Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 CHAPTER -1 Introduction:- The most frequently used device in electronic

workshop s and laboratories is a universal power supply that Variable Power supply with digital control .That provides a variable, fluctuation-free output. Here we present a v ariable power supply with digital control that is simple and easy to construct. The circuit is built around an adjustable 3-terminal positive-voltage regulator IC LM317, CMOS decade counter IC CD4017, timer IC NE555 and 3-terminal . The fix ed negative-voltage regulator LM7912.The AC mains supply is stepped down by tran sformer X1 to deliver a secondary output of 12V -0-12V AC, 1A. The output of the transformer is rectified by a full-wave rectifier comprising diodes D1 through D4. Capacitors C1 through C4 are connected in parallel to rectif ier. The diodes to bypass undesired spikes and provide smooth and fluctuation -free power. Capa citors C5 and C13 are used as filters to eliminate ripple. Here both negative an d positive half cycles are used to obtain positive as well as negative DC output LED1, along with current. limiting resistor R1, is used for mains on Indication.Timer IC NE555 (IC1) is wired as an astable multivibrator. It generat es clock pulses when switch S2 is pressed. The output of IC1 is connected, via a n RC network, to the clock input of counter IC CD4017 (IC2).IC CD4017 is a decad e ring counter. Each of its ten outputs goes high one by one when a clock pulse is received. The outputs of IC CD4017 are connected to the bases of transistors T1 through T10 respectively, as shown in the figure. LED3 through LED11 are used here to indicate the voltage levels. The collectors of transistors T2 through T 10 are connected to presets VR1 through VR9, respectively, which are used to set the output voltage.Adjustable voltage regulator IC LM317 (IC4) develops 1.25V n ominal reference voltage (VREF) between its output and the adjustable terminal. The reference voltage appears across resistor R16. When the voltage is constant, a constant current flows through one of the output-setting variable resistors ( VRset, VR1 through VR9), giving an output voltage at pin 2 of IC4 as follows: VO UT=1.25(1+VRset/R16).Presets VR1 through VR9 are adjusted to get the desired out put voltage. The collector of transistor T1 is directly connected to to ADJ term inal (pin 1) of IC4, so the output voltage of IC4 will be the 1

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 voltage across fixed resistor R16, which is equal to 1.25V. When switch S3 is pr essed, pin 3 of IC2 goes high and the output voltage becomes 1.2V. When switch S 2 is pressed, the output of IC1 goes high. As a result, the outputs of IC2 go hi gh one by one as a ring counter. Since presets VR1 through VR9 are connected at the collectors of transistors T2 through T10, respectively, different output res istances appear between the adjustable and ground terminals of IC4, resulting in different output voltages. By using a properly calibrated digital multimeter yo u can easily adjust the presets to obtain 1.5V to 12V.A fixed, negative 12V DC c an be obtained by using fixed, negativevolt age regulator IC LM7912 (IC3). Thus the power supply unit can be used for circuits requiring both negative and posit ive DC voltages. When CD4017 is reset by pressing -indication LEDs turn switch S 3, the output voltage becomes 1.2V and all the voltage off. Assemble the circuit on any general purpose PCB and enclose it in a suitable cabinet. Use suitable h eat-sinks for regulators IC3 and IC4. Since pin con figurations of the regulator s are different, never fix both regulators on the same heat sink. For S2 and S3, using micro switches will enhance the beauty of the unit. LED2 is used to indic ate the 12V DC voltage. 1.2 PROJECT SURVEY & SELECTION During the survey time for the Project we have selected the followed of topic fo r our project. Variable power supply with digital control AC Voltage regulator PWM with rpm counter High current d.c .motor controller Med ium power low cost inverter Automatic railway gate controller From above a topic Variable power supply with digital control was chosen because of following point. Very useful for over knowledge Simple but unique applicatio n Easy available components Useful for low power available place So we select this topic for our project. 2

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 1.3 Component Required Semiconductors:IC1 IC2 IC3 IC4 D1-D4 LED1 LED2 LED3-LED11 -NE555 -CD4017 -LM7912 -LM317 -1N4007 -RED -YELLOW -GREEN Resistors:R1,R7 ,R15 R17 R2 R3 R4,R5 -1 kilo-ohm -1 kilo-ohm -22 Kilo- ohm - 560 ohm -8.2Kilo ohm Capacitor:C1-C4 C5,C13 C6 C7 -47nF ceramic -2200F electrolytic -10F electrolytic .01F ceramic Miscellaneous:S1 S2-S3 Transformer -ON OFF switch - PUSH-TO-ON Switch -230v,1 Am p. 3

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 1.4 Tools and Instruments used Following tools and instruments were used for the preparation of this project: S oldering Iron Desoldering wire Drill machine File Screw driver Brush Petrol ering wire PCB Etching Kit 4

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Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 CHAPTER 2 2.1 Circuit Description A variable D.C supply is one of the most useful tool in electronic hobby desk Th is . circuit shows a voltage up to 24V and variable current limiting up to 2A. P 1 set output current you want delivered by the Power supply on a output voltage. P2 determine the output voltage and should be a logarithmic taper type, in orde r to obtain a more linear scale voltage indication. You can select a Transformer on the basis of the maximum output voltage and current required. The following is a schematic drawing: The best option is: 36, 40 or 48V center-tapped and 50, 75, 80 or 100VA. C1 can be 2200 to 6800?F, 35 to 50V. Q4 must be mounted on a go od heatsink to keep the output short-circuit ongoing. In some cases, the rear pa nel metal box in which you will attach the circuit can do the job. The 2N3055 tr ansistor (Q4) can be replaced with a slightly stronger TIP3055 type. A Variable DC Power Supply is one of the most useful tools on the electronics hobbyist's wo rkbench. This circuit is not an absolute novelty, but it is simple, reliable, "r ugged" and short-proof, featuring variable voltage up to 24V and variable curren t limiting up to 2A. Well suited to supply the circuits shown in this w ebsite. You can adapt it to your own requirements 5

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2.2 Circuit Diagram:2011 6

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control CHAPTER-3 2011 3.1 Working of circuit:- Divide the whole circuit in two parts as power supply section and voltage selector section. Power supply section: Transformer x1 step down 230 ac main to 12 v-0-12v,1A ac current. Diode1 to D4 from a bridge rectifi er to recitifiy step down voltage to DC. While capacitor c1 to c4 by pass undesi red spikes. Further filtering is performed by capacitors c5 and c13.This positiv e 12v dc output is use to operate Ic1,Ic2,IC4 and to get variable output. A fixe d -ve 12v dc output is obtained by using Ic7912.Yellow Led to indicate ve 12v out put while red Led1 indicate main ON condition. 3.2 VOLTAGE SELECTOR:-The voltage selector section is use to obtained variable voltage in nine steps from 1.5 to 12v. The section is centered around variable regulator IC LM317(IC4). The versat ility of this ic alow us to obtained voltage range from 1.2v to 37v. The voltage of its output pin2 related to input resistance as follow: Vout=1.25(1+VRset/R16 )VOLT 7

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 3.3 APPLICATION:- A regulated power supply is one of the most important and essential requirement in electronics lab .The avilable power supply must provide varrible output in step as different appliances required differnent supply volt age varying in the range 1.5 to 12v .Also output must be easily to select and un it should provde proper display . The present circuit is designed with keeping a bove point in mind.It give varible and fluctuantaion free Dc voltage as output i n the range of 1.5 to 12v .Proper display of output selected ve supply voltage an d main ON condition are provided by using LED. 8

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 CHAPTER-4 4.1Component Description NE555:- The 555 Timer IC is an integrated cir cuit (chip) used in a variety of timer pulse generation and oscillator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R Came nzind in 1970 and brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Phil ip). The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the par t was described as "The IC Time Machine" It has been claimed that the 555 gets i ts name from the three 5 k resistors used in typical early implementations, but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. The part is still in wide us e, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of 2003 it is est imated that 1 billion , units are manufactured every year. Depending on the manu facturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP -8).Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one c hip), and the 558 (a 16 -pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level sensi tive). Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555The 7555 is designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic 5 55 and the manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capa citor and in many cases does not require a power supply bypass capacitor. 9

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Features Direct replacement for SE555/NE555 Timing from microseconds through hou rs Operates in both astable and monostable modes Adjustable duty cycle Output ca n source or sink 200 mA Output and supply TTL compatible Temperature stability b etter than 0.005% per C Normally on and normally off output Available in 8-pin MS OP package Applications Precision timing Pulse generation Sequential timing Time delay generation Pulse width modulation Pulse position modulation Linear ramp generator 10

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.2. 2ND IC:- LM317 :- The LM317 series of adjustable 3-terminal positive voltag e regulators is capable of supplying in excess of 1.5A over a 1.2V to 37V output r ange. They are exceptionally easy to use and require only two external resistors to set the output voltage. Further, both line and load regulation are better th an standard fixed regulators. Also, the LM317 is packaged in standard transistor packages which are easily mounted and handled. In addition to higher performanc e than fixed regulators, the LM117 series offers full overload protection availa ble only in IC's. Included on the chip are current limit, ircuitry thermal overl oad protection and safe area protection. All overload protection c remains fully functional even if the adjustment terminal is disconnected. Normally, no capaci tors are needed unless the device is situated more than 6 inches from the input filter capacitors in which case an input bypass is needed. An optional output ca pacitor can be added to improve transient response. The adjustment terminal can be bypassed to achieve very high ripple rejection ratios which are difficult to achieve with standard 3-terminal regulators. Besides replacing fixed regulators, the LM117 is useful in a wide variety of other applications. Since the regulato r is floating and sees only the input to-output differential voltage, supplies of several hundred volts can be regulated as long as the maximum input to output di fferential is not exceeded, i.e., avoid short-circuiting the output. Also, it ma kes an especially simple adjustable switching regulator, a programmable output r egulator, or by connecting a fixed resistor between the adjustment pin and outpu t, the LM117 can be used as a precision current regulator. Supplies with electro nic shutdown can be achieved by clamping the adjustment terminal to ground which programs the output to 1.2V where most loads draw little current. For applicati ons requiring greater output current, see LM150 series (3A) and LM138 series (5A ) data sheets. For the negative complement, see LM137 series data sheet . 11

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Features Guaranteed 1% output voltage tolerance (LM317A) Guaranteed max. 0.01%/V line regulation (LM317A) Guaranteed max. 0.3% load regulation (LM117) Guarantee d 1.5A output current Adjustable output down to 1.2V Current limit constant with temperature 4.3 3rd IC:-LM7912:-The LM7912 three terminal negative voltage regulator IC is available in TO-220 package and with a fixed output voltage of -12 volt, making it useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current li miting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentia lly indestructible Features Thermal, short circuit and safe area protection High ripple rejection 1 .5A output current 12

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.4 4th IC:-CD4017 Description:-The CD4017BM/CD4017BC is a 5-stage divide-by-10 Johnson counter with 10 decoded outputs and a carry out bit.The CD4022BM/CD4022BC is a 4 -stage divide-by-8 Johnson counter with 8 decoded outputs and a carry -out bit.These co unters are cleared to their zero count by a logical "1" on their reset line. The se counters are advanced on the positive edge of the clock signal when the clock enable signal is in the logical "0" state.The configuration of the CD4017BM/CD4 017BC and CD4022BM/CD4022BC permits medium speed operation and assures a hazard free counting sequence. The 10/8 decoded outputs are normally in the logical "0" state and go to the logical "1" state only at their respective time slot. Each decoded output remains high for 1 full clock cycle. The carry-out signal complet es a full cycle for every 10/8 clock input cycles and is used as a ripple carry signal to any succeeding stages. Features Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V High noise immunity: 0.45 VDD (typ.) Low power: Fan out of 2 driving 74L TTL co mpatibility: or 1 driving 74LS Medium speed operation: 5.0 MHz (typ.): with 10V VDD Low power: 10 W (typ.) Fully static operation 13

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 4.5 Pin configuration:2011 Applications Automotive Instrumentation Medical electronics Alarm systems Industrial electron ics Remote metering 14

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.6. TRANSISTOR:-BC548 Description:-A transistor controls the flow of current or presence of voltage in a circuit, acting as a switch, gate or amplifier for electronic signals. The trans istor may be driven in a digital manner, so that the "gate" is either on or off, or it may be operated in an analog manner, allowing variable current flow depen ding on the needs of the circuit Related Application:- The LM3411 is a low power fixed-voltage (3.3V or 5.0V) precision shunt regulator designed specifically for driving an optoisolator to provide fee dback isolation in a switching regulator. The LM3411 circuitry includes an inter nally compensated op amp, a bandgap reference, NPN output transistor, and voltag e setting resistors. A trimmed precision bandgap reference with temperature drif t curvature correction, provides a guaranteed 1% precision over the operating te mperature range (A grade version). 15

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 4.7 DIODE:4.1 IN4007 2011 Description:------Design active filter circuits including low pass, high pass, b and stop, and band pass filters using op amps ICs. Bessel, Butterworth, Chebyshe v (0.01dB to 1dB), Equiripple with Linear Phase, Transitional Gaussian, and Lege ndre Papoulis filter approximations are supported. Filter circuits are composed of 2nd order Sallen-Key, Multiple Feedback, State Variable, Dual Follower, Flieg e, Gyrator, or VoltageControlled Voltage Source stages supported. 16

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 4.8. LED:2011 RED LED: Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs, are real unsung heroes in the electronics world. They do dozens of different jobs and are found in all kin ds of devices. Among other things, they form the numbers on digital clocks trans mit information from remote controls, light up watches and tell you when your ap pliances are turned on. Collected together, they can form images on a jumbo tele vision screen or illuminate a traffic light. Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical cir cuit. But unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they don't have a filament that wi ll bur out, and n they don't get especially hot. They are illuminated solely by the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material, and they last just as lon g as a standard transistor. Inthis article, we'll examine the simple principles behind these ubiquitous blinkers, illuminating some cool principles of electrici ty and light in the process. Description:------ LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there m ay be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification met hod). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless y ou are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs. Example: Circuit symbol: 17

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control LED SECOND:-YELLOW LED:2011 Description: LEDs - those blinky things. A must have for power indication, pin s tatus, opto-electronic sensors, and fun blinky. DIAGRAM:This is a very standard, yellow LED. The lens is 3mm in diameter and it is diffu sed. Features: y y y y 2.0-2.4VDC forward drop Max current: 20mA Suggested using current: 16-18mA Lumin ous Intensity: 40-100mcd 18

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.9. RESISTORS:DESCRIPTION:- Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is l ow (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the hea ting effect and resistors have power ratings to show this. Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most cir cuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cas es where a higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V). Example: Circuit symbol: Function Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current pass ing through the LED. Connecting and soldering Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not d amaged by heat when soldering. 19

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 The Resistor values - the resistor colour code Resistance is measured in ohms, t he symbol for ohm is an omega . 1 1k is0 quite small so resistor values are ofte n given in k and M . Black = 1000 1M = 1000000 . Resistor Colour Code Colour Number 0 Brown 1 2 Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands. Red Each colour represe nts a number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands: o The first ban d gives the first digit. o The second band gives the second digit. o The third b and indicates the number of zeros. o The fourth band is used to shows the tolera nce (precision) of the Violet resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circu its but further details are given below. White Table 5 Resistor colour Grey Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green Blue 5 6 7 8 9 coding 20

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its v alue is 270000 On circuit diagrams the = 270 k . 2011 is usually omitted and the value is written 270K. The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by: P = I R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W) or P = V / R I = c urrent through the resistor in amps (A) R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( ) V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V) Examples: y A 470 0.21W. resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/470 = In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable. y A 27 3.7W. resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/27 = A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable. 21

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.10 CAPACITOR:- Capacitor:-(ceramic capacitor)ceramic capacitor is the "disc capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was use Description:- A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The class ical extensively in vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 thr ough the 1950s, and in discrete transistor equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc capacitors are in widespread use in electronic e quipment, providing high capacity and small size at low price compared to other low value capacitor types. Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles Application of ceramic capacitor:- Ceramic capacitors are suitable for moderatel y high-frequency work (into the high hundreds of megahertz range, or, with great c are, into the low gigahertz range), as modern ceramic caps are fairly non -induc tive compared to the other major classes of capaciors (film and electrolytic). C apacitor t technologies with higher self-resonant frequencies tend to be expensi ve and esoteric (typically, mica or glass capacitors). 22

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Electrolytic capacitor:Description:- Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capac itance values of any type of capacitor but they have drawbacks which limit their use. T he standard design requires that the applied voltage must be polarized; one spec ified terminal must always have positive potential with respect to the other. Th erefore they cannot be used with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias. Howeve r there are special non-polarized electrolytic capacitors for AC use which do no t require a DC bias. Electrolytic capacitors also have relatively low breakdown voltage, higher leakage current and inductance, poorer tolerances and temperatur e range, and shorter DIAGRAM:7.4 Application :- The first major application of DC versions of this type of ca pacitor was in large telephone exchanges, to reduce relay hash (noise) on the 48 volt DC power supply. The development of AC-operated domestic radio receivers in the la te 1920s created a demand for large capacitance (for the time) high voltage capa citors, typically at least 4 microfarads and rated at around 500 volts DC. Waxed paper and oiled silk capacitors were available but devices with that order of c apacitance and voltage rating were bulky and prohibitively expensive. 23

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 4.11 TRANSFORMER:2011 Description:- A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively couple with conductors the transforme r's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying m agnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromoti ve force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutu al induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the prim circuit through the ary transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primar y voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondar y (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows: By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alt ernating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, o r "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np. 24

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control Circuit diagram:2011 APPLICATION:- A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires h ave resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a hi gh-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afte rward, transformers enable economical transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitt ing generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny frac tion of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the con. Transformers are also used extensively in elect ronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low v oltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. 25

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.12 FUSE:-A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrica l terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non -conducting and non-combustible hou sing. The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through th e protected circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the cur rent flow. The size and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat p roduced for a normal current does not cause the element to at tain a high temperature. If too high a current flows, the element rises to a hig her temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit. When the metal conductor parts, an electric arc forms between the un -melted ends of the element. The arc grows in length until the voltage required to sustain the arc is higher than the available voltage in the circuit, terminating current flow. In alternatin g current circuits the curr ent naturally reverses direction on each cycle, greatly enhancing the speed of f use interruption. In the case of a current-limiting fuse, the voltage required t o sustain the arc builds up quickly enough to essentially stop the fa current be fore ult the first peak of the AC waveform. This effect significantly limits dam age to downstream protected devices The fuse element may be surrounded by air, o r by materials intended to speed the quenching of the arc. Silica sand or non-co nducting liquids may be used. DIAGRAM:26

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 4.13 HEAT SINK:Descption:- A heat sink is an object that transfers thermal energ y from a higher temperature to a lower temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is frequently air, but can also be water or in the case of heat exchangers, refrigerants and o il. If the fluid medium is water, the 'heat sink' is frequently called a cold pl ate. To understand the principle of a heat sink, consider Fourier's law of heat conduction. Joseph Fourier was a French mathematician who made important contrib utions to the analytical treatment of heat conduction.Fourier's law of heat cond uction, simplified to a one-dimensional form in the x-direction, shows that when there is a temperature gradient in a body, heat will be transferre from the hig her d temperature region to the lower temperature region. The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, qk, is proportional to the product of the tempera ture gradient and the cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred. 10.2 Application:- Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of all but micropower electronic devices and circuits. In general, the temperature of the d evice or component will depend on the thermal resistance from the component to t he environment, and the heat dissipated by the component. To ensure that the com ponent temperature does not overheat, a thermal engineer seeks to find an effici ent heat transfer path from the device to the environment. The heat transfer pat h may be from the component to a printed circuit board (PCB), to a heat sink, to air flow provided by a fan, but in all instances, eventually to the environment . 4.14 Transistors Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small o utput current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing cur rent to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or f ully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). 27

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control Types of transistor NPN PNP 2011 Fig- 11 Transistors 4.15 Solder Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lea d (or 60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, an d other applications. A eutectic formulation has several advantages for solderin g; chief among these is the coincidence of the liquidus and solidus temperatures , i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This allows for quicker wetting out as th e solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. Soldering Iron and Soldering Wire 4.16 Flux In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), th e primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materia ls. Tin -lead solder, for example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to t he various oxidesof copper, which form quickly at soldering temperatures. Flux i s a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature, but which becomes stron gly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing the formation of metal oxides. Secondarily, flux acts as a 28

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 wetting agent en solder and tly available enough to not 29 in the soldering process, reducing the surface tension of the molt causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined. Fluxes curren include water-soluble fluxes and 'no-clean' fluxes which are mild require removal at all.

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control CHAPTER-5 2011 5.1 Soldering of Components on PCB For hand soldering of electronic components, the heat source tool should beselec ted to provide adequate heat for the size of joint to be completed. A 100 watt s oldering iron may provide too much heat for printed circuit boards, while a 25 w att iron will not Soldered Components provide enough heat for large electrical connectors, joining copper roof flashing, or large stained-glass lead came. Using a tool with too h igh a temperature can damage sensitive components, but protected heating by a to ol that is too cool or under powered can also cause extensive heat damage. Handsoldering techniques require a great deal of skill to use on the finest pitch ch ip packages. The soldering iron tip must be clean and pre-tinned with solder to ensure rapid heat transfer. Components which dissipate large amounts of heat dur ing operation are sometimes elevated above the PCB to avoid PCB overheating. Aft er inserting a through-hole mounted component, the excess lead is cut off, leavi ng a length of about the radius of the pad. Visually, a good solder joint will a ppear smooth and shiny, with the outline of the soldered wire clearly visible. T he tip of the iron is kept wetted with solder ("tinned") when hot to minimize ox idation and corrosion of the tip itself. 30

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control Applications 2011 One of the most frequent applications of soldering is assembling ele ctronic com ponents to printed circuit boards (PCBs). Another common application is making p ermanent but reversible connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems. Jo ints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and a utomo bile radiators have also historically been soldered, and occasionally stil l are. Jewelry components are assembled Applications of Soldering and repaired by soldering. Small mechanical parts are often soldered as well. Soldering is also used to join lead came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also be used as a semi-permanent patch for a leak in a container or cooking vessel. 4.2 PCB Fabrication A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electricall y connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks, or traces, et ched from copper sheets laminated onto a non -conductive substrate. It is also r eferred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). The PCB fabrication steps are: PCB board design 31

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control Printing Artwork Exposure Developing Etching Cutting and Drilling Tinning and Ma sking 2011 PCB Board Design Material and Equipment Electronics Schematic Design Computer Protel DXP or PCB design software PCB design introduction Before any PCB fabrication can be done, we need to design PCB electrical pads fo r component placing and trace for component connectivity. It can be draw by hand but if your design is very complex, the PCB software will be very helpful. The software have ready to use components footprint, and modification can be easy do ne, saving you a lot of time and effort as compare to manual drawing. Profession al PCB software such as CADSTAR and PROTEL can easy cost above thousands of doll ars. Simple and basic PCB software such as Eagle or Easy-PC is slightly lower in cost, in the range of about $500 to $1200. They are cheaper in cost, but featur es can be limited. Limitation can be in the form of limited board size, number o f board layer or the number of component's pin allowed in the design. 32

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 PCB layout 33

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 5.3 Printing Artwork 2011 Material and Equipment PCB artwork Paper Printer Transparency Laser printer or photo copier Artwork introduction The PCB layout can be printed from a normal home printer onto a white piece of p aper. The printing will be photocopied to a transparency. The transparency will be use for photo-resist PCB board exposure in the next stage. A laser printer is preferred for sharper trace, especially if the traces are very close to each ot her. The laser printer can also print directly to transparency. The transparency is cut to PCB size 15x10cm. Five PCB artwork are squeezed and arranged to maxim ize board usage. The following step presents the traditional photo exposure meth od. The etch resistance layer can be formed on the photo sensitive board after t he exposure. Fig. 23 A Closer View of a Printed PCB Pad and Traces Photocopied onto a Transpa rency 34

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control Material and Equipment Ultra violet lamp A box Positive Acting Presensitized PCB board Transparency wit h PCB artwork printed Scotch tape 2011 Exposure Equipment Exposure introduction A typical Ultra Violet UV lamp for exposure on a Positive Acting Presensitized K insten PCB board. Preparing PCB board for exposure. Tear off the white/black pro tective film on the board. Place the transparency artwork on top of the PCB boar d. Secure the artwork position with scotch tape. Exposure setup If you have a piece of glass, place it on top, to make a good contact between th e artwork and the PCB board. Close proximity should be maintain to make sure tha t traces are ed not exposing to the UV light. 35

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control PCB exposure 2011 Turn on and expose the PCB board for 90 seconds for ultr violet lamp, or 6-10 mi nutes a for normal fluorescent lamp. The above reference is base on the guidelin e of the lamp of about 5 cm distances away from the artwork PCB. If the distance is far from the typical one, the exposure time should increase proportio nally. Peeling off the Protective Film from the PCB Board

5.3 Developing Material and Equipment Sodium Hydroxide or Developer solution Distill or plain water Glove Glass, plas ic, wooden rod or old chopstick Container slightly bigger than the PCB board Exp osed PCB board Container with water for washing 36

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control Developer introduction 2011 Sodium Hydroxide is used as a developer. Correct proportion is necessary as too much will destroy the photo-resist coating instantly, while too little will have no effect in developing the PCB. Commercial developer solution (pre-mixed with distill water) might work better since mixture is in the correct ratio for PCB d eveloping. Silicate makes a better developer as less likely to be over-developed . Higher concentration will increase the developing speed. Developer Equipment Developer mixture The solvent composite for making the developer consist ratio of about 1unit of S odium Hydroxide is to 20 unit of Water. The solution must be of uniform concentr ation. Stir the mixture until NaOH is fully dissolved in the water. If the chemi cal is not fully dissolved, the region with concentrated NaOH can destroy the ph oto -resist coating instantly. When mixing NaOH to water, heat will be produce. Stir the water solution constantly while adding in NaOH slowly. Various Developi ng Chemicals - Sodium Metasilicate (msds) - Sodium Hydroxide NaOH (msds) 37

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Developing PCB board The board is fully developed when the PCB traces appear green in color. This gre en layer is the photo resist layer which protects the copper surface underneath during the etching process. The region to be etched away later will be exposing and is brown in color. The brown color is the actual color of the copper. There is no photo-resist coating to protect the surface. Rinse the developed PCB board with running water after developing. Remove Transparency and do Coating 5.4 Etching

Material and Equipment Ferric Chloride powder Distill or plain water Glove Glass, plastic, wooden ro r old chopstick Long container for the etchant A boarder container for boiling h ot water below 3 liters of boiling water Drilling machine 38

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Etching introduction Ferric Chloride is use to etch away copper surface on the PCB board. It is a ver y toxin chemical and is harmful to the environment. It is dark yellowish in colo r and can stain your clothing. Remember to wear protective gloves while handling FeCl3. Chemical is toxin and will cause skin irritation. Wash skin with running water immediately when in contact with skin. Stronger FeCl3 solution enables et ching process to be faster. When designing PCB board, it may be a good idea to f ill up with regions of copper. This is to minimize the area of copper surface to be etched away. Etchant mixture The solvent composite for making the etchant consist of about 1 unit of Ferric C hloride FeCl3 is to 3 unit of water or about 1 unit of Ammonium Persulphate is t o 5 unit of water. Stir the mixture until FeCl3 is fully dissolved with the wate r. Various Etching chemicals - Ferric Chloride FeCl3 - Ammonium Persulphate - Sodium Persulphate - Peroxy Sul furic - Ammonium Persulphate (msds) (msds) (msds) (recyclable chemical) (msds) Warming up Etchant Warm up the FeCl3 solution on a tray (blue) filled with hot water. Temperature r ange from about 50C to 60C will be suitable to speed up etching process. Drill a s mall hole on the PCB board so that a string can be secure to the board. The stri ng is use to position or pull out the PCB in the toxin solution. Etching PCB 39

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Immerse the PCB board slowly into the FeCl3 solution. Agitate the PCB by tilting the container to and fro gently, until the unwanted copper layer is properly et ched away, leaving only the required region on the PCB. The process may take 15 - 60 minutes to complete. Process duration will depends on the concentration, te mperature of the etchant solution. Etching method also plays a part in the etchi ng speed. If you leave the board without any agitation, the process may take hou rs. The etching effectiveness will be reduced if the solution is re-used for a n umber of times. Strong FeCl3 concentration and high temperature can increase the etching speed. Testing various etch resist material The photos simulate a developed PCB board masked with some scotch tape, masking tape, and text using oil based marker. The board is over-developed and is used f or testing various etch resist materials. The experiment shows that adhesive tap es and oil base marker can be implemented to perform as a mask to resist from th e etchant. Fig. 28 Etching Machine Washing board condemned with FeCl3 Prepare a container of detergent solution to wash the PCB board condemned with c hemical FeCl3. Detergent contains Sodium Carbonate or Sodium Hydroxide, which ca n neutralize FeCl3. Photo-resist mask or marking of the traces can be removed us ing the NaOH developer. It is the same developer used during the developing proc ess. 40

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Stronger solution can be use this time round as the etching is already completed . The protective coating is no more in use. A cloth soak with the solut on can b e use to wipe i on the PCB board surface to remove the coating. For the marker s tain, it can be removed using commercial available contact cleaner, alcohol, or thinner solution. Rinse with water, clean and dry the PCB board. Disposing toxin chemical Ferric Chloride FeCl3 is a toxin chemical. Please consult your local authority f or proper dispose of chemical waste product. As recommended, detergent (or other baking soda) can be mixed to the FeCl3 solution. The mixture solution can easil y produce bubble foam which can grow 10 times in volume. Lay waste paper under t he container to prevent toxin overflowing out of the container onto the floor. L eave it to dry before disposing the waste. PCB board etching until the unwanted copper is remove completely by the chemical. Etching 5.5 Cutting and Drilling Material and equipment Dot punch or sharp tool Drilling machine or hand drill 1mm, 1.5mm drill bits Han d files Penknife Steel ruler 41

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Drill Machine Introduction to cutting and drilling The etching is completed. The original artwork is arrange to maximize the use of the d PCB board. 5 small PCB can be fabricated on the 15cm x 10cm board. 3 of t he PCB pattern is not formed properly during the developing process, therefore o nly 2 PCB board can be extracted. Hole is necessary to mount component (exa mple : resistor, capacitor, inductor, board mount switch, DIP integrated circuit IC e tc). Before drilling, a dot punch is used to mark the hole position. This serves as a shallow guide for the drill bit to align easily while drilling. Any other sharp pointed tool can be use to do the marking. The drill is fitted with a 1mm drill bit. A 1mm drill bit is thin and can break easily. Hold the drill steady a nd drill in straight slowly. The hole will be drilled with little force applied. 42

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Complete Fabrication of Smaller Individual PCB Board 5.6 Tinning and Masking Material and Equipment Solder flux Soldering iron (flat tip is available) Soldering stand with wetted s ponge Solder sucker Tinning the copper surface Copper will oxidize when exposed to oxygen environment. Oxidization should be av oided as soldering is difficult on oxidization surface. A thin layer of solder i s coated 43

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 on the copper surface to prevent oxidization. Apply solder to the copper surface with hot soldering iron and spread the liquefied solder across the surface. Cov ering the copper surface with solder helps protect the copper from oxidization. Masking PCB board Masking can be applied to non-soldering area to protect the board from potential short circuit, oxidization and overflow of solder during soldering. The solderi ng would also be easier and nicer. Tinned and Finish PCB Product Take a suitable copper Clad Board and draw the lay out on it with the help of acarbon paper. Now overdraw the layout by nail polish solution. A syringe can be used for the purpose. Dry the board. Prepare the Fer ric Chloride Solution for etching copper-clad board. Now etch the unwanted coppe r from the board using ferric Chloride Soluton. PCB i should be submerged into S olution properly. With regular stirring, etching will take 20 minutes or longer depending on how many times the solution has been used before. While etching pro per care should be given to protect your hands and body fromthe solution. Latex gloves can be used for the purpose. Now Dry the PCB After Drying, drilling is do ne. You can use a PCB hand drill or a motor driver drill. Clean the PCB and it i s ready for use. 44

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control CHAPTER-6 6.1 Digital Voltmeter:2011 A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential differe nce between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters g ive a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter. Vol tmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instrum ents , usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of am ultimeter, are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work . Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably ca librated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant. General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale, and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts.Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. S pecially calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory ins truments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters u sing amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of micro volts or less. Diagram :45

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 Application of voltmeter:- DVMs measure both alternating current (Ac) and direct current (DC) in electronics. Common laboratory and commercial applications invol ve electromechanical machinery with a current flowing through wires and circuits . Often, a digital voltmeter is used to monitor a unit, such as a generator. Por table or handheld devices, such as the digital multimeter (DMM), for example, ma y combine several functions into one instrument measuring voltage, current, and resistance. This is the preferred tool of an electrician 6.2 Application Different units in factory Laboratries 46 Bridge street lighting High loaded device Electronics

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control CHAPTER-7 Costing Parts name Semiconductors IC1-NE555 IC2-CD4017 IC3-LM7912 IC4-LM317 40 40 50 50 Cost 2011 Transistor PCB 7805, 5V regulator Heat Sink Diodes LEDs Resistor 10-kilo-ohm 2 1 00-kilo-ohm 2 220-ohm 1-kilo-ohm 4 Capacitors 1000 F, 35V electrolytic 0.1 F cer amic disk 33 F, 16V electrolytic 100 F, 16V electrolytic Miscellaneous 20 35 20 20 20 30 5 5 5 10 5 2 2 2 230V AC primary to 12V,500mA secondary 100 transformer Push-to- on switch Fuse Total cost 15 20 496 Price LIST 47

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011 7.2 Bibliography [1] www.datasheet.com [2] www.vishay.com [3] www.futurlec.com [4] www.electronics-tutorials.ws/index.html [5] Electronics for you magazine 48