ELECTRICAL MACHINES II Module 1

Synchronous Machines

E 602

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current (AC) generators. They supply the electric power used by all sectors of modern societies: industrial, commercial, agricultural, and domestic. Synchronous machines are sometimes used as constant-speed motors, or as compensators for reactive power control in large power systems. The synchronous machine is an important electromechanical energy converter. Synchronous generators usually operate together (or in parallel), forming a large power system supplying electrical energy to the loads or consumers. For these applications synchronous machines are built in large units, their rating ranging from tens to hundreds of megawatts. For high-speed machines, the prime movers are usually steam turbines employing fossil or nuclear energy resources. Low-speed machines are often driven by hydro-turbines that employ water power for generation. Smaller synchronous machines are sometimes used for private generation and as standby units, with diesel engines or gas turbines as prime movers. Synchronous machines can also be used as motors, but they are usually built in very large sizes. The synchronous motor operates at a precise synchronous speed, and hence is a constantspeed motor. Unlike the induction motor, whose operation always involves a lagging power factor, the synchronous motor possesses a variable-power-factor characteristic, and hence is suitable for power-factor correction applications. A synchronous motor operating without mechanical load is called a compensator. It behaves as a variable capacitor when the field is overexcited, and as a variable inductor when the field is under excited. It is often used in critical positions in a power system for reactive power control. Types of Synchronous Machine According to the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous machines may be classified as rotating-armature type or rotating-field type. Rotating-Armature Type The armature winding is on the rotor and the field system is on the stator. The generated current is brought out to the load via three (or four) slip-rings. Insulation problems, and the difficulty involved in transmitting large currents via the brushes, limit the maximum power output and the generated electromagnetic field (emf). This type is only used in small units, and its main application is as the main exciter in large alternators with brushless excitation systems.

Rotating-Field Type The armature winding is on the stator and the field system is on the rotor. Field current is supplied from the exciter via two slip-rings, while the armature current is directly supplied to the load. This type is employed universally since very high power can be delivered. Unless otherwise stated, the subsequent discussion refers specifically to rotating-field type synchronous machines. According to the shape of the field, synchronous machines may be classified as cylindrical-rotor (non-salient pole) machines (Figure 1) and salient-pole machines (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Construction of cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine

Figure 2. Salient-pole rotor construction

The cylindrical-rotor construction is used in generators that operate at high speeds, such as steam-turbine generators (usually two-pole machines). This type of machine usually has a small diameter-to-length ratio, in order to avoid excessive mechanical stress on the rotor due to the large centrifugal forces. The salient-pole construction is used in low-speed alternating current (AC) generators (such as hydro-turbine generators), and also in synchronous motors. This type of machine usually has a large number of poles for low-speed operation, and a large diameter-to-length ratio. The field coils are wound on the bodies of projecting poles. A damper winding (which is a partial squirrel-cage winding) is usually fitted in slots at the pole surface for synchronous motor starting and for improving the stability of the machine. Advantages of rotary field or stationary armature structure The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and a rotating-field windings. The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the generated voltage can be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature requires slip rings and brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load. The armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-overs and short circuits can result at high voltages. For this reason, high-voltage alternators are usually of the rotating-field type.

Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the problem of high voltage arc-over at the slip rings does not exist. The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of alternator holds the windings that are cut by the rotating magnetic field. The voltage generated in the armature as a result of this cutting action is the ac power that will be applied to the load. Load can connect directly without using slip rings and brushes. It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high voltage

The main parts of alternators are stator, and rotor. According to the construction of rotor alternators are classified into two types. 1. Salient pole alternator 2. Cylindrical pole alternator(Non salient pole alternator) Construction of stator: A stator for a dynamoelectric machine, comprising: a stator core having a generally cylindrical shape, the stator core having a plurality of circumferentially spaced slots, a stator

winding including a plurality of conductors, each conductor having a plurality of straight segments interconnecting a plurality of end loop segments the plurality of conductors organized into at least a first filar and a second filar, the plurality of conductors organized into multiple phases defined by a circumferential pitch, each phase having a conductor in the first filar and a conductor in the second filar;the plurality of conductors organized into layers, each layer representing a set of equidistant radial positions in the slots filled by the straight segments of the conductors ;the end loop segments of the first and second filars being circumferentially aligned and axially opposite each other; the straight segments of corresponding conductors of the first and second filars residing in common slots in the stator core; the straight segments of one phase being positioned in the same layer as adjacent straight segments in the adjacent phase; and the plurality of conductors arranged in a cascading structure defined by at least three consecutive straight segments of one turn of one conductor residing in a common layer. Construction of rotor: The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor, electric generator or alternator, which rotates because the wires and magnetic field of the motor are arranged so that a torque is developed about the rotor's axis. In some designs, the rotor can act to serve as the motor's armature, across which the input voltage is supplied. The stationary part of an electric motor is the stator. A common problem is called cogging torque. Two types of rotors are used in alternators (i) Salient-pole rotor (ii) Smooth-cylindrical type rotor Smooth-cylindrical type rotor is used for stream turbine-driven alternator i.e. turboalternators,which run at very high speeds. The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel cylinder, having a number of slots milled out at intervals along the outer periphery (and parellel to the shaft) for accomodating fields coils. Such rotors are designed mostly for 2-pole (or 4-pole) turbo generators running at 3600 r.p.m. Two (or four) regions corresponding to the central polar areas are left unslotted. The central polar area are surrounded by the field windings placed in slots. The field coils are so arranged around these polar areas that flux density is maximum on the polar central line and gradually falls away on either side. It should be noted that in this case, poles are non-salient i.e. they do not project out from the surface of the rotor. To avoid excessive peripheral velocity, such rotors have very small diameters (about 1 meter or so). Hence, turbogenerators are characterised by small diameters and very long axial (or rotor ) length. The cylindrical construction of the rotor gives better balance and quieter-operation and also less windage losses

Salient type of rotor is used for slow speed machies which have large diameters and small axial lengths. The pole are made of thick steel laminations rivetted together and attached to a rotor by a devetail joint. The overhang of the pole gives mechanical support to the field coil.In most of the alternators, where the oscillation or the hunting effect is very high, the damper winding in the pole faces is provided. The copper bars short circuited at both ends are placed in the specially holes. The relative velocity of the damping winding with respect to main field will be zero when the speed is steady but as soon as it departs from the synchronous speed there will be relative motion between the damper winding and the main field. This will induce current in them. This induced current will exert a torque in such a way as to bring the alternator to operate at synchronous speed. The Pole face is so shaped that the radial gap length increases from the pole centre to pole tips. This makes the flux distribution over the armature uniform uniform to generate sinusoidal waveform of e.m.f. The salient pole field structure has the following special feature 1. They have large diameter and short axial length. 2. The pole shoe covers about 2/3rd of pole pitch. 3. Poles ar e laminated to reduce eddy current losses. 4. These employed with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines. The speed is 100 to 375 r.p.m. Armature windings: An armature generally refers to one of the two principal electrical components of an electromechanical machine - a motor or generator, but may also mean the pole piece of a permanent magnet or electromagnet, or the moving iron part of a solenoid or relay. The other component is the field winding or field magnet. The role of the "field" component is simply to create a magnetic field for the armature to interact with, so this component can comprise either permanent magnets, or electromagnets formed by a conducting coil. The armature, in contrast, must carry current so it is always a conductor or a conductive coil, oriented normal to both the field and to the direction of motion, torque (rotating machine), or force (linear machine). The armature's role is two-fold: (a) to carry current crossing the field, thus creating shaft torque (in a rotating machine) or force (in a linear machine), and (b) to generate an electromotive force ("EMF"). In the armature, an electromotive force ("EMF") is created by the relative motion of the armature and the field.

When the machine is acting as a motor, this EMF opposes the armature current, and the armature converts electrical power to mechanical torque (and power, unless the machine is stalled) and transfers it to the load via the shaft. When the machine is acting as a generator, the armature EMF drives the armature current, and shaft mechanical power is converted to electrical power and transferred to the load. (In an induction generator, these distinctions are blurred, since the generated power is drawn from the stator, which would normally be considered the field.) Armature windings are the essential features of electric machines. The field windings are simple arrangements with concentrated cols(i.e coils in which all the turns have tha same magnetic axis). Armature windings on the other hand comprise a set of coils embedded in the slots. AC Windings: Ac windings are generally of a 3-phase kind because of the inherent advantages of a 3-phase machine. The armature coils must be connected to yield balanced 3 phase emfs. To begin with thge slots around the armature periphery must be divided into phase-bands. Different types of armature windiung are Single layer winding Double layer winding Lap winding Concentric winding Fractional slot winding Integral slot winding Wave winding

Single layer winding When the end connections of the coils are brought to adjacent bars, a lap or parallel winding is formed. In this type winding, there are as many paths through the armature as there are poles on the machine. Therefore, to obtain full use of this type winding, there must be as many brushes as there are poles, alternate brushes being positive and negative. Any winding can be illustrated in one of two forms, the circular form or the development form. In this particular circular form, the flux cutting portions of the conductors are shown as straight lines radiating from the center and are numbered for convenience in connecting them to the commutator which is in the center of the diagram. The outermost connecting lines represent the end connections on the back of the armature and the inner connecting lines represent the connections on the front or commutator end of the armature. The development form of winding represents the armature as if it were split

open and rolled out flat. It is somewhat simpler to understand but the continuity of the winding is broken. The lap winding is best suited for low voltage, high current ratings because of the number of parallel paths.

Double layer winding

The double layer windings are the most widely used class of windings. Though both lap and wave types are possible, because of inherent problems of a wave windings, it is now an accepted practice to use the lap type for double layer ac windings. Dopuble layer windings fall into two main classes depending upon the value of SSP-integral slot winding when SPP is an integer and fractional slot winding when SPP is a fractional number. To meet the requirement of symmetry among phases, the number of slots phase (S/3) must be a whole number. Double layer windings in open slots have the following advantages over single layer windings in semi-closed slots. 1. 2. 3. 4. Ease in manufacture of coils and lower cost of winding Less number of coils are required as spare in the case of winding repairs Fractional slot windings can be employed Fractional pitch coil can be used Single layer windings have the following advantages 1. 2. Higher efficiency and quieter operation because of narrow slot openings Space factor for slots is higher owing to absence of inter layer separator. Single-layer windings may be concentric, lap or wave type. Concentric windings may be classified into two main categories, viz. unbifurcated(or half-coiled) and bifurcated (whole-coiled). In the former type the coils comprising a phase group in adjacent pole pitches are concentric. The individual coils may have a span greater or less than a pole pitch but the average coil-span equals one pole-pitch. This kind of arrangement is provided to aviod crossing of two coils under one phase group. In bifurcated winding, each coil group is split into two sets of concentric coils and the return coil-sides are shared with those of another group. It is clearly evident from the figure that this kind of arrangement is only possible when SSP is even.

If the number of slots/poles/phase (m) is a fractional number, the winding is called, fractional slot winding. If the number of slots per pole per phase (m) is an integer, the winding is called Integer slot windings (or) Integral slot winding When the end connections of the coils are spread apart a wave or series winding is formed. In a wave winding there are only two paths regardless of the number of poles. Therefore, this type winding requires only two brushes but can use as many brushes as poles. The coil voltages are cumulative but it is necessary to travel several times around the armature and to traverse half the total winding in order to trace the path between the positive and negative brush. The wave winding is best suited for high voltage low current ratings since it has only two paths.

Concentrated three-phase,half-coil wave winding with one slot per phase Half-coil and whole-coil windings Half-coil (also called single-layer) windings are sometimes used in small induction motor stators and in the rotors of small wound-rotor induction motors. A cross section of a half-coil, singlelayer winding is shown in Fig. Like the dc dynamo armature windings, most commercial armatures for ac synchronous generators are of the full or whole- coil two-layer type, shown in cross section at the right in Fig. The whole-coil, two-layer winding gets its name from the fact that there are two coil sides (one coil) per slot.Fig. shows a single-layer, half-coil lap windings;

Fig. shows a double-layer, full-coil lap winding. A cross section of a single layer (half-coil) winding is shown in Fig. . Chorded or fractional -pitch windings Whereas most single-layer windings are full-pitch windings, the two-layer, whole-coil windings are generally designed on an armature as a chorded or fractional-pitch windings. This common practice stems from the fact that the primary advantage of the whole-coil windings is that it permits the use of fractional-pitch coils in order to save copper. As will be shown later, fractional-pitch windings, when used in ac synchronous and asynchronous generator armatures, in addition to saving copper, (1) reduce the MMF harmonics produced by the armature winding and (2) reduce the EMF harmonics induced in the windings, without reducing the magnitude of the fundamental EMF wave to a great extent. For the three reasons cited, fractional-pitch windings are almost universally used in ac synchronous generator armatures.

Distributed and concentrated half-coil and whole-coil windings

EMF of Fractional Pitch Windings

Full pitch coil

Fractional-pitch coil - Coil EMF in terms of coil side EMFs for fractional-pitch Coil In the case of an ac generator using a full-pitch coil, such as that shown in Fig, the two coil sides span a distance exactly equal to the pole pitch of 180 electrical degrees. As a result, the EMFs induced in a full-pitch coil are such that the coil side EMFs are in phase, as shown in Fig The total coil voltage Ec is 2E1, if E1 is the emf induced in a coil-side. In the case of the two-layer winding note that the coil span of single coil is less than the pole span of 180 electrical degrees. The EMF induced in each coil side is not in phase, and the resultant coil voltage Ec would be less than the arithmetic sumof the EMF of each coil side, or less than 2E1. It is obvious that 2E1 must be multiplied by a factor,kp, that is less than unity, to get the proper value for coil voltage Ec (or Ec = 2E1kp). The pitch factor kp is given by

The pitch factor may be quantified in terms of angles as follows. If we assume that the induced EMFs of two coils, E1 and E2, are out of phase with respect to each other by some angle

 as shown in Fig., then the angle between E1 and the resultant coil voltage Ec is /2 2 .The resultant coil voltage Ec is from Eqn

The angle is 1800 minus the number of electrical degrees spanned by the coil, for a short-pitched coil. For a full pitched coil, therefore, kp = 1 as = 0. Since _ is the supplementary of the coil span, the pitch factor kp may also be expressed as

where p is the span of the coil in electrical degrees. It is sometimes convenient to speak of an armature coil span as having a fractional pitch expressed as a fraction e.g., a 5 /6 pitch, or an 11 /12 pitch, etc. This fraction is in fact the ratio of the number of slots spanned by a coil to the number of slots in a full pitch. In such a case, the electrical degrees spanned, p0 is 5/ 6* 180, or 1500; or 11/12 * 180 or 1650;etc. The pitch factor kp is still computed as in Eqn. 9. Over pitched coils are not normaly used in practice as there is an increased requirement of copper wire without any additional advantage.

Distributed windings and distribution (or Belt) factor

The windings shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9(b) are called concentrated windings because all the coil sides of a given phase are concentrated in a single slot under a given pole. For Fig. 8., in determining the induced ac voltage per phase, it would be necessary only to multiply the voltage induced in any given coil by the number of series-connected coils in each phase. This is true for the winding shown in Fig. 8 because the conductors of each coil, respectively, lie in the same position with respect to the N and S poles as other series coils in the same phase. Since these individual coil voltages are induced in phase with each other, they may be added arithmetically. In otherwords, the induced emf per phase is the product of the emf in one coil and the number of series connected coils in that phase. Concentrated windings in which all conductors of a given phase per pole are concentrated in a single slot, are not commercially used because they have the following disadvantages,

1. They fail to use the entire inner periphery of the stator iron efficiently. 2. They make it necessary to use extremely deep slots where the windings are concentrated. This causes an increase in the mmf required to setup the airgap flux. 3. The effect of the second disadvantage is to also increase the armature leakage flux and the armature reactance. 4. They result in low copper-to-iron ratios by not using the armature iron completely. 5. They fail to reduce harmonics as effectively as distributed windings. For the five reasons just given, it is more advantageous to distribute the armature winding, using more slots and a uniform spacing between slots, than to concentrate the windings in a few deep slots. When the slots are distributed around the armature uniformly, the winding that is inserted is called a distributed winding. A distributed lap winding is shown in Fig. Note that two coils in phase belt A are displaced by one slot angle (the angular displacement between two successive slots) with respect to each other. The induced voltages of each of these coils will be displaced by the same degree to which the slots have been distributed, and the total voltage induced in any phase will be the phasor sum of the individual coil voltages. For an armature winding having four coils distributed over say, 2/3 rd of a pole-pitch, in four slots, the four individual coil side voltages are represented by phasors in Fig. as displaced by some angle _, the number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots, known as slot angle. It is 300 for the case of 4 slots per phase belt. Voltages Ec1,Ec2, etc., are the individual coil voltages, and n is the number of coils in a given phase belt, in general.

For a machine using n slots for a phase belt, the belt or distribution factor kd by which the arithmetic sum of the individual coil voltages must be multiplied in order to yield the phasor sum is determined by the following method, As in the case of Eqn. 12., the computation of kd in terms of voltages (either theo-retical or actual) is impractical. The construction of Fig. 13 in which perpendiculars have been drawn to the center of each of the individual coil voltage phasors to a common center of radius r

(using dashed lines) serves to indicate that /2 is the angle BOA. Coil side voltage AB equals OAsin /2, and coil voltage represented by chord AC equals 2OAsin /2. For n coils in series per phase, chord AN, is also 2OAsin n /2, and the distribution or belt factor kd is

Where n is the number of slots per pole per phase (s.p.p) is the number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots i.e. slot angle It should be noted from Eqn. 12. that the distribution factor kd for any fixed or given number of phases is a sole function of the number of distributed slots under a given pole. As the distribution of coils (slots/pole) increases, the distribution factor kd decreases. It is not affected by the type of winding, lap or wave, or by the number of turns per coil, etc.

When the coils comprising a phase of the windings are distributed in two or more slots per pole the e.m.fs in the adjacent coils will be out of phase with respect to one another and their resultant will be less than their algebraic sum. The ratio of the vector sum of the e.m.fs induced in all the coils distributed in a number of slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the e.m.fs induced (or to the resultant of the e.m.fs induced in all the coils concentrated in one slot under one pole) is known as distributed factor kd.

Generated EMF in a Synchronous Generator

It is now possible to derive the computed or expected EMF per phase generated in a synchronous generator. Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting of a total number of full pitched concentrated coils C, each coil having a given number of turns Nc. Then the total number of turns in any given phase of an m-phase generator armature is

But Faradays law Sec. ?? states that the average voltage induced in a single turn of two coil sides is

The voltage induced in one conductor is 2_/(1/s) = 2_s, where s=speed of rotation in r.p.s, for a 2 pole generator. Furthermore, when a coil consisting of Nc turns rotates in a uniform magnetic field, at a uniform speed, the average voltage induced in an armature coil is

where is the number of lines of flux (in Webers) per pole, Nc is number of turns per coil, s is the relative speed in revolutions/second (rps) between the coil of Nc turns and the magnetic field _.A speed s of 1 rps will produce a frequency f of 1 Hz. Since f is directly proportional and equivalent to s, (for a 2-pole generator) replacing the latter in Eqn. 14, for all the series turns in any phase,

However, in the preceding section we discovered that the voltage per phase is made more completely sinusoidal by intentional distribution of the armature winding. The effective rms value of a sinusoidal ac voltage is 1.11 times the average value. The effective ac voltage

per phase is

But Eqn is still not representative of the effective value of the phase voltage generated in an armature in which fractional-pitch coils and a distributed winding are employed. Taking the pitch factor kp and the distribution factor kd into account, we may now write the equation for the effective value of the voltage generated in each phase of an AC synchronous generator as