Heat Treatment for Steels:

Annealing: The process of annealing can be defined as a heating operation that permits the material to transform according to the equilibrium diagram. This process produces a coarser grain structure, which is more easily machined if the material is a low-carbon steel. Quenching: The absence of full annealing indicates a more rapid rate of cooling and the rate of cooling is the factor that determines the hardness of the material. A controlled cooling rate is called quenching. Oil and water are the two mediums used for quenching in which water is used for carbon, medium-carbon and low alloy steels. Oil quenching is a slow process but prevents cracks due to this process due to rapid expansion of the object being treated. Tempering: When a material specimen is fully hardened, it becomes brittle and hard and has high residual stresses. These can be relieved by a combination of methods of a modest heating process called stress relieving, or a combination of stress relieving and softening called tempering or drawing. Case Hardening: The purpose of case hardening is to produce a hard outer surface on a specimen of low-carbon steel while at the same time retaining the ductility and toughness in the core. Material Failure Theories: Ductile Materials (based on yield criteria): There are 3 failure theories namely, Maximum shear stress, Distortion energy and Ductile Coulomb-Mohr theory. Brittle Materials (based on fracture criteria): Maximum normal stress, Brittle Coulomb-Mohr and modified Mohr tests are the 3 tests.

1. The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins whenever the maximum Shear-stress in any element equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test for the same material when that specimen begins to yield. The MSS theory is also referred to as the Tresca or Guest theory. 2. The distortion energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension or compression of the same material. The Maximum normal stress theory states that when any one of the three stresses exceeds the strength, failure occurs. Hot Rolling, Cold working are also processes in which hardening of materials takes place. Hot Rolling is done on rollers and the material is heated and made into some special shapes and structural shapes like I section, C section, Zee section etc, can be made by Hot Rolling process. Cold working is a process in which the forming of materials takes place at relatively lower temperatures and is applicable to make sheet metal parts and wide flats. Cold Rolling and

drawing have the same effect upon the mechanical properties. The cold-working process does not change the grain size but merely distorts it. Drilling, Reaming and Milling operations: Milling is the machining process in which the removal of metal takes place due to the cutting action of a Revolving Cutter when the work is fed past it. Milling is generally done in two methods namely, Up Milling and Down Milling. The difference lies in the direction in which the cutter rotates relative to the motion of the work feed. *** Micro Milling: This is a relatively new concept in milling technology with a lot of research oriented approaches cropping in here. The basic concept of micro milling is to mill surfaces to ultra fine milling feeds and to get a high surface finish. The current trend towards product miniaturization is leading to a major increase in microtechnologies, including micro-milling. Although this technique is highly similar to conventional scale milling, the great reduction in dimensions (a scale of around 40/1) means that cutting phenomena and mechanisms appear that are hardly ever encountered on a conventional scale. Milling operations are Plain Slab Milling, Face Milling, Angular Milling, Form Milling, Straddle Milling and Gang Milling. 1. Plain Milling is used for machining a flat surface, parallel to the axis of the cutter by the use of a plan or slab milling cutter. 2. Face Milling is employed for machining a flat surface which is at right angles to the axis of the rotating cutter. 3. Angular Milling is the machining of a flat surface at an angle other than a right angle to the axis of the revolving cutter. 4. Form Milling is employed for machining those surfaces which are of irregular shapes. 5. Straddle Milling is a milling operation in which a pair of Side Milling cutters is used for machining two parallel vertical surfaces of a work piece simultaneously. 6. Gang Milling: It is the name of the milling operation which involves the use of a combination of more than two cutters, mounted on a common arbor for milling a number of flat horizontal and vertical surfaces of a work piece simultaneously. Drilling is an operation through which holes are produced in a solid metal by means of a revolving tool. Drilling machine operations are as follows: Drilling, Reaming, Boring, Counter Boring, Counter Sinking, Spot Facing and Tapping. Reaming: It is the operation of finishing a hole to bring it to the required accurate size and have a fine surface finish. Boring: It is an operation used for enlarging a hole to bring it to the required size and have a better finish. Boring operation on the boring machine are Facing, Counter boring, Counter sinking and Trepanning. Trepanning: It is an operation which is done when a very large hole is to be made in thin metal or when a very deep and large hole is to be made in a solid work piece.

Counter Boring: The operation used for enlarging only a limited portion of the hole is called Counter Boring. Counter Sinking: It is an operation for enlarging the end of a hole to give it a conical shape for a short distance. Spot Facing: This operation is used for squaring and finishing the surface around and at the end of a hole so that the same can provide a smooth and true seat to the underside of Bolt Heads or Collars. Tapping: It is the operation done for forming Internal threads by means of the tool called Tap. Grinding Operations and definitions: Grinding is a proces of removing material by the abrasive action of a revolving wheel on the surface of a work piece in order to bring it to the required shape and size. Grinding wheel materials are Abrasives and Bonds. Abrasives is that material which does the cutting part and Bond is that which acts as a binder to hold the abrasive grains together. Abrasives are of two types namely Natural abrasives and artificial abrasives. Natural abrasives are obtained directly from mines. The common abrasives are sand stone, emery, corundum, quartz and diamond. Artificial abrasives include Silicon Carbide, Aluminium Oxide and artificial diamonds. Bond Materials are the material used for holding firmly together the grains of the abrasive material. The principal bonds are Vitrified, Silicate, Oxychloride, Resinoid, Shellac and Rubber. Few details about the bond materials: Vitrified bonds generally is it a clay bond, reddish brown in color and the base material is called as Felspar, which is a fusible clay. Proper proportions of refractories and flux are added to it and mixed thoroughly. This mixture, together with the abrasive grains is fed into revolving drums containing water, where all the constituents mix together to form a paste. The entire process involves such that it provides desired consistency to the mixture, coats the abrasive grains with adequate bond and produces proper spacing between them. The paste is then placed in molds to get the shape of a wheel and air dried at room temperature. This causes the wheels to become hard and then are fed into a kiln and allowed to remain for some days with the inside temperature being 1260o C. This process called as fusing provides for uniform distribution of the bond throughout the wheel. After this, the wheels are trimmed to the required size. Silicate Bonds: It is a base material of silicate of soda. The processes of mixing, molding, packing, ramming, drying are done in the same for vitrified bond, but the oven carries a temperature of 260oC which is much lower than the kiln temperature for vitrified bonds. The application of lower temperature is to result a fairly high tensile strength. The other procedure is same as that for vitrified bonds for the difference in which the cool cutting action is due to the fat that this bond releases the abrasive grains more quickly than vitrified bond.

Oxy-Chloride Bonds: It is a mixture of oxide and chloride of magnesium and setting takes place in cold state. The process of wheel manufacture is similar to the above two but no heating and subsequent cooling is required on account of the cold setting property. Resinoid Bond: It is a synthetic organic compound, which is enough strong and flexible. It provides a sharp cutting action and enables a high rate of stock removal at high speeds. Resinoid bonded wheels are vastly employed for cutting bar stocks, fine grinding of cams, precision grinding of rolls,etc.

Grain or Grit: It denotes the approximate size of the abrasive particles and gives an idea of the coarseness or fineness of the grinding wheel. Grade: It indicates the strength of bond in a wheel, which is the power of the abrasive particles to hold together and resist disintegration under the cutting pressure. Structure: This term denotes the spacing between the abrasive grains, or in other words the density of the wheel. The proportion of the bond in a certain volume of the wheel effects the structure. A higher proportion will render an open structure and a lower proportion will lead to a closer structure.

Suitable coolants for various metals Material to be machined Aluminium Coolants to be used Soluble oil, sulphurized oil, Dry-kerosene, Turpentine Brass Soluble oil, Lard Oil Bronze Soluble oil, Lard Oil, Dry Cast Iron, Magnesium and synthetic plastic Usually Dry, Air Blasting Malleable Cast Iron Usually Dry, soluble oil, sulphurized oil Copper and Copper alloys, zinc Soluble Oil Steel Castings Soluble oil, aqueous solution of soda, sulphurized oil Mild, medium carbon, structural and tool steel Soluble oil, lard oil, mineral oil and soap solution Methods of Grinding: 1. Cylindrical Grinding means grinding of outside cylindrical and tapered surfaces. 2. Internal Grinding is a method to grind internal surfaces of cylindrical or tapered holes. 3. Surface is the method to grinding of horizontal flat surfaces. The wheel spindle can be horizontal or vertical. 4. Face grinding is to grind vertical flat surfaces.

5. Set wheel grinding for relatively short work pieces without changing the cross-setting of the wheel once set. 6. In-feed or plunge cut grinding is also for short work pieces but it involves the use, of grinding wheel having its face wider than the length of the surface to the ground and feeding the same into the work with no traversing motion of it. 7. Form grinding is a method of producing formed surfaces through grinding. The wheel face is given the desired shape by dressing and then fed on the work surface, as in case of thread grinding and gear teeth grinding. 8. Centre-less grinding is a method to grind the cylindrical external surfaces, in which the work is supported among a regulating wheel, a grinding wheel and a work rest blade. 9. Snagging is an operation used for grinding the gates, sprues and fins on castings, finishing forgings, and removing scale, imperfections and excess metal from steel billets and welded structures. 10. Off-hand grinding is a rough grinding method in which the work is held in hand and pressed against the rotating grinding wheel. 11. Sharpening cutting tools involves the sharpening of single point tools, milling cutters, drills, reamers, hobs, etc., which need regrinding quite often to provide them correct geometry, restore lost geometry and sharpen their cutting edges. 12. Creep feed grinding is a method in which soft grinding wheel is used. The wheel revolves in position while the work is fed past this revolving wheel at a very low speed. Many passes are avoided and the entire depth of material to be removed is removed in a single pass.

Differences between Jigs and Fixtures: A Jig is a special designed metal plate, box or fabricated structure on or into which the components are held, one after another, in identical positions to perform identical machining operations, in conformity with the previously laid specifications.

IMPORTANT: The Jig provides a positive and true identical location to all the successive components and guides the tool as well as the work in the some way in all the respective operations so that the machining is done in exactly the same manner in all the operations. Fixture does more or less the same work as a jig in that it holds and locates the successive work pieces in identical positions, but differs from a jig in that it does not guide and locate the tool. The tool has to be adjusted separately and a fixture is usually of a massive and heavier construction, than a jig and fixed or bolted to the table of the machine to ensure proper rigidity.

Important considerations in Jig and Fixture Design: The important factors are the following:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Type and capacity of the machine. Size, shape, weight etc., of the component. Method of loading and unloading the component and of clamping the component. Arrangement for perfectly locating the component and for indexing the part, if needed. One more thing is the arrangement for the proper guidance of tool, in case of a jig only. 5. Assessment of the required clearance between the jig or fixture