ES427: The Natural Environment and Engineering

Global warming and renewable energy

Lecture 3: Photovoltaic cells

Philip Davies
Room A322
philip.davies@warwick.ac.uk
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Overview of lecture
Photovoltaics: fundamental attractions and drawbacks How does a photovoltaic cell work?
Review of semiconductors, electrons and holes Absorption of light in semiconductors The p-n junction

Anatomy of solar cells and modules

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Photovoltaics (PV): attractions

Converts sunlight directly to electricity Sunlight is the most abundant renewable resource (175 PW) Electricity is a very versatile form of energy No moving parts, long lifetime (>20 years)
sun

PV cell

Photovoltaics: drawbacks
Sunlight is very spread out (<1 kW/m2) It is irregular and somewhat unpredictable Electricity is difficult to store So far PV cells are expensive compared to other means of power generation

Growth in PV market
Installed Capacity Cumulative installed capacity / MW 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
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Price /W

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

PV module Price /W peak

Timeline of PV applications
1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s First modern PV cells Satellites Remote industrial applications Rural electrification, water pumping. First grid-connected systems. Building integrated systems Market continues to grow
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Building integration: Grid-connected house, Devon

Solar Cell Materials

We focus on crystalline silicon solar cells because: They account for over 95% of the world market Mostly of this is either multi- or monocrystalline silicon (as opposed to amorphous) Silicon is a semiconductor, as are the other materials that are sometimes used
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Energy states of electrons

Individual atom Crystal lattice

nucleus

Discrete energy levels Energy level

Atomic separation

Forbidden zone
Energy level
Bandgap 1.1 eV

Conduction band

Valence band Position in crystal

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Photogeneration
Energy level
Bandgap 1.1 eV

Conduction band
electron photon

Valence band Position in crystal

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Fermi level
Pauli exclusion principle: no more than two electrons in a system can occupy exactly the same energy level This means that, even at zero K, electrons will have energy levels above zero Energy levels are filled up to a maximum, called the Fermi level
Energy level

@zero Kelvin
Fermi level

Probability distribution function

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Fermi-Dirac distribution
Energy level E

As temperature T increases, some electrons start to occupy states above the Fermi level. This is represented by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function:

Increase T Fermi level Ef

f (E) =

1 1+ e
( E E f ) / kT
Probability distribution function f(E)
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k is Boltzmanns constant

Fermi-Dirac distribution and forbidden zone

Energy level E

Energy level Fermi level Ef

+ + + + +

Probability distribution function f(E)

Position in crystal
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Holes

Grid lock
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Doping: n-type
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si P Si Si
-

Si Si Si

Energy level -

Fermi level

Si
Position in crystal
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Doping: p-type
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si B Si Si
+

Si Si Si Si

Energy level Fermi level + + + + + + + + + + Position in crystal

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Insulators, semiconductors, conductors

Increasing conductivity Energy level

Fermi level

conductor insulator pure semiconductor doped semiconductor

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Conduction processes
+
Drift
Electric field

Diffusion
- - - - - - -

dn Current density: J e = q e n + qDe dx

Unit charge mobility Concentration of electrons diffusion coefficient
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Field strength

p-n junction
- n-type - + + - + + + - + - + - + + + + + - + + + + + - - Electron drift Hole drift Electron diffusion Hole diffusion

p-type

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p-n junction
- n-type - - - + + + + + + + + + + +

p-type

Depletion region

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p-n junction
- n-type - Charge density Electric field Poisson - - + + + + + + + + + + +

p-type

+ = ( / )dx
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Photogeneration at p-n junction

- - - - + + + + + + + + + + +

n-type

p-type

Electric field

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Photogeneration at p-n junction

- - - - + + + + + + + + + + +

n-type

p-type

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I-V curve
800 600 400 200 0
-0.5

PV cell I = I l I 0 [exp(qV / kT ) 1]

Current I /mA

-200 0 -400 -600 -800 -1000

0.5

1.5

diode load
Voltage V

k is Boltzmanns constant, q is the charge of an electron, T is absolute 25 temperature

Maximum power point

600 500

P=IV < max max load

0 0.5 1

Current I /mA

400 300 200 100 0

-0.5

-100

Voltage V
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Limitations to efficiency
Sunlight contains a spectrum of photons of varying energy E
If E<bandgap then the photon is useless If E>bandgap, then the excess energy becomes heat

Optical effects: reflections, incomplete absorption, shading by contacts .. Recombination

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Efficiencies achieved
30% 20% 10% 0 Commercial Si modules Multi-bandgap cells (not Si) Best lab cells of Si (concentrated sunlight) Best laboratory cells of Si (normal sunlight)

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Structure of PV Cell
Textured surface n-type (emitter) p-type (base) Bottom contact
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Burried contact

PV module
Glass cover Silicon PV cell Plastic support

seal frame

Individual cell
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Conclusions
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight directly into electricity They are made of doped semiconductor arranged to give a p-n junction The junction creates an electric field Light generates electrons and holes in the semiconductor These are separated by the field A current is thereby induced when the PV cell is connected in a circuit.
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