Moist Air State

Index
1.1 Properties of Dry Air 1.2 Properties of Water Vapor 1.3 Properties of Moist Air Psychrometry is the science that deals with the properties and behavior of a mixture of dry air and water vapor. You will recognize that this is really thermodynamics but we will focus here on these specific fluids and how the relationships between their properties can be exploited for use in air-conditioning. In particular, it will lead to the development of the psychrometric chart. The approach here is to start with the fundamental properties and build up the relationships between these properties.

1.1 Properties of Dry Air

1.1.1 Composition of Dry Air Dry air at sea level has the following composition.
Sum by %Vol 21.8587 6.71655 0.37551 0.0132 0.0002

Property Nitrogen, N2 Oxygen, O2 Argon, A Carbon Dioxide, CO2 Hydrogen, H2

% Volume 78.03 20.99 0.94 0.03 0.01

% Weight 75.47 23.19 1.29 0.05 0.00

Mol Weight 2x14.0067 2x15.9994 39.9480 12.011+2x15.9994 2x1.008

28.964

Other trace elements exist in such small quantities that are normally ignored for airconditioning purposes. On the basis of the Carbon-12 scale, the molecular weight of dry air is therefore M = 28.964 kg/kmol

1.1.2 Gas constant of dry air, Ra

The universal gas constant of a perfect gas is R0 = 8.3143 kJ/kmolK. Since we are treating air as a perfect gas, the gas constant of dry air, Ra is given by Ra = R o / M = 8.3143/28.964 = 0.2870 kJ/kgK

1.1.3 Specific volume of dry air, va

On the basis of our perfect gas assumption, the following perfect gas equation applies: Pa va = Ra T where Pa = Absolute pressure of dry air, kPa va = Specific volume of dry air, m3/kg Ra = Gas constant of dry air, kJ/kgK T = Absolute temperature, K (1.1)

1.1.4 Specific Heat of dry air, Cpa

At sea level, the heat capacity of dry air varies as follows. These were extracted from Mayhew and Rogers.
Absolute Temperature, K Heat Capacity, kJ/kgK

250 275 300 325 350

1.0031 1.0038 1.0049 1.0063 1.0082

A common value used in many thermodynamic references is Cpa = 1.005 kJ/kgK (1.2)

1.1.5 Enthalpy of dry air, ha

Enthalpy is defined as h=u+pv where u = internal energy Since energy is a relative quantity, we can select any convenient reference point to which to assign the value of zero. The common reference is sea level pressure 101.325 kPa at 0C. For a perfect gas, we can express the change in enthalpy as dh = Cpa dT Therefore ha = Cpa t

1.2 Properties of Water Vapor

At the range of pressure and temperature considered, the pressure of water vapor is very low (in the order of 0 to 4 kPa). Below the temperature of 75C, saturated and superheated water vapor follow the perfect gas laws with sufficient accuracy to justify the use of the characteristic equation of state P v = R T.

1.2.1 Gas constant of water vapor, Rw

The molecular weight of water is: Mw = 18.016 kg/Kmol Since we are treating water vapor as a perfect gas, the gas constant of water vapor, Rw is given by Rw = R o / M w = 8.3143/18.016 = 0.4615 kJ/kgK

1.2.2 Saturated Vapor Pressure, Pg"

The saturated vapor pressure of water vapor can be found in any steam tables reference. If you plan to do numerical calculations, then an equation is preferable. The Magnus formula (first presented in 1944) provides a very accurate method of determining the saturated vapor pressure as a function of temperature. Pg" = 0.6105 exp(17.27 t / (237.3 + t)) water Pg" = 0.6105 exp(21.87 t / (265.5 + t)) ice over (1.3) over

This formula is valid in the range of temperatures from 0 to 136C with an accuracy of 0.2%

1.2.3 Specific Volume of Water Vapor, vg

As with dry air, we use the perfect gas equation Pg vg = Rw T (1.4)

We can demonstrate the accuracy of this assumption by comparing the results with experimental data in which no assumptions have been made. From steam tables, saturated water vapor at 22C has a saturation pressure of 2.642 kPa and a specific volume of 51.49 m3/kg. The perfect gas equation gives vg = Rw T / Pg = 0.4615 (22+273.15) / 2.642 = 51.57 m3/kg The difference is 0.08 m3/kg or an error of 0.15%. At a temperature of 50C, the error goes up to 0.5% but still is acceptable for our purposes.

1.2.4 Specific heat of water vapour, Cpg

From the tabulated data, it appears that the heat capacity of both saturated and superheated water vapor are subject to only slight variation through the temperature range of -70C to 125C. For convenience and since the error is small, we will use a value of 1.884 kJ/kgK. This is the published heat capacity at constant pressure of saturated steam at 25C. Cpg = 1.884 kJ/kgK

1.2.5 Enthalpy of water vapor, hg

The specific heat of saturated and superheated water vapor are substantially equal at low partial pressures and temperatures. As a first approximation, we take the enthalpy of water vapor to be equal to the enthalpy of pure saturated vapor at the same temperature. At 0C, the enthalpy is 2500.8 kJ/kg Using the specific heat of 1.884 kJ/kgK above, we can now calculate the enthalpy using the following hg = 2500.8 + 1.884 t Comparing with tabulated data at 25C gives (1.5)

hg = 2500.8 + 1.884 x 25 = 2547.9 kJ/kg The tabulated data is 2546.6 kJ/kg, an error of 0.05%. At 100C and 80 kPa, the resulting error is still less than 0.5%.

1.3 Properties of Moist Air

In addition to dry air, the earth's atmosphere contains water vapor which is usually in the form of superheated steam at low partial pressures and temperatures. The water vapor in dry air exists as a binary mixture where the water vapor is diffused in the air. The working substance dealt with in psychrometry is this binary mixture of dry air and water vapor, and is called moist air. The water vapor content in moist air may vary from zero (dry air) to that required for full saturation. Moist air is said to be saturated when it can co-exist in neutral equilibrium with the liquid or solid phase of water, when the water presents a flat surface to the moist air. Air containing superheated water vapor is clear, but under certain conditions the air may contain suspended droplets of water in which case the air is said to be "foggy". Air at this condition is also referred to as super-saturated air. Moist air must be treated as a two component pure substance, because its water content is variable. Therefore, in order to determine a state of moist air, three independent properties are required. In psychrometry, it is customary to determine the thermodynamic state of moist air by the pressure and two other independent properties. Since the proportion of dry air and water vapor in the moist air are variable, it is convenient to relate all the specific quantities of extensive properties to unit mass of dry air in the mixture. Once again, we will be treating moist air as a perfect gas, in the sense that it is a mixture of perfect gases. However, empirical relations have been developed which enable certain properties of moist air to be calculated, taking into account deviations from the perfect gas law. In other words, these equations are corrected to account for: a. b. c. d. The compressibility factor of moist air. The effect of dissolved gases on the properties. The effect of pressure on the properties of the condensed phase of moisture. The effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of the mixture.

Wherever possible, these accurate formulae are included in the work that follows.

1.3.1 Fundamental Definitions

Before proceeding with the determination of the properties of moist air, it is necessary to review some of the basic concepts and definitions.

1.3.1.1 Saturated and Superheated Air-Water Vapor Mixtures.

When air and saturated water vapor occupy the same volume, the air is frequently said to be "saturated". Such a statement is incorrect since it is only the water vapor that is saturated. The term "saturated air" has been widely accepted in the airconditioning industry, so it will be used here with reservation. Water vapor and air occupy the same space and the subject of water vapor behavior could be treated with no consideration of the dry air. All calculations could be made by treating the air and water vapor separately; however, determination of properties of the mixture greatly simplifies air-conditioning calculations. in a mixture of dry and water vapor the properties are dry bulb temperature and volume. The weight of water vapor that can exist in a given space is dependent on the temperature of the air and the water vapor. At saturation, the partial pressure of the water vapor must correspond to the temperature of the mixture and addition of more vapor to an already saturated space will result from in condensation or fog. If superheated water vapor is present in the space at a given temperature, water vapor may be added until the space is saturated, after which no more water vapor may be added without condensation. Removal of heat from superheated water vapor will result in lowering of the temperature as long as the water vapor is superheated. If cooling of the water vapor continues to such a point that the water vapor becomes saturated, further removal of heat will cause condensation.

1.3.1.2 Dry-Bulb Temperature, t

The dry bulb temperature is the true temperature of the moist air at rest as measured with a normal thermometer.

1.3.1.3 Wet-Bulb Temperature, t'

The definition given here is a "preliminary" definition before a complete definition is given in section 1.3.10.1. The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a wick soaked in clean water when placed in a stream of moist air. It depends primarily on the heat and mass transfer from the water in the wick to the moist air passing over it. For atmospheric air, at normal temperatures and pressures and low velocities, the wetbulb temperature is substantially the same as the temperature of a adiabatic saturation t* as defined in section 1.3.10. There is no thermodynamic reason why it should be so and, in fact, it is not true in cases of other mixtures of gases and vapors.

1.3.1.4 Dalton's or Partial Pressure

Dalton's law of partial pressure states that each constituent in a mixture of perfect gases exists the same pressure as if it alone were present in the space occupied by the mixture, at the temperature of the mixture. The total pressure of the gases is the sum of the partial pressures, and the volume of the mixture of gases is the same as the volume occupied by each gas at its partial pressure. The total enthalpy of the mixture is the sum of the enthalpy's of each constituent at its partial pressure. Barometric pressure represents the total pressure of atmospheric air. This total pressure is composed of all the partial pressures of all constituents, chiefly the nitrogen and oxygen (dry air) and water vapor, or p = pa + pg'' where p = barometric pressure, kPa pa = partial pressure of dry, kPa pg'' = partial pressure of water vapor, kPa (1.6)

The " is used to indicate that the partial pressure of the water vapor corresponds to the saturation pressure of water vapor at the dew point temperature of the air. At the dew point temperature, the water vapor is saturated and its pressure can readily be determined from tables.

1.3.1.5 Thermodynamic Dew Point Temperature, t"

When an air-water vapor mixture is cooled at constant pressure, the temperature at which the water vapor becomes saturated and moisture begins to condense is called the "dew point" temperature of the air. Since the temperature of saturated water vapor depends only on the absolute pressure, the dew point temperature is simply the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapor in and air-water vapor mixture. The temperature of superheat of water vapor is higher than the saturation temperature corresponding to the actual partial pressure of the water vapor. The temperature of the air and water vapor are the same, therefore it is apparent that the dry bulb temperature of the air is greater than the dew point temperature. In contrast, if moist air is saturated, the dry bulb temperature and dew point temperature are equal, for the saturation temperature of water vapor is equal to the dry bulb temperature of the air-water vapor mixture. At the dew point temperature W = Ws and " = " = 1 (W, and are defined later)

1.3.2 Variation of Pressure with Altitude

A reasonable idea of the variation of pressure with altitude in the earth's atmosphere can be obtained by assuming that the density of moist air is directly proportional to the total pressure. This would be exactly true if the temperature of the air remained the same at all altitudes. We are mainly concerned with altitudes up to 3000m and since the temperature does not drop off very much at these levels, we use this assumption.

At an altitude y, where g = gravitational constant: 9.81 m/s2 By integrating from po at y=0 (sea level) to p at y, we get: p = po e -ay where po = 101.325 kPa a = g o / po = 0.000121 m-1 Alternatively, the total pressure of air at altitudes up to 3000m (at 21C), can be found in table 1.5 in Appendix 1. The density of moist air at these altitudes is also given in table 1.5. Equation (1.7) gives values within 0,2% of those in table 1.5 up to an altitude of 2000 m. (1.7)

1.3.3 Specific Humidity, W

Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor in a mixture to the mass of dry air in the mixture. Specific humidity is also referred to as the humidity ratio or absolute humidity. W = mw / ma kgw/kga where mw = mass of water vapor in moist air, kg ma = mass of dry in moist air, kg The units of W are kg water vapor per kg of dry air. Since by the Gibbs-Dalton law, each constituent of the mixture occupies the volume of the mixture, an equivalent expression for the humidity ratio is W = va / vg Note that here va and vg are the specific volumes and not the volume of the mixture. va = Ra T / pa

(1.8)

vg = Rw T / pg" where pa = partial pressure of dry air pa = p - pg", kPa p = barometric or atmospheric pressure, kPa pg" = partial pressure of water vapor, kPa from (1.8), (1.9) and (1.10) W = 0.62197 pg" / (p - pg") which, for our purposes, we write as W = 0.622 pg" / (p - pg")

(1.9)

(1.10 )

(1.11)

(1.11a)

Alternatively, equation (1.11) could be derived by reasoning as follows: the volume occupied by 1 kg of dry (ma = 1 kg) at the partial pressure of the dry pa = p pg", is: va = ma Ra T / pa = 1 x 0.287 T / (p - pg") The mass of water vapor which is contained in the same volume va is given by: mw = pg" vg / Rw T = pg" va / Rw T = pg" 0.287 T / 0.4615 (p-pg") = 0.622 pg" / (p - pg") Hence W = mw/ma = mw/1 = 0.622 pg" / (p - pg") For the case where the air becomes saturated, the specific humidity is written as Ws. Note that, at the saturated condition t = t' = t" and hence pg" = pg' = pg Accurate values of Ws at standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 KPa) are tabulated, but these can also be found from equation (1.11), in the form Ws = 0.622 pg" / (p - pg") = 0.622 pg' / (p - pg') = 0.622 pg / (p - pg)

For the case where Ws is required at other than atmospheric pressure, the following equation may be used. Ws = 0.622 fs pg / (p - fs pg) (1.12)

where pg = pressure of saturated water vapor at 101.325 KPa atmospheric pressure fs = correction coefficient (given in table 1.1 in appendix 1)

1.3.4 Saturation Ratio,

Saturation ratio is the ratio of specific humidity of moist air to the specific humidity of saturated moist air at the same dry bulb temperature and pressure. = W / Ws = saturation ratio, usually expressed as a percentage where W = specific humidity of unsaturated air, kgw/kga Ws = specific humidity of saturated air the same dry bulb temperature and pressure, kgw/kga By referring to the definition of W (and Ws) and considering the characteristic gas equation, it can be readily seen that is the ratio of the actual mass of water vapor per kg of dry air, to the saturated mass of water vapor per kg of dry air, at the same dry bulb temperature and pressure. The saturation ratio is also called the "degree of saturation", "percent of saturation" or "percentage humidity" in various references. (1.13)

1.3.5 Relative Humidity,

Relative humidity is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor in moist air to the mole fraction of water vapor in saturated moist air at the same temperature and pressure. = Xw / Xws (1.14)

where Xw = Nw / (Nw + Na) Xws = Nws / (Nws + Na) Nw = number of moles of water vapor in unsaturated air Nws = number of moles of water vapor in saturated air Na = number of moles of dry air in moist air Since we are considering moist air to be a mixture of perfect gases, we can alternatively write that: = pg"/pg (1.15)

where = relative humidity, usually expressed as a percentage pg" = partial pressure of water vapor to dew point temperature, kPa pg = pressure of saturated pure water vapor at the dry bulb temperature, kPa In some publications, is defined as: = g"/g where = water vapor density (defined in section 1.3) However, above temperatures of 50C, the error in using equation (1.5) would be greater than 0.5%.

1.3.5.1 Relationship between and W

the relative humidity and specific humidity W are related as follows: W = 0.622 pg" / (p - pg") from which pg" = W p / (W + 0.622) substitute in equation (1.14) = W / (W 0.622) (p/pg") (1.16)

1.3.5.2 Relationship between and

Differences in the numerical values of the saturation ratio and relative humidity are small for ordinary atmospheric conditions, and usually may be neglected. The relationship between relative humidity and saturation ratio is found as follows: = W / Ws = 0.622 pg" / (p - pg") (p - pg)/(0.622 pg) = (pg"/pg) (p-pg)/(p-pg") = (p-pg) / (p-pg") (1.17)

Usually pg and pg" are small compared to p, and from equation (1.17) it is apparent that and are approximately equal. With greater accuracy (taking into account deviations from the perfect gas law) and are related by = / {1 - (1-) fs (pg/p)} where = relative humidity (expressed as a fraction) = degree of saturation (expressed as a fraction) p = total pressure of moist air, kPa pg = pressure of saturation pure water vapor, kPa fs = correction coefficient (table 1.1) (1.18)

1.3.6 Vapor Density, g"

The mass of water vapor per unit volume is called the vapor density, expressed in kg/m3. Sometimes g" is also referred to as "absolute humidity".

1.3.7 Specific Volume, v

The volume of moist air, expressed per unit mass of dry in the mixture is called the specific volume or psychrometric volume. v = V / ma (1.19)

By Dalton's law of partial pressure, the volume of the mixture of gases is the same as the volume occupied by each gas at its partial pressure. This means that v can be found from either of the relations v = va = ma Ra T / (p - pg") where ma = 1 kg or v = vg = W Rw T / pg" (1.21) (1.20)

A more accurate value of v, taking into account deviations from the perfect gas law can be found from the expression below. This expression is valid only at standard atmospheric pressure. v = va + vas + where vas = vs - va va = specific volume of dry air, m3/kg vs = specific volume of moist air at saturation, m3/kg = saturation ratio = (1+) A / (1+1.6078 Ws) (= 0 below 35C) A = constant found in table 1.2 in appendix 1. (1.22)

(1.23)

1.3.8 Specific Enthalpy, h

The specific enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of a unit mass of dry air and the enthalpy of water vapor associated with it. h = ha + W h g (1.24)

A more accurate value of the specific enthalpy of moist air at atmospheric pressure is found by the equation h = ha + has + where has = hs - ha ha = specific enthalpy of dry air, kJ/kga hs = specific enthalpy moist air at saturation, kJ/kga = 2.32 (1-) B / {1+1.6078 Ws} B = constant found in table 1.2 in appendix 1. (1.25)

(1.26)

1.3.9 Specific Entropy, s

Using the first and second laws of thermodynamics, the following expressions for specific entropy for a perfect gas, may be developed: s = Cv ln (T2/T1) + R ln (V2/V1) or s = Cp ln (T2/T1) - R ln (P2/P1) (1.28) (1.27)

As was the case for enthalpy, entropy is a relative quantity and we therefore have to set a suitable level at which to assign the value "zero" to entropy. The following "zero" or datum levels are chosen: For saturated liquid water: 0.01C For dry air : 0C Both (1.27) and (1.28) give a change of entropy from a state P1V1T1 to a state P2V2T2. We normally know the final state (which is the condition at which we want calculate the value of s, i.e. the actual temperature and pressure conditions of the moist air). The state P1V1T1 is, for ease of calculation, chosen as the datum level referred to above. The specific entropy of moist air is the sum of the entropy of a unit mass of dry air and the entropy of the water vapor associated with it.

s = sa + W sg where

(1.29)

sa = specific entropy of dry air at the temperature of moist air and the partial pressure of dry in the mixture, kJ/(kgK) sg = specific entropy of water vapor temperature of moist air and the partial pressure of water vapor in the mixture, kJ/(kgK)

More accurate values of the specific entropy of moist air at atmospheric pressure is given by the equation s = sa + sas + + where sa = specific entropy of dry air, kJ/(kgK) = saturation ratio ss = specific entropy of moist air at saturation, kJ/(kgK) sas = ss - sa = 4.177 (1-) C / { 1 + 1.6078 Ws } (= 0 below 35C) C = constant found in table 1.2 in appendix 1. = 0.65955 { (1+) log (1+ - log u ) - (1 + 1.6078 Ws) log (1 + 1.6078 Ws) } = 1.6078 Ws Ws = specific humidity of moist air at saturation. (1.31 ) (1.32 ) (1.33 ) (1.30)

1.3.10 Temperature of Adiabatic Saturation, t*

The temperature of adiabatic saturation, (also known as the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature) is the temperature at which water (liquid or solid) evaporating into moist air at a given dry bulb temperature and humidity ratio, can bring the air to saturation adiabatically at the same temperature t*, while the pressure is maintained constant. An adiabatic process may be defined as one in which no heat flows into or out of the system, but during which symbol changes usually occur within the system. If unsaturated moist air is passed through a recirculating water spray as shown in figure 1.1, the air will pick up moisture as long as it remains in the unsaturated state.

Figure 1.1 Adiabatic Saturation The latent heat of vaporization must be supplied from some source. Since the duct through which the air is passed is insulated, this heat may initially come from the water, until the water temperature attains a certain equilibrium temperature. In the latter stage, therefore, the latent heat of vaporization must be supplied by the air itself. If this process is carried on until the air becomes saturated, it's temperature will be equal to the same equilibrium temperature as that reached by the recirculating water. This equilibrium temperature is called the temperature of adiabatic saturation, or the thermodynamic wetbulb temperature, and is denoted by the symbol t*. It will now be shown that this temperature depends only on the initial state of the moist air entering the spray. Neglecting the kinetic and potential energy terms, the steady flow energy equation applied to the adiabatic saturation process reduces to the form h + (Ws* - W) hf* = hs* (1.34)

where h = specific enthalpy of saturated moist air entering the spray, kJ/kg hs* = specific enthalpy of saturated moist air at temperature t*, kJ/kg hf* = specific enthalpy of water at t*, kJ/kg W = humidity ratio of unsaturated moist air entering the spray Ws* = humidity ratio of saturated moist air at t* t* = temperature of adiabatic saturation, C Note that Ws* - W represents the amount of makeup water required to replace the evaporated moisture. Since the process is performed adiabatically, the following interesting observations may be made:

1. The leaving temperature (t*) is less than the entering temperature (t), for the sensible heat change of the air supplies the heat necessary to saturate the water vapor at leaving temperature (t*). 2. The specific humidity of the leaving air (Ws*) is greater than that of the entering air (W). Therefore, makeup water in the amount (Ws* - W) must be added if the process is to be continuous. 3. The enthalpy of the leaving air stream does not equal that of the entering air stream, for makeup water is supplied at temperature (t*) and enthalpy (hf*). The enthalpy of the makeup water = (Ws* - W) hf* Rearranging equation (1.34) to the form hs* - Ws* hf* = h - W hf* (1.35)

where, for the given pressure at which this process takes place, the values of the properties hs*, Ws* and hf* are all fixed by the temperature of adiabatic saturation t*, it is seen that the value of the left-hand side of equation (1.35) depends only on temperature t*. Therefore, the lefthand side of equation (1.35) can only have one value for any given temperature t*. We therefore introduce a new property, called the Sigma heat content , defined by the expression = hs* - Ws* hf* (1.36)

Equation (1.35) in general is a function of the pressure and temperature t*. Substituting 1.36 in the left-hand side of equation (1.35) we get the relation = h - W hf* (1.37)

Obviously, there are an infinite number of states that a given pressure which will have the same sigma heat content value starting from dry air to fully saturated moist air. All such states, however, will have the same temperature of adiabatic saturation. The adiabatic saturation process for the water vapor in the moist air may be represented in the temperature-entropy diagram as shown in figure 1.2

Fig 1.2 Adiabatic Saturation Process. Note that sigma heat is the enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture less the enthalpy of the liquid at temperature t*. In section 1.3.1.3 we made the comment that the temperature of adiabatic saturation and the wet-bulb temperature are substantially the same, at normal temperatures and pressures and low velocities. Equations (1.34) to (1.37) may therefore be rewritten using a 'prime' in place of the asterisk *, to denote that the relevant quantities are measured with regard to the wet-bulb temperature.

1.3.10.1 Wet Bulb Temperature, t'

We are now in a position to give a fuller definition of wet-bulb temperature, as follows: A thermometer whose bulb is covered with a wick wetted with clean water, over which air is circulated at a velocity of 150 - 600 m/s is in effect a small air saturator. If the thin layer of moisture about the bulb is evaporated and saturates the air surrounding the bulb without the addition of heat from any source, the wet-bulb thermometer would indicate the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. In practice, however, the temperature indicated by a wet-bulb thermometer deviates slightly from the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature due to the effects of radiation, convection, conduction and diffusion. Radiation effects result when a wet bulb thermometer is used in surroundings having a temperature at or near the dry bulb temperature. As the temperature of the wet bulb is depressed below the dry bulb temperature, the wet-bulb receives heat energy by radiation from the warmer surroundings. Such a condition results in a wet bulb temperature reading higher than the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature. Conduction effects along the stem of the thermometer also tend to produce a wet bulb reading higher than the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature. This effect may be minimized by using a long wick extending well up the thermometer stem. Experimentation and theory have indicated that a thin-film of saturated air surrounding the wet bulb is subject to transverse diffusion as well as convection effect. It may be

shown, by shielding a wet bulb from radiation effects and reducing the conduction losses that diffusion of the vapor surrounding the bulb results in a negative deviation. The above effects in combination result in a complex deviation between the wet bulb temperature and the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature. The deviations for an unshielded thermometer is negligible when the a stream velocity over the bulb ranges between 150 and 600 m/s. Therefore it is commonly assumed that the wet bulb temperature corresponds to the temperature of adiabatic saturation. Such an assumption results in no appreciable error in equation (1.37) which may be modified as follows: = ha + W hg - W hf' (1.38)

In equation (1.38) the values of ha and hg are dependent on the dry bulb temperature, while the value of hf' is defined by the wet-bulb temperature.

1.3.11 Relationship between t, t' and W

Equation (1.34) may be used as a basis for determining the relationship between t, t' and W. h + (Ws* - W) hf* = hs* can be approximately written as h + (Ws' - W) hf' = hs' or Cpa t + W hg + (Ws' - W) hf' = Cpa t' + Ws' hg' solving for W results in W = { Ws' (hg' - hf') - Cpa (t - t') } / (hg - hf') (1.39)

This equation has a practical use in determining wet bulb lines on a psychrometric chart.

1.3.13 Carrier's Equation

Dr. Willis H. Carrier in his 1911 paper entitled "Rational Psychrometric Formulae" presented equation (1.40). The equation originally presented by Dr Carrier did not

contain the factor of 1.8, which is necessary to write the equation in SI units. In the past this equation has been used extensively in air-conditioning calculations. However in recent years psychrometric charts have offered a more convenient method of presenting the information contained in this equation. Equation 1.40 is of historical interest and, further, provides a convenient means of establishing most properties of air-water vapor mixtures knowing only dry and wet bulb temperatures and the barometric pressure. pg" = pg' - 1.8 { (p-pg') (t-t') / (2800 - 1.3 x t') } (1.40)

where pg" = actual partial pressure of water vapor at dew points temperature t", kPa pg' = saturation pressure of water vapor at the wet bulb temperature t', kPa p = barometric pressure, kPa t = dry bulb temperature, C t' = wet bulb temperature, C

1.3.13 Enthalpy Deviation

Recall equations (1.36) and (1.37) = h - W hf* = hs* - Ws hf* Rewriting in terms of the wet bulb temperature, h - W hf' = hs' - Ws' hf' (1.41)

For any one temperature of saturation, "Sigma Heat" has but one value. The left-hand side of equation 1.41 applies to unsaturated air-water vapor mixtures and defines a continuous line of states ranging from dry air, where the enthalpy is equal to Sigma, to saturated air with enthalpy hs' and specific humidity Ws'. All air samples having enthalpies and specific humidities which have the same value of "Sigma Heat" will leave the saturator at the same temperature and are said to have the same thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. However, the enthalpy of an air-vapor mixture entering the saturator does not equal that of the saturated air leaving the saturator. Stating this in another way: the enthalpy of unsaturated air at a given thermodynamic wet bulb temperature does not equal the

enthalpy of air saturated at that temperature. The difference is due to the enthalpy of the makeup water and is equal to the following: h - hs' = (W - Ws') hf' = d (1.42)

The above expression is derived from a rearrangement of equation (1.41). This difference will be referred to as the deviation. It should be noted that it is necessary to add the deviation algebraically to the saturation enthalpy to obtain the true enthalpy of unsaturated air at the same thermodynamic wet bulb temperature. Sigma heat is less in value than the true enthalpy, by an amount equal to the enthalpy of the liquid.