INTEGRATION

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2. i
3.

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5. | x x|
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7. | x|
8. | x x|
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10.
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i


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19. (

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Integration by substitution


Example:
2 5
( 3) x x dx +
}
.
Make the substitution
2
3 u x = +
We get:
5 5
1
2
xu dx u du =
} }

This gives:
6 2 6
1 1
12 12
( 3) u c x + = +



2
3 u x = +
1
2
2
2
So,
du
dx
x
du xdx
xdx du
=
=
=

Example 2: Use the substitution 2 1 t x = + to find
1
2 1
x
dx
x
+
+
}
.

Solution:
1 1 1
2
x x
dx dt
t t
+ +
=
} }

Since 2 1 t x = + ,
1
2
2 1 ( 1) x t x t = =
So we get
1
2
( 1) 1
2
t
dt
t

}





2 1 t x = +
2
dt
dx
=
1
2
2 dt dx
dx dt
=
=

Take the multipliers outside the integral:
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
1 1 1
4 4 4
( 1)
( 1)
t
dt t t dt t t dt
t

= =
} } }

This gives:
( )
3/ 2 1/ 2
1 2
4 3
2 t t c +
But 2 1 t x = + , so
( )
3/ 2 1/ 2
1 2
4 3
(2 1) 2(2 1) x x c + + + .
This expands to give:
3/ 2 1/ 2
1 1
6 2
(2 1) (2 1) x x c + + +

Definite integrals using a substitution
Find
2
2
0
4
x
xe
}
.
Use the substitution
2
u x = .
2
2 4
4
0
0 0
4 2 2
x u u
u
xe e du e
=
( = =
} }

=
4 0 4
2 2 2 2 e e e =
2
2
2
4 2
u x
du
x
dx
du xdx
xdx du
=
=
=
=


x = 0 u = 0
x = 2 u = 4

This column gives the calculations for
changing the dx to du:
Integration involving trigonometrical identities

Example: Using the identity given above
2
1 1 1
2 2 2
cos (1 cos2 ) ( sin2 ) xdx x dx x x c = + = + +
} }


Example 2: Find
3
sin xdx
}

Solution: We use the fact that
2 2
sin 1 cos x x =
So,
3 2 2
sin sin sin (1 cos )sin xdx x xdx x xdx = =
} } }

=
2
(sin sin cos ) x x x dx
}

=
2
sin sin cos xdx x xdx
} }


We now need to work out
2
sin cos x xdx
}

We use the substitution
cos sin sin
du
u x x du xdx
dx
= = =
So,
3
2 2
sin cos
3
u
x xdx u du

= =
} }

=
3
1
3
cos x

Therefore,
( )
3 3
1
3
sin cos cos xdx x x c

= +
}

=
3
1
3
cos cos x x c + +








Trigonometry
1. i i i
2. i i i
3. ii
4. ii
5.

6.

7. i i
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
i


13.

14.

15.

16.

i

17.

i

18.

19.
2
1
2
sin (1 cos 2 ) A A =

2
1
2
cos (1 cos 2 ) A A = +

Expressions for cos sin a b u u +
Example: Write 2cosx 3sinx in the form cos( ) R x o + .
Step 1: Write out the expansion of cos( ) R x o + :
cos( ) cos cos sin sin R x R x R x o o o + =
Step 2: Compare expressions:
cos 2 (1) and sin 3 (2) R R o o = =
Step 3: Find R (by eliminating ).
(1)
2
+ (2)
2
:
2 2 2 2 2
(cos sin ) 2 3 13 R o o + = + =


2
13 13 R R = =
Step 4: Find (by eliminating R):
(2)/(1):
tan 1.5 0.983 o o = =

Step 5: So, 2cosx 3sinx = 13 cos( 0.983) x +
We can now see that the maximum and minimum values of 2cosx 3sinx will be
13 and 13 respectively.
The maximum value occurs when
cos( 0.983) 1 x + =

So: x + 0.983 = 0 or 2
i.e. x = -0.983 or 5.30.


VECTORS
1. Lines
Equation of a Line: r = position + direction
Example:
r = I + 3j 2k + (j + 3k + i)
r = (

) (

)
Parametric Form:
x = 1 +
y = 3 +
z = -2 + 3
Cartesian Form:

Question: Find the equation of line L passing through A

and B

r = position + direction
Position vectors: OA

and OB

Direction vector AB = OB OA =

Therefore, r =

Question: Find the angle between

Matching the x-values gives: 2 - 3
Matching the y-vu giv: 4 -5 - 3
Matching the z-values gives: 1 - -5 -
Solving the first two simultaneous equations gives: , -3.
These values do work in the third equation therefore the lines meet.
Subiuig , -3 into the equation of lines gives the point of
intersection as being:
x = 0, y = 4, z = -2.
Therefore the lines meet at (0, 4, -2)
The angle between the lines is the angle between the direction vectors, so
using the scalar product we get,



Angle between two lines =

|| ||


Where a and b represent DIRECTIONS.




Example: a) Find the vector equation of line l1 passing through the points
A(1, -2, 6) and B(7, 1, -3).
b) A second line l2 has equation
( 2 3 ) (4 6 2 ) s = + + + + r i j k i j k .
Show that line l1 and l2 are skew and find the angle between the lines.

Solution:
a) The direction of the line is
7 1 6
1 2 3
2 6 8
AB
| | | | | |
| | |
= = =
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
b a .
The line passes through (1, -2, 6), so the equation is
1 6
2 3
6 8
r t
| | | |
| |
= +
| |

\ . \ .
.
b) T hw i r kw w hw hy ir. W d hi by
writing the two vector equations equal to each other and attempting to solve
the equations:
1 6 1 4
2 3 2 6
6 8 3 2
t s
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
+ = +
| | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ .

NOTE: It is ESSENTIAL that the lines are written with different parameters.





We can form equations:
6 4 6 4s = 0 (1)
-2 + 3t = 2 6 3 6 4 ()
6 8 3 8 3 (3)
Solving equations (1) and (2):
6t 4s = 0 (1)
6t + 12s = 8 (2) 2
Subtract equations to remove t: 16s = 8
So s = 0.5.
From equation (1), we then get t = 1/3.

To show they are skew lines, we must check that these values do not work in
the 3
rd
equation:
1
3
8 2 8 2 0.5 3 t s + = + =
Therefore the lines are skew.

We find the angle between the direction vectors:
6 4
3 . 6 24 18 16 10
8 2
| | | |
| |
= =
| |

\ . \ .

6
3 36 9 64 109
8
= + + =

and
4
6 56
2
=
So 10 109 56 cosu =
Therefore cos 0.12799 97.4 u u = = So the acute angle is 82.6.
2. Planes
Equation of a Plane = r.n = a.n = d
Where: r = position vector of a general point =

n = normal to the plane
a = position vector of a point on the plane




Question: Find the equation of a plane given the points A

; B

; C

Step 1. Find n.
n is found by calculating the CROSS PRODUCT of any two DIRECTION vectors
PARALLEL TO THE PLANE.

AB = OB OA =

; AC = OC OA =

n = AB AC =

r.

= -13








Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the plane passing through the points (2,
0, -1), (3, 1, 2) and (1, 2, 5).
Finding a normal vector using the vector product
We start by finding the vector product of the two direction vectors:

1
1
3
| |
|
|
|
\ .
1
2
6
| |
|

|
|
\ .
=
0
1 1
1 2 1 1 1 1
det 1 2 0 9 3 9
3 6 3 6 1 2
3 6
3
| |
| |

|
|
= + = + =
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
i
j i j k i j k
k

This normal vector gives the coefficients of x, y and z in the equation of the plane.
Therefore we know that the plane has equation
0x 9y + 3z = d.

Substitute in the coordinates of one of the points, e.g. (1, 2, 5), to get -18 + 15 =
d
i.e. d = -3
So the planes has equation -9y + 3z = -3
OR 3y z = 1












Example: Find the line of intersection of the planes 2x y + 2z = -6; x + 2y + z = 2
Solution:
Because there are 3 unknowns but only two equations, we introduce a parameter
t. The equations then are
2x y + 2z = -6
x + 2y + z = 2
z = t
Substituting the 3
rd
equation into the top two equations and rearranging gives:
2x y = -6 2t (1)
x + 2y = 2 t (2)
Multiply the top equation by 2:
4x 2y = -12 4t
x + 2y = 2 t
Add to eliminate y:
5x = -10 5t i.e. x = -2 t.
Substitute this into equation (1):
2(-2 t) y = -6 2t
-4 2t = -6 2t + y
y = 2.
The solutions therefore are x = -2 - t, y = 2 and z = t.


Writing this in vector form, we get:

2 2 1
2 2 0
0 1
x t
y t
z t
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
= = +
| | | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .

i.e.
2 1
2 0
0 1
t
| | | |
| |
= +
| |
| |
\ . \ .
r

This is the equation of a line through the point (-2, 2, 0), in the direction of the
vector
1
0
1
| |
|
|
|
\ .
.
























Question: Finding the intersection of a plane and a line.
There are several possibilities:
- the line could lie within the plane;
- the line could intersect the plane at a single point;
- the line could be parallel to the plane.

Example: Investigate which of the three situations above applies with the
line
5 9 1
1 6 2
x y z
= =

and the plane 2x y + 4z = 5.

Solution: To investigate this situation, it is simplest if we have the equation of
the line in vector form and the equation of the plane in Cartesian form (which
it is already).
The vector equation of the line is:
5 1
9 6
1 2
x
y t
z
| | | | | |
| | |
= +
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

i.e. x = 5 t; y = 9 + 6t; z = 1 + 2t
Substituting these into the equation of the plane gives:
2x y + 4z = 5
2(5 t) (9 + 6t) + 4(1 + 2t) = 5
10 2t 9 6t + 4 + 8t = 5
5 = 5

This equation is true for all values of t. Therefore the line must lie within the
plane.


The angle between two planes is the same as the angle between the two normal
vectors.

Example: Find the acute angle between the planes with equations:
3 1
. 0 2 and . 2 1
1 5
| | | |
| |
= =
| |
| |

\ . \ .
r r

Solution: The equations of the planes are 3x + 0y z = 2 and x + 2y + 5z = -1.
The normal vectors are
3 1
0 and 2
1 5
| | | |
| |
| |
| |

\ . \ .
.
The scalar product is:
3 1
0 . 2 (3 1) (0 2) ( 1 5) 2
1 5
| | | |
| |
= + + =
| |
| |

\ . \ .

The magnitudes are:
3 1
0 9 0 1 10 and 2 1 4 25 30
1 5
| | | |
| |
= + + = = + + =
| |
| |

\ . \ .

Substituting into the formula a.b=abcos gives:

2
2 10 30 cos cos 96.6
10 30
u u u

= = =

The acute angle between these planes therefore is:
180 96.6 = 83.4

.




To find the angle between a plane and a line, there are 2 steps:
Step 1: Find the angle between the normal vector and the direction vector of the
line;
Step 2: Subtract the angle from step 1 from 90 in order to get the angle
required.

Example: Find the angle between the line
2 3
2 1 1
x y z +
= =

and the plane

4
. 3 5
2
| |
|
=
|
|

\ .
r .
Solution:
First we find the angle between the vectors
2 4
1 and 3
1 2
| | | |
| |
| |
| |

\ . \ .
:

2 4
1 . 3 8 3 2 13
1 2
| | | |
| |
= + + =
| |
| |

\ . \ .


2
1 4 1 1 6
1
= + + =

4
3 16 9 4 29
2
= + + =

Therefore: 13 6 29 cos 9.76 u u = =

So the angle between the plane and the line is 90 9.76 = 80.2.




Example: Find the perpendicular distance from the point P(3, 5, 2) to the line with
equation
2 1
3 1
1 4
t
| | | |
| |
= +
| |
| |

\ . \ .
r .
Solution:
The line passes through the point A(2, 3, -1) and has direction i j + 4k.

Let Q be the closest point on the line to P.
Then PQ is perpendicular to the direction of the line.

As Q lies on the line, the position vector of Q will take the form:

2 1 2
3 1 3
1 4 1 4
t
OQ t t
t
+ | | | | | |
| | |
= + =
| | |
| | |
+
\ . \ . \ .

for some t.
Therefore
2 3 1
3 5 2
1 4 2 3 4
t t
PQ t t
t t
+ + | | | | | |
| | |
= = =
| | |
| | |
+ +
\ . \ . \ .
q p .






P(3, 5, 2)
Q
A(2, 3, -1)
\
|

1
1
4 .
|
|

Since PQ is perpendicular to the direction of the line, we have:

1 1
2 . 1 0
3 4 4
1 2 12 16 0
18 11
11
18
t
t
t
t t t
t
t
+ | | | |
| |
=
| |
| |
+
\ . \ .
+ + + + =
=
=


So, by substituting this value for t into the expression for PQ, we get

11
18
11
18
44
18
1 7
1
2 47
18
10 3
PQ
+ | | | |
|
|
= =
|
|
|
|
+
\ .
\ .


The shortest distance from point P to the line is the magnitude of this vector:


7
1 1
47 49 2209 100 2.70
18 18
10
PQ

= = + + =

P(3, 5, 2)
Q (x, y, z)
3x - 2y + z = 4
Example: Find the perpendicular distance from the point P(3, 5, 2) to the plane
with equation
3x 2y + z = 4

Solution:
Let Q be the foot of the perpendicular from point P to
the plane.
Then PQ will be perpendicular to the plane.

However, the normal vector
3
2
1
| |
|

|
|
\ .
is a vector
perpendicular to the plane. So

3
2
1
PQ t
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
.
Therefore the equation of the line PQ is

3 3
5 2
2 1
t
| | | |
| |
= +
| |
| |
\ . \ .
r .

We can find the coordinates of Q by seeing where this line intersects the plane 3x
2y + z = 4.
Substituting x = 3 + 3t, y = 5 2t, z = 2 + t into the equation of the plane, gives:
3(3 + 3t) 2(5 2t) + (2 + t) = 4
9 + 9t 10 + 4t + 2 + t = 4
1 + 14t = 4
So
3
14
t = .

So the vector PQis
3
14
3
2
1
PQ
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
.

Therefore the perpendicular distance from P to the plane is

3 3
14 14
3
2 9 4 1 0.802.
1
PQ = = + + =






















You need to learn the following formula for finding the shortest distance between
two skew lines:

If two lines
1 2
and l l are given by
1 1 2 2
and t s = + = + r a b r a b respectively, the shortest
distance d between
1 2
and l l is given by:

2 1
( ).
d

=
a a n
n
where
1 2
= n b b

Example: Find the shortest distance between the lines
2 1 3 2
3 1 and 1 2
5 2 1 3
t s
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
= + = +
| | | |
| | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ .
r r

Solution:

1 2 1
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 7
2 3 2 3 1 2
2 3
2 3 4
| | | | | |

| | |
= = = + =
| | |
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
i
n j i j k
k


2 1
3 2 1 1 1
( ). 1 3 . 7 4 . 7 1 28 24 53
1 5 4 6 4
( | | | | | | | | | |
( | | | | |
= = = =
( | | | | |
| | | | |
(
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .

a a n
Therefore the shortest distance is

53
53
6.52
1 49 16 66

= =
+ +





Angle between two planes =

|| ||


Angle between a line and a plane =

|| ||


Direction Vector of LINE between two planes: n1 x n2

Distance of a point from a plane:
||

Where (x, y, z) represent the coordinates of the point.
And (a, b, c, d) represent the points and direction of the plane.

If two lines
1 2
and l l are given by
1 1 2 2
and t s = + = + r a b r a b respectively, the shortest
distance d between
1 2
and l l is given by:

2 1
( ).
d

=
a a n
n
where
1 2
= n b b










DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example 1:
Solve
2
dy x
dx y
=

Solution: We first separate out the variables:
2
ydy x dx =
Inserting integral signs we get:

2
ydy x dx =
} }

Integrating both sides:
2 3
2 3
y x
c = +
So:
3
2
2
3
x
y c = +













Example 2:
Solve ( 1)
dy
x y
dx
= +

Solution: Separate out the variables:
1
1
dy xdx
y
=
+

Put in integral signs:
1
1
dy xdx
y
=
+
} }

Therefore:
2
1
2
ln( 1) y x c + = +
Take exponentials:
2 1
2
1
x c
y e
+
+ =

2 2 1 1
2 2
1
x x
y e e Ae + = =
So
2 1
2
1
x
y Ae =










Example: Solve the differential equation (3 )
dy
x y y
dx
= where x = 2 when y = 2, giving y as a
function of x.
Solution: Separate out the variables:
1 1
(3 )
dy dx
y y x
=

Insert integral signs:
1 1
(3 )
dy dx
y y x
=

} }

We need to use partial fractions to integrate the LHS:
1 (3 )
(3 ) 3 (3 )
A B y A By
y y y y y y
+
= + =


So: 1 (3 ) y A By = +
Put y = 3: 1 = 3B So B = 1/3
Put y = 0: 1 = 3A So A = 1/3
So: ( )
1 1 1 1
(3 ) 3 3
1
ln ln(3 )
3
1
ln
3 3
dy dy
y y y y
y y
y
y
(
= +
(


=
| |
=
|

\ .
} }

So:
1 1/ 3 1/ 3 1 1 1
(3 ) (3 ) 3 3 y y y y y y
(
= + = +
(



But
1
ln dx x c
x
= +
}


So the overall solution to the differential equation is

1
ln ln ln 3ln 3
3 3 3
y y
x c x c
y y
| | | |
= + = +
| |

\ . \ .

So:
3
3 ln 3 3
ln ln 3
3 3
x c
y y
x c e Ax
y y
+
| |
= + = =
|

\ .

This rearranges to give:
3
3
3
1
Ax
y
Ax
=
+

COMPLEX NUMBERS
A complex number can be expressed in different forms:
Cartesian form: z = a + ib
Modulus-argument form: (cos sin ) z r i u u = +
where r is the modulus of the complex number
d i h rgum f h mx umbr, uuy xrd i
radians.
Exponential form:
i
z re
u
=
where r is the modulus of the complex number
d is the argument of the complex number, usually expressed in
radians.

MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING COMPLEX NUMBERS EXPRESSED IN
MODULUS-ARGUMENT FORM
Suppose that (cos sin ) z r i u u = + and (cos sin ) w s i | = + .
Then
(cos( ) sin( )) zw rs i u | u | = + + +
This result says that when we multiply two complex numbers, we multiply
the two moduli together and add the arguments.
Also (cos( ) sin( ))
r
z w i
s
u | u | = +
This result says that when we divide two complex numbers, we divide the
two moduli together and subtract the arguments.

DE MOIVRES THEOREM
Suppose that (cos sin ) z r i u u = + .
Then
(cos sin )
n n
z r n i n u u = +



























DIFFERENTIATION
Trigonometric differentiation:
(sin ) cos
d
x x
dx
=

( )
cos( ) sin
d
x x
dx
=

( )
2
tan sec
d
x x
dx
=

( )
sin( ) cos( )
d
ax b a ax b
dx
+ = +

( )
cos( ) sin( )
d
ax b a ax b
dx
+ = +

( )
2
tan( ) sec ( )
d
ax b a ax b
dx
+ = +











Examples:
(sin(2 )) 2cos2
d
x x
dx
=
;
(cos(4 )) 4sin(4 )
d
x x
dx
t t =


Example: Find the location of the stationary points for the curve
sin
x
y e x

=
.

Solution: First we differentiate using the product rule:
sin cos
x x
dy
e x e x
dx

= +

Stationary points occur where
0
dy
dx
=
, i.e. where
( sin cos ) 0
x
e x x

+ =
.
0 so sin cos 0
x
e x x

= + =

Therefore
sin cos OR tan 1 x x x = =

So
5 9
4 4 4
or or ... x
t t t
=







Implicit Differentiation
A fui i giv i imii frm if i h b wri i h frm y .

Note that:
2
2
2
( )
2
( )
2 using the product rule
d y dy
y
dx dx
d x y dy
xy x
dx dx
=
= +


Example: Find the equation of the normal to
3 2 3
4 1 0 x xy y + + =
at the
point (2, -1).

Solution: Differentiate term by term with respect to x:
3
2
( )
3
d x
x
dx
=

2
2
(4 )
4 4 2
d xy dy
y x y
dx dx
= +

3
2
( )
3
d y dy
y
dx dx
=

(1)
0
d
dx
=

Therefore:
2 2 2
3 4 8 3 0 0
dy dy
x y xy y
dx dx
+ + =

So:
( )
2 2 2
3 8 4 3
dy
y xy y x
dx
=

i.e.
( )
2 2
2
4 3
3 8
dy y x
dx
y xy

When x = 2 and y = -1:

( )
( )
4 1 3 4
8
3 1 8 2 1 19
dy
dx


= =


The gradient of the normal is:
8
19
1 19
8

=

So equation is:
19
8
y x c = +

Put in x = 2, y = -1:
19
1 (2) 5.75
8
c c = + =

So equation is
2.375 5.75 y x =





















Parametric Differentiation
Example: If
3cos , 2sin x y u u = =
, then:

3sin , 2cos
dx dy
d d
u u
u u
= =

So:
2cos 2
cot
3sin 3
dy
dx
u
u
u
= =

Example 2: A curve, C, is given by
3
2 3, 4 x t y t t = + =
.
A is the point (1, 3). Line l is the tangent to C at A. The line l also intersects the
curve at B.
a) Find the equation of l.
b) Find the value of t at B.

a)
2
2
3 4
2, 3 4
2
dx dy dy t
t
dt dt dx

= = =

We need to know the value of t at A. The x value is given by 2t + 3, so 2t + 3 =
1 i.e. t = -1.

Therefore the gradient at A is:
2
3( 1) 4 1
2 2
dy
dx

= =

So equation of tangent is
1
2
y x c

= +

Substitute in x = 1, y = 3:
1
3 1 3.5
2
c c

= + =

Therefore the equation of l is
0.5 3.5 y x = +


b) To see where the tangent intersects the curve, we substitute
3
2 3, 4 x t y t t = + =
into the equation of l:
3 3
4 0.5(2 3) 3.5 4 2 t t t t t t = + + = +

So:
3
3 2 0 t t =

This factorises:
2
( 1)( 2) 0 ( 1)( 1)( 2) 0 t t t t t t + = + + =

So t = 2 is the required value.


















LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Exponential functions
Exponential growth:
kx
y Ae =
(k > 0)


Exponential decay:
kx
y Ae

=
(k > 0)


Logarithmic functions:
The inverse of the exponential function is the natural logarithm. To get the graph
of , we reflect the graph of in the line y = x.

x
-4 -2 2 4
y
-10
-5
5
10



x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
y
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
y
Differentiation results:
( )
x x
d
e e
dx
=
( )
ax b ax b
d
e ae
dx
+ +
=

1
(ln )
d
x
dx x
=

(ln( ))
d a
ax b
dx ax b
+ =
+


Integration results:
x x
e dx e c = +
}

1
ax b ax b
e dx e c
a
+ +
= +
}
1
ln dx x c
x
= +
}

1 1
ln( ) dx ax b c
ax b a
= + +
+
}


Properties of logarithms:
ln1 0 =

ln 1 e =

ln ln ln( ) a b ab + =

( )
ln ln ln
a
a b
b
=

ln ln
n
n a a =






Trapezium rule
To approximate an integral, such as ( )
b
a
f x dx
}
, we can divide the area into n strips.
Then
b a
h
n

= is the width of each strip.

The formula for the trapezium rule is:
( )
0 1 2 1
( ) 2( ... )
2
b
n n
a
h
f x dx y y y y y

~ + + + + +
}
.
Example: Find an approximation for
2
1
1
x
e dx

}
using the trapezium rule with 6
coordinates.

Solution:
1 ( 1)
0.4
5
h

= =



So,
( )
0.4
( ) 2.718 2.718 2(1.433 1.041 1.041 1.433)
2
b
a
f x dx ~ + + + + +
}






x -1 -0.6 -0.2 0.2 0.6 1
y 2.718 1.433 1.041 1.041 1.433 2.718

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Example 1: Two different factors in the denominator-

3 4
( 1)(3 5)
x
x x

Step 1: Write it as:
1 3 5
A B
x x
+


Step 2: Combine these two fractions:

(3 5) ( 1)
( 1)(3 5)
A x B x
x x
+


Step 3: Form an identity by comparing the tops of our fractions:
3 4 (3 5) ( 1) x A x B x = +
Step 4: Find A and B by substituting in chosen values for x:
If x = 1: -1 = -2A So A = 0.5
If x = 5/3: 1 =
2
3
B So B = 1.5
Step 5: Therefore:

3 4 0.5 1.5
( 1)(3 5) 1 3 5
x
x x x x

= +



We can use this form to work out the integral:
3 4 0.5 1.5
( 1)(3 5) 1 3 5
1 1
0.5 1.5
1 3 5
x
dx dx
x x x x
dx dx
x x
| |
= +
|

\ .
= +

} }
} }

1.5
0.5ln( 1) ln(3 5)
3
0.5ln( 1) 0.5ln(3 5)
x x c
x x c
= + +
= + +

Example: Find the quotient and remainder when
4 3
2 4 7 1 x x x + + is divided by
2
2 x + .
2
2 4 3 2
4 3 2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2 4 4
0 2 2 4 0 7 1
2 0 4
4 4 7
4 0 8
4 15 1
4 0 8
15 9
x x
x x x x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x
x x
x

+ + + + +
+ + +
+
+
+ +
+
+
The quotient is
2
2 4 4 x x and the remainder is 15x + 9.

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Sometimes curves are defined in terms of a parameter (usually t or ).
Example: A curve is defined by the equations
2
1, x t y t t = = + . Sketch the curve for values of t from -3
to 2.
Step 1: Produce a table of values:
t -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
y 6 2 0 0 2 6
Step 2: Plot the values of y against x.
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1
y
-2
2
4
6
8
10
2
1, x t
y t t
=
= +

CONVERTING PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS TO CARTESIAN FORM
We can eliminate a parameter from a parametric equation to give it in Cartesian form.

Example:
2
1, x t y t t = = +
We know that t = x + 1.
Substituting this into the equation for y:

2 2
( 1) ( 1) 2 1 1 y x x x x x = + + + = + + + +
2
3 2 x x = + +
Example 2:
2
2sin , 3cos x y u u = =
We use the result that
2 2
sin cos 1 u u + = .
But:
2
2
sin
x
u =

( )
2 2
2
3 9
cos
y y
u = =
Therefore:
2
1
2 9
x y
+ = \
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
2 3
( 1) ( 1)( 2)
(1 ) 1 ...
2! 3!
n
n n n n n
x nx x x

+ = + + + +
Example 3:
-1
1
(3- )
3-
x
x
=
We cant yet use the binomial expansion formula as it isnt in the form (1 ...)
n
+
To get it in the correct form:

( )
1
-1 1 1 1
1
3 3 3 3
(3- ) 3(1 ) 3 (1 ) (1 )
x x x
x


= = =

So,
( ) ( )
( )
2
1
1 1
3 3 3 3 3
3
3
( 1)( 2)
(1 ) 1 ( 1)
2
( 1)( 2)( 3)
...
6
x x x
x

|
= + +

\
|
+ +
|
.

=
( )
3 2
1
3 3 9 27
1 ...
x x x
+ + + +

=
2 3
1
3 9 27 81
...
x x x
+ + + +

This expansion is valid if 3
1 1
x
< <
, i.e. if
3 3 x < <