconstructions that to a greater or lesser extent concernthe Iran region. Some of these (Dietz and Holden 1970; Smith et al. 1973; Smith and Briden 1977; Irving 1977, 1979 (for the absence of Central Iran during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras); and several others) concentrated on the large-scale aspects and essentially ignored the details. Somereconstluctions are profoundly different from those we present here, presumablybecause of a lack of information upon which we based our constructions, or

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because of a different interpretation of the samefea- on the ability of the field geologist. Oneof us (M.B.) has workedextensively in the field in Iran, and this paper tures. Other authors show an ocean in the Tertiary of the Period, but we find no evidence for it (see (7) below). necessarily rests to a great extent on his judgement Weovercome problems of crustal area by allowing field workof others. However, despite limitations, geological data provide crustal thickening and shortening of Iran since Late Cretaceous time. Reconstructions differing from ours a rich source of informationon whichto base reconstructions. Wecan think of a newmethodof presenting error are classified here into sevengroups, as follows: (1) Late Precambrianand Paleozoic suturing between bars on the reconstructionmaps,but feel that the reader Zagros and Central Iran (Irving 1977; and Morel and must appreciate the great variation of reliability. Instead, we present conventional paleogeographic maps Irving 1978). (2) Deposition of the late Precambrian Hormoz Salt and sets of stratigraphic columnswhich represent the over an oceanic crust in the Zagros (Haynes and Mc- partly assimilated data, and a text that provides complete references. This is a poor second-best, but does allow an Quillan 1974). energetic reader to check our work. (3) Paleozoic and (or) Mesozoic suturing in the north of Central Iran (Smith 1973; Smith et al. 1973; Acknowledgments Johnson 1973; Argyriadis and Lys 1977; Kanasewichet This work was supported by the Departmentof Earth al. 1978; and Klootwijk 1979). (4) Triple division of Iran during the Paleozoic and Sciences, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, (or) MesozoicEra(s) (Deweyet al. 1973; King 1973; and the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran. We Krumsiek1976; Gealey 1977; Kanasewichet al. 1978; wouldlike to thank M. P. Coward,D. P. McKenzie,P. Molnar, R. H. Sibson, A. G. Smith, and N. H. Woodand Ziegler et al. 1979). (5) Large Mesozoicocean in the north, and placing cock, for critically reading the manuscriptand for valuCentral Iran in the south (Deweyet al. 1973; Hallam able discussions. Wealso wish to thank two anonymous and suggestions. Ber1973; Robinson 1973; Smith 1973; Smith et al. 1973; reviewers for helpful comments all the help and facilities received Owen1976; Thierstein 1976; Irving 1977; Smith and berian acknowledges Briden 1977; Bein and Gvirtzman1977; Ronaand Rich- during the last 8 years of field work and research in Iran from the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran. ardson 1978; Klootwijk 1979; and Seng6r 1979). (6) Southward subduction underneath the Alborz Gratitude is also expressed by Berberian to the Departmountains during Jurassic and Cretaceous times (Dewey mentof the Armenian Affairs of the Galuste Gulbenkian et al. 1973; and Powell 1979); there is no evidence of Foundation (Lisbon), the British Petroleum, and the subduction and related arc-magmatism along the Alborz British I.B.M. for donating separate small grants during the course of this research. mountains. (7) Later closure of the southern ocean(Dewey et al. A. M., and JACKSON,R. O. 1964. Geological 1973; Smith 1973; Smith et al. 1973; Forster 1974; Anu-BAiOt, map of Pakistan, 1:2 000000. Geological Survey of PakisHaynes and McQuillan 1974; Krumsiek 1976; Smith tan, Quetta. and Briden 1977; Kanasewichet al. 1978; Klootwijk ADAMIA, S. 1968. The pre-Jurassic formations of the Cau1979; Seng/Sr 1979; and Powell 1979). casus. Academy of Sciencesof the Georgian SSR,GeoloFinally someauthors have published reconstructions gical Institute, Tbilisi, 38p. that in many respects and for someperiods are substan- -- 1975. Plate tectonics and the evolution of the Alpine tially similar to ours. Theseare: Jell (1974), Zonenshayn system:discussion. GeologicalSocietyof America Bulletin, 86, pp. 719-720. and Gorodnitskiy (1977), and Klootwijk (1979) for Paleozoic Era; Takin (1972), Vander Voo and French A.DAMIA, S. A., LORDKIPANIDZE, M. B., and ZAKARIADZE, G. S. 1977. Evolutionof an active continental margin as (1974), Stoneley (1975), Argyriadis and Lys (1977), exemplified by the Alpinehistory of the Caucasus. Tectoand Kanasewich et al. (1978) for the MesozoicEra; and nophysics, 40(3/4), pp. 183-199. Irving (1979) for the Tertiary Period. AFSHAR-HARn, A. 1969. Abrief history of geologicalexploration andgeology of the Sarakhs area and the Khangiran gas IIl---Concluding remarks field. Bulletinof the Iranian Petroleum Institute, 37, pp. 86-96,(in Farsi). This paper attempts to present the results of the many -- 1970. Geology of Sarakhs area and Khangiran gas publications on the geologyof Iran such that their sigfield. NationalIranian Oil Company paperpresentedat the nificance is understandable to a reader withoutspecialist 8th Sessionof ECAFE Working Party of Senior Geologists, interest in Iran, but an interest in Alpine-Himalayan reBondung, Indonesia, NIOC,Tehran. constructions. A problem in producing reconstructions -- 1979. The stratigraphy, tectonics and petroleum arises fromthe great variations in the reliability of geogeology of Kopeh Dagh region, northernIran. Ph.D.thesis, logical data. For example, somestratigraphic correlaPetroleum Geology Section, Royal School of Mines, tions are obvious, but someare obscure and rely heavily Imperial College, London, 316p.

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