Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources (Proceedings of the Harare Symposium, July 1984). IAHS Publ. no.

144.

Solar powered groundwater pumping for medium heads*

PETER R, B . WARD

Peter Ward & Associates, 1155 West Georgia Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6E 3H4

WILLIAM G. DUNF0RD
Department of British of Electrical Engineering, University Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

ABSTRACT The engineering requirements for pumping water for village, agricultural and National Parks' supply at remote locations are examined. The progressive cavity pump, which is already very widely used in Africa for groundwater pumping is shown to be well adapted to solar power because of its flexibility. The use of a DC-DC converter to allow the electric motor to develop sufficient torque to overcome the starting requirements of the progressive cavity pump is described. The economics of powering pumps in remote locations by solar rather than by diesel power are examined. The cost of using solar power is shown to be about the same as using diesel power. In view of the reliability of solar-powered pumping, and the fact that a significant part of the system can be manufactured locally, it is expected that this option will become more popular in the future. Pompage d'eau souterraine, sous charge hydraulique moyenne a l'aide d'nergie solaire RESUME Les exigences de gnie civil lies au pompage hydraulique pour les besoins de villages, de centres agricoles, ou de parcs nationaux situs dans les endroits plus recules du Zimbabwe, sont tudies. Ile est dmontr, dans cette tude, que la pompe cavit progressive, dj trs utilise en Afrique pour le pompage de l'eau souterraine, s'adapte trs bien une source d'nergie solaire. Il est aussi dmontr que l'utilisation d'un convertisseur CC-CC (de courant continu courant continu) aide le moteur lectrique dvelopper un couple suffisant pour surmonter les exigences initiales de la pompe cavit progressive. Une brve comparaison conomique de l'utilisation de l'nergie solaire vis--vis l'nergie diesel comme source nergtique de pompes hydrauliques est aussi prsente. Il est dmontr que le cot de l'utilisation de l'nergie solaire est peu prs le mme que celui de l'nergie diesel. Etant donn que le pompage base d'nergie solaire est un systme prouv et qu'une bonne partie de l'quipement peut tre construite localement, on prvoit que cette option sera plus populaire dans un futur immdiat. Work supported by the National Research DSS contract no. OlSX.31926-3-3030. Council of Canada under 249

250 Peter

R.B.Ward

& William

G.Dunford

INTRODUCTION
Solar powered pumping of groundwater using photovoltaic cells has recently become a viable alternative to diesel powered pumping. The main factors that affect the competitiveness of solar powered over diesel powered pumping are that the solar insolation should be large year round, and that diesel fuel should be expensive. These requirements are satisfied in many African countries. For a variety of reasons a significant part of the development and agriculture in the tropics has taken place on the high plateaux away from the major river valleys. Groundwater tables are a significant distance (10-70 m) below surface, resulting in a requirement for pumps that can work efficiently at medium and large heads. Pumps working well under these conditions are available and are typically driven by diesel motors at remote sites. Solar-powered drive systems are in their embryonic stages and a small number of North American and European manufacturers are starting to offer such systems. We discuss first the market potential for stand-alone (non-grid power) pumps in Zimbabwe. Then we examine the torque requirements of pumps used for medium head pumping and discuss the techniques available for driving these pumps with photovoltaic arrays. Finally the economics of solar-powered pumping under current cost conditions are examined.

USE OF PUMPS AT REMOTE SITES

Number of installations

Estimating the total number of pumps used for domestic and agricultural supply in Zimbabwe is difficult because of a lack of hard data. However, as a result of persistent questioning of people in the water and pump supply business and in government, an approximate estimate was made. Mono Pumps (Zimbabwe) Ltd, who manufacture and sell an extremely successful rotary screw (progressive cavity) pump for medium and high head applications have sold 45 000 pumps in the last 20 years. Mono supplies 60% of the agricultural and domestic market in Zimbabwe, and assuming most of the pumps sold since 1962 are still in use, and that the number of pumps more than 20 years old is small, there may be 75 000 pumps in the country. A majority of these are powered by electric motors operating on grid electricity, and a small percentage (about 3%) are driven by diesel engines. Estimates by Ministry of Water Development (Jeff Vandell, personal communication) are that there are 1 to 5 diesel-powered pumps working at government posts for community water supply in each of the approximately 100 Communal Lands in Mashonaland. Thus about 300 pumps may be in use in Mashonaland for this application. Pumps in use for community water supplies at remote locations in other parts of the country, diesel-powered pumps used for irrigation water pumping at remote sites on commercial farms, and pumps used in National Parks for supplying water holes (about 100 pumps in Wankie National Park) may total at least 1 700. Thus at least 2 000 dieselpowered pumps may be presently in use in Zimbabwe.

Solar Head and flow requirements

powered

groundwater

pumping 251

The pumping requirements for Zimbabwean conditions (frequent deep water tables, fractured crystalline rocks) are clearly different from, for example, the requirements for water pumping from a river flood plain in the humid tropics. The emphasis in the Sir William Halcrow report (1981) was on testing systems that would deliver 1-3 1 s~ (36-108 m3per 10-h day) at heads much smaller than the range applying to most boreholes in Zimbabwe. Discussions with Groundwater Branch staff (Dr P.Wurzel and L.Hindson) working for the Chief Hydrological Engineer at Ministry of Water Resources gave some useful guidelines. For 125-150 mm diameter boreholes in granite terrain, a yield of about 2.5 m 3 h _ 1 may be expected from a good borehole. Water surface differences between the level in the borehole and the level in the supply tank are typically 35-70 m. In exceptional cases, e.g. Forest Sandstone (Nyamandhlovu aquifer), yields of 35 m 3 h - 1 may be expected (Wurzel, 1981). Mashonaland Province Branch of Ministry of Water Resources (M.Tumbare, personal communication) finds that for rural villages with water supplies to a central point a typical consumption of 50 1 per person per day applies. Thus a borehole supplying 2.5 m per 10-h day would provide enough water for a population of about 500. For a National Parks waterhole, assuming a mean daily evaporation of 5 mm (and ignoring other losses), a flow of 50 m3day~ would be enough to supply a pan of area 0.5 ha. These numbers for village populations, and areas of pans, are of the right order of magnitude for Zimbabwean conditions, so a system supplying 2.5 m 3 h - 1 per 10-h day at heads of 35-70 m would suit requirements in this country. For pumps which are down the well, motors may be submersible, where the pump and motor are small enough to fit inside the borehole and be permanently under water. If the motors are not submersible they are mounted on top of the borehole, and drive the pump (which is under water) using a long shaft. The latter design is very popular in Zimbabwe. Several such pumps are manufactured and sold by Mono Pumps (Zimbabwe) Ltd. Their pumps work upon the progressive cavity principle, using a steel helical drive staft, turning in an outer rubber jacket, shaped in the form of a double helix (see Fig.l). Pumps of this type work well at low speeds, as well as the design speed and the discharge is approximately proportional to the speed. Provided the pump is run over the correct range of heads (15-100 m ) , the efficiency is high. These pumps are driven by a diesel engine, with the power transmitted by belts to the pump drive shaft, or by an electric motor. Progressive cavity pumps work very well indeed under solar power because they continue to pump water against a medium or large head when working at one half or even one quarter of the design speed. Because of a long tradition of using other kinds of pumps for groundwater pumping in North America, the adoption of solar-powered progressive cavity pumps there is only just starting. The efficiency of a small progressive cavity pump (45-60% is about the same as that of a small, multistage centrifugal pump.

252 Peter

R.B.Ward

S William

G.Dun ford

!..

'- ..'^"~,
1

' "

' -

. -

:-

Rotor

n*^

Rotor with cut - away Stator

FIG.1

Progressive

cavity

pump.

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
Required power

A well designed pumping system has the following efficiency targets (Sir William Halcrow, 1981): Electric motor 85% Pump 55% Pipe work 95% Thus the conversion of electrical to pumped water energy with a good system is with an overall efficiency e that is the product of these, i.e. about 45%. The power required to lift water is given by the product of the specific weight of water y, times the discharge Q, times the head difference h, divided by the efficiency e. Thus: Power required = yQh/e Using Y
=

9800 kg m~ 2 s - 2 , e = 0.45, h = 35 m and assuming Q = For a head difference of

3 1

2.5 m h , the power required is 0.52 kW. 70 m, the required power will be 1.05 kW.

Solar

powered

groundwater

pumping

253

Conversion of solar energy to electric power is typically at fairly low efficiencies. For example, the best efficiencies currently for photovoltaic cells are about 11%. Thus the gross efficiency of a good photovoltaic cell driven water pumping system is about 4-5%. With about 1 kW per m solar irradiation under clear conditions in Zimbabwe, the required area of photovoltaic cells to
31

produce 2.5 m h at a head of 35 m would thus be 10.5 m . Solar thermal systems on the market currently offer even lower overall efficiencies. The Rankine cycle system using Freon working fluids that was tested in the Sir William Halcrow study (1981) gave overall efficiencies of 1-2%.

Pumps

Several important requirements apply to pumps for solar-powered pumping. These are: (a) The pump should be designed to operate efficiently at the range of heads that apply in the borehole in which it is to be used. (b) The pump should work well at a range of speeds, because there will be instances during the day when the solar power supplied is well below maximum (early and later in the day, cloudcover, etc.) (c) The pump should either be submerged or be sufficiently close to the water surface that it will self prime. The Sir William Halcrow study rated the choice of pump as the single most influential factor in good small-scale photovoltaic pumping system design. In that study a number of surface-mounted pumps relying on suction up the intake pipe from the well were tested in addition to submerged down-the-well designs. A significant amount of trouble was reported from the operation of the surfacemounted pumps, due to priming failure, and the presence of air in the pump impeller. In Zimbabwean conditions,where the water table is generally greater than 5 m below surface, use of this design is infeasible. Pumps are commonly rated by their specific speed. This is defined by:

in which N is speed of rotation (revs/min), Q is design discharge, and H is design head. In metric units Q and H are specified in values of m min- and m respectively. Pumps suitable for large flow rates lifted through small heads have a large value of N s , and pumps for small flows lifted through large heads have a small value of N s . Propeller (axial flow) pumps are for large values of N s , centrifugal pumps are for medium values of N s and progressive cavity pumps are for small values of N s , see Fig.2. Multi-stage centrifugal pumps and jack pumps are also used for low specific speed applications. The maximum head produced by a single stage centrifugal pump is approximately computed from (Daugherty & Franzini, 1965) :

254 Peter

R.B.Ward

S William

G.Dunford

NTO"

Propellor pumps

Specific speed

Ns =

N4Q

where

N = speed of rotation (revs/min) Q = discharge (m3/min) H = head (m)

FIG.2 pump. Shut-off head =

Specific

speeds

of

the

several

types

of

turbo

(2iTnr)' 2g

in which N is frequency of rotation, r is radius of periphery of impeller, and g is gravitational acceleration. With a value for n of 2000 rpm, and a maximum value for r of 75 mm (determined by borehole diameter), the maximum head produced by a single stage centrifugal pump is about 12 m. Thus a large number of stages are required for medium and large head pumping with centrifugal pumps. Figure 3 shows the array for powering a multi-stage centrifugal pump under test at Ministry of Water Resources Workshops, Cranborne, Harare. The torque vs. speed characteristics of the various kinds of pump

FIG.3 900 fixed angle photo-voltaic system, by Ministry of Water Resources, Cranborne.

under

test

Solar

powered

groundwater

pumping 255

must be carefully considered. Centrifugal pumps have a torque requirement which goes approximately with the second power of speed. Progressive cavity pumps, (see Fig.4) have a flat torque curve (independent of speed) over the whole working range, with a sharp peak torque required for start-up. Jack pumps require a sinusoidal power Input because of the reciprocating nature of the motion. When this sinusoidal motion is smoothed (say with a flywheel), then the torque requirement is approximately independent of speed. These torque curves mean that the pumps concerned may or may not be suitable for direct connection of a photo-voltaic array/electric motor drive. The progressive cavity pump is unsuitable for connection to a DC motor directly linked to an array for reasons explained below. Either a gearbox is required, or the characteristics of the electricity supplying the motor must be changed. In the next section the use of a DC-DC converter for supplying a permanent magnet DC motor driving a small Mono progressive cavity pump is described.

Pump speed (revs/min)

FIG.4 cavity

Torque vs. speed relationship, pump (Mono P32 pump, at 20C.).

progressive

Matching Summaries of the physics of electricity production by single crystal silicon photovoltaic cells are to be found in many sources (e.g. Maycock & Stirewalt, 1981). Typically the energy conversion efficiency of the latest photovoltaic array panels is about 11%. The better brands of PV cells are guaranteed for 5 years, with life expectancies up to 20 years in normal use. The electrical characteristics of photovoltaic cells are governed by the intensity of solar radiation (Fig.5). The output current is seen to be almost directly proportional to the light intensity, whereas the output voltage reaches a value close to its peak value over a wide range of values of light intensity. When power from a PV array is used directly to drive a permanent magnet DC motor, the speed-torque characteristics of the motor are as shown (Fig. 5). The torque supplied is approximately a linear function of the light intensity.

256 Peter
OUTPUT CURRENT

R.B.Ward

S William

G.Dunford

lOOOJjTT 2 S" 7QOJ ni" s

1

Typical solar array characteristics

7 0 0 J m'2 s'1

Motor characteristic when driven directly by solar array

1 0 0 0 J n f s"'
OUTPUT V O L T A G E TORQUE

FIG.5 Photovoltaic characteristics.

array

and permanent

magnet DC motor

The torque required by a small (Mono P32) progressive cavity pump operating at 40 m head and 20C) is plotted on the same graph as the torque supplied by the motor (see Fig.6). The torque supplied at an illumination of 70 mW cm-2 (700 J m~ 2 s -1 ) is seen to be insufficient to start the pump, although at peak illumination 100 mW cm-2 (1000 J m -2 s~ 1 ) the pump would start. Operation of the pump on this basis would be possible, but would carry a penalty, because the hours of operation would be confined to the middle of the day. On days with slightly reduced solar radiation, the pump would not start at all. During the hours when the pump was running there would be an additional penalty, because the motor would be driving the pump at a point on the characteristic curve away from the maximum power point.

Torque
required by pump with 40m head- Torque provided by motor directly connected to array

-o 1000

a
CO

Torque (Nm)

FIG.6

Torque

curves.

These problems are overcome either by use of a battery or by the use of a DC-DC converter. For reasons of reliability and long term durability, the use of a DC-DC converter is recommended. DC-DC converters operate at high efficiency (about 95%) and use a Chopper circuit to boost the current supplied at the expense of voltage. Figure 7 shows the torque vs. speed characteristics of the motor at two settings of the DC-DC converter. Setting 1 provides sufficient torque to .overcome the starting torque of the pump, and setting 2 provides the optimum torque for the motor to operate at its maximum power point. The DC-DC converter may be adjusted manually, but is more normally regulated automatically by a circuit, the maximum power point tracker (see O'Sullivan, 1983),that maximizes

Solar ,.
Torque required by pump, with 40m head-i
i

powered

groundwater

pumping 257

~~X~~~~~~-k
V 700 J m"2 s' |\ r-

^ Maximum power point

(Setting 2)

\\

\ (Setting 1)

Torque

(Nm)

FIG.7 Adjustment of torque characteristics combination by use of a DC-DC converter. the product of current and voltage drawn from the array.

of

motor/cell

ECONOMICS
Although the costs of solar-powered pumping systems are high, the costs of operating diesel powered pumps in remote areas of Zimbabwe are aXso high. The cost of the fuel for operating diesel motors depends on the location. Ministry of Water Resources (M.Tumbare, personal communication) has computed that for every dollar's worth of diesel fuel transported by road to a village 150 km out of Harare, the cost of taking the fuel there is Z $1.4. The basic cost of diesel must therefore be increased by a factor of 2.4 for cost comparisons for rural villages. Estimates of the amount of diesel fuel used to produce a kilowatt hour of electricity depend on the design of the diesel motor and the generator and the state of servicing of the system. Numbers are not usually available, because the amount of power put out by the electi-ic generator is not usually recorded. Maycock & Stirewalt (1981) quote a consumption of 0.2 US gallons per kilowatt hour (0.75 1 per kilowatt hour) of diesel fuel for a well maintained portable generator. Prices for diesel fuel (1984) in Harare are about 0.49 per litre, and thus the fuel costs of producing electricity in rural areas from a portable generator is 0.88 per kilowatt hour. Amortizing the cost of the generator, the cost of spare parts and the maintenance costs (e.g. oil changes), the total cost of electricity from diesel power is about Z $1.50 per kilowatt hour. The present (1984) cost of photovoltaic cell collectors in the United. States is about US $8.00 per peak watt. This price may be translated to about Z $10.00 per peak watt allowing for transportation costs to Zimbabwe. To this price must be added the cost of the electric motor, the control circuit and the pump, and the installation cost. A price of Z $15 to $20 per peak watt will apply. This price brackets the same range as the calculated costs of installed production systems (US $14 to $25 per peak watt) in developing countries (Sir William Halcrow & Partners, 1981, Table 38) .

258 Peter

R.B.Ward

S William

G.Dun ford

Maycock & Stirewalt (1981) assume the following figures for their cost comparison (these are about correct for Zimbabwean conditions) : (a) A site with large solar insolation, where the flux produces 2000 kilowatt hours per year per kilowatt of generating capacity. (b) A 20-year loan with a 15% interest rate. (c) A photovoltaic system life of 20 years. (d) Maintenance cost of 1% of capital per year. At Z $15 to $25 per peak watt, a 1 kW generator would cost Z $15 000 to $20 000 to install. The cost of electricity generated is found by taking the annual cost of the capital plus the maintenance and dividing by the system's output in kilowatts per year. The annual costs of repaying the mortgage and maintaining the system is about 20% of Z $15 000 to $20 000, i.e. Z $3000 to $4000. Thus the cost of electricity is Z $1.50 to $2.00 per kilowatt hour. These figures compare favourably with the Z $1.50 per kilowatt hour for the use of diesel-powered generation at present when it is remembered that : (a) photovoltaic powered generation is more reliable than diesel; (b) future increases in the price of diesel fuel would bias the comparison in favour of photovoltaic power; and (c) the chances of the system operating for more than 20 years is good, and from then on the photovoltaic system would be very inexpensive to operate because there would be no further loan payments to meet.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The development of a solar powered drive system for a progressive cavity pump was funded by a Research Contract from the National Research Council of Canada to Peter Ward & Associates Ltd. Copyright National Research Council of Canada, 1983. Mono Pumps (UK) Ltd made a pump available for the test programme. Dr Dave Pulfrey, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of British Columbia, encouraged the project and gave guidance about photovoltaic cells. Dr P.Wurzel, Mr Les Hindson and Mr Michael Tumbare gave the authors valuable data about groundwater pumping in Zimbabwe.

REFERENCES
Daugherty, R.L. & Franzini, J.B. (1965) Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications (sixth edn). McGraw-Hill, New York, USA. Maycock, P.D. & Stirewalt, E.N. (1981) Photo-Voltaics, Sunlight to Electricity in One Step. Brick House Publishing Company, Andover, Massachusetts, USA. O'Sullivan, G. (1983) Maximum power tracking. Photovoltaics 1 (3). Sir William Halcrow & Partners (1981) Small scale solarpowered irrigation pumping systems, Phase I Project Report. UNDP Project GLO/78/004 Executed by The World Bank. Wurzel, P. (1981) Groundwater in Zimbabwe, development aims for the 1980's. Groundwater 1981 Conference.