Modelling of Agricultural Production

ngo agriculturalproduction: weather,sosandcroos vanKeuenandJ.
Wot(Eds
Modelling o agriculturalproduction: weather,soilsandcrops

H.vanKeulenandJ.Wolf
PudocWageningen 1986
CIP ISBN 90 220 0858 4 < > Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1986 Nopartofthispublication,apartfrom abstract,bibliographic data and brief quotations embodied incritical reviews,maybereproduced, re-recorded orpublished in any form includingprint,photocopy,microfilm,electronicorelectromagneticrecordwithoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisherPudoc,P.O.Box4,6700AAWageningen,theNetherlands. PrintedintheNetherlands
CONTENTS
PREFACE CONTRIBUTORS 1 1.1 2 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 3 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 INTRODUCTION Introduction - GT. de Wit POTENTIAL CROP PRODUCTION Physiological principles - H.D.J, van Heemst C0 2 assimilation of a single leaf Canopy C0 2 assimilation Respiration Dry matter accumulation 3
IX X 1
11 13 14 17 21 24
Cropphenology and drymatterdistribution - H.D.J, vanHeemst 27 Introduction 27 Development anddrymatterdistribution inrice 31 Development anddrymatterdistribution inmaize 34 Development anddrymatterdistribution incassava 37 Asimple model of potential cropproduction - H. vanKeulen Introduction An actual example Comparison with measurement CROP PRODUCTION AS DETERMINED BYMOISTURE AVAILABILITY Potential evapotranspiration -J.A.A. Berkhoutand H. vanKeulen Introduction Radiation Evaporation Potential evapotranspiration 41 41 43 57 61 63 63 63 69 74
3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3
The water balance of soil - P.M. Driessen Basic principles of soil-moisture dynamics The individual terms of the water balance Solution of the water balance equation for all time intervals ina growing season 3.2.4 Variable adjustment following the water balance analysis for one time interval 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 4 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 5 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 The relation between water use and crop production H. van Keulenand H.H. van Laar The concept of the transpiration coefficient Application of the transpiration coefficient The influence of nutritional status Transpiration coefficient and water-use efficiency A simple model of water-limited production - H. van Keulen Introduction Experimental details The actual calculation procedure CROP PRODUCTION AS DETERMINED BY NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY Crop yield and nutrient requirements - H. van Keulen Introduction Nutrient supply and crop response Yield-uptake relations Application rate-uptake relations Interaction between elements Nutrient demand and fertilizer requirements - P.M. Driessen Recognition of nutrient limitation Nutrient uptake from unfertilized soils The recovery of nutrients applied in fertilizers . The nutrient requirements from fertilizer THE COLLECTION AND TREATMENT OF BASIC DATA Introduction - P.M. Driessen Meteorological data - H. van Keulen and H.D.J, van Heemst Radiation Air temperature Air humidity
76 78 85 110 112
117 117 122 124 127 130 130 130 152 153 155 155 155 160 173 180 182 182 184 187 193 201 203 208 208 209 209
5.2.4 Wind speed 5.2.5 Precipitation 5.2.6 Potential (evapo)transpiration 5.3 Soil data - P.M. Driessen 5.3.1 Soil physical data 5.3.2 Soil chemical data 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.4.7 6 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6 Plant data - H. van Keulen Photosynthetic capacity Respiratory losses Phenology Dry matter distribution Stomatal behaviour Nutrient requirements Some additional data CROPPING SYSTEMS Crop calendar, workability and labour requirements H.D.J. van Heenist Introduction Cropcalendar Workability Labour requirements The choice between alternative applications of human activity Crop activity calendar and labour requirements for transplanted rice, maize and cassava in north eastern Thailand Low-input farming - H. Schouten Introduction Basic needs Equilibrium yields in agricultural systems * . Shifting cultivation Paddy cultivation in monoculture A crop mix example for north eastern Thailand Weeds, pests and diseases - F.H. Rijsdijk Introduction Weed models Weeding Pests and diseases Dynamics of polycyclic population growth Interaction of nutrient status with pests and diseases
210 210 211 212 212 224 235 235 236 237 240 243 245 245 249 251 251 251 252 253 258 259 263 263 263 266 269 272 274 277 277 277 281 292 293 300
6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6
6.3.7 Effects of weather 6.3.8 Other effects on population growth 6.3.9 Control of weeds, pests and diseases 7 7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 8 8.1 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1.5 8.1.6 8.1.7 9 9.1 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 LAND IMPROVEMENT Reclamation - J. Wolf Introduction Effects of reclamation A simulated example Physical inputs for reclamation APPLICATION OFAGRONOMIC INFORMATION
302 302 303 307 309 309 310 314 318 327
The use of agronomic information in the socio-economic models of the Centre for World Food Studies - D.G Faber 329 Introduction 329 Characteristics and structure of the study: amodelling approach 330 Farmenergy 336 The socio-economic factors 338 Regional planning 338 International trade and aid 339 Summary 340 COMPUTER MODELS OF CROP PRODUCTION A FORTAN model of crop production -J. Wolf, F.H. Rijsdijk and H. van Keulen Introduction Description of the simulation model Variable data base of the simulation model Subsection 341 343 343 344 372 375 376 385 435 447 453 463
9.1.5 List of acronyms 10 11 12 13 ANSWERS TOEXERCISES LISTOFSYMBOLS INDEX REFERENCES
Appendix A. Listing of the model
PREFACE
This book introducesthereaderintothequantitative aspects of agricultural production, asinfluenced byenvironmental conditions andmanagementpractices. The aim isto familiarize the reader with the subjects in such a waythat first estimates of agricultural production potentials in situations relevant to himcanbemade. Forthat purpose manyexercises andexamples havebeenincluded in the text to facilitate direct application of the theory presented. The approach presented in this book is developed by the Centre for World Food Studies(SOW),aninterdisciplinary researchgroupworking onproblems relatedtoworldfood supplyandagricultural productionpotentialsandlimitations. Thedirectmotive forpublishingthisSimulationMonographwasaninternational course on the same object, organized in Wageningen by dr. J.H. deRu of the Foundation for Post-Graduate Courses of the Agricultural University in Wageningen. The course was organized in close cooperation with dr. D.A. Rijks of theApplications Program of the WorldMeteorological Organization inGenevaandwas financially supported bythe Dutch Directorate General for International Cooperation (DGIS), the European Community (EC), and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The book has been edited on the basis of the lectures presented during the course with ample cooperation of the authors and invaluable advice of prof. dr. C.T. de Wit. Thecontributions of ir. D.M. Jansen and Mrs. H.H. van Laarduring the course and duringtheediting stage of thebook wereof great help. Ing. P.W.J. Uithol is gratefully acknowledged for his accurate work on the list of references. ManythanksareduetoMrs.R. Helder,whoskillfully and enthousiasticallytyped the first versions of most of thecontributions, to Mrs. M.A. Boss, who performed the task of finalizing the manuscript and Mr. G.C. Beekhof for his punctual drawings. H. van Keulen J. Wolf
IX
CONTRIBUTORS
Berkhout, J.A.A., Centre for WorldFood Studies, c/o C.A.B.O., P.O.Box 14,6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Driessen, P.M., Department of Soil Science and Geology, Agricultural University,P.O. Box 37, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Faber, D.C., Centre for World Food Studies, c/o C.A.B.O., P.O. Box 14, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Heemst, H.D.J, van, Centre for Agrobiological Research, P.O. Box 14, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Keulen, H. van, Centre for Agrobiological Research, P.O. Box 14, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Laar,H.H. van, Department of Theoretical Production Ecology,Agricultural University, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Rijsdijk, F.H., Fyto consult bv, Boeslaan 21, 6703 EN Wageningen, the Netherlands. Schouten, H., DirectieOrganisatie enEfficiency, Ministerie van Landbouw enVisserij, P.O. Box 20401, 2500 EK Den Haag, the Netherlands. Wit, C.T. de, Department of Theoretical Production Ecology, Agricultural University, P.O. Box 430, 6100AA Wageningen, the Netherlands. Wolf, J., Centre forWorldFood Studies, c/o C.A.B.O., P.O.Box 14,6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
C.T.deWit Agriculture may be defined as the human activity that produces useful organicmaterial bymeansof plantsandanimals,withthesunasthesourceof energy.Theminimumrequired numberofresourcesissmall:labourand land, with some sun and rain. For many soil types and climates, farming systems have been developed that enable subsistence in food, clothing, shelter and fuel, provided sufficient land isavailable.Unlessconditions arevery favourable, these farming systems do not produce much more than bare necessities. However, man isan animal speciesthat thrives onbrick and concreteand the development of civilisation isvery much intertwined with that of urban life. To sustain a substantial non-farming population, the productivity of the farming population has to be much higher than its subsistence level. This is onlypossibleifthenon- farm sectorproducesindustrialmeansof production for the farmers within an economic structure that provides sufficient incentivesfor theiruse. Althoughasharpdistinctionisnotpossible,thesemeansofproductionmay be classified as labour saving, yield increasing and yield protecting such as machines, fertilizers and pesticides, respectively. Only the yield protecting inputs require little energy for their manufacture and use, although their development would hardly have occurred independently of the chemical industry. With some exaggeration, modern agriculture could therefore be defined as the human activity that transforms inedible fossile energy (mineral oil andnaturalgas)intoedibleenergythrough plants,animalsandthesun. Up to World War II, the emphasis in agriculture in the U.S.A. was on mechanization. Horseswerereplacedbytractors,sothat landthatwasusedto grow food for horses could be used to cultivate crops for other purposes. In this way,theagricultural output of thenation asawholeincreased considerably. The yield increases per hectare were, however, small: for wheat only about 3kgha"1yr"1asisseeninFigure 1.InEuropeinthesameperiod, more emphasis wasgiven to increasing the productivity per unit of land. However, the results were not impressive: ranging from about 4 kg ha"1 yr"1 in the UnitedKingdomto 18 kgha"1yr"1intheNetherlands. A few years after World War II, theannual yield increasesuddenly improved, reaching 50-80 kg ha"1 yr"1 as is illustrated in Figure 1for the United StatesandtheUnited Kingdom. Ingeneralterms,thispersistent yieldincrease may be attributed to the simultaneous effect of soil amelioration, the useof fertilizers andthecontrolofdiseases,aswellastotheintroduction ofvarieties that were able to make good use of these increased inputs. In many regions, wheat yields are still solowthat an absolute yield increaseof 50-80 kg ha"1
yield <k9 h a ' 1 > -78 ^ ^ hcf'yr -1w.-1 kg

UK
5000
4000
3000
**
4kgha" V *
.
. /
5 0 k ha
"V"1
2000
...
X
.#/%
1 1 3 kg ha^yr 1000
..
J .^ ./ USA
J 1900
! 1950
L 1980 time
Figure 1. Average wheat yields in the United Kingdom and the United States over the last century.
yr-1 represents arelativeincrease of over2percent peryear. Thesituationis notmuchdifferent forothercrops.Suchyieldincreasesoutstripthegrowthof thepopulation intheindustrializedcountries.Anyslackthatiscreatedinthis way appears to betakenupbyincreased use of grainand land for milkand meatproductionandbytakinglandoutofproduction. Incontrast, the annual yield increases in Africa, South America andAsia appeartobeonanaverage 10, 19and25kgha"1yr"1,respectively(Figure2). ThisisslightlyhigherthanintheindustrializedpartoftheworldbeforeWorld WarII,whichindicatesthatsomeoftheknowledgeandmeansof production aretricklingdownfromNorthtoSouth.However,thisoccursataratethatis too low to prevent hunger andmalnutrition. For instance, inAfrica withan averagegrainyieldof 1000kgha"1,theincreaseof 10kgha"1yr"1amountsto only 1 percentperyearandeventhismaybetoo highanestimate forthelast tenyears.This growth inyield is far less than therelativegrowth rateof the population, which is 2 - 3 percent per year. Up to now, the difference has beenmoreorlessmadeupforbycultivatinglargerareas,butlandthatcanbe reclaimed by simple means within the socialeconomic framework of the family orthevillageisbecoming scarce, sothat moreadvancedtechnologyis indispensable for further reclamation. Hence, to improvethe food situation,
grain yield (kg ha -1 ) 2000-
Africa * Asia(excluding China) South America
1000
L i_
1950
1960
1970
_ L 1980 time
Figure 2. Average grain yields from 1954-1980 for Africa, Asia and South America.
either moremachinery hasto beusedto extendtheareaundercultivationor moreinputs, e.g. fertilizers, to increasetheyield perunitarea. Bothof these pathsrequireanopeneconomyinwhichthefarmerreceivessufficient money for his agricultural products to pay for the necessary means of production. Too often the terms of trade are not so favourable, but claims that it is possible to improve substantially the food production in the world without these technical means are not justified in view of what is known about the agriculturalproductionprocess. Average yields, asused here for illustration, hide manydifferences. Some developingcountriesarereasonablywellendowedwithresourcesandhavean economicstructurethatpromotesagriculturaldevelopment. Theirpricelevels aresuchthat it pays, atleast for some farmers, to improvethesoil, toapply fertilizers, to practise disease control and to use the proper plant varieties. However, policies thatenable thepoorest segments of thepopulationtopurchase the bare necessities may be lacking, so that hunger and malnutrition continue to exist. This is the case even in the richer countries of the world. Therearealsopoorcountrieswithinfertilesoilsandanunfavourableclimate, often with few other endowments and landlocked and with a demographic structure that results in rapid population growth. Such countries can only importthenecessary agricultural inputsif theycanexport cashcrops.Transport costs for both their import and export are often so high that even this pathto increasing production isblocked. Then progressdepends onpolitical andeconomicsolidaritythatexceedsnationalboundaries. Theprospects for improvement of the food situation have, therefore, also national and international political and economic dimensions. International
policyagreementsaimedatstabilizationofthepricesontheworldmarketata fair level and at promotion of the opportunities of developing countries to penetrate the markets of the rich countries, may create a more favourable position for developing and poor countries. Such agreements must then be complemented bynational development strategiesthatenable farmers toincreasetheiroutputand,inparticular,toimprovetheproduction opportunities for the poor. This broad range of problems has been the focus of research undertaken by the Centre for World Food Studies, which is situated inAmsterdam and Wageningen. For this research, national economic models with emphasisontheagricultural sectorarebeingdevelopedandlinkedtoaglobal modeltoanalyseandimprovethepoliciesof national governmentsandinternational agencies. These national economic models contain agricultural production modules that account for the possibilities of production and can distinguish between regions and commodities. That part of the work of the Centre focuses onthephysical andagronomic factors thatdetermineagriculturalproductionandisthesubjecttreatedinthisbook. The main purpose pursued is to familiarize the reader with the processes thatgovernthetechnicalpossibilitiesforagriculturalproductioninaregionin such awaythat quantitative estimates canbe made of theyield levels of the main crops under various constraints and of the inputs that are needed for theirrealization. Theapproach is necessarily simplifying, so the quantitative estimatesshould notbeconsidered asthefinal answer,butratherasaframework for further analysis of possibilities and constraints that are based on factualknowledge,whichcanonlybeobtainedbyfieldwork. Forthisapproach,ahierarchicalprocedureisadoptedwhichisinaschematic waypresented inFigure3.Therectangles inthesecond row representthe factors that ultimately determine the production potential. Climate and soil are fixed properties for agiven region and, in combination withthe level of reclamation,characterizethelandqualitylevel.Thecharacteristicsofagricultural crops may be changed by breeding, the scope for improvement inthis respect being reasonably well-defined. For a given land quality level, the yield potential is therefore fixed for a fairly long period of time, and may, therefore,becalculatedwithreasonableaccuracy. In the further analysis, the goal is not to define a production function describingtherelationshipbetweentheyieldandallpossiblecombinationsof growthfactors, because,bythenatureoftheagriculturalproductionprocess, nouniquesolutiontosuchaproduction functionexists.Instead,areasonable combination of growth factors should be established that will result in the yield level that isinaccordwiththelandqualitylevel. Thus,theyieldlevelis considered concurrently asadependent variable, determined bycropcharacteristics and land quality level, and as anindependent variable, dictatingthe requiredinputcombinationforitsrealization.Thisisreflected inthedirection ofthearrowsinFigure3:towardstheyieldlevelaswellasawayfromtheyield level.
ENERGY
ML
LABOUR SUBSTI TUTION MACHINES
I
CLIMATE SOIL LEVEL
RECLAMATION
PHYSIOLOGICAL PLANT PROPERTIES
LAND QUALITY LEVEL
YIELD LEVEL
MATERIAL INPUTS
MANAGEMENT
FIELDWORK
YIELD-
INCREASING
YIELD PRO- ^SUBSTI TECT- TUTION ING
LABOUR
SUBSTITUTION*
MACHINES FUEL
ENERGY
ENERGY
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the hierarchical analysis procedure.
With respect to the required inputs, a distinction is made between field work and material inputs.Thenecessary field work can bedescribed inphysical terms, for example, the requirements for ploughing, harrowing, weeding, the length of supply and transport lines, etc. The time required for these activities is to a large extent independent of the yield level as they must be doneanyway.Thetotallengthof theperiod availabletodotheworkdepends, however, strongly on soil type and weather conditions. In performing field work, considerable substitution ispossiblebetween manual labour and activitiesrelying on heavy mechanical equipment and their associated fossil energy requirements. The material inputs can be classified into yield- increasing
inputsandyieldprotectinginputs.Therequiredamountsofyield- increasing inputs such as water, minerals and nitrogen, are directly influenced by the requiredyieldlevel, soiltypeandweatherconditions. Characteristic forthese inputs is that they cannot besubstituted for bylabour. This isincontrast to theyield protecting inputs, biocides, for which alternatives areavailable, i.e. labour-intensive weeding versus the use of herbicides and manual insect eradicationversusinsecticides. The land quality level is, on the one hand, determined by intrinsic soil properties and the prevailing weather conditions and, on the other hand,by the level of reclamation. In a schematized set up, four levels of reclamation maybedistinguished(Section7.1).Thelowestlevelreferstolandinanalmost virgincondition uponwhichagricultural activititiesarelimitedto foodgathering, fuelwood collection and extensivegrazing. Inthenext level of reclamation, the land is cleared to allow more permanent agricultural use, with or without fallow periods.Themoistureregimeisfully dictated byweatherconditions. Flooding, if any, canonlybeavoided bysimplemodifications of the topography orbybuilding simpledams.Thenext level pertainstolandupon whichimprovements havebeencarriedout, suchaslevelling, simpleterracing and the construction of open ditches to control excess water. The highest reclamation level refers to land in a favourable condition for crop growth, well levelled, with complete water control and the necessary infrastructure. Sufficient waterisavailableforirrigationasrequired. Inadditionto defining thepresent statusof thelandinagivenregion, itis also important to quantify the reclamation activities necessary to bring the land to a higher land quality level. This applies especially to the amount of vegetationandstonestoberemoved, theamount of soil tobemovedandthe infrastructure that must bebuilt. Thisaspect of theanalysis isrepresentedin the first row (Figure3). Reclamation canbecarried out with manuallabour. However, ashasbeenstatedabove, thisisoften onlyatheoretical possibility, because most of the acreage that could easily be reclaimed has already been developed.EveninthePeople'sRepublicofChina,ithasbeenconcludedthat itisalmost inevitabletoresort totheuseof mechanical means.Theactivities tobeperformed arethereforebetterdefined forvarioustechnological levelsin termsoftheavailableequipment. Inthefurther analysis fourhierarchicallyorderedproductionsituationsare distinguished. For the highest hierarchical production situation water, minerals,andnitrogenareinoptimalsupply.Cropyieldisthenonlydeterminedby the type of crop, the prevailing level of irradiance, and the temperature regime. Models to calculate potential growth (Section 2.1) and development (Section2.2)of healthyclosedgreencropsurfacesareavailable.Othermodels providepotential transpiration rates,sothatthetotal waterrequirementmay beobtained (Section 3.1). For most regions, sufficient experimental dataare available to judge the feasibility of growing the major crops and to define so-called cropping calendars, which stipulate time of sowing, emergence,
8
flowering, ripening, etc. (Section 6.1). Theoretical considerations and field data maybecombined to develop simple calculation models for therelevant crops,yieldingthetimecourseofdrymatterproductionandtranspirationand theeconomicyieldasoutputs(Section2.3). For the second hierarchical production situation, it is assumed that the supplyof nitrogenandmineralsisstilloptimal, buttheinfluence of moisture availability ontranspiration and cropproduction istaken into account (Section 3.3). Water supply to the canopy is dependent mainly on rainfall and sometimes on supplementary irrigation. Water consumption is mainlydeterminedbyenvironmental conditions andthecoverof thesoil bythecrop.The physical properties of the soil and the climatic conditions are now of major importance. From these data, the water balance is calculated. (Section 3.2). Thisenablesdeterminationof periodswithexcessorshortageofwater,which willresultinreducedgrowthratescomparedwiththoseforthefirsthierarchical level (Section 3.4). Themodels also enable thecalculation of thenumber of workable hours in the field: an important parameter in the analysis of farmingsystems(Section6.1). Forthethird hierarchical production situation, apart from waterandirradiance, the plant nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus may at times limit growth. Special emphasis isgiventotheuseof nitrogen fertilizer, becauseof thelargequantitiesrequiredeachyear,it'scostandthemobilityofnitrogenin the soilplant- atmosphere system. The effect of nitrogen on production and the amount of nitrogen needed to achieve the production level of the secondhierarchical productionsituationisdeterminedbyconsideringseparatelytherelation betweentheamount of nitrogenthatistakenupbythecrop andtheyield, andtherelationbetweenthisuptakeandtheamount of fertilizer applied, or its recovery (Section 4.1). Phosphorus is treated in asimilar fashion. Therecoveryof nitrogen from fertilizer dependsontherelativeimportance of the processes of uptake by the plants, mineralization from organicmaterial, immobilization by soil-microbes, leaching and denitrification (formation of gaseous nitrogen). These processes are being modelled, but for the time being it is still necessary to rely also on the results of fertilizer experiments.Thisalsoholdsforthedeterminationoftheamountof nitrogenthatis available from natural sources. The recovery of phosphorus from fertilizer dependsonsuchfactors asthepresenceof soilconstituentsasaluminiumand calcium in forms that renderthe phosphorus unavailable for the plants.The interaction between nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer is treated byconsideringtheP/N ratiointheplant tissue(Section 4.2). Whether minerals suchas potassium,calciumandmagnesium,areinsufficient supplyandifthepHisin theproperrangeismostconvenientlyevaluatedbymeansofsoilanalysis. Subsistence farming is a concrete example of the fourth hierarchical productionsituation,i.e. hardlyanyexternalinputsareused.Ageneralizedtreatment may be based on the concept that under these conditions any farming
system moves towards an equilibrium for the input and output of the main limiting growth factors (Section 6.2). Theyield level atthisequilibriummust beaboveacertainminimumtomaketheeffort of farming worthwhile.Plant nutrients, especially nitrogen, ultimately limit the production in manysituations. Thisimplies that theeffect of improved cultivation practices hastobe judged on thebasis of their temporal orpermanent effects on theuptake of the limiting element. Sincethe possibilities to improve this situation arevery restricted under conditions of low soil fertility, the effects of improved crop husbandry practices other than fertilizer application, cannot be cumulative, whether this concerns improved varieties, better cultivation or pest and diseasecontrol. Ofcourse, atanyproduction level pests, diseasesandweedsmayinterfere. Their effect is treated by making a distinction between diseases that are of special importance inhighyield situations andthoseof special importancein low yield situations (Section 6.3). Different types of damage may bedistinguished,whichareevaluatedintermsofdamagelevels. This book is to alarge extent based on the results of elaborate simulation modelsthathavebeendeveloped inthepastdecade.Manyof themhavebeen described inothervolumes of theSimulation Monograph series.Forthepresent purpose these models have been simplified to such an extent that all calculationscanbedonewithasimplescientific pocketcalculator. Forextended usethis maybetoo cumbersome and for that reason aFORTRANprogramispresented(Chapter9),whichallowstheusertodothecalculationson mosthomecomputers. Anymodel,andcertainlythecomputational schemespresentedinthisbook aresimplified representationsofthecomplexrealworld.Thereforetheresults obtained should always be critically examined in the light of the practical experience and the results of field experiments, the more so if the crop is grown at the extremes of the range of conditions under which it is normally grown.
10
2 POTENTIALCROPPRODUCTION
11
2.1 Physiologicalprinciples H.D.J.vanHeemst In agriculture, solar energy is conserved for future use via its fixation in biomass bytheprocessof photosynthesis. Inthisprocess C0 2 from theairis convertedintocarbohydrates(CH20)naccordingtotheoverallreaction: C0 2+H 2 0+solarenergy->CH20+0 2 (1)
This process is also called C0 2 assimilation. Part of the carbohydrates producedisusedasbuildingmaterial forstructuralplantdrymatter,as cellulose, proteins, ligninandfats andpartisusedasasourceof energyforplant processes. The release of energy from carbohydrates produced during the assimilationprocessisdescribedbytheequation: CH20 + 0 2 -*C0 2 + H 2 0 + chemicalenergy (2j
Thisprocessiscalledrespiration.About40%oftheweightofthecarbohydrates formed during the assimilation process is lost byrespiration. Subtraction oftherateofrespirationfromtheassimilationrategivestherateofincreasein plant dryweight, i.e. thegrowth rate. InFigure4, thetimecourse of growth rateandtotal drymatter accumulation isinaschematic waypresented fora summerwheatcrop.Thegrowthratesareobtained fromthedrymatteraccumulationcurvebydeterminingateachpointtheslopeofthecurve. With respect to the growth ratethree phases may bedistinguished: (i)during the first phase, the crop consists of individual plants that do not shade each other and the growth rate increases; (ii) in the second phase the crop covers the soil completely and the growth rate is constant; (iii) in the third phasethecropismaturingandthegrowthrateisdecreasing.. Inthefirstphasethemajorpartoftheassimilatesisinvestedinleafgrowth. Thisincreaseinleaf areaisaccompanied byaproportional increaseinenergy interception, because neighbouring plants are so small that mutual shading hardlyplaysarole.Individualplantweightincreasesbyaconstantproportion perday, thus leading to exponential growth. After aclosed cropsurface has beenformed, moreleafgrowthdoesnotleadtomorelightinterception,hence thegrowth rateremainsconstant andtotal plant weight increases linearly. In thelastphaseleafsenescenceleadstoadecreaseinthegrowthrate. Themajorpartof thetotal drymatteraccumulationisachievedduringthe secondphase.Totaldrymatterproductionofthecropisthuslargelydetermined by the magnitude of the growth rate during the linear phase and the durationofthatphase.
13
growth rate (kg h a ^ d " 1 ) 200
total dry weight ( kg ha" 1 ) 200 0 0 -
100
1000
April individual plants
yiay June ' J u closed crop canopy leaves dying
May June I exponential linear g r o w t h growth . Apri
July
jdecreasing , growth
Figure 4. Schematized course of growth rate and total dry weight of summer wheat in time.
Theduration of theperiod of lineargrowth isspecies andcultivar specific and, moreover, isinfluenced byenvironmental conditions (Section 2.2).The actual growth rateispredominantly influenced byenvironmental conditions, such as solar radiation and temperature, the supply of nutrients and water, andtheoccurrenceofweeds,pestsanddiseases. Withanoptimalsupplyof waterandnutrientsandintheabsenceofweeds, pestsanddiseases,thegrowthrateisdeterminedbysolarradiationandtemperature and is referred to as the potential growth rate. Such conditions are supposed to prevail when discussing the basic processes of plant growth. A simple model for the calculation of potential dry matter production will be presentedthatmaybeappliedtovariouscropsatdifferentlocations. 2.1.1 CO2assimilationofasingleleaf Intheleaves of aplant thephotosynthetically activeradiation isabsorbed bygreenchlorophyl andotherpigmentsandisusedforthereductionof C0 2 . Not all radiation of the sunis photosynthetically active, but only thevisible radiationinthewavelengthrangefrom400to700nm,whichrepresentsabout 50%ofthetotalglobalradiation(Figure5). TherateofC0 2assimilationotaleafcanbemeasuredbyenclosingaleafin a so called leaf-chamber and analysing the C0 2 concentration of theincomingandtheoutgoingair,thatpassestheleafataknownflowrate.Whenthe assimilationrateisdeterminedatvariousradiationintensities,alightresponse curvecanbeconstructed asillustrated inFigure 6 for leaves of plant species referred to as C3 and C4 types. The main parameters characterizing these
14
radiation
(WITT2)
per nm 1.0h
ultra violet
500 ' visible
1000 1500 I infra-red wavelength(nm)
Figure 5. Spectral distribution of total solar radiation (upper curve) and direct solar radiation (lower curve). Solar elevation is 30 and precipitable water in the atmosphere is 21mm. (Source: Monteith, 1973)
kg ha'V 1
60-
30-
Figure 6. Characteristic net C0 2 assimilation functions for individual leaves of C3 and C4 plant species.
15
curvesaretheinitiallightuseefficiency, 8,therespirationrateinthedark,Rd, andthemaximumrateof netC0 2 assimilationathighlightintensity, Fm.The latter ranges from 30-90 kg ha"1 (leaf) h"1 for C4 type plants and from 15-50 kg ha"1 (leaf) h"1 for C3 type plants, depending on environmental conditions. Thegross rateof C0 2 assimilation, Fg, isthesum of the netrate andtheconcurrentdarkrespiration.Thedarkrespirationisatnormaltemperaturesroughlyone- ninthofthemaximumnetassimilationrate. Themaximum netassimilation rateandthedarkrespiration ratearemuch moreaffected bytemperaturethantheinitiallightuseefficiency. Theeffect of temperature onthemaximumassimilation rateisillustrated inFigure7fora C3andaC4type plant. However, thesetemperature responses wereobtained with plants grown under controlled conditions at atemperature close tothe optimumfoundinFigure7.Underfieldconditionswhereplantsaresubjected to fluctuating temperature conditions, there appears to beadaptation of the photosyntheticapparatus.Itwasfoundthatforsuchplantsthemaximumleaf assimilation ratewas practically independent of temperature above about 13 CforC4speciesandabove8CforC3species. Thedifference ininitial light useefficiency betweentheC3andC4typesof photosynthesis issmall, buttheassimilation rateatlight saturation is forthe C4typeplantsgenerallyhigher.ThenamesC3andC4refertothelengthofthe C skeleton of the first stable product in the photosynthetic process. Several characteristics of thesetwoplant typesaredifferent (Gifford, 1974),suchas: (i) the main carboxylating enzyme in the C4 photosynthetic pathway hasan affinity to C0 2 that is about twice as high as that in the C3 photosynthetic pathway;(ii)intheC3typeplantsarespiratoryprocesstakesplaceinthelight
assimilation (pi cm'V 1 ) assimilation (pi cm'V 1 )

100r
(a)
30* 50 - / ^ ^ i ^ 2 v ? 2 0 o
0.1 0.2 03 0.U05 radiation

(cal cm"2 min" 1 )
*' 0.1 02 03 0.4 0.5 radiation -2 (cal cm min"1)
Figure 7. The relation between temperature and the maximum rate of C 0 2 assimilation for a C3 (a) and a C4 (b) crop species.
16
whichresultsinadependenceofassimilationrateontheoxygenconcentration in the ambient air, whereas that process is absent in C4 species; (iii) under conditions wheretheC0 2 concentration intheintercellular spaceisregulated overawiderangeofexternal C0 2 concentrations andlightintensities through adaptation ofstomatal aperture,thelevelatwhichtheinternal concentration is maintained in C4 types is about half of that in C3 types (Raschke,1975; Goudriaan &van Laar, 1978b). This last characteristic will be discussed in detailinSection3.3. ExamplesofspecieshavingtheC3typeofassimilation, which prevailinthe temperate zones, aresmall grains, including rice. Species that areof theG4 type,whicharemoreabundant insubtropical andtropical regions,aremaize, sorghum, millet, sugar cane and most tropical grasses. Extensive lists of C4 species have been compiled by Downton (1975) and Raghavendra &Das (1978). 2.1.2 CanopyC02assimilation The rate of C0 2 assimilation of acrop depends onincoming visible radiation inthesame wayasthat of an individual leaf. Suppose for simplicity a crop with a horizontal layer of large leaves, forming a closed surface. This layer acts as onebigleaf, and knowing the light intensity, the rate of C0 2 assimilation canberead from Figure 6,taking into account that 10%ofthe incomingvisibleradiation isreflected, 10%istransmitted through the leaves, 10% is absorbed by pigments not contributing to photosynthesis, and that only the remaining 70% is absorbed by the chloroplasts. At an incoming visible radiation intensity of 300J m"2s"1 this crop, if it wasa C3species, wouldhaveaC0 2 assimilation rateofabout 25kgha - 1 h"1. Suchacrophasa leaf area index (LAI)of one, because there is 1 m2of leaf area perm2ofsoil surface area. When another layer ofsuch bigleavesissituated under thefirst one, thecrop hasaLAIof2,becausethereis2m2ofleaf area perm2 ofsoil surface area. Theincoming radiation intensity inthesecond layer isequalto thelighttransmitted throughthefirst layer, thus 10%of300,or30Jm"2s"1, resulting inanadditional assimilation rateofabout 3kgha"1 h"1. The result
is a small increase in assimilation rate for thetwolayer crop. Adding more layersunderthesecondonewillnotsubstantiallyincreasetheassimilation rate ofsuchacropwithlayersoflargehorizontalleaves. Inreality,acropdoesnotconsistofhorizontal layersoflargeclosely fitting leaves, buttheleaves of a crop arespread inevery direction andthelightis therefore more evenly distributed over the leaves. Thelight extinction ina canopy canbeexperimentally determined bymeasuring thelight intensityat different levels inthecrop, whileatthesame time measuring thecumulative leaf area at thesame levels.Theresult of such anexperiment ispresentedin Figure8,whichdepictstherelation betweentherelativelight intensityandthe cumulative LAI,counting the leaf area from the top of the canopy down17
LAI(m2m-2) 0
50 100 radiation intensity %
Figure 8. Extinction of radiation in a crop canopy.
wards.Theextinction of thelightisexponential for anincreasing numberof leaf layers. For any LAI the proportion of absorbed radiation can beread from Figure 8. In combination with Figure 6 this yields an estimate of the assimilationrateofthecrop.ForanLAIof four, theC0 2 assimilationrateis about 39 kg ha"1 h"1, or about one and a half times that of the crop with layersof largehorizontal leaves.Thereason for this isthatinarealcropthe light intensity distribution over the leaves is more even and therefore more leaves are exposed to light intensities in the linear part of the light response curve. Theprocedurejust outlined isaschematized wayof calculatingtherateof C0 2 assimilation of acrop. Reality is more complicated, as the influence of direct and diffuse light, total leaf area, leaf angle distribution, leaf optical propertiesandsolarheightonthelightdistributionwithinthecanopyhaveto betaken into account. The problem hasbeen tackled with computer models (de Wit 1965; Duncan et al., 1967; Goudriaan, 1977) which calculate the assimilation rate of a canopy at any moment of a day in response to the incoming photosynthetically active radiation, which is dependent on solar heightandthedegreeofcloudinessofthesky. In a schematized set up, two situations areconsidered: acompletely clear skyandacompletelycloudysky. Integrationof theinstantaneousratesyields the daily total amount of C0 2 fixed. InTables 1and2these dailytotalsare presentedasafunction ofgeographicallatitudeforbothcompletelyclearand completely overcast days, under the assumption of zero respiration and an LAIof five, fortwomaximumratesofgrossC0 2 assimilationof asingleleaf athighlightintensity,Fg :40kgha -1 (leaf)h _1 ,typicalforaC3typeofplant, 18
Table1.CalculatedgrossC02assimilationrate(kgha"1d"1)ofaclosedcanopywitha sphericalleafangledistribution,forclear(Fcl)andovercast(Fov)days,andamaximum leafC02assimilationrate,Fg,of40kgha"1d"1. Date 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Northern Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Hemisph. Southern July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June Hemisph. Latitude
0
F
F * ov
10 Fc, F * ov 20 Fc, F * ov 30 FcI F * ov 40 Fc, F x ov 50 F c, F A ov 60 Fc, F * ov 70 Fc, F x

ov
728 306 652 270 562 226 454 175 333 120 202 63 68 15 0 0
753 320 701 295 634 261 549 219 445 169 324 114 191 57 46 10
768 328 748 319 713 300 659 271 586 233 491 187 375 132 240 73
761 324 779 334 783 334 768 324 737 304 686 275 615 236 527 189
737 311 786 336 820 351 839 357 843" 354 833 343 813 323 798 302
720 302 784 333 834 356 869 371 892 377 904 375 915 368 967 369
727 306 785 335 829 355 858 366 873 368 877 363 875 351 896 341
752 319 784 336 802 343 804 341 788 329 757 307 7Q8 277 649 240
768 328 765 327 745 316 708 295 652 264 574 224 474 175 353 118
760 324 720 305 665 276 591 239 497 193 384 140 255 83 114 27
736 311 667 277 583 236 481 187 364 133 234 77 102 25 0 0
720 302 638 262 542 216 429 163 304 107 172 52 39 8 0 0
(Source:Goudriaan&VanLaar,1978a) and 70 kgha"1 (leaf) h"1, typical for aC4type oi plant. Onthebasis of such tables, which for various maximum rates of C0 2 assimilation at high light intensity can be found in Goudriaan & Van Laar (1978a), potential crop, assimilation can becalculated for anydate, given thetypeof crop (C3 orC4), thelatitudeofthelocationandthefraction ofthetimetheskyisclouded. Crop type determines which table is used; given the latitude and the date, the assimilation rate of a closed canopy for a clear and an overcast day is obtained byinterpolation. The assimilation rate for partially overcast daysis obtained formthe formula:
F
gc = f0Fov + (1- f0) Fcl
(3)
where Fgc istnegrosscanopyC0 2 assimilationrate(kgha -1d"1) f0 istriefraction of thedaythe skyisovercast (f0is0 for completely clear days,f0is 1 forcompletelyovercastdays) 19
Table2.CalculatedgrossC0 2assimilationrate(kgha"1d"1)of aclosedcanopywitha sphericalleafangledistribution,forclear(Fcl)andovercast(Fov)days,andamaximum leafC0 2assimilationrate,Fg,of 70 kgha"1 d"1. Date 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Northern Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Hemisph.
Southern July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.Mar. Apr. M a y June Hemisph. Latitude 0F d Fov 10Fcl Fov 20Fc, Fov '30Fcl Fov 40FcI Fov 50Fcl Fov 60Fcl Fov 70Fc, ov Fov 959 99510171007 973 947 958 99310181007 971 947 326 341 350 346 331 321 325 340 351 346 331 321 852 922 989103210391035103710381012 949 873 832 285 313 340 357 358 356 357 359 349 324 294 277 726 827 93710351086110310971062 983 870 755 698 237 276 319 356 375 381 379 366 336 292 248 226 577 707 86010111109114911341060 927 765 613 542 182 229 287 345 381 396 391 363 313 251 195 170 410 562 755 9621108117511501033 845 633 452 372 123 176 245 322 377 402 392 349 278 201 138 110 236 397 620 885108611831145 982 733 477 278 198 65 117 194 289 362 398 384 324 234 145 78 53 71 220 460 779104611821129 905 591 301 109 40 15 58 136 246 340 388 369 290 181 85 25 8 0 47 277 649100612221132 810 421 121 0 0 0 10 74 195 314 385 356 249 120 28 0 0
(Source:Goudriaan&Van Laar,1978a) Fov Fc, is the gross C0 2 assimilation rate on completely overcast days (kg ha isthegrossC0 2 assimilation rateon aperfectly clearday(kgha l d *)
-l
The fraction of the day the sky is overcast is obtained from the measured actual daily global irradiation and the daily global irradiation on a perfectly' clearday, which istabulated inTable3. Dailyglobal irradiation on acompletely overcast daymaybeapproximated by multiplying thevalue for aperfectly cleardaywith0.2. Thus: f0 = (Hg - H a )/(H g - 0.2 Hg) where Hg Ha 20 istotal global irradiation on aperfectly clearday(Jm"2d"1) ismeasured total global irradiation (Jm" 2 d _1 ) (4)
If thecanopy doesnot form aclosed cover, asat thebeginning and theend of thegrowthcycle,not allincomingradiation isintercepted, and C0 2assimilationisreduced relativetothat ofaclosedcanopy.Thereductionisestimated from thefraction oftheincomingradiation intercepted bythecrop,asdiscussedearlier:
k LAI f ) h= ( l - e - e -
(5)
where f h ke isthefraction oflightintercepted bythecrop istheextinction coefficient for visiblelight, thevaluebeingbetween 0.5 and0.8,dependingoncropgeometry
Exercise1 CalculatethedailygrossC0 2 assimilation for themiddleofeachmonth of the year for a completely clear and for a completely overcast sky at your own location,assumingaclosedcanopy, for bothaC3andaC4typeofcrop.
Exercise2 RepeatExercise 1 assumingLAI= 1.5
The rate of C0 2 assimilation has been expressed sofar in amounts of C0 2 . Theabsorbed C0 2 isreduced inthecropto carbohydrates orsugars (CH20)n. Togetanassimilation rateexpressed inCH 2 0, therateinC0 2 ismultiplied by 30/44(theratiooftheirmolecularweights). 2.1.3 Respiration The sugars produced in the assimilation process may be converted into structural dry matter, they may be accumulated and temporarily stored as reserves,ortheymaybeusedasasourceofenergy.Theplant needsenergy for twoprocesses.Ontheonehand for maintenanceof ionicgradientsand resynthesis of degrading structural proteins; on the other hand for the conversion of primary photosynthetic products into structural plant material. In these processesC0 2 isproduced, thustheyarerespiratory processes:the first oneis
21
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22
called maintenance respiration, thesecond growth respiration. Maintenance respiration The proteins in the plant, especially in the leaves, consist mainly of enzymes, which have only alimited life span. They deteriorate at a relative rate of about 0.1 per day at a temperature of 20 C, and have to be resynthesized. The rate of protein turnover is temperature dependent with a Q10 of about 2 (Penning de Vries et al., 1979). This means that the rate of protein turnover doubles for temperature increases of 10C. The concentration of ions in the vacuoles of plant cells is higher than in the surrounding tissue, which causes leakage of ions from the vacuoles. To maintain the desired internal concentration, the ions have to be taken up against a concentration gradient. That requires an active transport through cell membranes, which demands energy. Although accurate data on maintenance requirements are scarce, reasonable estimates of the relative maintenance respiration rate can be made on the basis of the composition of the biomass present. Such estimates are given in Table 4 for four groups of crops, each group having approximately the same chemical composition. Growth respiration (/"iv()'<) The conversion of primary photosynthates into structural plant material as cellulose, proteins, lignin and fats requires substrate for building materials and energy for synthesis of the end product, the transport of sugars and the uptake of nitrogen and minerals. Therefore, part of the sugars assimilated is respired to provide energy for the synthesis of new plant components. Another part is lost as refuse in the process of synthesis. The magnitude of growth respiration is determined by the composition of the end product for-, ,r med. Thus the weight efficiency of conversion of primary photosynthates into " structural plant material varies with the composition of that material./Fats and lignin are produced at high costs; structural carbohydrates and organic acids are relatively cheap. Proteins and nucleic acids form an intermediate group (Table 5).
1 Table4. Relative maintenance respiration rate, R m,at 20 C (kg kg'd ), andconver- / sionefficiency, Eg,(kgkg"1).
Cropgroup Root/tuber crops cereals protein-richseedcrops oil-richseedcrops
Rm 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.030
Eg 0.75 0J0 0.65 0.50

23
Table5.Efficiency ofconversion,Eg,ofsubstrate(sugars)intoplantconstituents(kg kg"1). Compound Carbohydrates Nitrogenouscompounds(normalmixofamino-acids, proteinsandnucleicacids)fromNO" fromNH+

4
Eg 0.826 0.404 0.616 1.104 0.465 0.330
Organicacids Lignin Lipids (Source:PenningdeVries,1975)
For the same groups ofxrops distinguished above, theconversion efficienciesaretabulatedinTable4.Athighertemperatures,therateof conversionof primary photosynthates into structural plant material changes, but the conversion efficiency remains constant, because the biochemical pathway is riot affected byterriperature.VConversionof primary photosynthates into structural plant material occurs to a large extent at night. Low night temperatures may hamper this conversion to such an extent that not all the assimilates formed during the daycan beconverted into structural material. As aresult, carbohydrates and starch accumulate in the plant and eventually this may affect theassimilationrate,eitherthroughabiochemical feedback orthrough physical damage to the chloroplasts. Under such conditions the assimilation rateisvirtuallydeterminedbythecapacityof theplanttoconverttheassimilationproducts. 2.1.4 Dry matteraccumulation On the basis of the processes presented in this section, the daily rate of increaseinstructuraldryweightof acropsurfacemaybeapproximatedbythe formula AW=E g - ( F g s - R m - W ) where AW istherateof increaseinstructuraldryweight(kgha"1 d"l) Eg is the conversion efficiency of carbohydrate into dry matter (kgkg"1); seeTable4 Fgs isthegrossrateofcropassimilationexpressedincarbohydrates(kgha"l d"1)
24
(6)
Rm istherelativemaintenancerespirationrate(kgkg ld ! );Table4 W isthetotaldryweightofthelivepartsofthecrop(kg ha"l) Inatemperate, humid climatee.g. intheNetherlands,thepotential growth rate, ascalculated byEquation 6,appears tobeabout 200kgha"1d"1during the growing season (Table 6). Experimental evidence confirming these estimatesisgivenbySibma(1968),whocalculated growthcurvesfor anumberof field crops growing under near-optimal conditions, as shown in Figure 9. The main agricultural crops in the Netherlands all appear to have practically thesameslope.ThattheC4typecropmaizeshowsthesameslopeisbecausein theNetherlandsitisgrownatthelimitofitstemperaturerange.
accumulated dry matter (kgha -1 )

22.000
20000 18000 16.000f14.000
12.000
10.000 8.000 6000 4.000
= 0 0 0
0 LA
^Wf
April May
rr^-r: x-*t*?
June
L-
July
August
Sep.
Oct.
time
Figure 9. Growth rates of the main agricultural crops in the Netherlands under (near)optimal growth conditions compared to growth rates of 200, 175 and 150kg ha -1 d", respectively. 1. grass 2. wheat 3. oats + barley 3a. oats + peas 4. oats 5. peas 6. barley 7. potatoes 8. sugar beets 9. maize. (Source: Sibma, 1968)
25
Exercise 3 Calculate the potential growth rate per month of a C3 crop for your own location, following thescheme presented inTable 6. Estimate the fraction overcast from your own experience, if no data on radiationareavailable (heavyclouds:f0 = 1;clearskiesprevailing:f0 = 0).
Table 6. Example of calculation scheme for thepotential growth rateat De Bilt,the Netherlands(52N)assumingtheoveralllossbyrespirationtobe40%.
Month May June July August Ha 16.92 18.60 16.45 14.57 Hg 30.43 33.78 32.50 26.86 fo 0.55 0.56 0.62 0.57 Fd 829 906 877 747 F
A
OV
F x
F
* gs
AW 229 249 228 202
gc
339 374 361 301
560 608 557 493
382 414 380 336
Ha = longtermaverageactualglobalradiation(106Jm^d*1) Hg = total global radiation on a clear day at 52 N.L. (106Jm"2d*1)(obtained by linearinterpolationinTable3) f0 = fractionofthedaytheskyisovercast(Equation4) Ed = grossC0 2 assimilationrateoncompletelycleardays(kgha*1 d*1) (interpolation inTable1 or2) Fov = grossC0 2 assimilationrateoncompletelyovercastdays(kgha*1 d'1) (interpolationinTable1 or2) Fgc = actualgrosscanopyC0 2assimilationrate(kgha*1d*1)(Equation3) Fgs = grosscanopyassimilationrateincarbohydrates(30/44xFgc) AW= thepotentialgrowthrate(kgha*1d*1)(0.60xFgs)
26
2.2 Cropphenologyanddrymatterdistribution H.D.J. vanHeemst 2.2.1 Introduction Figure4showsthetimecourseofabovegrounddrymatteraccumulationof asummerwheatcropduringitsgrowth cycle.Withrespecttothegrowthrate, three growth stages can be distinguished (Section 2.1). However, a crop not onlyaccumulates weight,italsopassesthrough successivephenologicaldevelopment stages:after sowingorplanting, acerealcropfirst forms roots,leaves and stems during the pre-anthesis phase, subsequently it flowers, and the seeds set and fill and the crop matures in the post- anthesis phase. These phenological stages are schematically illustrated for a rice crop in Figure Kh Recognizing the distinction between growth and development, growth is defined as the increase in weight or volume of the total plant or the various plant organs, and development isdefined as the passing through consecutive phenologicalphases;itischaracterized bytheorderand rateof appearanceof vegetative and reproductive plant organs. The two processes, growth and development, are often strongly interrelated, which is probably the reason whythetermdevelopment isusedoften whengrowthismeant.
TRANSPLANTING
r g e n c e Seedling
Yellows
Tillering
Hssd Development
Heading Flowering f 2 )
G r a i n Filling + R i p e n i n g Yield Formation (3) Ripening(4)
Establishment ( 0 ) ! Nuffy + F.Sid T r a n s p l a n t ,ng 10 days
V e g e t a t i v e 1S days
2S-3S days
10-20 days
Figure 10. Developmental phases of rice. (Source: Doorenbos &Kassam, 1979)
27
Theorderof appearance of thevariousorgansisaspeciescharacteristic,it mayvaryamongspeciesandisalmost independent of thecircumstances.The timingandrateoforganappearance,however,isdependentonenvironmental conditions and is, consequently, highly variable. Important events in the development of cerealsareforinstance, emergence, floral initiation,terminal spikeletformation, themomentof flowering (anthesis)andthebeginningand endofgrainfilling. Fortubercrops,theonsetof tuberbulkingisalsosuchan event. Themajorenvironmentalconditionsinfluencing phenological development aretemperatureanddaylength.Manyplantspeciesorcultivarsneedaperiod of lowtemperaturetoinduceflowering, forexamplewinterwheat, winterrye andsugar-beet. Theprocesstakingplaceduringthisperiodiscalledvernalization or jarowization. Summer crops in temperate climates and tropical cropsdonotneedaperiodoflowtemperaturetoinduceflowering. Forwinter cropsthelowtemperature requirements first mustbesatisfied. Forallcrops, higher temperatures generally shorten the length of a given phenological phase. Van Dobben (1979) collected data on the length of the period from emergencetoanthesisforanumberofcropspecies,grownatvariousconstant temperatures(Figure 11).Theshapeof thecurvesrelatingthenumberofdays to anthesis to temperature suggests aconstant product of days andtemperature.ThisproductisthetemperaturesumorthesocalledThermalUnit(TU, expressed in units of day degrees). The most common method of obtaining TU values for the duration of a phenological phase is to add average daily temperatures above athreshold value . The range of threshold temperatures
days toanthesis (d) 100
50
i.
10
20
30 temperature (C)
Figure 11.Theinfluence oftemperatureonthelengthofthepre-anthesisphaseforvarious fieldcrops.( ) rye;( o ) wheat;(A)flax;( ) maize;(x)peas.(Source:vanDobben, 1979)
28
varies between 0and 10C for different species orvarieties (Table 7). Sometimesanoptimumtemperatureexists.Inthatcase,temperaturesexceedingthe optimum, are replaced in the calculation by the optimum temperature itself. Therefore the higher the temperature, the shorter the length of the total growing period of a crop or, in other words, the higher its rate of development. If development isexpressed onanumerical scale, that ranges from 0to 2, with 0 being emergence, 1anthesis and 2 maturity, then the development rate is defined as that part of the scale that is accumulated per unit time. Generally a grain crop does not flower in the middle of its growing period. Consequently, the development rate during the pre-anthesis phase differs from the development rate during the post- anthesis phase at the same temperature. If, for example, the time lapse between emergence and anthesis for a certain crop variety in a specific environment is 50 days and between anthesis and maturity 25 days, then the average development rate during the pre- anthesisphaseis 1/50 or0.02d~!, andduringthepost- anthesisphaseit is 1/25 or0.04d"1.Thenumericalvaluesbetween0and2,obtained byadding thedailydevelopment ratesaredefined asthedevelopment stage.
Exercise4 Transform the graphs for wheat and maize in Figure 11into curves of developmentrateversustemperature. Whatdoyounoticeaboutthecurves?
Forsomespecies orcultivarstheeffect of temperature ondevelopment rate ismodified bytheinfluence of thelength of theday, or. in fact, thelength of the dark period. This effect is called photoperiodism. With regard to this mechanism, plants may be classified into three groups: (i) day-neutral plants, for which development rateisinsensitive to day length; (ii) long-day Table 7. Indicative threshold values, T0(C) usedforthecalculationofTUvaluesfordifferentspecies. Crop Maize Soybean Sorghum Pea Chickpea Wheat Rice T0 10 10 7-10 4 4 0-5 0-10 29
plants, for which anthesis is induced by the occurrence of long days (and therefore short nights); (iii) short- day plants, for which anthesis is induced by the occurrence of short days (and therefore long nights). The reaction to day length may bean important characteristic when a newspecies or cultivar is introduced in a region, even when it originates from a region at about the same latitude and - consequently - the same photoperiod. The reason is that thegrowing seasons at the two locations may not coincide due to differencesin rainfall pattern. The effects of day length are not treated quantitatively here, because we assume that in each region species with the proper day- lengthreactionarecultivated. Although the basicprocessesgoverningphenological development andbiomass production act independently, both phenomena are strongly interrelated. If therate of development ishigh, total biomass production willbelow, because the period of linear growth will be short (Section 2.1). Moreover, crops aregenerally not grown for total biomass, but for their storageorgans, such as tubers, grains or pods. These storage organs grow only during the latterpart ofthegrowthcycle,after roots,leavesandstemshavebeenproduced. A short growing period, resulting in a low vegetative biomass, especially of leavesresponsible for lightinterception, leadsinevitablytoapoorcrop.On theother hand, too much biomassinvested invegetativeorgansmayleadtoa relatively low production of storage organs, because in that case the maintenance requirements arehigh.Therefore, not onlytotal biomass production is of interest, but also its distribution.over the various plant parts. The actual proportion of leaves,stems,rootsand storageorgansinthetotal biomassata certain moment depends on the preceding growth rates, which are governed bytheweather and theleaf areaindexinthepast, and thepartitioning of that drymatter increase over thevarious plant parts.A fixed distribution pattern, for instance partitioning factors defined as a function of development stage, does not necessarily lead to a constant ratio of various organs. A simple examplewillillustratethis. Supposethereisatacertainmoment acropinthefield, thatcomprises 1000 kg ha - 1 leaves and 400 kg ha"1 stems. During the following 10 days, the average growth rate is 200 kg ha"1 d"1; the partitioning factors for leaf and stem being 0.6 and 0.4, respectively. In the subsequent 10 day period, the growth rate isonly 100kgha"1 d"1 because of amuch lower energy availability, and the partitioning factors have changed to 0.3 and 0.7 for leaf and stem,respectively.Attheendof thesecondperiodtheweightof leavesis1000 + 0.6x200x 10 + 0.3x 100x 10 = 2500kgha - 1 and theweight of stemsis 400 + 0.4 x 200 x 10 + 0.7 x 100x 10 = 1900 kg ha"1. This results in a leaf- stemratioof 1.32.Nowsupposethegrowth rateinthefirst period tobe 100 kg ha"1 d"1 and in the second period 200 kg ha"1 d"1. Assume too, an identical distribution pattern. Then the weight of leaves at the end of the second period is 1000 + 0.6x 100x 10 + 0.3x200x 10 = 2200kgha"1 and the weight of stems 400 + 0.4 x 100x 10 + 0.7 x200x 10 = 2200 kg ha"1.
30
Thentheleaf- stemratiois1.00. Inthisexamplethedevelopment pattern andthetimecourseof partitioning factors were assumed to be identical. However, development is not identical each year, as it responds to differences in environmental conditions. It is therefore not possible to relate the distribution pattern to crop age. Usually thepartitioning of thecurrent assimilatesupplyoverthevariousplant partsis expressed inadistribution pattern independence of thedevelopment stageof the crop. Such configurations are characteristic for each crop. The effects of environmental conditions other than temperature on the distribution pattern are often verysmall, especially inthe potential production situation; they are therefore nottakenintoconsiderationhere. Inthe next part of thissection thepartitioning of newly formed dry matter overthevarious plant organsistreated inrelationtothedevelopment stageof thecrop.Exampleswillbegivenfor thecropsrice,maizeandcassava. 2.2.2 Developmentanddrymatterdistributioninrice The total growing period of rice from transplanting to maturity generally variesfrom 90to 150days,dependingonthevariety,temperature andsensitivity to day length (Figure 10). Short duration varieties are in general day~neutral,longdurationvarietiesareshort- dayplants. Riceisaspecieswithaterminal inflorescence, and suchdeterminatespecies show a fixed development pattern: after anthesis leaf, stem and root formation stops and the only organ increasing in weight is the ear. The relation between development rate and temperature isa variety-specific characteristic,whichneedstobeestablished experimentally (Section5.4).Asanexample, the TU values for two cultivars, the medium- duration breeding line B9C/Md/3/3 and the short duration cultivar IR5, for the pre-anthesis period from transplanting till anthesis are 2700 and 2150 d C. respectively, taking into account athreshold temperature of 0 C (van Keulen, 1976).The duration of those periods at 20Ccan becalculated as2700/20, or 135days, and 2150/20or 108days, respectively. The associated development rates (the inverse of the duration in days) at this temperature are 1/135, or 0.0074 and 1/108,or0.0093d"1,respectively.TheTUvaluefor thepost- anthesisperiod appearedtobeequalfor bothcultivars,650dC.
Exercise5 Calculate the duration of thepost- anthesis period and thedevelopment rate for bothcultivarsat20and25C,respectively.
31
Thesimilarityof theTUvalues forthepost- anthesisphaseforbothcultivars is not a coincidence. In wheat too, differences in growth duration be: tween cultivars grown under identical environmental conditions are mainly due to differences in the length of the period from emergence to anthesis (Nuttonson, 1955,1953). Foractual field situations, thedevelopment ratemaybededuced fromthe datesof emergence, anthesisandmaturity,andairtemperaturedatafromthe nearest meteorological station, which should not be too different from the experimentalsite.
Exercise6 InChiangMai,aprovinceinNorthernThailand,theuplandricebreedingline Khichang x RDI was planted at two locations: Phabujom (800 m altitude, averagemaximumtemperature27C,averageminimumtemperature20C); andatChangKhian,(altitude 1200m,averagemaximumtemperature24C, averageminimumtemperature 17 C). EmergenceatPhabujomandChangKhianoccurredon8Juneand5 June, anthesis on 16September and 1October, and maturity on 13October and2 November,respectively. Calculate the average development rates for the pre- and post- anthesis phases at both locations, andtheTUvalues for thetwo phases. Athreshold temperatureof0Cmaybeassumed. Constructtherelationbetweenaveragetemperatureanddevelopment ratefor thiscultivar.
Thefractionofthetotaldrymatterincreaseapportionedtorootandshoot, respectively, as a function of the development stage of a rice crop for the period between transplanting (development stage 0) and anthesis (development stage 1) is given in Figure 12a. The partitioning of shoot dry matter increase between leaf blades and 'stems', as a function of the development stageof aricecropfortheperiodbetweentransplanting andanthesisisgiven inFigure 12b.Itisassumedthatafter-anthesisalldrymatterincreasebenefits thereproductiveorgans. Thus, if the growth rate is 200 kg ha"1 d"1 at development stage 0.5, a fraction of 0.92 of thetotal drymatterincrease, or 184kgha"1d"1isapportioned totheshoots. Of that portion, afraction of 0.50, or92kgha"1d"1is apportionedtotheleafbladesand92kgha"1d"1tothe'stems'.
32
fraction of total dry-matter increase t'Oi ,
fraction of shoot dry-matter increase 1.0
stems*leaf sheaths
leaves
0.5
10
0.5 1.0 development stage
Figure 12. Partitioning factors for plant parts of rice in the course of development.
Exercise7 Two upland ricevarieties aregrown atthe same location. Theyareharvested periodically at ten-day intervals. The dry weight of the above ground biomassisgivenbelow forthetwovarietiesAandB. VarietyA
harvest day 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 125 biomass,kg ha 50 100 200 400 800 1400 2200 3300 4600 6300 8400 10500 11900 12500
1
VarietyB
harvest day 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 biomass,kg ha' 50 100 200 400 800 1400 2200 3300 4600 6300 8100 9500
33
Day 0is emergence; anthesis for variety A ison day 95and for variety Bon day80after emergence. Calculate for both varieties the dry weight of leaves, stems and grains at the various harvest times.Usefor thecalculation thepartitioning factors givenin Figure 12.Assumeaconstanttemperatureregime. (Note: The partitioning factors in Figure 12 are functions of development stage,notage)
2.2.3 Developmentanddrymatterdistributioninmaize For maize, the total growing period from emergence to maturity varies from 80to 110days for short duration varieties,and from 110to 140days for medium duration varieties,whenaveragedailytemperatures areabove20C. Under cooler conditions, maizeismostly grown as a forage crop because the associatedextended lengthofthegrowingperiod doesnotpermittimelymaturation, duetothelowtemperatures,especiallytowardstheendof thegrowing season. Maize is considered to be either day-neutral or a short-day plant. The flower has separate maleand female parts.The male flowers are inthetassel at the top of the plant; the female flowers are in cobs at nodes along the middle of the stem (Figure 13).Thepre-anthesis period ends at silking.The
t t a l i h m n t CO) It a t day*
V * g * I S t iv ( ) I t - 40 day*
' l o w * r i n g (3) i t - 30 day*
Riparting Vi*id Formation (4)
o>
day* t o - t t d a y *
Figure 13. Developmental phases for maize. (Source: Doorenbos &Kassam, 1979)
34
duration of the interval between emergence and silking is affected by both genetic factors and environmental conditions. For most common cultivars, the time from silking to maturity under normal environmental conditions is identical,anaverage50- 55days. Themost frequently usedmethod fordeterminingthetemperaturerequirementfromemergencetosilkingisadirectsummationofaveragedailytemperatures, taking into account a base temperature of 10 C. Mederski et al. (1973)establishedTUvaluesof625,640,and755dCfortheperiodbetween emergence and silking, and 650, 655, and 635 d C for the post-silking periodforthevarietiesOhio401,DeKalbXL45andPioneer3306,respectively.Thelattervaluesmayvarywiththedefinition ofmaturity.Inthiscase,itis defined asthemoment that ablack layerdevelops at thebase of thekernel, whichmarkstheendoftheperiodofeffectivegrainfilling. Similartorice,the TUvalueforthepost- silkingperiodisalmostidenticalforthethreevarieties at650d C.Theaveragedurationof thatperiodat20 Cis650/(20- 10) = 65days;at25Citbecomes650/(25-10) = 43days(thebasetemperatureis 10 C!). The corresponding development rates are 1/65, or0.0154d~l, and 1/43,or0.0233d"1,respectively.
Exercise8 Amaizevarietyisgrownatalocation (airtemperaturegiveninTable 8), for which a TU value of 760 d C has been established for the period between emergenceandsilking,andoneof 660dCbetweensilkingandmaturity.For bothperiodsathresholdvalueof 10Cmaybetakenintoaccount. Thecrop emerged1 June. Calculate the dates on which development stages 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5, and2.0arereached. Whatarethesedatesifemergencetakesplaceon 15 June. Calculate the average development rates for the pre- silking andpost- silkingperiodsforbothemergencedates.
Exercise9 A maize crop is harvested periodically at ten-day intervals. Theharvested, plantsareseparated intoleavesandstems.Thedryweightsof theplantparts aregivenbelow: Date leafweight stemweight (kgha"1) (kgha"1) 10June 200 0 20June 1400 300 35
30June 10 July 20 July
2800 4500 5700
800 2000 3800
Emergencedateis1 June;silkingdateis5August. Drawagraphof the fractionofthe weightincrementallocatedtotheleavesas a function of thedevelopment stageof thecrop.Assumeaconstanttemperatureregime.
Table 8. Average air temperatures (C) to be used in Month Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 16 15 14 16 18 17 16 13 10 9 12 16 20 23 22 19 18 18 16 20 22 21 24 21 20 19 20 19 23 18 July 20 22 21 19 18 18 20 19 21 21 22 23 30 20 24 24 23 22 23 20 22 23 24 23 24 26 25 26 25 24 25
Exercise 8.
August 24 26 25 26 27 24 25 24 26 27 28 30 31 28 31 30 29 28 31 32 31 30 29 29 30 26 33 28 29 26 33
September 33 30 30 29 28 30 29 28 29 28 27 30 26 25 26 25 24 27 24 25 24 22 23 22 23 22 24 25 24 23
36
fraction of total dry matter increase 1.0
fraction of shoot dry matter increase
stem and sheaths
0.5
/
leaves
05
10
0.5 1.0 development stage
Figure 14. Partitioning factors for plant parts of maize in the course of development.
Thedistributionpatternformaize(Figure 14)isconstructed fromexperimental data in the same way as is done for a part of the pre- silking period in Exercise9. 2.2.4 Developmentanddrymatterdistributionincassava Cassavaisaperennialplantthat,foragriculturalproduction,ispropagated almostexclusivelythroughstemcuttings. Manycultivarsexist, theirdevelopmentpatternvaryingaccordingtoambient climaticconditions. Short-duration cultivars areharvested 6-12 months after planting;long durationcultivarsareoftenleftinthefield forperiodsoftwoyearsormore.Unlikericeand maize, the economic product is not the grain, but the storage root, which consists predominantly of starch. If environmental conditions areconducive for initiation storage roots are initiated about eight weeks after planting, which is mainly under photoperiodic control. Under short-day conditions, storagerootinitiationoccursreadily,butitisdelayedwhendaylengthexceeds 10- 12h, andconsequently yieldsarelower. Forthisreason, cassavaismost productivebetween 15Nand15Slatitudes. Inthedevelopmentofcassava,threephasesmaybedistinguished: - establishment, - earlygrowthandfoliage formation, - simultaneous formation of foliage andstarchaccumulation inthestorage roots.Thelastphasemaycontinueformorethanayear.InFigure15, dry- matter accumulation for various plant parts of cassava is shown for a period of two years. Thegraph shows that starch accumulation in the roots starts some four months after planting, that leaf weight shows a seasonal
37
dry weight (g p l a n t " 1 ) 3000r

o
/ /
y
2000 /
o
starch
1000
/
/ .
o
^
* '
/ / /
stems*storage roots-starch
^"
10
.""^
15
leaves ^***". ^ ^
20
25 time (months)
Figure 15. Dry weight of various plant parts of cassava in the course of time. (Source: Cours, 1948)
pattern of increase and decrease, and that this pattern is reflected inthedry matteraccumulationintheotherplantparts. Boerboom's (1978) analysis of cassava production showsthat thedistributionof drymatteroverthestoragerootsandstemorshoot isinvariablewith
weight of storage roots Ig)
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 U00 weight of whole plant (g)
Figure 16. Relationship between dry weight of whole plant and dry weight of storage roots for cassava plants. (Source: Boerboom, 1978)
-
38
weight of plant part (g) storage roots 2000
1500 shoot ^^stem
1000
500
0 -c
leaves 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 weight of whole plant (g)
Figure 17. Relationships between dry weight of whole plant and dry weight of plant parts for cassava cv. SPP. (Source: Boerboom, 1978)
timeforanextendedperiod(Figures 16and 17).Themainparametersdescribing the distribution pattern over the different plant parts are: the total plant weight at which storage root production starts, represented by the intercept withthexaxisandtheefficiency of storage-root production, representedby theslopeoftheregressionlinesinFigures 16and 17. Experimental data were used to determine the partitioning factors in the samewayasfor rice(Figure 18).Forthepresent procedure, thegrowthperiod'
Fraction of total dry-matter increment (minus fibrous roots)
to
leaves
05-
storage roots
5 10 t i m e (months after emergence)
Figure 18. Partitioning factors for plant parts of cassava in the course of time.
39
isrestrictedtooneyear,becauseitisimpossibletodeterminethepartitioning factors for longer growth periods, as foliage formation in the second year mainly occurs at the expense of existing reserves and not from current dry matterproduction(Figure15). Theindependent variableinFigure 18isnot thedevelopment stage, astor riceandmaize,buttimeafteremergence.Theexperimentstowhichthisgraph referswerecarriedoutatBuitenzorg, (Java, Indonesia)havingaphotoperiod ofabout 12 hours,i.e. underoptimumconditionsof daylength.Thisdescription was adopted because it appeared impossible to determine temperature requirements for reaching the various development stages, or to establish development ratesfromexistingexperimental data.Toachieveconsistencyin data handling, aconstant development rate over theyear could beassumed, giving anxaxiswithascale from 0to 1,i.e. adopting adevelopment rateof 1/365,or0.00274d"1.
40
2.3 Asimplemodelofpotentialcropproduction H.vanKeulen 2.3.1 Introduction InSection2.1, potentialcropproduction wasdefined asthetotaldrymatter production of a green crop surface that, during its entire growth period, is optimally supplied with water and all essential nutrient elements, and grows without interference from weeds,pestsanddiseases.Fromthisconcept, astep maybemadetotheestimationofpotentialyield,i.e.theproduction ofeconomically useful plant parts, by taking into account the phenological developmentofaparticular cropspeciesorcultivar, andtheassociatedpartitioningof drymatter overvarious organsof theplant, asoutlined inSection2.2. Inthis Section a scheme is presented to calculate both total dry matter production and economic yield for a number of crops, based on radiation and tempera-' tureregime,only. Theprincipleof theprocedureisthat repetitivecalculations are performed, startingatsomepointintimeatwhichthestateofthecropcanbedescribedin quantitative terms, either determined from experimental data or estimated from other known relations. For most crops a suitable point in time isemergence,which isdefined asthemoment of transition from growth of theseedling from the reserves in the seeds to growth originating from carbohydrates formed in the process of assimilation. Transplanted rice is a special case, becausetheseedlings,growingonanurserybed, areuprooted after sometime and replanted on the site where they will eventually mature. The moment of transplantingisthenabetterstarting point. The state of the crop at the start of the calculations is characterized by measurable quantities, e.g. the weight of the aerial plant parts, the weight of theroots and thegreen leaf area, activeintheassimilation process.From this stateandtheenvironmental conditions inthefollowing period theratesof the relevant processes, such asassimilation and respiration, arecalculated. These basic processes govern the rates of change of the various quantities that can thus be calculated. Realization of these rates over the relevant time interval and addition to the quantities present at thebeginning of the period yield the magnitude of the quantities at the end of the period. Or, in mathematical notation:
Qt+At = Qt + R q - A t (7)
where
41
Qt+A t Qt Rq At
isquantity attimet + At isquantity attimet istherateof changeof quantity QduringtimeintervalAt istimeinterval betweenthebeginning of theperiodandtheend of theperiod.
Exercise 10 Iftheunit of Qiskgha" l , andtheunitof Atisdays,whatistheunitof Rq? Suppose Qt = 200, Rq = 15andAt = 10,what willQt+Atbe?
The calculations are then repeated for the next time interval, and so on, until the end of the growth period of the crop. In this way the growth curve, i.e. the cumulative dry matter production (Section 2.1) is obtained. By partitioning the dry matter produced during each time interval according to the coefficients given in Section 2.2, the weight of the various organs can be calculated. The partitioning coefficients are a function of the development stage of the vegetation and that 'quantity' must therefore also be calculated. This may be done in the way suggested in Section 2.2, by adding the average airtemperatures inthecourse of thegrowing period and dividing the accumulated temperature sum at any moment bythe sum required for the completion of a certain phenological phase. The ratio obtained is the required quantity, whichisdefined asthedevelopment stage. The approach followed assumes that the rates of change calculated at the beginning of a time interval do not change during that interval. This assumption puts a restriction on the length of the time interval applied. In theory, infinitely small time intervals would haveto be applied, because realization of a rate of change over even a small interval results in different values for the quantities and this would thus lead to a different rate of change for the next small time interval. That would, however, hardly be possible from a practical point of view. Moreover the deviations are often within reasonable limits, even if the time interval has a finite size. In our approach we have chosen a period of ten days which, on the one hand, permits calculations for an entire growth period of some hundreds of daysto be performed inareasonable time on a pocket calculator, and, on the other hand, yields acceptable results for thepurpose pursued here. The principles of the calculation procedure outlined sofar are those underlying the state variable approach in systems analysis and modelling. This approach will not be further elaborated upon in this volume; for descriptions of this approach see de Wit &Goudriaan (1978) and Penning de Vries &van Laar(1982). 42
Exercise11 Inthebiological sciences,often thegrowthrate - i.e. therateof increaseofa quantity - isproportionaltothequantitypresent,thus: Rq= a Qt Calculatethetimecourseof thequantityQfor athirtydayperiodwhenQ0 = 5kgha"1(Q0isthequantityattimezero)andthevalueof the proportionality factora = 0.1 d"1;useforAtavalueof 5days. Repeat thecalculation foravalueof At = 3days. Comparetheresults.What doyounotice?Explainthe difference.
2.3.2 An actualexample This example concerns an experiment with the rice variety IR8, one of the so- called high yielding varieties (HYV) developed at the International Rice Research Institute. TheexperimentwascarriedoutinParamaribo, Suriname, SouthAmerica (549' N, 5509' W).Thericewastransplanted on 10November 1972 (Van Slobbe, 1973). The air temperatures used in the calculations were obtained from reported ten-day averages for the experimental period. Radiation was calculated from monthly averages of sunshine duration reported(Section3.1).ThesedatawereusedtocalculatepotentialgrossC0 2assimilation(Section2.1),whichisgiveninTable9.
Table9. Potential dailygrossassimilation expressedinCH2QforParamaribo,Suriname.

Date Fgs (kg ha'1 d1) 332 344 368 364 354 378 417 454
Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
Dec. 15
336 283
43
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The calculation procedure is illustrated in Table 10;the letters in the following text refer to the lines in Table 10, which are indicated in the last column(No.24)ofthetable. Linea specifies the situation at time zero. Because it concerns transplanted rice, the day of transplanting is chosen. Root drymatter after transplanting equals 40 kgha -1 (Column 10);above ground 100kgha"1 is present, which consistsentirelyofleafblades(Column 13).Thegreenarea,interceptingsolar energy for the assimilation process, is calculated from the weight of theleaf blades, assuming a constant ratio between the area and the weight of leaf blades.Thisratioiscalledthespecific leaf area,expressedinsquaremetersof greenareaperkgofdrymatterofleafblades.Forrice,itsvalueis25,thusthe areais2500m2ha"1.Fromthis,theleafareaindex(LAI),i.e. theratioofleaf areatosoilsurfacearea,iscalculated. Sinceonehectareis 10000m2,theleaf areaindexattransplantingtimeequals0.25 (Column20). Linebdescribesthefirstfulltendaysofthegrowingperiod.Theaveragedaily airtemperatureduringthatperiodis27.2C(Column 1),whichwhenintegrated over the period yields a temperature sum of 272 d C (Column 2). As explainedinSection2.2,theaccumulatedtemperaturesumisameasureofthe phenological development stageof thecrop. Forthevariety IR8therequired temperaturesumfor anthesisis 1500dC,assumingabasetemperatureof0 C.Thedevelopment stage(Column3)iscalculatedastheratioofthetemperaturesumaccumulatedandthevalueof 1500dC,hence272/1500 = 0.18. In Table 9, potential daily gross assimilation, Fgs, expressed in CH20 is given for themiddleof eachmonthof theyearinkgha"1d"1.Thevalue for anyten- dayperiod isobtained byinterpolation betweenthevaluesgivenin Table 9. For the second ten- day period of November that value is found directlyfromthetable:336kgha^d"1.Thisrepresentspotentialgrossassimilation, i.e. that realized by aclosed green canopy, which intercepts allincoming energy. For a leaf area index of 0.25, only part of the solar energy is Table11.Reductionfactorforgrossassimilationduetoincompletelightinterception.
LAI 0. 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 Reduction factor 0. 0.18 0.33 0.55 0.70 0.80 0.86 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.0
46
intercepted(Section2.1),hencethepotentialasdictatedbytheenvironmentis notrealized. Thereduction factor forvariousvaluesof LAIisgiveninTable 11,calculatedfromEquation5,inSection2.1. ForLAI = 0.25,thereduction factorequals0.18.InColumn4,therateofgrossassimilationisintroduced GASS = 336x0.18 = 60.5kgha -1d - i
A-\
As explained in Section 2.1, part of the energy fixed in the assimilatory process is respired by the crop to maintain the existing structures. For the vegetativematerialof ariceplant, therelativemaintenancerespirationrateis assumed tobe0.015 kgCH20 perkgdrymatterperdayduringthepre-anthesisphasewhen, especially inthepotential production situation, thenitrogencontent of thematerialisrelativelyhigh. Hence, therateof maintenance respiration expressed in CH20 is obtained by multiplying the total live dry matterpresent(Column23)bytherelativemaintenancerespirationrate, Rr MRES = 140x0.015 = 2.1 kgha"1d"1(Column5) The amount of assimilation products available for increase in dry weight of the crop equals the difference between gross assimilation and maintenance respiration.Thus: ASAG = 60.5-2.1= 58.4kgha"1d"1(Column6) Theconversionofprimaryassimilationproductsintostructuralplantmaterial againentailslossofenergy.Inthepresentapproach,thisgrowthrespirationis represented by its complement, the conversion efficiency, Eg, (Section 2.1). Thismeansthatthedryweightincrementisequaltotheconversion efficiency times theavailable assimilation products. Forvegetative material of average compositionEgequals0.7.Thus: DMI = 0.7x58.4 = 40.9kgha"1d"1(Column7) The total increase in dry matter is utilized concurrently for the growth of variousplantparts.Intheearlystagesthereisgrowthofroots,leafbladesand leaf sheaths and stems. The fraction of theincrement partitioned to each of theorgansis,underpotentialgrowthconditions, primarilydeterminedbythe phenological stateof thecrop(Section2.2). InTable 12,thefractionsallocatedêachoftheorgansaregivenasjifunction^developmentstage._ The instantaneous values of the partitioning factors for roots, leaf blades andstemsplusleafsheathsarereadfromthistablethroughinterpolation.The independentvariable,i.e.thedevelopmentstage,istakenasthevaluehalfway between the beginning and the end of the ten-day period. For this period therefore, (0 + 0.18)/2 = 0.09.
nv
47
Table 12.Partitioning factors fordrymattertovariousplantorgansasafunctionof developmentstage

Development stage 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0
fr
fi
f. 0.025 0.275 0.35 0.4 0.44 0.45 0.51 0.61 0.735 0.36 0. 0.
f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1.0 1.0
0.6 0.325 0.225 0.14 0.075 0.075 0.07 0.07 0.055 0.04 0. 0.
0.375 0.40 0.425 0.46 0.485 0.475 0.42 0.32 0.21 0.1 0. 0.
InColumn 8,thefraction allocated totherootisintroduced, whichisequal to0.35.Thustherateof increaseinrootdryweightis: IWRT = 0.35x40.9 = 14.3kgha"1d"1(Column9) The weight of the root system at the end of the period is obtained by adding the rate of increase from Column 9 multiplied by the length of the time interval to the weight at the end of the preceding ten- day period (Line a, Column 10).Thus: WRT = 40 + 14.3x 10 = 183kgha"1(Column 10) The fraction of the dryweight increment allocated to the leaf blades is again obtained from Table 12at development stage 0.09, which equals 0.395. The rateof increaseindryweightoftheleafbladesiscalculatedas: IWLV = 0.395x40.9 = 16.2kgha' 1 d"1(Column 12) Theweight of theleaf blades attheendof theten- dayperiod isobtainedby adding the rate of increase times At to the value at the beginning of the ten- dayperiod(Linea, Column 13).Hence, WLV = 100 + 16.2x10 = 262kgha"1(Column 13) The remainder of the above ground vegetative material is designated 'stems' in the present approach. It consists not only of the true stems, but contains alsotheleaf sheathsandtheearstructuresotherthantheseed.Forthepresent
48
ten- dayperiodthefractionoftheincrementallocatedtothestemisobtained from Table 12 at development stage 0.09, which equals 0.255. The rate of increaseinstem dryweight isequaltothat fraction multiplied bytherateof totaldrymatterincrease: IWST = 0.255x40.9 = 10.4kgha -1d"1(Column15) The weight of the stem at the end of the ten- day period follows from the addition of the rate of increase times the length of the time interval to the weightattheendoftheprecedingten- dayperiod(Linea,Column16): WST = 0 + 10.4x10= 104kgha -1 (Column16) Duringthisten- dayperiod, thecropisstillinitsvegetativephase, hencethe fraction allocated to the grain is zero (Column 17). Therefore the values in Columns 18and19alsoremainzero. Theleaf areaindex attheendof theten- dayperiod isobtained fromthe dryweightof theleafblades(Column 13)bymultiplyingwiththespecificleaf areaof25andtakingintoaccountthesurfacearea: LAI = 262x25x10~4 = 0.65m2m"2(Column20) Attheendofallcalculationsfortheten- dayperiod,threeauxiliaryvariables arecalculatedthatarehelpful forcomparisonwithmeasureddata.InColumn 21, total above ground dry weight is introduced, which is the sum of the weight of leaf blades (Column 13), stems (Column 16) and grains (Column 19). Thus: TADW = 262"+ 104 + 0 = 366kgha
-i
The total dry weight of the vegetation (Column 22) is equal to the above grounddryweight,plustheweightoftherootsystem(Column10): TDW = 262 + 104 + 0 + 183 = 549kgha
-i
The total dryweight of live material (TDWL, Column 23)that is subject to maintenance respiration is equal to the total dry weight, because no dead material is present as yet. With this calculation, the treatment of the first ten- dayperiod is finalized andthecalculations canberepeated for thenext ten-dayperiod. Theconditions arenot basically different for that period (Linec)fromthose inthepreviousone,thereforethelinewillbedescribedinlessdetail. Linecrefers to the last ten- dayperiod of November. The average airtemperature then is 26.3 C (Column 1).Theaccumulated temperature sum for 49
the crop at the end of the period is obtained by adding the 263 d C for this ten- day period to the value accumulated up till the beginning of the period (Column2,Lineb).ThereforethevalueinColumn2, Linec,equals: TSUM = 272 + 263 = 535dC The corresponding value of the development stage is found by dividing the valueinColumn2by 1500dC,therequiredtemperaturesumforanthesisof thisvariety: DVS = 535/1500 = 0.36(Column3) The value of potential gross assimilation for the last ten- day period of NovemberisobtainedbyinterpolationinTable9: GRA = 336 + 1/3x(283 - 336) = 318kgha"1d"1 Thefirst andsecondvaluewithinthebracketsareforthemiddleof December and the middle of November, respectively. To account for the influence of incomplete light interception, duetothelow leaf areaindex, potential assimilationmustbemultiplied bythereduction factor fromTable 11for anLAI of 0.65: 0.33 + (0.15/0.5)x(0.55 - 0.33) = 0.40 InColumn4,therefore, therateofgrossassimilationisintroducedas: GASS = 318x0.40 = 127.2kgha' 1d"1 Maintenance respiration for the period is calculated from the total live plant dryweightatthebeginning (Column23)andtherelativemaintenancerespirationrate,0.015 kgCH 2 0perkgdryweightperday: MRES = 549x0.015 = 8.2kgha"1d"'(Column5) Carbohydrates availableforincreaseinstructuraldryweightof thevegetation areequalto: ASAG = 127.2 - 8.2 = 119.0kgha"1d"1(Column6) From this, the total rate of increase in dry weight is calculated, taking into accounttheconversion efficiency: DMI = 119.0x0.7 = 83.3kgha"1d"1(Column7) 50
Thepartitioning factors for thevariousplant organsareobtained from Table 12,attheappropriatevalueofthedevelopmentstage: DVS = 0.18 + 0.5x(0.36 - 0.18) = 0.27 Thus: FR = 0.165 FL = 0.445 FS = 0.39 FG = 0. (Column8) (Column 11) (Column 14) (Column 17)
Therateof increaseinrootdryweightiscalculatedbymultiplyingtheincrease intotaldryweightbythepartitioning factor: IWRT = 0.165x83.3 = 13.7kgha"1d"1(Column9) andthetotalrootweightattheendof theten- dayperiodequals: WRT = 183 + 13.7x10 = 320kgha"'(Column 10) Therateof increaseinleafdryweightisobtainedbymultiplyingFLandDMI, hence: IWLV = 0.445x83.3 = 37.1 kgha"1d"1(Column 12) and the dry weight at the end of the period follows from addition of the incrementtothatpresentalready: WLV = 262 + 37.1x 10 = 633kgha"1(Column 13) Therateof increaseinstemdryweight iscalculated from total increaseindry weightandthefraction partitionedtothestem: IWST = 0.39x83.3 = 32.5 kgha' 1 d"1(Column 15) Totalstemweightattheendof theten- dayperiodequals: WST = 104 + 32.5x 10 = 429kgha"1(Column 16) The leaf area index at the end of the ten- day period follows from the dry weightoftheleafblades: LAI = 633x25x 10"4 = 1.6m2m"2(Column20) 51
Total above- ground dryweight attheend of thisten- dayperiod equals: TADW = 633 + 429 + 0 = 1062kgha" l (Column21) Thetotal dryweight of thevegetationis: TDW = 633 + 429 + 0 + 320 = 1382kgha" 1 (Column 22) whichisalllivematerial, hence: TDWL = 1382kgha" 1 (Column23) Thecalculations for theLines d, eand/follow exactlythesamepattern as the preceding ones;theyaretherefore nottreated here. Line grefers tothefirst ten- dayperiod of January. Column 1: Column 2: averageairtemperature during theperiod is26.0 C accumulated temperature sumat theend of theperiod equals 1320 + 260= 1589dC!
That is a point beyond anthesis. The temperature relations with respect to development are different for the period before anthesis and after anthesis, therefore these ten days cannot be treated in one line, but are split into two parts.The first part coverstheperiod until theanthesisdate,thelength of that part isdetermined bytheremainder of therequired temperature sum, i.e.: (1500- 1320)/26.0 = 7days Thesixthten- dayperiod canthusbedepicted as: Linegl, which refers tothefirst sevendaysof the period. Column 1: averageairtemperature duringtheperiod is26.0 C Column 2: accumulated temperature sumattheendof theperiod equals: 1320 + 7x26.0 C = 1502d C Column 3: corresponding development stageiscalculated as: 1502/1500= 1.0 (i.e.anthesis)
Column 4:
Column 5: 52
potential gross assimilation during the period follows from Table9: 283 + 2/3x(332 - 2 8 3 ) = 316kgha" 1 d"1; The light interception factor equals 1(Table 11), thus the gross assimilation rateequals: 316kg h a ^ d " 1 maintenance respiration is calculated from total canopy dry weight:
5899x0.015 = 88.5kgha^d" 1 assimilateavailabilityforincreaseinstructuralmaterialequals: Column6: 316.0 - 88.5 = 227.5kgha -1d"1 therateofincreaseindryweightof structuralmaterialequals: Column7: 227.5x0.7 = 159.3kgha"1d"1 thefraction of dryweightallocatedtotherootsisobtained Column8: fromTable 12atdevelopment stage0.94andequals0.025 therateof increaseinrootdryweightequals: Column9: 0.025x159.3 = 4kgha"1d"1 Column10: totaldryweightoftherootsattheendoftheperiodequals: 643 + 4 x 7 = 671kgha' 1 Column 11: thefraction allocatedtotheleafbladesequals:0.06 Column12: therateofincreaseindryweightoftheleafbladesequals: 0.06x159.3 = 9.6kgha' 1d"1 Column13: totaldryweightoftheleafbladesattheendoftheperiodis: 2331 + 9.6x7 = 2398kgha"1 Column14: thefractionofdryweightallocatedtothestemsequals:0.225 Column15: therateof increaseindryweightofthestemsequals: 0.225x159.3 = 35.8kgha"1d"1 Column16: totaldryweightofthestemsattheendoftheperiodequals: 2925 + 35.8x7 = 3176kgha"1 Column17: the fraction of dryweight allocated to thegrains, derived from Table 12equals 0.69. This period is before anthesis. However, a substantial part of the assimilates produced in this period is temporarily stored in the stems, and later translocated to the growing grain (Yoshida, 1980). In the present approach, these assimilatesaredirectlyadded,therefore, tograindryweight Column 18: therateof increaseingraindryweightequals: 159.3x0.69x0.8/0.7 = 125.6kgha"1d"1 Theratio0.8/0.7isintroducedtoaccount forthefactthat theefficiency ofconversionof primaryphotosynthatesinto grainstructuraldrymatterishigherthaninvegetativedrymatter, Column 19: graindryweightattheendoftheperiodequals: 125.6x7 = 879kgha"1 Column20: theleafareaindexattheendoftheperiodiscalculated from leafdryweight: 2398x25xl0" 4 = 6.0m2m"2 Column21: totalabovegrounddryweightofthevegetationequals: 2398 + 3176 + 879 = 6453kgha"1 Column22: totaldryweightofthevegetationequals: 2398 + 3176 + 879 + 671 = 7124kgha"1 Column23: there is still no dead material present, hence, DWLV equals 7124kgha"1 53
Line g2 refers period of three Column 1: Column 2: Column3:
Column 4 : Column 5:
Column 6: Column 7: Columns 8, 9and 10: Column 11: Column 12:
to the remainder of the first ten- day period of January, a days. averagetemperature duringtheperiod is26.0 C thetemperature sumtilltheend of theperiod equals: 1502 + 3x26.0 =1580 for the post- anthesis phase, the development scale runs from the value 1at anthesis to the value 2 at maturity. During the post- anthesis phase a required temperature sum of 800 d C for this (and most other) varieties has been established. The development stage is calculated as the total temperature sum above 1500 d C divided by 800, added to the value of 1 at anthesis.Thus: (1580-1500)/800 + 1 = 1.10 potential gross assimilation rate isequal to that in the previous period at 316kgha" 1d"1 maintenance respiration is calculated from the total dry weight. However, the relative maintenance respiration rate is changed after anthesis from 0.015to 0.01 kg CH 2 0 per kg dry matter per day. This change is mainly related to the fact that the nitrogen content of the vegetative material decreases after anthesis, even when the nitrogen supply to the vegetation is abundant (Section4.1).Thus: 7124x0.01 = 71.2kgha- 1 d" 1 assimilateavailability for increaseindryweight isequal to: 316 - 71.2 = 244.8kgha" 1 d"1 the rate of dry weight increase during the period, taking into account conversion efficiency equals: 244.8x0.8 = 195.8kg h a ^ d " 1 after anthesis the sink strength of the above- ground organs and notably that of the growing grains is such that no more assimilates arediverted totheroot system, leaf growth alsoceasesafter anthesis,henceFL = 0 leaves have a limited life span, thus after acertain time period, they senesce and stop functioning. This process is accelerated after anthesis,whentranslocation of essential substancesto the developing grains takes place; therefore the weight of active leaf bladesdeclinesafter anthesis;itisassumed that the relative rate of decline is constant, i.e. each day a constant fraction of the leaves senesces. The value of this constant equals 0.02 kg leaf bladesper kgleaf bladesperday.Therateof declineindry weightof theleaf bladesequalsWLVx0.02,thus: 2398x0.02 = 48kgha" 1d"1
54
Column13: Columns 14 and15: Column16 Column17 Column18 Column19 Column20 Column21 Column22 Column23
thedryweight of theliving leaf blades attheendof theperiod equals: 2398 - 48x3 = 2254kgha"l after anthesis there is no increase in stem dry weight, hence bothvaluesarezero. stemdryweightremainsconstantat3176kgha"1 after anthesis all available assimilates are monopolized by the growinggrain,thusthatfractionequals 1 therateofincreaseingraindryweightovertheperiodequals: 1x195.8 = 195.8kgha' 1d"1 graindryweightattheendoftheperiodequals: 879 + 195.8x3 = 1466kgha"1 leafareaindexfollows fromleafdryweight: 2254x25xl0" 4 = 5.6m2m"2 totalabovegrounddryweightequals: 2254 + 3176 + 1466 + 144 = 7040kgha"1 totalcanopydryweightequals: 7040 + 671 = 7711kgha -1 livetissue,subjecttomaintenancerespirationequals: 7711 -144 = 7567kgha"1
Linehrefers tothesecondten- dayperiodofJanuary, averageairtemperatureduringtheperiodis26.0 C Column1: thetemperaturesumattheendoftheperiodequals: Column2: 1580 + 260 = 1840dC Column3: thecorresponding development stageequals: (1840 - 1500)/800 + 1= 1.43 Column4: potential gross assimilation rate equals 332 (Table 9) and the leaf area index permits full light interception, therefore gross assimilationequals: 332x1 = 332kgha"1d"1 Column5: maintenance respiration is calculated from the live tissue weight: 7567x0.01 = 75.7kgha' 1d"1 Column6: assimilateavailability forgrowthequals: 3 3 2 - 75.7 = 256.3kgha"1d"1 Column7: rate of increase in structural dry weight, taking into account conversionefficiency, is: 256.3x0.8 = 205.0kgha^d" 1 Columns8 and9: valuesremainzero Column10: weightoftherootsystemremainsconstant:671kgha"1 Column 11: fractiontotheleavesiszero 55
Column12: Column13: Columns 14 and15: Column16 Column17 Column18 Column19 Column20 Column21 Column22 Column23
therateof decreaseinweightof liveleavesisapproximatedby: 2254x0.02 = 45.lkg ha"'d"1 liveleafbladedrymatterattheendoftheperiodequals: 2254 - 45.1x 10 = 1803kgha"1 valuesarezero. weightof stemsisconstantat3176kgha"l fractionallocatedtothegrainis1.0 the rate of increase in dry weight of the grain equals that in totaldryweight: 205.0kgha -1d"1 totalgraindryweightattheendoftheperiodis: 1466 + 205.0x10 = 3516kgha"1 leaf areaindexattheendoftheperiodequals: 1803x25xl0" 4 = 4.5m 2 m- 2 totalabovegrounddryweightof thevegetationequals: 1803 + 3176 4- 3516 + 595 = 9090kgha"1 totaldryweightof thevegetationequals: 9090 + 671 = 9761kgha"1 totallivedryweightequals9166kgha"l
Thecalculations for linefi)follow exactlythepatternof thepreviouslineand theyarenottreatedhere. Linej refers tothefirstten- dayperiodof February. Column1: averageairtemperatureduringtheperiodis26.0C Column2: accumulatedtemperaturesumtilltheendoftheperiodequals: 2100 + 260 = 2360 Column3: correspondingdevelopment stageis: (2360 - 1500)/800 + 1= 2.075 development stage 2 corresponds to maturity, therefore the durationofthisperiodisonly: (800 -(2100 - 1500))/26.0 = 8 Hence,eightdaystillmaturity, accumulatedtemperaturesumtilltheendoftheperiodequals: Column2: 2100 + 8x26.0 = 2308 correspondingdevelopment stageattheendoftheperiodis: Column3: 1 + (2308 - 1500)/800 = 2.0 gross assimilation rate for the first ten-day period of FeColumn4: bruaryequals: 332 + 2/3x(344 - 332) = 340kgha"1d"1 The reduction factor for light interception equals 0.94, gross assimilationratefortheperiodthusequals: 340x0.94 = 319.6kgha"1d"1 56
Column5: Column6: Column7: Column8 and9: Column10 Column11 Column12 Column13: Columns 14 and15: Column16 Column17 Column18 Column19: Column20: Column21: Column22: Column23: 2.3.3
maintenance respiration is calculated from total live dry weight: 10757x0.01 = 107.6kgha"1d"1 assimilateavailabilityforincreaseindryweightequals: 319.6 - 107.6 = 212.0kgha"1d"1 rateof increaseintotal dryweighttakinginto account conversionefficiency equals: 212.0x0.8 = 169.6kgha"1d"1 fractiontorootsandrootgrowthiszero, rootdryweightremainsat671kgha"1 fraction toleafbladesiszero, rateof decreaseinleafdryweightis 1442x0.02 = 28.8kgha"1d"1 liveleafdryweightatmaturityequals: 1442 - 2 8 . 8 x 8 = 1212kgha"1 fractiontothestemandincreaseinstemdryweightiszero, stemdryweightisconstantat3176kgha' 1 fractionallocatedtothegrainequalsone. rateofincreaseingraindryweightequals: 69.6kgha"1d"1 totalgraindryweightatmaturityequals: 5470 + 169.6x8 = 6827kgha"1 green leaf area index at maturity is calculated from leaf blade dryweight: 1212x25xl0" 4 = 3.0 totalabovegrounddrymatterequals: 1212 + 3176 + 6827 + 1187 = 12402kgha"1 totalplantdryweightatharvestequals: 12402 + 671 = 13073kgha"1 totalliveweightatharvestequals: 11886kgha"1
Comparison withmeasurements
InFigure 19,thecalculatedtimecourseof drymatterproductioniscompared to the measured data and a very satisfactory agreement between both is evident. The measured grain yield (at 12% moisture content) was 7.5 t ha"1, whichagainiscloseenoughtothecalculatedvalueof7.71ha"1(6827x1.12). The calculation procedure, outlined in the preceding Subsection was also appliedtoasetof datafrom IRRI,LosBafios. Inamaximumannualproduction trial, rice was grown year round, three different cultivars being used (Yoshida et al., 1972). The first one was IR8, for which parameters identical 57
total above ground dry weight Una" 1 ) 14
12 * calculated measured
10
6-
10
20
30
40
50 60 70 8 0 90 100 time (days after transplanting)
_L
Figure 19. Comparison of measured and calculated above-ground dry-matter accumulation for bunded rice grown in Paramaribo, Suriname.
grain yield (tha" 1 ) 12h
^
10
x measured calculated S calculated,using long-term average radiation
4-
50
100
200 300 350 transplanting date (Julian calendar day)
Figure 20. Measured and calculated grain yields for bunded rice transplanted on different dates at IRRI, Los Banos, the Philippines.
58
to those of thepreceding section were used. Theother twowere theearly naturing cultivars, IR747B2 and IR66798, respectively. Forthese varieties,therequiredtemperaturesumfromtransplantingto anthesiswasset at1100dC,i.e.adevelopmentrateof0.0182d _1atatemperatureof20C. The results of the calculations arepresented inFugure 20, along with the measured data.The figure showsthat thepatternofgrainyieldwithtimeof transplanting isidentical forthemeasured andthecalculated data, but that the calculations areconsistently of ahigher level. Itwould seem, therefore, thatintheexperiments thepotential, dictated byweather conditions was not fully reached. Reasons forthediscrepancy can only bespeculated upon, but nitrogen application of 125150kgN ha -1 , more than twothirdsof which applied asabasal dressing seems hardly sufficient foryields of over 6000 kg ha -1 (Section 4.1). It would seem, therefore, that the conclusion reachedbytheauthorsthatamaximumannualyieldofover28000kgha -1is possible, is valid. Themore so, if it is considered that theyear 1971 was unfavourable in terms of radiation asis shown in Figure 20bytheresult calculatedwithlongtermaverageradiationdata. In Figure 21,themeasured and calculated growth curves areshown for a
total aboveground dry-weight
+'
x
leMtha" 1 )
14
gram yield calculated 8.2 measured * 78

+
/ / /
/ */ /
/ /
12
/
/ /
10
* ' %
/ / /
/ /
y
L,K i , - - - - f r * * *
20
60
100
140
180 200 time (days after sowing)
Figure 21. Measured andcalculated above-ground dry-matter accumulation forspring wheat, grown in Israel.
59
springwheatcropgrownintheCentralNegevDesertinIsraelunder irrigation (Hochman, 1982). The variety Lachish used in this experiment requires a temperature sumof 1500d Cfrom emergenceto anthesisand 850d C from anthesis to maturity, both at a base temperature of 0 C. The partitioning functions used in the model are given in Section 3.4, where the same experimentis usedtoillustratetheeffect ofwatershortageonproduction. Theseexamplesshowthat potential yield and production maybeestimated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of crop characteristics and weather conditions.
Exercise 12 Calculatetftegramyieldfor thericevariety1R8,transplanted inLosBafloson January 20. Use the basic data given in Table 13.Assume for each month threeten-day periods asinTable 10.Thevalues for Fgsare averages for the monthandarenot,asinTable9,applicabletothemiddleofthemonth.
Table 13.Basicdata for Exercise 12,Fcland Fovexpressed in C02, Fgsexpressedin CH20,Los Banos,Philippines, 14 N.
Month J F M A M J J A S Ha (M J m-2d"') 14.07 18.31 20.03 23.81 21.00 18.48 16.80 15.70 15.96 15.16 13.31 12.31 Ta (C) 23.4 24.5 24.8 25.3 27.0 26.0 26.0 25.3 25.9 25.9 25.3 24.2 Hg (MJm M 1 ) 22.60 25.11 28.55 30.82 31.55 31.58 31.60 31.28 29.69 26.73 23.46 21.78
fo
Fd (kg ha*1*1) 616 674 734 781 800 804 803 791 757 698 633 600
F *ov (kg ha"1*1) 252 281 311 334 342 342 343 339 323 293 261 244
F A gS (kg ha-!d303 368 393 447 414 385 363 348 344 327 295 278
o
N D
0.47 0.34 0.37 0.28 0.42 0.52 0.59 0.62 0.58 0.54 0.54 0.54.
60
3 CROPPRODUCTIONASDETERMINEDBY MOISTUREAVAILABILITY
61
3.1 Potentialevapotranspiration J.A.A. BerkhoutandH.vanKeulen 3.1.1 Introduction The atmosphere isthe main source of carbon dioxide, which is neededby plants in the assimilation process. The rate of supply of carbon dioxide depends both on the concentration difference between the atmosphere andthe activesitesintheplant,andontheresistancetocarbondioxidetransport,part ofwhichisinthestomataintheleavesoftheplant(Section3.3). The water status of a plant influences the rate of C0 2 supply, because stomatal opening, andhencetheresistance, isaffected bythewaterpotential intheplant.Thestomataof aplantstarttocloseatsomecriticallowerwater content of theplant, resulting fromanegativebalancebetweentheuptakeof waterthrough itsroots andtheamount of waterlost through thestomatain the process of transpiration. This closure of the stomata continues until the balance of uptake and transpiration is restored, but now at a lower level. Hence, a direct but complicated interrelation exists between transpiration, assimilationandthewatersupplyinthesoil(Section3.2). In this section the transpiration process is examined under conditions of non-limiting supply of water to the plant, which is defined as potential transpiration. The analysis of Penman (1956) is followed. In that approach theradiationsourcesthatprovidetheenergytoevaporatethewaterareconsidered in combination with the turbulence of the air, to remove the water vapour. This procedure enables the estimation of potential evapotranspiration,usingdataobtainedfromstandardmeteorologicalstations. 3.1.2 Radiation The sun, which has a temperature of 6000 K, emits energy like anyblack body with a temperature above absolute zero. The solar constant, i.e. the meanenergy received at theearth's mean distance from the sun, outsidethe earth'satmosphere, onasurfacenormaltotheincidentradiation,hasavalue ofapproximately 1.4kJm" 2 s _I .
Exercise13 Intheoldsystemof unitsthesolarconstant wasexpressedincalcm"2 min"1, Whatisthevalueofthesolarconstantintheseunits?
63
In passing through the atmosphere, a variable part of the radiant energy is absorbed, scattered and reflected, due to the presence of ozone, water vapour, clouds and dust in the atmosphere. Total global radiation at the surface of the earth is measured at a limited number of meteorological stations. For other stations it may be possible to estimate the average total global radiation by means of an empirical relation, using the measured duration of bright sunshine (Black et al., 1954). The form of this relationship the Angstrom formula - is:
R^RAteA + t^nN- 1 )
where R, RA isthe radiation actually received (J m - 2 d" 1 ). isAngot'svalue, orthetheoretical amount of radiation that would reachtheearth's surface inthe absence of an atmosphere (J m"2) d~\ Values of RAaretabulated as a function of day of theyear and latitude inTable 14. isthe ratio of actual duration of bright sunshine (n)and the maximum possible length on acloudless day (N), both inh. The actual duration of sunshine isrecorded inmost stations, whereas the maximum duration during the day is again tabulated as a function of date and latitude in Tablel5.
(8)
nN" l
a A and bA areempirical constants. The numerical value of these constants depends on the location or latitude (Glover & McCulloch, 1958) and the climate (Rietveld, 1978). Indicative values used by F.A.O. (Frere&Popov, 1979)are: for cold and temperate zones aA = 0.18andb A = 0.55 for drytropical zones 0.25 0.45 for humid tropical zones 0.29 0.42 TheAngstrom formula gives fair results for weekly ormonthly averages.
64
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Exercise14 MeteorologicalstationDonMuang,Thailand(humidtropicalzone) Position: 1355' N, 10036'E Meanmonthlyvaluesofmeasureddailyhoursofsunshine(n): J F M A M J J A S O N D 7.1 5.9 5.9 5.1 4.4 4.0 3.7 2.9 3.3 3.9 4.9 5.9 CalculateR,.UseEquation8,andTables 14and15.
Part of thesolar radiation reaching theearth'ssurface isreflected. Theterm 'albedo'denotesthatreflection fraction;itsvalueisdeterminedbyacombination of surface properties (openwater, drysoil, moist towetsoil, vegetation, etc.)andtheinclinationofthesun.Indicativemeanalbedovaluesare0.05 for a water surface and 0.25 for a green crop surface completely covering the ground(Penman,1963). The atmosphere (including the clouds) and the earth's surface, which both havetemperatures abovetheabsolutezero,emitthermalradiation.Themagnitudeof thisradiationisproportionaltothetemperature.Astheatmosphere ispartlytransparent andthetemperatureof theearth'ssurfaceishigherthan thatoftheatmosphere,theoutgoinglong- waveradiationcomponentwillbe dominant. Empiricalrelationshavebeenformulated tocalculatethisnetoutgoing long-wave radiation on the basis of air temperature, humidity and cloudiness. Penman (1956) used the following expression, which is derived fromtheBrunt- formula(Brunt,1932): RB= a(Ta + 273)4(0.56 - 0.079ea5)((X + 0.9nN"') where RB a Ta isnetoutgoinglong- waveradiation(Jm^d" 1 ) istheStefanBoltzmanconstant(4.9x10"3Jm - 2d"1 K"4) is mean air temperature at screen height in C. The factor 273 is addedtoconverttoabsolutetemperature. ea isactualvapourpressureoftheairatscreenheight(mbar). l nN" istheratioofactualandmaximumhoursofsunshine(Equation8) (9)
Again,Equation9isnotintendedforperiodsshorterthanaweek.
67
Exercise15 ea is a measure of the amount of water vapour in the air. The unit mbar expresses this in the partial pressure of the water vapour. Conversion of this dimension into alternative ones may be obtained from the following expressions: (a) lmbar = 100Pa wherePaistheabbreviation forPascal,whichistheSIunitforpressure. (b) lmbar = T k / 0.217xWw whereWwistheconcentration of watervapour intheairin kgm"3, and TkstandsfortheabsolutetemperatureinK. (c) 1 mbar = 0.75 mmHg where mm Hg stands for millimeters of mercury, which was used previously to expressvapour pressure, among othersintheoriginal work of Penman(1948, 1956). InEquation 9themultiplication factor for eaequals 0.079 for eaexpressed in mbar. What would be its value for eaexpressed in kg m"3 (20 C), or inmm Hg?
Exercise16 Meteorological stationDonMuangmeanmonthlyvalueof measureddaily: Temperature(C) Vapourpressure(mbar) J 26.0 22.5 F 27.4 25.6 M 28.9 27.9 A 29.8 29.8 M 29.3 30.2 J 28.7 29.2 J 28.2 28.7 A 28.0 30.2 S 28.2 29.8 O 28.1 29.3 N 27.4 27.0 D 25.6 22.7 Calculatethemeanmonthlyoutgoinglongwaveradiation(RB)
68
Net radiation isgiven by: RN = R,(1 - ra) - RB where RN R, ra RB is net radiation ( J m ^ d ' 1 ) isincident shortwave radiation (J m~ 2d"1) isthe albedo (dimensionless) isnet outgoing longwave radiation (J m~ 2 d"1) (10)
Exercise 17 Calculate the mean monthly net radiation (RN) for the Don Muang meteorological station for an open water surface.
3.1.3
Evaporation
Now the heat balance of a thin, extended water layer, that covers a black isolated floor is considered. The net radiation that is absorbed can be calculated from meteorological data (Equation 10) for an assumed albedo of 0.05. This net radiation (RN) heats the water until the sensible heat loss to the surrounding air plus the heat loss due to the evaporation of water equals this net radiation, or: RN = H + LE where RN H E L LE is net radiation ( J m ' M ' 1 ) is sensible heat loss (J m~ 2 d~ 1 ) isthe rateof waterloss from the surface (kg m"2 d"1) islatent heat of vaporization of water (2450x 103J kg"1) isthe evaporative heat loss (J m"2d""1) (11)
The loss of sensible heat of a surface to its surroundings is proportional to the temperature difference, according to:
H = h u (T s -T a ) where
(12)
69
H issensibleheatloss(Jm~ 2 d _1 ) hu isthesensibleheattransfercoefficient (Jm~ 2 d~ l0 C~ ! ) Tsand Ta arethetemperature of theevaporating surface and thetemperature atstandardscreenheight,respectively(C) The value of the sensible heat transfer coefficient, hu, depends on the atmospheric turbulence and may be expressed as an empirically determined functionofmeanwindvelocityatadefinedheight(Penman,1948): hu = au(l + buu ) where u ismeanwindvelocity(ms' 1 ) auand b areempiricalconstants. Forasmoothlandsurfaceandwindvelocitymeasuredatastandardheightof 2 m, anindicative value for auis6.4 x 105Jm"2d"1 C~1and for bu, 0.54s m"1(Frere&Popov, 1979). (13)
Exercise18 Meanmonthlyvalueof measured dailywindvelocity atDon Muang,measuredatstandardheight(2 m) inms"l

J F M A M J J A S O 2.02.5 2.8 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.1 1.4 N D
Calculatethemeanmonthlyhuvalues.
Analogous to the sensible heat, a water surface looses water vapour, in proportion to the vapour pressure difference between the surface and the surroundingair: E = k u (e s -e a ) where E istherateofwatervapourlossin(H20m"2 d"l) ku isthevapourtransfercoefficient (kgm"2d"l mbar~l) esand ea arethevapourpressureatthesurface andatstandardscreenheight,
70
(14)
respectively(mbar) The air at the water surface is water vapour saturated. This saturated vapour pressure is related to the surface temperature Ts, a relation that may be approximated (Goudriaan, 1977)by: es = 6.11 xe ( 1 I 4 T ^s +239 where es Ts isthesaturatedvapourpressure(mbar) isthesurfacetemperature(C) (15)
Theexchange of sensible heat andthat of evaporative heat aregovernedby the same physical processes of turbulence and diffusion. Therefore a relationship exists between the sensible heat transfer coefficient and the vapour transfercoefficient (Bowen'sratio),or
7
= h u k u - , L- 1
(16)
where 7 isthepsychrometerconstant. Itsvalueisabout 0.66
Exercise19 Whatisapsychrometer? Whatisthedimensionof7?
SubstitutingEquations 12, 14and 15inthebalanceEquation 11,yields: RN = hu(Ts - Ta) + (h u / 7 ) (es - ea) (17)
This equation contains two unknowns, the temperature of the water surface, Ts, and the saturated vapour pressure in the air at this surface, es. Both variablesarerelatedinthemannerdescribed inEquation 15.Hence, thereare two equations with two unknowns, so that the surface temperature and the vapour pressure at the surface can be solved. This enables calculation of the evaporationof thewatersurface fromEquation 14.
71
Exercise20 -Calculate the evaporation rate at Don Muang in January for a thin extendedwatersurface withanalbedo of 0.05, usingthedataof Exercises 14, 17,and18. Calculate for this purpose the sensible and evaporative heat loss for assumedwatersurfacetemperaturesof 20, 21,22,23,and24C.Plot thesum of both against these temperatures and draw in the same graph the net radiation. Read from the graph the equilibrium temperature, where the water surface neither gains nor looses heat. Calculate thenthe evaporation rate.
The iterative procedure illustrated inExercise 20israthercumbersomeand can beavoided bylinearizing the relation between temperature and saturated vapour pressure (Equation 15). This was first done by Penman (1948), who usedtheapproximaterelation: (e, - ea) = A(TS - Td) where Td isthedewpoint of theair,iê.thetemperatureatwhichthevapourirf theairwouldstarttocondenseor,inotherwords,thetemperatureat which the actual vapour pressure in the air would be the saturated vapourpressure.Therelationexpressed inEquation 18isdepictedin Figure22. is the slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve between the averageairtemperatureanddewpoint. (18)
Exercise21 Whatisthedewpoint of airwithavapourpressureof 10, 15,50mbar?
Exercise22 WhatwasthevalueofAinDonMuanginJanuary? Calculatethevalueof Aattemperatures of 2, 6, 10 thevaluesofAversustemperature.
30, 34and38 C.Plot
72
vapour pressure ( m b a r )
50 45 40 35
30
s 25
e
20
15
10h
temperature (C) Figure 22. The relation between temperature and saturated vapour pressure. Ta andTd represent air temperature and dewpoint, respectively; es and ea are the saturated and actual vapour pressure in the atmosphere, respectively.
SubstitutingEquation 18intoEquation 17gives: RN = hu(Ts - Ta) + (huA/7)(TS - Td) Inthis equation the surface temperature, Ts, isthe only unknown and canbe madeexplicit:
7 R N /h u A+ 7
(19)
Ts = Ta +
A+ 7
(Ta - Td)
(20)
73
Exercise23 Verify that the psychrometric constant, 7, and the slope of the saturated vapour pressure curve, A, have the same dimension and that RN/hu has the dimensionofC.
Exercise24 Underwhatconditionsisthetemperatureofthesurfaceequaltothetemperatureoftheair?Whenisitcertainlyhigherandwhenisitcertainlylower? Derive an equation for the relation between the wet bulb temperature and dewpointforapsychrometerthatiswell- shieldedfromradiation.
CombiningEquations 11,12and20resultsin: LE = (RN + hu (Ta - Td)) A+ 7 (21)
Thisisthewell- known Penmanequation for thecalculation of evaporation from a free water surface. (Ta - Td) in this equation may be replaced by (e d -e a )/A in which ed is the saturation vapour pressure at air temperature. ThenthePenmanequationcanbewrittenas: LE = _ L - ( A R N + hu(ed - ea)) A+ 7 (22)
Exercise25 - CalculatetheevaporationratefromafreewatersurfaceatDonMuangfor themonthsJanuary,March,May,July,SeptemberandNovember.
3.1.4. Potentialevapotranspiration Plant leaves are protected against water loss by a cuticular layer that is almost impermeable to water. However, there are numerous small stomata (seeSection 3.3)intheseleavestoenabletheentranceof carbondioxide.The wallsofthesubstomatalcavitiesarewet,thereforetheairinsidethestomatais saturatedwithwatervapour. Incomparisontoevaporation,thiswatervapour has to overcome an additional resistance to move out of the cavity to the
74
surface of the leaves. Therefore the transpiration of an extended single leaf surface is smaller than that of an extended surface of water. On the other hand, the exchange surface is larger for a canopy with an LAI higher than one. Taking these effects into account, Monteith (1965) has modified the original equation for theevaporation of afree water surface for thedescriptionofcanopytranspiration. Itisbeyondthescopeofthisbooktogointothe details of histheory, buttheresult isanequation that veryclosely resembles Equation22: LE = where Csisconductanceforwatervapour,expressedinthesameunitsashu. In the case of a crop canopy, Cs represents the conductance of a large number of leaves placed in parallel and is referred to asthe surface conductance. Forawellwateredcrop,i.e. underconditions of potentialtranspiration, Csappearsmuchlargerthanhu.Theinfluence ofthecorrectionfactorin Equation 23 is therefore rather small. For practical purposes, therefore, the Penmanequationinitsoriginal formappearstobeauseful estimateoftranspirationlossesbycrops. Inthecaseof watershortage,theclosureof stomata isreflectedinadecreaseofthecanopyconductanceCs. However,thedifference inalbedobetweenawatersurfaceandagreencrop surface, which is 0.05 for the first and roughly 0.25 for the latter, hastobetakenintoaccount. Thewaterlossthatiscalculated inthiswayisreferred to as the potential evapotranspiration of a closed, short green crop surface iwellsuppliedwithwater.Theprefix 'evapo'isused,becausenodistinctionis madebetween waterlossbytranspiration from theleavesandthatbyevaporationfromthewetsoilsurfaceunderthecrop. ((A + 7 ) (l/h u + l/C s )/l/h u ) (ARN + hu(ed - ea)) (23)
Exercise26 - Calculate the evapo-transpiration at Don Muang for the months January, March,May,July,SeptemberandNovember.
75
3.2 Thewaterbalanceofthesoil
P.M. Driessen
As discussed in Section 2.1, plant production involves intake of atmospheric C0 2 through stomatal openings in the epidermis. Most of the water that plantstakeupfrom thesoil isagainlost totheatmospherebytranspirationthroughthesameopenings(Section3.1).Thedailyturnoverofwatercan be considerable: transpiration of 0.4 cm of water from a crop surface ona clearsunnydaycorrespondstoawaterlossfromtherootzoneof nolessthan 40000kgha"1d"1. If soil moisturetakenupbytherootsisnot replenished, thesoilwilldryouttosuchanextentthattheplantswiltandultimately die.Thetenacitywithwhichthesoilretainsitswaterisequalledbythesuction that the roots must exert to be able to take up soil moisture. This suction, knownasthesoil moisturepotential or 'matricsuction', canbemeasured.In hydrology, potential (\p) isusually expressed asenergyperunitweight of soil water, withthedimension of length (vanBakel, 1981).An optimum\[/ range exists within which agiven plant takes upwater freely. Above orbelow this rangetheplant sensesstress. Itreactsbyactively curbingitsdailywaterconsumptionthroughpartialorcompleteclosureofitsstomata.Theconsequence isevident:thisstomatalclosureinterfereswithC0 2 intakeandreducesassimilationand,consequently,dry-matterproduction. Anymodelof theproductioncapacityof (dryland)cropsmustthereforekeep track of the soil moisture potential to determine when and to what degreea cropisexposedtowaterstress.Thisiscommonlydonewiththeaidofawater balanceequation,whichcompares,foragivenperiodoftime,incomingwater in the rooted surface soil with outgoing water and quantifies the difference between the two as a change in the amount of soil moisture stored. This rooted surface soil, or 'root zone', is a continuous soil layer with anupper boundary (the soil surface), andalower boundary at adepthof RDcm(the rooting depth). Waterenters and leavesthe root zone viathese twoboundaries, but water is also removed directly from the interior parts of the root zone, viz. the water taken up by plant roots. This uptake is almost entirely dischargedastranspiration. The rate of change in soil moisture content of the root zone can thus be describedwithawaterbalanceequationofthefollowingnature: RSM = (IM + (CR-D) - T)/RD where 76 (24)
is the rate of change in moisture content of the root zone (cm3 cm^d" 1 ) IM is the rate of net influx through the upper root zone boundary (cmd"1) (CR- D) is the rate of net influx through the lower root zone boundary (cmd"1) T istherateofcroptranspiration(cmd"!) RD isthedepthoftherootzone(cm) RSM Figure 23 presents the various incoming and outgoing fluxes of water in a crop-soil-atmosphere system.Thisfigure illustratesthatsupplyof wateratthe upper root zone boundary is composed of precipitation (at a rate P, in cm d"1), irrigation (atarateIc,incmd"1)and, possibly, waterthatwasstoredon top of the soil surface (at a rate DS, in cm d"1). There is also loss of water fromthesoilsurface, viz.asevaporation(atarateEa,incmd"1).Thusthenet rateof watersupplyatthesoilsurfaceis(P 4- Ic + DS - Ea)cmd~l. Thisnet surface supply infiltrates into the soil at a rate of IM cm d"1. During some time intervals, the net surface supply rate may exceed the maximum rate at which water can infiltrate inthat particular soil (IMmax). In first instance, the excesssupply isstored onthesurface. Themaximum surface storage capacity (SSmax, in cm) depends on the surface properties and the slope angle of the land. If excess supply exceeds the surplus storage capacity (SSmax - SSt)/At, theremainingwaterleavesthesystemassurfacerunoff (SR, incmd"1).
RD
/ I S M ) * * * ** I; r-'-^.^l.T'.T * T '*
1
.-r-7-
.'..
- I . ' . . - *
groundwater Figure 23. Schematic representation of water storage and flow in a plant-soil-atmosphere system.
77
Inaccordwiththeabove,theactualrateofinfiltration ofwaterthroughthe upperrootzoneboundarycanbedescribedas: IM = P + Ic - Ea + DS - SR where IM istheactualinfiltration rate(cmd"l) P istheactualprecipitationrate(cmd"') Ic istheeffective irrigationrate(cmd"1) Ea istheactualevaporationrate(cmd"l) DS is the rate of decline of surface storage (cm d"1) (DS is defined as positive if surface storage decreases andnegative if surface storage increases) SR istherateofsurfacerun-off (cmd"l) At the lower boundary of the root zone (i.e. at depth RD), vertical flow of waterbetween root zone and groundwater maytake place. Water flow from the groundwater into the root zone is called capillary rise (CR), water loss from the root zone to the groundwater is called downward percolation (D). Thereis, of course, nopercolation (D=0)if CR > 0, andviceversa, butan equilibrium is possible in which both CR and D are zero. The rate of water flowthroughthelowerrootzoneboundarycanthusbedescribedas: (CR - D) = CR - D (26) (25)
The water balance equation (24) can be solved for each time interval inthe growthcycleof acrop.Theindividualtermsarequantified onthebasisofthe stateofthesystematthebeginningofthetimeinterval(Section2.3). Before embarking on a discussion of the individual terms of the water balance equation, it seems useful to go briefly into some important concepts usedinthedescriptionofsoil-moisturedynamics. 3.2.1 Basicprinciplesofsoil-moisturedynamics Soilmoisturestorage Soil is a porous medium that consists of solid (mineral and/or organic), particles and pores that are either water-filled or air-filled. The total soil porosity, SM0(cm3cm"3) depends on the packing density of the soil andthe specific density of theindividual soil particles (Section 5.3). Inafully watersaturated soil, matric suction is nil. When suction is gradually applied to saturatedsoilmaterial,thewidestporesstarttodrainfirst. Simultaneously,a matric suction, ^, builds up in the soil material. Water loss from the soil material ceases when the matric suction has reached the level of the suction
78
externally applied bythe extraction apparatus. Inother words, if thematric suction,\f/9 is nil, then the corresponding soil moisture content, SM^,equals SM0; if \p> 0 cm suction, then SM^ < SM0. The decrease in SMîs not necessarily proportional to the increase in matric suction \//. A coarse, sandy soilhasmanywideporesandlosesalreadymuchofitsmoisturewhenexposed toalowormoderatesuction.Aclaysoilhoweverconsistsof fineparticlesand is finely porous. These narrow pores retain water with a higher (capillary) force thanwideporesdo.Theyreleasethiswateronlyafter thehighcapillary forces arecompensated byanequally highmatricsuction. It follows thatthe soilmoisturecontent,SM^,isdeterminedbythematricsuction,^,andalsoby thevolumeandsizedistributionof allsoilpores.Thelattercharacteristicsare largely a function of theparticle-size distribution and packing density of the soilmaterial. Figure24illustrates this point bypresenting typical SM^ - \f/ relations fora
SMy/(cm3cm-3)
0.50
heavy clay
0.40
030
(loess) loam
(120 coarse sand
0.10
_ L
100 2.0 1000 3 L 0 10000 40 V(cm)
10 1.0
Figure 24. Some characteristic SMi/"-^ relations of soils of different texture.
79
fine (clay)soil, amedium-fine (loam)soilandacoarse(sand)soil.Thegraph showsthat atagivenmatricsuction, afinely grained soil retainsmorewater than a coarser one. (In the schematized presentation used here, effects of hysteresis, causing different ^ - SM^ relations upon wetting and upon drying,areneglected.)Matricsuctionvaluesobservedinsoilsrangebetween0 and > 20000cm.TofacilitategraphicalpresentationoftheSM^- \prelation overtheentire\prange,soil scientistscommonlyrelateSM^ tolog\[/; the SM^ - log yp curve is known as the soil's *pFcurve'. A matric suction of, for instance, 16000 cmcorresponds with apFvalue of log(16 000) = 4.2. This notation will not beused in this monograph, but isimportant for thosewho searchforinformationinliteraturetobeawareof. The particle-size distribution can be established for any soil material. To thisend,thesizeoftheindividualmatrixparticlesisdeterminedinthelaboratory and attributed to one of the following three particle size classes: 'sand'(0.05-2.0 mm in diameter), 'silt' (0.002 - 0.05 mm) and 'clay' (<' 0.002mm). Therelativeproportionsofsand,siltandclayparticlesinthesoildetermineto which 'texture'class the soil material belongs. Figure25 is agraphical representationof thesand-silt-claycomposition of eachtextureclass.Asthefigure shows,asoilmaterialconsistingof0.35gg~l clayparticlesand0.30gg~l silt, would be classified as a 'clayloam'. It contains of course also 0.35 gg" 1 of sandgrains.
% sand (0.05-2.00mm)
Figure 25. Graphical representation of the sand-silt-clay composition of mineral soil material in the different soil texture classes.
80
In'normal*soils, whichareneitherextremelyloosenorextremely compact, thetotalporevolumeandpore-sizedistributionarereasonablywellcorrelated with the texture class. This correlation can be put to use:as shown in Figure 24, anincrease inmatricsuction isassociated with adecrease in soil-moisture content, but the actual relationship is co-determined by pore characteristics. In a schematized set-up, the latter are conveniently represented by atexturespecific constant^. Analysis of SM^- \J/relationships measuredintheNetherlands, suggeststhat SM^cansatisfactorily bedescribedby: SM^= SMo*e-^(W) 2 Indicativevaluesof SM0andy forthevarioussoiltextureclassesarepresented in Table 16. Equation 27 has a limited applicability in the case of certain tropicalsoils.ThiswillbediscussedinmoredetailinSection5.3. (27)
Exercise27 A soil material consists of 0.20 gg"1clay and of 0.40 gg"1silt. Determine its textureclass (useFigure25). Determine thesoil moisture content, SM^,if the soil'smatricsuction,\{/9 is 1000cm(UseEquation27andTable16).
Table16.IndicativevaluesofSMQand7forthevarioussoiltextureclasses.
Textureclass* coarsesand finesand loamysand fine sandyloam siltloam loam loessloam sandyclayloam siltyclayloam clayloam lightclay siltyclay heavyclay peat** SM0 (cm3cm"3)
72 (cm~ ) 0.1000 0.0288 0.0330 0.0207 0.0185 0.0180 0.0169 0.0096 0.0105 0.0058 0.0085 0.0065 0.0042 0.0112
0.395 0.364 0.439 0.504 0.509 0.503 0.455 0.432 0.475 0.445 0.453 0.507 0.540 0.863
* TextureclasscriteriaaredepictedinFigure25. ** Highlyvariableclass. 81
Soil-moisture flow Moisture stored in the soil is not entirely static; it can move through the pores at a rate that is proportional to the 'hydraulic gradient' and inversely proportional to the resistance in the soil pores. The driving force is called the hydraulic head, which is composed of matric forces and gravity forces. In the case of a water-saturated soil, water flow is driven solely by gravity because there is no matric suction. The ratio of hydraulic head, H n , and flow distance, L n , is the hydraulic gradient. The reciprocal value of pore resistance is known as the hydraulic conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity depends on the volume and properties of all pores that can be used for water transport; it is thus also a function of the soil-moisture content or suction. The commonly used symbol for the hydraulic conductivity is kôf the soil-moisture content or suction. The commonly used symbol for the hydraulic conductivity is k^. Under conditions of water saturation, kêquals k0, the 'saturated conductivity' (cm d"1), and vertical saturated water flow between two arbitrary points n, and n2follows Darcy's law (an analogue of Ohm's law): F = K0 H n /L n where F k0 Hn Ln isthe flow ratebetween points n{ and n2(cm d"*) isthe saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm d"*) isthe total difference in hydraulic head between points n, and n2 (cm) isthe distance between points n, and n2 (cm) (28)
If $ > 0 cm, the total hydraulic head is composed of both gravity forces and matric suction: H n = * + gn where H n isthe total hydraulic head at point n (cm) t\f/ isthe matric suction at point n (cm) gn is the gravity head at point n, equal to the vertical distance between point nand the groundwater level (cm) The gravity head, gn, isdefined as negative in downward direction. (29)
Exercise 28 A Dutch silty clay soil with a groundwater table at 1 m below soil surface 82'
contains0.3 cm3cm"3moistureatapoint 10cmbelowsoilsurface. Calculate thematricsuctionatthatpoint(useTable 16andisolate\pfromEquation27). Calculatethegravityheadatthatpoint. What would thetotal hydraulic headbeatthat point, if thesoil werealoam soilinsteadofasiltyclaysoil?
If\[/ > 0cm,thehydraulicconductivity, k^,islowerthank0becausesomeof the pores have emptied and are no longer functioning as transport channels for water('unsaturated flow'). Theremaining water-filled poresareonaverage narrower, and present, therefore, ahigher resistance to flow, whichimpliesthat k^ decreases atanincreasing ratewithincreasing suction.Therelation between k^ and îs not simple. If x// isverylow, i.e. below 10cm,most soils loose no water at all because they lack pores that are wide enough to drainatsuchlow levels of suction. It follows thatk^= k0 at matricsuctions belowthisso-called 'airentrypoint*.Thiseffect isshowninFigure26butitis disregardedinthemodel. If\prisesandporesdrain,k^decreasesasafunction of its momentary value and of thecompounded porecharacteristics,expressedinanempiricaltexture-specific constanta:
dk/cty= k ^
Integrationofthisexpressionyields:
k^tcmd"1) 10 r
k^ko.e-0*^
k^=a i^r
.,v1.4
10 | 10 air entry point y max
w*
10'
105 V (cm)
Figure 26. Generalized k\p-\// relations, as described by Rijtema (1965).
83
k, = k 0 -etf where k^ isthehydraulicconductivityatmatricsuction$(cmd"') k0 isthetexture- specificsaturatedhydraulicconductivity(cmd"l) a isatexture-specific empiricalconstant(cm"1) Indicative values of k0and a for the various texture classes are presented in Table 17.MeasurementshaveshownthatEquation30doesnot holdoverthe entire range of >p values occurring in soils. If $ exceeds a texture-specific suction limit, ^max,anempirical equation hasto beusedto describe therelationbetweenkând \p: k,= a - ^ M , where a isatexture-specific empiricalconstant(cm2,4d"') */wisa texture-specific suctionlimit(cm) jTable 17. Indicative values of suction limit, ^max,saturated hydraulicconductivity, k0,andconstantsaandaforthevarioustextureclasses.
Textureclass*
&nax (cm)
(30)
if^>^ m a x
(31)
k0
(and - 1 )
(cm d- ) 0.080 10.9 16.4 26.5 47.3 14.4 22.6 33.6 36.0 1.69 55.6 28.2 4.86 6.82
24
(cm"1)
coarsesand finesand loamysand finesandyloam siltloam loam loessloam sandyclayloam siltyclayloam clayloam lightclay siltyclay heavyclay peat**
70 175 200 290 300 300 130 200 170 300 300 50 80 50
1120 50 26.5 12.0 6.5 5.0 14.5 23.5 1.5 0.98 3.5 1.3 0.22 5.3
0.224 0.0500 0.0398 0.0248 0.0200 0.0231 0.0490 0.0353 0.0237 0.0248 0.0174 0.0480 0.0380 0.1045
(Source: Rijtema,1969,adapted). * TextureclasscriteriaaredepictedinFigure25. ** Highlyvariableclass. 84
Indicativevalues of aand^maxforthevarioustextureclassesarepresentedin Table17. Observingthesuction limit, ^max,adynamicversionof Equation28canbe usedtodescribewaterflowinallsituations: F = k,.SH/SL where F istheflowrate(cmd"l) 8H isthedifference inhydraulichead(cm) 6L isthedistanceof flow(cm) (32)
Exercise29 Calculate the indicative hydraulic conductivity of a loam soil at a matric suctionof 100cm.UseTable 17.Dothesameforaloamsoilat\p = 1000cm; useTable17.
3.2.2
Theindividualtermsofthewaterbalance
Watertransportthroughtheupperroot- zoneboundary Theactual infiltration rate, IM, isdetermined bythetotal watersupplyat the soil surface, but also by the maximum possible infiltration rateof water intothesoil, IMmax.Thisimpliesthat IMcanonlybedetermined if IMmaxand all components of surface watersupply areknown (Equation 25).Therefore, thesevariableswillbediscussed first. Themaximumrateofinfiltration(IMmaJ Infiltration of water into the soil results in wetting of the surface layer. Withinthewettedsurfacesoilthreezonesmaybedistinguished: a. theuppermostsoillayer;thiszoneiscompletelysaturatedwithwater. b. the 'wetting front'; this is a relatively thin zone marking the transition betweenthewettedandtheunalteredsoilmatrix. c the'transmissionzone*betweenaandb,whichhasauniformsoilmoisture contentthroughout. The maximum infiltration rate is determined by matrix forces and gravity forces.Theinfluence of matrixforcesisexpressedinthe'sorptivity'(S,incm d~0'5) of the material. The sorptivity value indicates the rate at which asoil absorbs waterif thematricsuction istheonlydriving force. Sorptivityvaries 85
withtheparticle size distribution of thematrix material andtheinitialmoisturecontentofthematrix. Table 18specifies 'standardsorptivityvalues',S0,foreachofthestandardsoil texture classes. Standard sorptivity represents the sorptivity of a completely drymatrix, i.e. asoil material withamoisture content, SM^,of 0cm3cm"3. Stroosnijder (1976) demonstrates that sorptivity decreases linearly with increasing moisture content of the soil. The following approximate relation is thereforesuggested: S = S 0 -(1-SM/SM 0 ) where S istheactualsorptivity(cmd"5)
S0 isthestandard sorptivity (cmd"05) SM^ isthesoil moisturecontent (cm3cm"3) SM0 isthetotal porespace (cm3cm"3) At prolonged infiltration, the importance of sorptivity decreases relative to the importance of gravity forces. The maximum infiltration rate is ultimately
(33)
Table 18.Indicativevaluesof standardsorptivity (S0)*andtransmissionzonepermeability(A)forthevarioussoiltextureclasses.

Textureclass** So (cm d~Vi) 50.16 21.44 19.20 17.57 14.46 11.73 13.05 19.05 6.15 4.70 10.74 3.98 1.93 7.44 A (cmd"1) 119.23 30.33 17.80 9.36 5.32 3.97 8.88 16.51 1.18 0.76 2.94 0.80 0.15 1.86
coarse sand fine sand loamy sand fine sandy loam silt loam loam loess loam sandyclay loam siltyclay loam clay loam light clay siltyclay heavyclay peat
* BasedonvaluesreportedbyStroosnijder(1976). ** TextureclasscriteriaaredepictedinFigure25. 86
limited to avalue dictated bythe hydraulic conductivity of the transmission zone (A, expressed in cm d"1). The value of A depends on the moisture content of thetransmissionzoneandonthegeometryof thematrixmaterial. Because matrix geometry and soil texture are normally related, indicative A-values have been postulated for each soil texture class as presented in Table18. In reality, the maximum infiltration rate (i.e. IMmax, expressed in cmd"1)is determinedbythecombinedeffects ofmatrixforcesandgravityforces: IMmax = S0(1 - SM/SM0) (At)"05 4-A (34)
Exercise30 In3 hoursofcontinuousrain,atotalof 1.5 cmofprecipitationismeasuredin araingauge.Ifthisrainfallsonaflatandleveltractofmoist(SM^= 0.35cm3 cm"3) loamsoil, willtheland flood? Supposeitrains for6hoursatastretch onthesamelandandwiththesameintensity. Doesthatmakeany difference? Explainyouranswer.
Theprecipitationrate(P) Not all of thegauged precipitation reachesthesoil surface andisthuspotentially available for infiltration. A small part is intercepted by the crop and evaporates directly from the vegetation. The interception during agivenperiod of timeisstrongly influenced byrainfall distribution. Thisbecomesevidentasonerealizesthatthestoragecapacityof thevegetationislimited;once this storage capacity is fully used, any additional precipitation will reachthe soil surface. The quantitative effect of interception on the soil moisturebalanceisdifficult toanalyze.Ontheonehandevaporationofinterceptedwater from the leaf surfaces reduces the efficiency of precipitation as a source of available soil moisture, while, on the other hand, 'steered drip' from the vegetation can increase the availability of water to a crop. Interception will conceivably reducetranspirationtosomeextent, depending ontheroughness of thecropsurface, windvelocityandtheapparentdiffusion resistanceofthe crop. This would counteract the effect of interception on the soilmoisture balance. Inviewoftheuncertaineffect of interceptionandthelowconfidence levelof interception estimates in situations where weather records are less thanperfect,gaugedprecipitationisintroducedinthewaterbalance.
87
Theeffective irrigation rate (Ie) Effective irrigation represents the net input of irrigation water into the root zone. Itmaybe measured directly inthe field, e.g. with raingauges inthe case of sprinkler irrigation. More often, only thegross amount of water released at the project headworks is measured and then effective irrigation water inputs are approximated by multiplying the rate of water release at the headworks withanoverall efficiency factor: I. = I Ep where Ie I Ep istheeffective irrigationrate(cmd"l) istherateof waterreleaseatheadworks (cmd"*) istheoverall efficiency factor (35)
The overall efficiency factor, Ep, is composed of three partial reduction factors which express losses incurred during conveyance of the water from headworks to field canals, during field canal flow, and at application of theirrigationwater: Ep = Ed Ef Ej where Ed Ef Ej isthe field application efficiency factor isthe field canal efficiency factor istheconveyance efficiency factor (36)
Table 19 presents indicative efficiency factors as suggested by Doorenbos & Pruitt (1977). These values illustrate that the gross quantity of water to be supplied at the project headworks under unfavourable conditions (e.g. small parcelling, unlined canals and/or poor management), greatly exceeds the net quantity thatisavailabletothecrop.
Exercise31 Determine, using Table 19, the overall efficiency (Ep) of irrigation in a small ( < 1000ha), ineffectively managed scheme, where maize on aloam soil receivesrotational surface irrigation according to apre- determined schedule. The schemeconsists of small ( < 20ha)blocksserved from unlined canals.
88
Table 19.Conveyance(Ej),fieldcanal(Ef),distribution(E4 x Ef),and field application (Ed)efficiencies. Conveyanceefficiency(Ej) Continuoussupplywithnosubstantialchangeinflow Rotationalsupplyinprojectsof3000-7000haand rotationareasof70-300ha,effective management Rotationalsupplyinlargeschemes(> 10000ha)and smallschemes(< 1000ha)withresp.problematic communicationandlesseffectivemanagement: basedonpredeterminedschedule basedonadvancerequest Fieldcanalefficiency(Ef) Blockslargerthan20ha: unlined linedorpiped Blocksupto20ha: unlined linedorpiped Distributionefficiency (E,x Ef) Averageforrotationalsupplywi withmanagement andcommunication: 0 adeauate adequate sufficient insufficient poor Fieldapplicationefficiency(Ed) Surfacemethods: sandysoils loamysoils clayeysoilsupto Subsurfacemethods upto Sprinkler: hotdryclimate moderateclimate humidandcoolclimate Rice (Source:Doorenbos&Pruitt, 1977.) Theactual evaporation rate (EJ Actual evaporation from thesoil surface depends on: the potential evaporation rate, an expression of the evaporative demand of 1 theatmosphere (E0 d" "'; : Section Section3.1) 3.1) n, expressed incmd 89 0.9 0.8
0.7 0.65
0.8 0.9 0.7 0.8
0.65 0.55 0.4 0.3
0.55 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.32
- thehydraulicconductivityofthesurfacesoil - theshadingeffect ofthecanopy(= f(LAI)) Intheabsenceof acrop,themaximumrateof evaporation, Em,isassumed tobeequal tothepotential evaporation rate, E0, if sufficient watercanreach thesoilsurface.Onlyinexceptionalcases,e.g. inpermeablestronglycapillary soils with a shallow water table, or when there is water on the soil surface, could suchasituation persist for aprolonged period of time. Thiswouldnot be without danger. Particularly in semi-arid areas, where evaporative demand is high, accumulation of considerable quantities of soluble salts ator nearthesoilsurfacewouldbetheundesirableresult.Inthepresenceofacrop, EmisalwayslowerthanE0, evenif therateof watersupply frombelowisnot limiting the rate of evaporation. Ritchie (1972) suggested the following relationtoaccount forthereductionintherateof evaporationduetoshadingof thesoilsurfaceunderacropcanopy: Em = E0-e-0-4xLAI where LAIistheleafareaindex(m2m~2) Inall cases wherethereiswateron thesoil surface (i.e. SSt > 0)orwhere the rate of water loss through evaporation is lower than the rate at which capillary rise from thegroundwater can supply water to the soil surface, the actualrateofevaporation,Ea,equalsthemaximumrate, Em: Ea = E 0 e- 04xLAI , if S S t > 0 or Em < CR withCRtherateofcapillaryrise(cmd"l) Normally, cropping requires that the groundwater table is (kept) at some depthandcapillaryrisecannot coverevaporation losses. Whenthisoccurs,a veryhighmatricsuctionbuildsupintheupperfewcentimetresofthesoiland athin,airdry'mulchlayer*forms. Itisverydifficult toquantifythereduction inevaporationduetothepresenceofsuchamulchlayer.Inthepresentmodel thefollowingassumptionsaremade: - the moisture content of air dry soil material (SMa) is set at an arbitrary valueof0.33xSM16000 - evaporation fromthesoil isatamaximumwhenthesoil iswater- saturated - ifEmexceedsCR,theratiobetweenactualandmaximumevaporationfrom the soil surface is equal to the ratio between the actual and maximum 90 (38) (37)
quantitiesofwaterthatcouldultimatelyevaporatefromtherootedsoil. Itfollowsthat: Ea = Em(SM, - SMa)/(SM0 - SMa),ifEm > CR (39)
Ifwaterispresentonthesoilsurface,i.e.SSt > 0,EaassumesthevalueEm. Thefollowing exampleillustrateshowtheactualrateofevaporationis approximated. Assumealoamsoilwithamatricsuction, yp ,of500cmthroughouttheroot zone. The groundwater depth, zt, is 200 cm. The soil is cropped with maize withaLAIof4.0;thepotentialevaporationrate,E0,is0.5cmd"1 Themaximumevaporationrate,Em,iscalculatedusingEquation37: Em = 0.5e- 0 4 x 4 0 = O.lOcmd"1 The next stepisto verify whetherthecalculated maximum evaporationrate, Em, exceeds the rateof capillary riseinthis situation. Thetheory behindthe quantification ofcapillaryrisewillbediscussedlaterinthissection;fornowit suffices to know that Tables 2 1 - 3 4 specify for each soil texture class the relation between flow distance, matricsuction and rateof capillary rise.The useof thesetablesissimple:thematricsuctionof therootzoneandthe flow distance to the surface are known (inthis case 500cm and 200cm, respectively). From the proper table (Table 26 for loam soils) the CR value that corresponds with the known combination of matric suction and distance, is readoff: CR = 0.06cmd"1. Hence, EmisslightlyhigherthanCR, soamulchlayerforms. Theactualrate ofevaporationmustthereforebecalculatedusingEquations37and39: Ea = 0.10x(0.25-0.03)7(0.50 -0.03) = 0.047cmd
-i
Exercise32 It is a common notion among soil scientists that medium- textured soils do not easily develop amulch layer;coarse-textured sandysoils and fine-textured clay soils develop a mulch layer more rapidly. Consider the following field sitijation: ^ = 1000cm, zt = 100cmandE0 = 0.5 cmd*1. Thelandis cropped; LAI = 3.0. Check for each of the 14standard soil texture classes whetherornotamulchlayerwouldformundertheseconditions. (CompareEmwithCR; useTables21 - 34).
Thesurfacestoragecapacity(SSmax) Ina number of situations, agricultural land may be flooded. The obvious 91
S^max
horizontal
yJlr*.
Figure 27. Schematic representation of the surface storage capacity, SSmax, of land, a = clod/furrow angle (degrees). (j> = slope of the land (degrees), d = surface roughness (cm).
example isa rice field where semi- permanent flooding isa cultivation mea-. sure. Temporary flooding may also occur where upland crops are grown, e.g. during and directly after a heavy rain shower orasa consequence of irrigation. The quantity of water that can potentially be stored on top of the surface (SS max , expressed in cm) isdetermined by the surface properties and the slope angle of the land (Figure 27). The surface storage capacity is mathematically described as: sin 2 (g-0) cotan (a + <j>) + cotan (a - <j>) ; sina 2cos acos <f>
obm a . = U.J max
(4Uj
where SS max d a <j> is the surface storage capacity (cm) is the surface roughness (cm) is the clod angle/furrow angle () is the slope angle of the land ()
In most cases theclod/furrow angle, a, lies between 30 and 45; the field slope, <t>9 ofland which can still be used for agriculture is commonly less than 13.5 ( = 30 percent). The surface roughness, d,isofthe order of20 cmfor contour- ploughed land, 6to 8cm for land tilled with light equipment and1 to 2cm for untilled land. Figure 28 presents a nomogram based on Equation 40, giving SS max as a function of surface roughness, d, and field slope, 0; the clod/furrow angle, a,is fixed at 30. Equation 40does not apply inthe case of bunded rice fields, where surface storage capacity is an exogenous variable, determined by plot dimensions, slope angle and effective bund height. In all other situations, the quantity of water actually stored onthe surface atthe beginning ofa time interval (SS t ) can never exceed SSr 'max* 92
SSmax (cm) 1211109N, d=20cm\. 87654.d^cm^^^ 321* d

i i i i i
i i i .
d=25cm
cr=30
d=15cm ^ V
^^
d=10cm
^s.
^V ^^s.
$,indegrees
dsScm^^^"'^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ d=4cm" d=2cm ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^^^ ___/* "
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Figure 28. Nomogram of SSmax as a function of surface roughness, d, and field slope, <j>, at a fixed clod/furrow angle (a) of 30.
Exercise33 A tract of land, with a slope of 10, is ploughed along the contours. The furrowdepth,d,is20cm;a = 30. Calculate the surface storage capacity, SSmax, using Equation 40. Verify the resultwiththeaidofFigure28.
Theactualsurfacestorage(SSJandrunoff(SR) Asdiscussedearlierinthissection,thequantityofwaterstoredonthesurface canremainthesame, orincreaseordecrease inthecourseof atimeinterval. Whetherachangeinsurfacestoragetakesplaceand,ifso,inwhichdirection, dependsontheinfiltration capacityof thesoil, IMmax,andthesumof rainfall andirrigation,diminishedbylossesduetoevaporation. 93
Quantification of DS, thechange insurface storage and of SR, the surface runoff, isnowamatterof simplebook keeping: - first, the equilibrium situation is considered in which the supply equals the soil'sinfiltration capacity: if P + Ic - Ea = IMmax then DS = 0(thereisnochangeinsurfacestorage) SR = 0(thereisnosurfacerunoff) (41) - if supplyislowerthantheinfiltration capacity of thesoil, i.e. if P+ Ic Ea < IMmax, then all surface water supplied can infiltrate and there is still some infiltration capacity left. Thiswillcauseadeclineinsurface storage(DS > 0); there will be no run off (SR=0). The decline in surface storage can never exceed thequantity present (DS < SSt/At), so two possibilities mustbeconsidered: 1. excessinfiltration capacityexceedsactualstorage: IM m a x -(P + I c - E a ) > S S / A t , then DS = SSt/At(allactualstorageinfiltrates inthecourseof theintervalAt) SR = 0(thereisnorunoff) (42a) 2. excessinfiltration capacityislowerthanactualstorage: IMmax - (P + Ic - Ea) < SSt/At, then t DS = IMmax - (P + Ic - Ea)(thedeclineinsurfacestorageislimitedbythe availableinfiltration capacity) SR = 0(thereisnorunoff) (42b) - if surface supplyexceedstheinfiltration capacityof thesoil, i.e. if P + Ic Ea > IMmax, then the excess supply is, in the first instance, stored on the surface. The storage capacity available, amounts to (SSmax - SSt). If excess supply exceeds the available storage capacity, then (SSmax - SSt)is filled first and the rest is lost as surface runoff, SR. Consequently, there are again two possibilities: 1. excesssupplyexceedsavailablestoragecapacity: P 4- Ic - Ea - IMmax >(SSmax - SSt)/At, then DS = - (SSmax - SSt)/At(allavailablesurfacestoragecapacityisusedup) SR = (P + Ie - Ea) - IMmax - DS (43a)
2. excesssupplyisequaltoorlowerthantheavailablestoragecapacity: (P + Ic - Ea) -IM max ^ (SSmax-SSt)/At, then DS = IMmax (P + Ie Ea) (all excess supply can be stored in available storagecapacity) SR = 0(thereisnosurfacerunoff) (43b) In Equation 25, the rate of infiltration of water at the upper root zone boundarywasdescribedas: IM = P + Ic - E a + DS - S R The actual infiltration rate cannot exceed a maximum, IMmax, that has been quantified, as have all other terms in Equation 25. Therefore, the actual infiltration rate IM can now be quantified. A generally applicable procedure forthequantification of surfaceinflux, IM,isasfollows: 1st step: Determine SMûsing Equation 27 and Table 16. Determine the maximuminfiltration rate,IMmax,usingEquation34,andTable 18. 2nd step: Determine thesurface storage capacity, SSmax, using Equation40, orthenomogrampresentedinFigure28. 3rdstep: Determine fromyourdatasettheprecipitationrate, P. 4thstep: Calculatetheeffective irrigationrate, Ic,usingEquations 35and36 andTable19. 5th step: Determine SSt and determine the rate of capillary rise, CR, using theappropriatetablefromTables21-34.DetermineEmusingEquation37. if SSt > 0, orEm ^ CR,thenEa = Em if Em > CRthencalculateEausingEquation39. 6th step: Calculate thedifference between supply andmaximum infiltration rate:P + I e - E a - I M m a x = Q. ifQ = 0 - s t e p 7 ifQ<0->step8 ifQ > 0 ->step9 7th step: If Q = 0, then IM = P + Ic - Ea (Combination of Equations 25 and41) DS = 0andSR = 0. 8thstep: IfQ < 0, determinewhether - Q > SS/At or - Q < SS/At. if - Q > SS/At, then IM = P + Ie - Ea + SS/At (Combination of Equations25and42a) DS = SS/At andSR = 0 if - Q < SS/At, then IM = IMmax (Combination of Equations 25 and 42b). DS = - QandSR = 0. 95
9thstep: IfQ > 0,thencalculate(SSmax - SSt)/At. if Q > (SSmax - SSt)/At, then IM = IMmax(Combination of Equations 25 and43a). DS = (SSmax - SSt)/At, andSR = Q - (SSmax - SSt)/At. if Q < (SSmax - SSt)/At, then IM = IMmax(Combination of Equations 25 and43b). DS = - QandSR = 0.
Exercise34 During aten-day time interval, agauged 0.5 cmd"1 of rain falls on atract of clay loam soils (\p= 623 cm) under maize. The crop has a leaf area index (LAI)of 4.0. Thelandisdryatthesurface (SSt = 0).Theslope, <, is 10,the surface roughness, d, is2cmand theclod angle, cr,30. The potential evaporationrate, E0, amountsto0.4 cmd"1.Thegroundwater tableisatadepthof 150cmbelowsoilsurface. Noirrigationisapplied. Calculatetheactualinfiltration rate,IM,duringthetimeinterval. Calculate the rate of change in surface storage - if any - during the time interval. Calculatetherateof surfacerunoff - ifany - duringthetimeinterval. Note: Carefully follow the nine-step calculation procedure presented in this paragraph. Retainthecalculationresultsforlateruse.
Water flow throughthelowerroot zone boundary (CRD) The infiltration rate, IM, describes the net influx of water into the soil via the upper boundary of the rooted soil volume. It is, of course, also possible that water enters orleavesthe root zoneviaits lowerboundary (at adepth of RDcm;Figure23). As explained in Subsection 3.2.1, water flow in soils is driven by the total hydraulic head, Hn, whichconsists of amatricsuction,\[/9 andagravityhead, Hn = ^ + gn The gravity head, gn, was defined as negative in downward direction. This meansthatthetotal hydraulichead, Hn,atagivenpointabovethegroundwater is positive if \p> gn, i.e. if the matric suction \p (cm) exceeds the vertical distance (cm) between that point and the groundwater. A positive hydraulic headallows positive (inotherwords,upward)water flow from thegroundwatertothepoint withmatricsuction \p. Thisiscalledcapillary rise(CR,expressed inincmd"1). If\[/ < gn,the resulting total hydraulic head is negativeand 96
drivesdownward water flow from therooted surface soil tothegroundwater atdepthZj. Thisdownwardflowiscalledpercolation(D,expressedincmd"1). Aswaterflows onlyinonedirectionatatime,CR = 0ifD > 0,andD = 0if CR > 0. Forthesakeof convenience, therateof influx intotherootzoneat depth RDisrepresented inthewater-balance equation (Equation24)byonly oneterm with notation (CR-D), expressed incmd"1. Thetwo components ofthisterm,CRandD,willbeseparatelydiscussedinthefollowing. Therateofcapillaryrise(CR) Thesteady statesolution of theuniversal flow Equation 32makesitpossibletocalculatecapillaryrise: CR = k^. ( ^ - 1), for zt > z > RD dz (44)
Askîsdescribedbydifferent equationsforlow-suctionconditions(Equation 30)andhigh-suction conditions (Equation31),theintegrationof Equation44 hastobedonefortwo\f/ranges. Forthe low-suction range(\p ^ \Jwx)>the relation between CR, \[/ andthe flow distance fa - RD) is rather^straightforward; this relation is elaborated by Rijtema (1965). Inthe present approach, Rijtema's equation is used ina slightlyadapted formbecausethe\[/rangebelowairentrypointisnotseparatelyconsidered.Theadaptedequationreads:
ko fe~a*^ - e~ a,(z " RD) )
Forthehigh-suction range, therelation betweenCR,\f/ and fa - RD)hasto becalculated bynumerical integration. Thistechnique does not considerwater flow over the distance fa - RD) inone step, but divides this distancein smallincrements,A(zt - RD),usingtheexpression: CR = k? ( where yp isthejnean suction inthe increment A(zt - RD) iq is a-i/'"1,4 (see Equation 31) Numerical integration techniques are very time-consuming without computers. Thereason for this isthat theaccuracy of theultimately calculatedCRvalue is best if the individual Afo - RD) increments are very small. The 97 1 - 1) A(zt - RD) (46)
number of calculations required to cover the entire distance fa - RD) becomesverylargethenandthisprohibitstheuseof thistechnique intheapproach' presented here. This problem is avoided by the use of tables relating the rate of capillaryriseoverthedistance (zt - RD)toanycombination of\{/and (zt RD). Such tables have been prepared by Rijtema (1969) for the various soil textureclasses;theyarepresented asTables21-34. Table 21. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasscoarsesand. (cm) CR(cmd1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 20.0 43.4
44.4 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5
0.4 20.0 44.1

45.4 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5
0.3 20.0 45.0

46.7 46.7 46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8
0.2 20.0 46.1

48.5 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6
0.15 20.0 46.8
0.1 20.0 47.6
0.06 20.0 48.4
0.02 20.0 49.4
49.8 49.9 49.9 49.9 49.9 50.0 50.0 50.0
51.6 51.7 51.8 51.8 51.8 51.8 51.9 51.9
53.9 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.2 54.3 54.3 54.3
58.8 59.2 59.5 59.7 59.8 59.9 60.0 60.0
Table 22. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclassloamysand.
C R (cm d'1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 3.7 11.6 13.9 14.5 14.7 14.9 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.3 0.4 4.3 13.6 16.4 17.2 17.5 17.7 17.9 18.0 18.1 18.2 0.3 0.2 0.15 6.6 24.2 31.0 32.2 33.7 34.3 34.9 35.2 35.5 35.6 0.1 7.5 28.9 38.3 41.1 42.4 43.3 44.1 44.6 45.0 45.2 0.06 8.3 34.4 48.1 52.7 54.8 56.4 57.7 58.5 59.1 59.5 0.02 9.4 43.1 68.8 81.5 87.6 92.3 96.4 98.7 100.6 101.6
(cm)
6.0 5.0 20.9 16.5 . 26.2 20.1 27.6 21.1 28.2 21.5 28.7 21.8 22.1 29.1 29.4 22.3 22.4 29.5 22.5 29.6
98
Table 23. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclassloamyfinesand.
(cm) CR(cmd1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 19.4 47.2 83.2 101.2 103.2 104.6 105.9 106.6 107.2 107.6 0.4 19.6 47.8 85.7 106.8 109.2 111.1 112.6 113.6 114.4 114.7 0.3 19.7 48.3 88.6 114.1 117.3 119.8 121.9 123.1 124.1 124.7 0.2 19.8 48.8 91.8 124.4 129.3 133.0 136.1 138.0 139.4 140.2 0.15 19.8 49.1 93.6 131.8 138.2 143.1 147.3 150.0 151.8 152.8 0.1 19.9 49.4 95.6 142.3 151.8 159.2 165.5 169.1 172.1 173.7 0.06 19.9 49.6 97.2 155.8 171.1 183.2 193.7 199.8 204.8 207.4 0.02 20.0 49.9 99.0 185.1 225.9 260.5 291.4 309.7 324.6 332.5
Table 24. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotential forthesoiltextureclassfinesandyloam. CR(cmd1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 19.1 47.0 88.8 137.0 140.9 143.3 145.4 146.6 147.5 148.0 0.4 19.3 47.5 90.1 145.1 150.0 153.1 155.6 157.1 158.3 158.9 0.3 19.5 48.1 92.3 155.5 162.0 166.0 169.4 171.4 173.0 173.9 0.2 19.7 48.7 94.7 169.8 179.4 185.3 190.4 193.4 195.8 197.1 0.15 19.7 49.0 95.9 179.5 192.0 199.4 206.7 210.7 213.9 215.6 0.1 19.8 49.4 97.2 192.3 210.6 222.4 232.5 238.4 243.2 245.8 0.06 19.9 49.6 98.3 206.9 235.5 254.7 271.6 281.5 289.5 293.7 0.02 20.0 49.9 99.4 230.0 297.1 350.6 399.9 429.3 453.2 465.9
(cm)
Table 25. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasssiltloam. (cm) CR(cmd1) 0.5 20 18.3 0.4 18.6 0.3 18.9 0.2 19.3 0.15 19.4 0.1 19.6 0.06 19.8 0.02 19.9
99
Table25.(continued)
(cm) CR(cmd 1 ) 0.5 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 44.2 81.2 127.7 134.4 138.6 142.3 144.4 146.1 147.0 0.4 45.3 84.2 137.2 145.4 150.7 155.3 157.9 160.1 161.2 0.3 46.3 87.6 149.2 160.0 167.0 173.0 176.6 179.4 180.9 0.2 47.5 91.3 165.7 181.4 191.9 201.0 206.3 210.6 212.8 0.15 48.1 93.3 176.8 197.2 211.1 223.2 230.2 236.0 239.0 0.1 48.7 95.4 191.3 220.5 241.0 259.1 269.6 278.2 282.8 0.06 49.2 97.2 207.3 252.1 285.4 315.2 322.8 347.0 354.6 0.02 49.7 99.0 231.3 326.9 414.7 500.3 552.2 594.7 617.4
Table 26. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclassloam.
(cm) CR(cmd'1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 16000 17.7 42.2 74.0 102.6 104.6 105.9 107.0 107.7 108.2 108.5 0.4 18.2 43.5 77.7 111.0 113.7 115.3 116.7 117.5 118.2 118.5 0.3 18.6 45.0 82.1 122.1 125.7 127.8 129.7 130.7 131.6 132.1 0.2 19.0 46.5 87.0 137.8 143.1 146.3 149.1 150.7 152.0 152.7 0.15 19.3 47.3 89.8 148.8 155.7 160.1 163.8 165.9 167.7 168.6 0.1 19.5 48.2 92.9 164.0 174.2 180.6 186.2 189.4 192.0 193.4 0.06 19.7 48.9 95.6 182.0 198.4 209.1 218.3 223.7 228.0 230.3 0.02 19.9 49.6 98.5 214.3 256.5 287.2 314.4 330.5 343.5 350.5
Table 27. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclassloessloam.
(cm) CR(cmd 1 ) 0.5 20 50 100 250 18.9 43.8 65.4 71.5 0.4 19.1 44.9 69.0 76.4 0.3 19.3 46.0 73.3 83.0 0.2 19.5 47.3 78.9 92.7 0.15 19.7 47.9 82.4 100.1 0.1 19.8 48.6 86.8 111.2 0.06 19.9 49.1 91.1 126.6 0.02 20.0 49.7 96.6 165.5
100
Table27. (continued) CR(cmd 1 ) 0.5 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 16000 74.2 76.2 78.0 79.0 79.8 80.3 0.4 79.8 83.3 84.5 85.8 86.8 87.3 0.3 87.4 90.8 93.7 95.4 96.8 97.5 0.2 99.3 104.4 108.8 111.3 113.4 114.4 0.15 108.8 115.6 121.3 124.7 127.5 128.9 0.1 124.0 134.1 142.7 147.8 151.9 154.1 0.06 147.3 163.8 178.2 186.7 193.5 197.1 0.02 218.3 264.7 307.0 332.1 352.5 363.4
(cm)
Table 28. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasssandyclayloam. CR(cmd- ! ) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 19.4 47.3 85.1 110.0 113.9 117.0 119.6 121.1 122.3 123.0 0.4 19.5 47.8 87.5 116.3 121.2 125.0 128.2 130.1 131.6 132.4 0.3 19.6 48.3 90.1 124.4 130.9 136.0 140.3 142.8 144.8 145.9 0.2 19.7 48.9 93.0 136.0 145.7 153.2 159.6 163.4 166.5 168.1 0.15 19.8 49.1 94.6 144.3 157.0 167.0 175.6 180.6 184.6 186.8 0.1 19.9 49.4 96.3 156.0 174.6 189.4 202.3 209.8 215.9 219.1 0.06 19.9 49.7 97.7 170.9 200.3 224.5 245.8 258.3 268.4 273.8 0.02 20.0 49.9 99.2 201.7 272.7 338.6 400.5 437.6 467.9 484.0
(cm)
Table 29. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasssiltyclayloam.
*
(cm)
CR^md" 1 ) 0.5 0.4 14.9 33.5 53.1 65.3 69.4 73.5 0.3 15.9 36.5 59.4 75.0 80.5 85.9 0.2 17.1 40.0 67.9 89.5 97.4 105.6 0.15 17.7 42.1 73.3 100.1 110.6 121.3 0.1 18.4 44.4 80.0 115.3 130.8 146.7 0.06 19.0 46.4 86.6 134.7 159.4 185.2 0.02 19.7 48.8 94.9 175.0 235.7 305.6 101
20 50 100 200 500 1000
14.0 31.0 48.1 58.2 61.4 64.7
Table29. (continued)
CRtcmd"1) 0.5 2500 5000 10000 16000 67.5 69.1 70.4 71.1 0.4 76.9 79.0 80.6 81.5 0.3 90.5 93.2 95.3 96.5 0.2 112.5 116.5 119.8 121.5 0.15 130.5 135.9 140.2 142.6 0.1 160.4 168.5 175.0 178.5 0.06 208.0 221.4 232.2 238.0 0.02 371.7 411.5 443.9 461.1
(cm)
Table 30. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclassclayloam.
CRlcmd"1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 12.1 25.6 37.6 43.6 43.9 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.3 0.4 13.1 28.3 42.4 49.7 50.1 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 50.6 0.3 14.3 31.7 48.8 58.2 58.7 58.9 59.1 59.3 59.4 59.4 0.2 15.8 36.0 57.7 71.2 71.8 72.2 72.5 72.7 72.9 73.0 0.15 16.7 38.6 63.8 80.9 81.8 82.3 82.7 83.0 83.2 83.3 0.1 17.7 41.7 71.8 95.2 96.4 97.2 97.9 98.2 98.5 98.7 0.06 18.5 44.7 80.3 113.7 115.8 117.1 118.2 118.8 119.4 119.6 0.02 19.5 48.1 92.0 153.9 160.2 164.0 167.2 169.1 170.7 171.5
(cm)
Table 31. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasslightclay.
CR(cmd-!) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 17.1 40.8 73.4 114.5 122.0 127.1 131.3 133.8 0.4 17.6 42.4 77.4 124.7 134.0 140.3 145.6 148.7 0.3 18.1 44.0 81.9 137.9 150.1 158.3 165.4 169.6 0.2 18.7 45.8 87.0 156.0 173.8 186.1 196.7 203.0 0.15 19.0 46.8 89.9 168.3 191.4 207.7 221.8 230.1 0.1 19.3 47.8 93.0 184.5 217.3 241.3 262.4 274.9 0.06 19.6 48.6 95.6 202.4 252.0 290.7 325.5 346.1 0.02 19.9 49.5 98.5 229.3 332.9 432.8 532.3 593.1
(cm)
102
Table31.(continued) (cm) CR^md"1) 0.5 10000 16000 135.8 136.9 0.4 151.2 152.6 0.3 173.0 174.7 0.2 208.0 210.7 0.15 236.8 240.4 0.1 284.9 290.3 0.06 0.02
362.9 642.9 371.8 669.6
Table 32. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasssiltyclay.
CR^md"1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 12.3 22.3 28.0 33.8 37.1 39.7 41.9 43.1 44.2 44.7 0.4 13.3 24.8 31.7 38.9 43.1 46.2 49.0 50.5 51.8 52.5 0.3 14.5 28.0 36.7 46.2 51.7 56.0 59.6 61.7 63.4 64.3 0.2 15.9 32.3 44.4 58.1 66.3 72.6 78.0 81.2 83.8 85.1 0.15 16.8 35.2 50.0 67.7 78.5 86.9 94.1 98.4 101.8 103.6 0.1 17.2 38.8 58.1 83.0 98.8 111.3 122.1 128.4 133.5 136.3 0.06 18.6 42.4 67.9 105.0 130.2 150.7 168.6 179.1 187.6 192.1 0.02 19.5 47.1 84.8 158.0 220.6 277.1 329.4 360.7 386.1 399.7
(cm)
Table 33. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rate and matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclassheavyclay.
CRfcmd"1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 4.7 7.9 9.4 10.4 11.0 11.4 11.8 12.0 12.2 12.3 0.4 5.5 9.5 11.3 12.6 13.3 13.8 14.3 14.6 14.8 14.9 0.3 6.7 11.7 14.1 15.8 16.8 17.6 18.2 18.5 18.8 19.0 0.2 8.6 15.5 19.0 21.6 23.0 24.1 25.1 25.6 26.0 26.3 0.15 10.0 18.5 23.0 26.5 28.4 29.9 31.1 31.8 32.4 32.7 0.1 12.0 23.1 29.5 34.6 37.5 39.7 41.5 42.6 43.5 44.0 0.06 14.3 29.0 38.7 47.0 51.7 55.4 58.5 60.3 61.8 62.6 0.02 17.6 39.8 60.1 82.2 95.9 106.8 116.1 121.5 125.9 128.3
(cm)
103
Table 34. The vertical distance of capillary flow, cm, in relation to flow rateand matrixpotentialforthesoiltextureclasspeat.
(cm) CR^md"1) 0.5 20 50 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 16000 15.4 22.9 24.4 25.9 26.7 27.3 27.9 28.2 28.4 28.5 0.4 16.1 24.8 26.6 28.5 29.5 30.3 30.9 31.3 31.6 31.8 0.3 16.9. 27.1 29.6 32.0 33.4 34.4 35.3 35.8 36.2 36.3 0.2 17.8 30.4 34.0 37.6 39.7 41.2 42.5 43.3 43.9 44.3 0.15 18.3 32.7 37.4 42.2 44.9 46.9 48.7 49.7 50.5 51.0 0.1 18.8 35.8 42.5 49.5 53.5 56.6 59.2 60.8 62.0 62.7 0.06 19.3 39.3 49.5 60.8 67.4 72.5 76.9 79.5 81.5 82.6 0.02 19.7 45.0 66.5 95.6 114.4 129.5 142.5 150.1 156.3 159.6
Exercise35 Aloamsoilcropped withmaize(RD = 100cm)hasamatricsuction, \p9 inthe rootzoneof 300cm.Thewatertabledepth, Zj,is250cmbelowsoil surface. Determine whether there is capillary rise of water from the groundwater at depthZjtothelowerboundaryoftherootzoneatdepthRD. Calculate CR with Equation 45 (Remember: yp^ t/w)- Use Table 17 to identify texture-specific k0and a. NowdetermineCRwiththeaidofTable26. Whatisthevalueof (CR - D)inthiscase?
Therateofpercolation (D) When thevalue of the matric suction is lower than the value of the gravity head, the total hydraulic head is negative and water movement will bedownwards.Inthatsituation, therootedsurfacesoil looseswatertothesubsoiland eventuallytothegroundwaterthroughpercolation.Therateof percolation, D (cm d"1), can in principle be quantified with Equation 32. In the present approach, percolation istreatedasinfiltration of soilmoisture from thelower boundary of the root zone (i.e. depth RD) into the subsoil. It is unlikely that thepercolation ratewill fluctuate verysuddenly becausethepercolationwater comes from the rooted surface soil, which buffers the rateof water releaseat depthRD.Thepercolation ratewillbelargelydictatedbythegravity forces. Whendiscussingthemaximum infiltration rate, IMmax,amatricsuctionof the 104
transmission zone of 10cmwaspostulated, which results inahydraulicconductivityofthatzoneofk0e"a# ,0 = Aincmd"1.Inthecaseofpercolation, the role of the transmission zone is taken over by the root zone withmatric suctionyp, sothatpercolationwouldproceedatarate: D = k, (47)
Exercise36 Aloamsoilcroppedwithmaize(RD = 100cm)hasamatricsuction, \t,inthe rootzoneof 100cm.Thewatertabledepth,Zt, is250cmbelowsoilsurface. Determine whether thereis percolation of water from thelower boundary of therootzone(RD)tothegroundwateratdepthz^ Calculatethepercolationrate,D. Whatisthevalueoftheterm(CR- D)inthiscase?
It is clear that there is neither capillary rise nor percolation if the matric suction\tiscompensatedbyanequallyhigh(butnegative)gravityheadgn(see Equation 29). Inthat case the total hydraulic head is nil, there is nodriving forceandconsequentlynoflow:(CR- D) = 0. A generally applicable procedure for the calculation of (CR-D) is as follows: 1ststep: Establishthetotalhydraulicheadatthelowerrootzoneboundary, HRD,bysubtracting fromthematricsuction, ^,thedistancebetweenlower rootzoneboundaryandwatertable: HRD = ^ - ( z t - R D ) 2ndstep: IfHRD = 0,then(CR - D) = 0 3rdstep: If HRD < 0, then(CR - D) = - k^ .UseTable 17andEquation 30(if$ ^ ^max),orEquation31(if\[/ > ^max) 4thstep: If HRD > 0, then(CR - D) = CR. Theappropriate value ofCR canbeestablishedusingTables21-34.
Exercise37 InExercise 34, asituation was described with maize growing on aclay loam soil.Assumethattherootingdepthofthecrop,RD,is75 cm. Calculate, for the situation described in Exercise 34, the rate of water flow throughthelowerroot-zoneboundary,(CR - D). Note:Retainthecalculationresultforlateruse.
105
Directwaterlossfrom theinteriorrootzone(T) Inaddition towatermovementviatheupperandlowerroot zoneboundaries, there is also water loss from the interior root zone through uptake by plantroots.Accordingtothecontinuityprinciple,thequantityofwatertaken upfromtherootzonemustbeequaltothesumof croptranspirationandthe increment in weight of all watercontained in the crop. This latter portion is negligiblecomparedwiththequantitylostthroughcroptranspiration.Therefore, thepresentmodeldefines waterlossfromtheinteriorrootzoneasequal tocroptranspiration. A cropgrowing under conditions of optimum watersupply transpires ata maximum rate, Tm(expressed incmd"1). If water availability to the rootsis less thanoptimum (i.e. if the matricsuction, ^, is higherorlower thanoptimum), plantsactivelycurbtheirwaterconsumption, whichcausestheactual transpirationrate,T,tobelowerthanTm. Consequently,itisnecessaryto: - quantify themaximumtranspirationrate,Tm,ofeachcropataspecificsite ateachmoment - define at which matricsuction thecropsenses waterstressandreducesits transpirationrate - relate the degree of reduction intranspiration (T/Tm)to the soil moisture content, SM^. Themaximum transpirationrate(TJ The maximum transpiration rate under conditions of optimum watersupply is a function of the total surface area of all transpiring leaves and the potential transpiration rate,T0.Thelatterrepresentstranspiration, underthe prevailing environmental conditions, of awell watered, closed, short,green, standardcropasdefined byPenman (Section 3.1). Assuming proportionality betweenlightinterceptionbytheleafsurfaceandtranspiration,themaximum transpirationrateisapproximatedby: Tm = (l - e - 0 8 x L A V T 0 (48)
The potential transpiration rate, T0, is found by subtracting soil evaporation under 'Penman conditions' from the potential evapotranspiration rate, ET0.(seeSection3.1).Assumingtheleaf areaindexof aclosedstandardcrop tobe5 to6,thepotentialtranspirationratecanbewrittenas: T0 = ET 0 -E 0 e- 0 - 4x(5to6) or T0 = E T 0 - 0 . 1 - E 0 106 (49)
sothattheapproximatedmaximumtranspirationrate,Tm, becomes: Tm = (1 - e-08xLAI)(ET0 - 0.1xE0) (50)
Theconceptof waterstress Plantsexperiencewaterstress,if thematricsuction, \j/, iseithertoo lowor toohigh.Bothsituationswillbediscussed. - flower thanoptimum: On empirical grounds, asoil-moisture content SM100has been chosen asthe highestmoisturecontentatwhichwatersupplytotheplantisoptimal.Matric suction values lower than 100cmareassociated with some degree of oxygen deficiency in the root zone. This statement is not true for all soil texture classes:coarsesandysoilsandpeatsoilscontainampleair,eveniftheirmoisturecontent issomewhat inexcessof SM100;heavyclaysmaybeoxygen deficient at matric suctions over 100 cm. It would be better to assume oxygen deficiency whenthesoil-air content runsbelow afixed value of, say, 10 percent. This hasnot beendone inthepresent model because anumber of concepts and data borrowed from literature arebased on SM100asadiscriminatingsoil-moisturevalue. Oxygendeficiency interferes withwateruptake,presumably because maintenance of root activity requires energy. Underconditions of oxygen deficiency, therefore, stomata close to reducetranspiration] Inthe present model, transpiration is arbitrarily assumed to be nil whenthe root zone contains less than 0.05 cm3 cm' 3 of air. Crops exposed to this condition for a continuous period of more than 20 days perish. This set of rulesdoesnotapplytocropswithairducts('aerenchym')intheirroots,such asrice. - \phigherthanoptimum: Byconvention, thequantityof waterretainedbythesoilatamatricsuction \}/ of 100cm('field capacity'), diminished withthequantityof waterretainedat asuctionof 16000cm('permanent wiltingpoint'),isconsideredthequantity thatisultimatelyavailableforuptakebyplants: Wa = RD.(SMIOO-SM16000) where Wa isthequantityofwaterultimatelyavailable(cm) Plants experience waterstressatamatricsuction well below 16000cm.They actively curbtheir water use whenthe matric suction becomes higherthana system-specific, 'critical' suction (^cr). The corresponding critical moisture content,SMcr,liessomewherebetweenSM100andpermanentwiltingpointand 107 (51)
depends on plant characteristics, soil characteristics and evaporative demand. Irrigation engineers have established for a large number of crops, which fraction (pbetween 0 and 1.0)of Wacan be freely taken up bya specific crop at a given maximum transpiration rate,Tm. When the quantity of stored soil moisture decreases below ((1- p ) Wa + RD SM16000)cm, water uptake is impaired and the crop begins to close its stomata. The corresponding critical soil moisturecontent, SMcr, canthusbe found with: SMcr = (1-p)(SM 1 0 0 -SM 1 6 0 J + SM16000 Table 20 presents indicative p- values for the most important field crops at different valuesof Tm(Doorenbos etal., 1978). (52)
Reduction intranspirationunderstress (T/TJ As explained in the foregoing, the actual rate of crop transpiration, T, equals the maximum transpiration rate, Tm, only if the soil-moisture content of the
Table 20. Soil water depletion fraction (p) as a function of maximum transpiration rate,Tm,fordifferent cropgroups.
Crop group*
T m incmd 0.2
0.3 0.38 0.50 0.65 0.75 0.85
0.4 0.30 0.43 0.55 0.65 0.75
0.5 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65
0.6 0.23 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
0.7 0.20 0.28 0.38 0.48 0.55
0.8 0.18 0.25 0.33 0.43 0.50
0.9 0.16 0.23 0.30 0.38 0.48
1.0 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.35 0.45
1 2 3 4 5
0.45 0.60 0.75 0.85 0.92
Cropgroup 1 1-2 2 2-3 3 3-4 4 4-5 5
Crops leafvegetables,strawberry cabbage,onion clover,carrot,earlytobacco banana,pepper grape,pea,potato bean,sunflower, tomato,watermelon,grass citrus,groundnut,pineapple alfalfa, cotton,tobacco,cassava,sweetpotato,most grains olive,saf flower, sorghum,soybean,sugarcane
(Source:Doorenbosetal., 1978)
108
root zone is inthe optimum rangebetween SM100and SMcr. Actual transpirationislowerthanmaximumifSM^> SM100orSM^< SMcr Inthelow suction range (SM0 - 0.05 > SM^> SM100), alinear relationis assumedbetweenuptakeof waterfortranspirationandsoilaircontent: T/Tm = ((SM0 - 0.05) - SM,)/((SM0 - 0.05) - SM100) (53)
In the high suction range (SMcr > SM^ > SM16000), a linear relation is assumedbetweensoilmoistureavailabilityandtranspiration: T/Tm = (SM,- SM16000)/(SMcr - SM16000) (54)
Summarizing, theactualtranspirationrate,T, canbeapproximated forany valueof SM^withtheaidof thefollowing setof equations. IfSM, > SM 0 - 0.05: T=0 If(SM 0 - 0.05) > SM, > SMI00: T=((SM0 - 0.05) - SM^)/((SM0 - 0.05) - SM100) Tm IfSM 100 > SM, > SMcr: T=Tm IfSM c r >SM,>SM 1 6 0 0 0 : T=(SM, - SM16000)/(SMcr - SMI6000) Tm IfSM l 6 0 0 0 >SM,: T=0 (55e) (55d) (55c) (55b) (55a)
A generally applicable procedure for thecalculation of actual croptranspirationrate,T,isas follows: 1st step: Identify ET0 and E0 and approximate the potential transpiration rate,T0,usingEquation49. 2ndstep: Calculatethemaximumtranspirationrate,Tm,usingEquation48. 3rd step: Calculate the soil-moisture content of the root zone, SM^, using Table 16andEquation27. 4thstep: Calculatethecritical moisturecontent of therootzone, SMcr,using 109
Tables 16and 20and Equations 27 and 52. Retain the values of SM100and SM16000,whichyoumustestablishtosolveEquation52. 5thstep: Calculate(SM0 - 0.05) usingTable 16. 6th step: Compare SM^ with (SM0 - 0.05), SM100, SMcr and SM16000 and selecttheproperline from Equation 55tocalculate theactual transpiration rate,T.
Exercise38 InExercise 34, asituation was described where amaize crop with a leaf area index of 4.0 grows on aclay loam soil. Assume that thepotential evapotranspiration rate, ET0, averaged 0.35 cmd"1 over the ten-day time interval considered. Recall that the potential evaporation rate, E0, wasgiven in Exercise35 as0.4cmd"1;thematricsuction, ^, amounted to623cm. Calculatetheactualtranspiration rate,T, of thiscrop.Usethe6stepscalcula-* tionprocedurepresentedabove. Note:RetainthecalculatedvalueofTforlateruse.
3.2.3 Solution of the water balanceequationfor all time intervals ina growingseason Oncetheinfiltration rate, IM, thesubsurface flow rate, (CR- D), andcrop transpiration rate, T, are quantified, the water balance in Equation 24 is simple to solve. The equation yields RSM, the rate of change in moisture content of therootzone. The calculated rate of change in soil-moisture content can be used to establishthemoisturecontent of therootzoneattheendof thetimeinterval.This isdone byadding to theinitial moisture content, SM^,thecalculated change, RSM x At. The result, SM^ + RSM x At, represents also the soil-moisture content at the beginning of the next time interval and therewith the value of SM^for water-balance calculations over that interval. To keep variables belongingtodifferent intervalsapart,theyarebestlabeledwithasubscript: SMWI+At) = SM,tt + RSM At where (56)
SM^f(t+At) issoil-moisture content at theend of atimeinterval startingat daytandendingatday(t + At)(cm3cm"3) SM^t is soil-moisture content at the beginning of the time interval (i.e. atdayt)(cm3cm""3) 110
RSM
israteof changeinsoil-moisture content overthetimeinterval (cm3cm"3d~1)
Evidently, the soil-moisture content is not the only variable that requires adjustment before thewater-balance calculation of thenexttimeintervalcan commence.Achangeinsoil-moisturecontent isaccompanied bychangesin a numberof physical system parameters (for instancethedepth of thegroundwater table, Zj). Other variables need to be adjusted to reflect cropdevelopment over the analyzed time interval, such as LAI and RD. There are also somevariablesthatareentirelyexogenous,suchasPandI.Theirvaluesmust be established for each individual time interval on the basis of information containedinthebasicdataset. Theupdatingof physical systemcharacteristics willbediscussed inSubsection 3.2,4. Changes incropparameters will be discussed inSection 3.4, after theinterrelations betweentranspiration anddrymatterproduction havebeen treated. Itmaybeuseful heretopointoutthatthelengthof thetimeinterval(At,in d) is not without significance for the accuracy of the generated calculation results. The rates of change in state variables of the system are calculated assuming that theirvalues remainconstant throughout theinterval analyzed. Inadynamicprocessascropgrowth,thiscannotbeentirelycorrectbecausein realitythereisgradualchangeduringagiventimeintervalandsystemcharacteristicsareboundtochange(Section2.3).Nonetheless,theuseofstatevariablescangivegood results, if the ratioof theirvaluetotheirrateof changeis high compared to the time interval used. This means that the length of the interval At must be chosen commensurate with the dynamics of the process studied. Ingeneral, the accuracy of the results of the modelling exerciseimprovesifthelengthoftheindividualtimeintervalsisreduced.However,there aregood arguments forsomerestraint inthereduction of At. Computational reasonsaside,itispointlesstoconsiderintervalsof, say, 1 day(At = 1),ifthe resolution of theavailable basicdataislow, e.g. whenonly monthlyweather records are available. In practice, the choice of interval length is acompromisebetween theaccuracy pursued, thedynamics of theprocess studied, the resolution of the available basic data and thecomputation capacity athand. Experience has shown that for our purposes an interval length of 10daysis satisfactory inmanycases. Itshouldberealized, however, thattherearealso situationswhereshorterintervalsarerequiredforgoodresults,e.g. inthecase ofahightotalsurface-watersupplyrateand/orashallowgroundwatertable.
Exercise39 InExercise 34, asituation wasdescribed whereamaizecropgrows on aclay loam soil. In that exercise the rate of infiltration, IM, was calculated. In
in
Exercise 37, (CR - D)wascalculated forthesamesituation, andinExercise 38 the rate of crop transpiration, T, was calculated. Calculate the rate of changeinmoisturecontentoftherootzone.UsetheresultsofExercises34, 37 and38andthewaterbalanceEquation24(Remember:RDwas75cm). Calculatethesoil-moisture content attheendof thetimeinterval of 10 days. UseEquation56.
3.2.4 Variableadjustmentfollowing thewaterbalanceanalysisfor onetime interval Thesoil-moisturecontent Adjustment of the soil-moisture content and consequently of thematric suction - posesnoproblem: SMWt+A0 = SM,tt + RSMAt (56)
Thegroundwaterdepth The net result of flow through the lower root zone boundary, (CR-D), induces a change in groundwater depth:Az. Exact quantification of Azis not easy. Forpractical purposes wheregroundwater isshallow andAtshort, itis assumedthatthesoil-moisturecontentofthesubsoil - equaltoSMâtdepth RD - increases linearly with depth to reach a value SM0 at depth zt. This situation is illustrated by Line A in Figure 29. In the case of capillary rise, watermovesintotherootzone, whichcausesthegroundwater depthtodrop overadistanceAz.Simultaneously, anewmoistureprofile willestablishitself overthesubsurface layerbetweenRDand(zt + Az),(Figure29, LineB).The flowthroughthelowerroot-zoneboundary,(CR - D)xAtcm,isequaltothe surfaceareaunderlineA, diminishedbythequantityofwaterleft inthelayer betweenRDand(zt + Az).i.e.thesurfaceareaunderlineB. Mathematical descriptionofthesesurfaceareasandsubsequentisolationof Azyields: Az = 2(CR - D) At/(SM0 - SM,) (57)
Inmanycultivated lands, thedepth of thegroundwater table iscontrolled bymeansofartificial drainage.Thisinvolvesgroundwaterflow fromthefield tothedrainsundertheinfluence of gravity.Thedrainagerate, Dmax(cmd"1), istheproductofthehydraulicgradient (cmcm"1)andthesaturatedconductivity,k0,inaccordancewiththeUniversalFlowEquation.Forasituationwith steady downward flow, thegradient was described as the ratio of total head over flow distance (Equation 28). Inthecase of field drainage, the situation becomesmorecomplicatedbecause flow hasnotonlyaverticalbuthasalsoa
112
SM Q
SHy
-soil moisture content
Figure 29. Schematic representation of the value of the matric suction, \^, at various depths in the soil.
horizontal component, viz. flow from midway between drains to thedrains, andaradialcomponent forentryof waterintothedrains. Inotherwords:in thecaseof drainage, thehydraulicgradient iscomposed of averticalcomponent, a lateral component and a radial component that depends on the wet perimeterofthedrain. Tomakedrainagepossibleatall, theremustbeagravityhead.Thismeans thatthewatertablemustbehigher(= closertosoilsurface),midwaybetween drainsthanatthesiteofthedrains;thisdifference inheight,mt,drivesflowas schematicallypresentedinFigure30. Clearly, thegradient of gravity head over flow distance isdetermined bythe dimensions of the drain system. Kirkham (1958, 1961) has described this gradientasafunction of mt,drainspacing(Ld)andwetdrainperimeter(7rrd), and hassubsequently solved theUniversal Flow Equation to obtain thedrainage rate Dmax. For drainage systems in deep and homogeneous soils, the resultingequationreads: Dmax = k0 m, mt + ln(Ld/xrd) Ld/x (58)
113
phreatic level>
drainage ditch
^
Figure 30. Schematic cross-section of a drained field.
where Dmaxis drainage rate (cm d~*) kn is saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm d"l) mt is hydraulic head midway between drains (cm) Ld is drain spacing (cm) rd is drain radius (cm) Inthepresence of an artificial drainage system, thechange in groundwater depth, Az, depends not only on unsaturated flow (CR-D), but also on the removal of groundwater bydrainage (Dmax). Consequently, Equation 57must beextendedtoaccount forthelossof drainagewater: Az = 2 At (Dmax + (CR - D))/(SM0 - SM^) Thegroundwaterdepthattheendof thetimeinterval follows from: Z(t+AD = zt + Az where
z
(59)
(60)
d+At)isgroundwaterdepthattheendof timeinterval(cm) zt isgroundwaterdepthatthebeginningof timeinterval (cm)
Thehydraulicheadmidway betweendrains In situations where artificial drainage is applied, a change in groundwater depth, Az, affects the hydraulic head, mt. Although the groundwater level betweendrainsisslightlycurved,theaveragegroundwaterdepthisreasonably closeto: 114
zt = D D - 0 . 5 m t where DD isdraindepth(cm)(Figure30) It follows that thehydraulic headafter adjustment of thegroundwater depth, amountsto:
m<t AO - 2 *( D D ""z a +AD)
(61)
(62)
where
m
d + AD
ls
hydraulicheadmidwaybetween drains(cm)attheendof atime intervalwithadurationof Atdays.
Surfacestorage Surface storage increases during atime interval if thesupply of waterexceeds the infiltration capacity, i.e. if P + Ie - Ea > IMmax. It decreases in the reversecase. SS(t+Al) = SS, - DS At (63)
It follows from the discussion of DS in Subsection 3.2.2, that there are four possiblesituations: - i f P + Ic - E a -IM max > (SSmax -SS t )/At, then SS(I+A0 = SSmax (Combination of Equations63and43a). - i f P + Ic - E a -IM max > Oand ^ (SSmax -SS t )/At, then SS(l+At) = SSt + (P + Ie - Ea - IMmax) At (Combination of Equations63and43b). -if P+ Ic-Ea-IMmax^ -SS/At, then SS(t+Al) = 0 (Combination of Equations63and42a). 115
(64a)
(64b)
(64c)
- i f P + Ic - E a - IMmax < Oand > - SS/At, then SS(I+A0 = SSt + (P + le - E, - IMmax) At (Combination of Equations63and42b).
(64d)
Exercise40 A cassava crop (RD = 50cm) stands on an artificially drained tract of loam soil. The root zone has a matric suction of 100 cm. The dimensions of the drain system are:DD = 160cm, Ld = 5000cm, rd = 8cm, and the distance betweengroundwater level and draindepth, m( = 60cm.Theinterval length, At,isoneday. Calculatetheinitialgroundwaterdepth,zt,usingEquation 61. Calculatethedrainagerate, Dmax, usingEquation58andTable 17. Calculate(CR - D)usingthecalculationschemegiveninSubsection3.2.2. Calculate the change in groundwater depth over the time interval, Az, using Equation59. Calculate the groundwater depth at the end of the time interval, z(t+At), using Equation60. Calculate the hydraulic head midway between drains at the end of the time interval, m(t+At)t usingEquation62.
116
3.3 Therelationbetweenwateruseandcropproduction H.vanKeulenandH.H.vanLaar 3.3.1 Theconceptofthetranspirationcoefficient To allow entrance of C0 2 into the plant, necessary for the assimilatory process,plantsmusthaveanopenconnectiontotheatmosphere.Thisconnectionisprovided bysmallopeningsintheepidermisof theleaves,thestomata. InFigure31, aschematicrepresentationof averticalsectionof aleafisgiven, illustrating the position of the stomata. Inthis casestomata areonlypresent onthelowersideoftheleaves,butinotherspeciestheymayalsobepresenton the upper side. Through these stomata, exchange of C0 2 takes places by diffusion. Therateofdiffusion canbedescribedbyageneralOhm'slawequation:
cuticle
leaf cells vascular \ tissue f
cuticle laminar layer
sub-stomataI cavity
stomate
Figure 31. Schematic representation of a vertical section of a leaf (a). An enlargement

0
showing a stomate (b) and an enlargement showing a photosynthetically active cell (c).
117
Vco 2 =
(CQ2)ext - (C0 2 )int
Kco 2
(65)
where VC02 (C0 2 ) cxt (C0 2 ) int Rco isthe rateof C 0 2 diffusion into the plant (kg m " V l ) -2-r is the concentration of C 0 2 inthe external air (kg m"3) isthe concentration of C 0 2 inthe substomatal cavity (kg m"3) isthe resistance to C 0 2 diffusion (s m"1)
The total resistance to C 0 2 diffusion is composed of two resistances in series: the resistance offered by a layer of still air, the boundary layer, just above the surface of the leaf; and the resistance offered by the stomata. In the total assimilation process a third resistance is of importance, that between the substomatal cavity and the chloroplasts, where the actual reduction of C 0 2 takes place (Figure 31c). This resistance is referred to as the carboxylation resistance or the mesophyll resistance. In general, the latter resistance is small compared to the sum of the other two. The walls of the substomatal cavity (Figure 31b) are wet, hence the air inside the cavity is water-vapour saturated. When the stomata are open, this air is exposed to the atmosphere, which is normally not saturated with water vapour. The result is that water vapour diffuses from the substomatal cavity into the atmosphere. The rate of diffusion can bedescribed analogous to Equation 65: VH2o = V H20
(H 2 Q)int - (H 2 Q)ext
RH,o istherate o f diffusion o f water vapour into theatmosphere (kg
(66)
(H20)int (H20)cxt
RH 0
m-V 1 ) is the concentration of water vapour inside the substomatal cavity, equal to the saturated vapour pressure at leaf temperature(kgm"3) istheconcentrationofwatervapourintheatmosphere(kgm"3
istheresistance t o water vapour diffusion (sm "')
Figure 31a illustrates that the resistance t o diffusion o f C 0 2 from the substomatal cavity t o theatmosphere, R C Q 2 , is equal t o that to diffusion o f water vapour along the same pathway. Numerically the values differ, because C 0 2 molecules arelarger than H 2 0 molecules andthediffusion resistance is dependent o n molecule size. Under the same conditions, R C o 2 is 1.66 times greater than R 2 o. Taking this into account, it follows from Equations 65and6 6 that a relation exists between transpiration (water use)b y a c a n o p y a n d C 0 2 assimilation. A s explained in Section 2 . 1 ,the production o f structural plant dry matter is directly proportional to C 0 2 assimilation, adjusted for the respira118
tory losses. Because the latter depend also on the amount of dry matter present, itisnotafixed proportion of thegrossC0 2 assimilation. Therefore, two different definitions areintroduced tocharacterize therelation betweenwater use and production: (i) the ratio of transpiration to assimilation (TAR), expressed in kg water transpired per kg of C0 2 fixed, (ii) the transpiration coefficient (TRC),expressed inkgwatertranspiredperunitdrymatterproduced. The transpiration coefficient is not only dependent on the relation between assimilation and transpiration, but also on the quantity and compositionof plantmaterial present. The relation between water use and dry-matter production was recognized already by early investigators in agricultural science and many experiments have been carried out to determine the exact dependencies between the two variables. Much of the earliest work was summarized by Briggs & Shantz (1913; 1914), who expressed the relation between water use and dry-matter production in the term 'water requirement', defined as the amount of water necessary to produce one unit of dry-matter weight (i.e. the equivalent of the transpiration coefficient). Theyestablished that differences exist betweenspecies, but also that for the same species different values were obtained in different years or in different environments. One 6f the main reasons for the latter variation may be deduced from acomparison of Equations 65 and 66. At agivenvalueof R, thatisatafixed stomatal openingandafixed thickness of theboundary layer, therateof waterlosswillbehigherwhen'the difference in concentration of water vapour between the atmosphere and the substomatal cavity is larger. Thus, when the relative humidity in the atmosphere is lower, and the leaf temperature higher, more water will be lost. The gradient inC0 2 is hardly variable, because the C0 2 concentration intheatmosphere is fairlyconstant. In a subsequent analysis, de Wit (1958) accounted for the mtluences of-
Table35.Transpirationcoefficients formaize,varietyNorthWesternDentmeasured inpots,inAkronColoradoindifferentyears.

Year Production (g) 160.7 432.0 356.3 304.3 112.0 180.5 336.8 Transpiration (kg) 58.8 117.9 141.1 111.5 28.4 90.0 120.5 Transpiration coefficient (kgkg "l) 365.9 272.7 396.0 366.4 253.6 498.6 357.8
1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917
(Source: Briggs&Shantz,1913;1914;Shantz&Piemeisel,1927) 119
environmentalconditionsbyrelatingproductionnotdirectlytowateruse,but correcting the latter for the average evaporative demand (potential evapotranspiration, Section 3.1) during thegrowing period. This procedure isillustrated bythedata inTable 35, giving values of thetranspiration coefficient for maize grown in containers during various years. These values vary bya factor of almost two. InFigure32theproductiondataareplotted againstthe ratioof totalwaterlossandaverageevaporativedemandduringeachgrowing period.Theresultsillustratethatmostof thevariabilityintranspirationcoefficient wasindeed dueto thevarying evaporative demand duringthevarious growingperiods.Thisindicates that although dry-matterproduction andwater use are closely associated, the actual quantitative relationships may be stronglymodified byenvironmentalconditions. As mentioned before, also considerable differences were established between species growing under the same conditions. These differences mainly reflect different photosynthetic pathways, as explained in Section 2.1. The higher affinity to C0 2 of the carboxylating enzyme in C4species causes ata
W/E0
20 (kg H 2 0 d mm" 1 )
30
Figure 32. Relation between dry matter production and the ratio of transpiration to free water evaporation for maize cv. Northwestern Dent grown in pots. (Source: Briggs & Shantz, 1914)
120
givenstomatal aperture, andhenceafixedtranspirationrate,ahigherrateof C0 2 assimilation in plants of the C4type than in plants of the C3type. The transpiration/assimilation ratioistherefore higherinspecieshavingthelatter photosyntheticpathway. Another source of variability in thetranspiration coefficient isthetype of stomatal control of the canopy. Under certain conditions, the assimilation process iscontrolled insuch awaythat the C0 2 concentration inthesubstomatal cavity ((C02)int) is maintained at aconstant level over awide range of assimilation rates through adaptation of thestomatal opening (Goudriaan & van Laar 1978b). In terms of Equation 65 it means that a change in the gradient (C02)ext - (C02)int is accompanied by a proportional change inthe value of RCQ2, so that VC02 remains constant. This is illustrated in Figure33 wheretherelationbetweenbetweenVC02and l/RCo2*s given formaizeplants grownundercontrolled conditions. The result of this mechanism isthat, for instance, under conditions of low light intensities, where C0 2 assimilation is determined by energy availability, plants having the regulatory mechanism
^nr-oo-w 1 )
v
co 2
0.75 1.5 1 Vco OO^kgCOjm-V )

2
Figure 33. Relation between net C0 2 assimilation rate (VCQ2) and total conductance for C0 2 for maize leaves.
121
will partially close their stomata, thus effectively reducing transpiration. Therefore plants having this regulatory mechanism exhibit a lower transpiration/assimilation ratio and hence a lower transpiration coefficient than plants in which the mechanism is absent. At high light intensities, the rate of C0 2 diffusion is determining assimilation. That rate is governed by the C0 2 gradient and, asthe internal C0 2 concentration ishigherinC3species thanin C4 species, again a difference in transpiration coefficient shows up at high lightintensities. Thus, inaschematized set-up,valuesof thetranspiration/assimilation ratio in kg H 2 0 transpired per kg C0 2 fixed (or per kg CH 2 0 produced) can be determined for various conditions, i.e. for C3 and C4 species separately, for both groups further subdivided in regulating and non-regulating crops, and finally atdifferent levelsof vapourpressuredeficit. Anexampleof suchdata, calculated withadetailed simulation model of canopy assimilation andtranspiration(deWitetal., 1978),isgiveninTable36. 3.3.2 Application of thetranspirationcoefficient Onthebasis of cropcharacteristics andclimatic conditions, potential daily gross C0 2 assimilation (Fgc)in kg ha"1d"1maybeobtained for anyarbitrary combination of time and place from Tables 1and 2. Byconsidering theaverage vapour pressure deficit during the period of interest, a value of the transpiration/assimilation ratio (TAR) may then be selected from Table 36. By multiplying the two values, the potential rate of transpiration is obtained inkgha"1d"1. Table 36. Transpiration/assimilation ratio (kg water per kgcarbon dioxide) forvariousconditions. C3species relativehumidity(/o) R NR C4species R NR
57 120 45 95 35 72
25
84 150
50
70 116
75
56 90
Rdenotesregulatingstomata,NRnon-regulating
122
Exercise 41 What is the conversion factor for the conversion of transpiration in kg ha" 1 d"1to the more c o m m o n unit of m m d" l .
In Section 3.1 potential evapotranspiration was calculated by Penman's combination method. In the case of a fully closed crop canopy, where soil evaporation is negligible, that value equals potential transpiration. In the preceding subsection it is argued that the value of the transpiration-assimilation ratio depends o n plant type and stomatal behaviour. The considerable success of the Penman equation for the estimation of potential transpiration must be attributed to the fact that its value is very close to the value calculated for conditions of regulating stomata, which seems to be the most c o m m o n field behaviour. The difference in transpiration-assimilation ratio between C 3 and C 4 species is mainly the result o f differences in assimilation rate, transpiration being virtually identical, especially under high light conditions. In the situation where a crop has non-regulating stomata, the Penman equation underestimates potential crop transpiration. Correction factors for such conditions have been calculated, by comparing Penman values to transpiration values, calculated with a detailed physiologically based model of crop growth. The results are tabulated in Table 37 with a subdivision itt C 3 and C 4 species and for overcast and clear conditions. Under conditions of temporary water shortage in the soil, leading to partial stomatal closure, assimilation and transpiration are affected approximately to the same extent, hence the value of the transpiration coefficient remains constant. This characteristic permits an evaluation of the influence of moisture shortage on production. After determining potential transpiration, the amount of moisture available for plant uptake is determined from the soilwater balance, presented in Section 3.2. If that amount is lower than potential transpiration, actual transpiration falls short of the potential. Actual C 0 2 Table 37. Correction factors for multiplying the Penman evapotranspiration to obtain potential crop transpiration in theabsence of stomatal regulation.
Species
Sky condition clear 1.47 1.6 overcast 2.1 3.0
C3 C4
123
assimilation(Pgc)isthendirectlydetermined fromtheamount of watertranspired,bydividingthelattervaluebytheearlierdeterminedtranspiration/assimilationratio,hencePgc = T/TAR,or Pgc = FgcxT/Tm(Section3.2).
Exercise42 Estimate the total dry-matter production for a hypothetical C4crop, exhibitingstomatal regulation, when200mmof moistureisavailable fortranspiration duringthegrowing period. Averagerelativehumidity duringthatperiod is75%.Whatwould betheresultif itwasaC3croplacking stomatalregulation?
3.3.3 Theinfluenceofnutritionalstatus A basic problem related to water-use efficiency istheinfluence of nutrient shortageohtherelationbetweenproduction andwateruse.Theconstancyof the transpiration coefficient, discussed in the preceding subsection, was restrictedbydeWit(1958)inhisanalysistosituationswherethe'nutrientstatus is not too low', and Viets (1962) concluded that 'all evidence indicates, that wateruseefficiency canbegreatlyincreased,if fertilizersincreaseyield'. Thelatterconclusion seemsto beconfirmed byexperimental resultsobtained innaturalherbaceousvegetationinthenorthernNegevdesertof Israel(Figure 34), wherethe rateof waterloss from thesoil waspractically identical under thenitrogenfertilizedvegetationandthenon-nitrogen fertilizedone,although the former wasgrowing at asubstantially higher rate. Opposite resultswere, however, obtained in the Sahelian zone, where increased growth rates of natural pasture, resulting from fertilizer application, were accompanied by higherratesoftranspiration(Stroosnijder&Kone, 1982). For a more fundamental approach to the problem, the basic processes of C0 2 assimilation and transpiration must be considered. This is most conveniently done by measuring both exchange processes simultaneously under controlled conditions. The results of such an experiment are presented in Figure 35 for individual attached leaves of maize plants grown in thegreenhouse,underbothoptimumandsub-optimumsupplyofnitrogen.Themeasured rate of net C0 2 assimilation is plotted versus the total conductance for water vapour exchange, that is the inverse of the sum of stomatal resistance and boundary layer resistance (RH2o *nEquation 66), which is thus adirect measureof transpiration.Theplantsoptimally suppliedwith nitrogenexhibit a markedly higher rate of net C0 2 assimilation than the plants under suboptimum Nsupply, buttheyshowaproportional increaseinconductance for
124
dry matter yield (t ha"1)
x =NPK
(a)
4 -
LÂJ
v
*r~'~'
L-
75
95
115
125
155
175 time (days)
total soil moisture 300 - ( m m )
200 -
100V
LÂJ
L_
75
95
115
135
155
175 time ( d a y s )
Figure 34. Cumulative dry matter accumulation of natural herbaceous vegetation with and without N fertilizer application (a) and time course of total soil moisture in the root zone (0-180 cm) of this vegetation (b). Data from Migda, Israel 1972/1973.
watervapour,henceavirtuallyconstantassimilation/transpiration ratio.This behaviour is thus in accordance with that of the plants growing under the Sahelianconditions, andsuggests,again, theexistenceof stomatal controlby the internal C0 2 concentration, i.e. impaired assimilation due to nitrogen shortageisreflected inpartialstomatalclosure. The slope of the line in Figure 35 represents the C0 2 gradient over the relevantresistance,i.e.thedropinC0 2concentration fromtheatmosphereto the substomatal cavity. When the value of Pn at any point is divided bythe relevant value of l/RH2o ( the latter multiplied by 1.66 to account for the
125
'/RH20
oo-W 1 )
8
Maize control
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
_ L 1.0 1.2 P n (10*6kg C O j r r f V 1 )
Figure 35. Relation between net assimilation rate, Pn, and total conductance for water vapour (l/RH2o) for leaves, grown under optimal and suboptimal nitrogensupply.
difference inmoleculesizebetween H 2 0 and C0 2 )thedropinconcentration is found.
Exercise43 What istheconcentration gradient for themaizeleavesof Figure33? If the C0 2 concentration in the atmosphere is 330vppm, what isthe concentration in the substomatal cavity? Note that 1mol of a gas at 20 C has a volumeof24dm3.
In Figure 36, data similar to those for maize in Figure 35 are shown for Phalaris minor, a C3 type grass species from the natural vegetation in the northern Negev. Here a tendency exists for a more favourable assimilation126
I/R
H20 6 -
OO^ms 1 )
Phalaris minor * lull nitrogen * s nitrogen depleted
-1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5 Q6 Q7 Pn d O ^ k g C O j r r r V 1 )
Figure 36. Relation between net assimilation rate Pn and total conductance for water vapour' (l/RM,o) for leaves of Phalaris minor, grown with optimal and suboptimal nitrogen supply.
transpiration ratio in plants optimally supplied with nitrogen, although the evidence is not overwhelming. It could be, however, that at light intensities higherthanthoseusedinthemeasuringequipment,whichareprevalentunder field conditions, a more pronounced difference in assimilation-transpiration ratiowouldshow up. Ingeneral, however, therearenostrongindications for largedifferences intranspiration-assimilation ratiounderdifferent nutritional conditions.Therefore, inthepresentapproachthesedifferences arenottaken intoaccount. 3.3.4 Transpirationcoefficientandwater-useefficiency Although therelation betweentranspiration andassimilation maynotvary underdifferent nutritional conditions, overall water-useefficiency, expressed asdry-matter production perunit of moisture applied, either because of rain orbyirrigation,maywellbeaffected. Thevegetationgrowingatsuboptimum nitrogensupplyaccumulatesdrymatteratamuchslowerrate(Figure34)than the fertilized vegetation, which may lead to prolonged periods with incomplete soil cover. During those periods appreciable losses of moisture may occurbydirect evaporation from thesoil surface, especiallywhenthesurface remainswetbyintermittentrain(Section3.2).Suchwaterlossesdonotcontri127
forage yield (t ha" 1 ) 8
250
500 (mm) 750 water use
Figure37. Relationbetweentotalforageyieldandwateruseforalfalfa. (Source:Bauder & Bauer, 1978)
bute to production and must therefore be substracted before calculating the transpiration coefficient. This is illustrated in Table 38 and Figure 37, which refertoanirrigationexperiment withalfalfa (Bauder&Bauer, 1978). The tabulated data would suggest a decreasing transpiration coefficient with increasing application of irrigation. Figure 37shows, however, that all points fit the same straight line, indicating a constant transpiration coefficient. The intercept with the x axis represents the amount of non-productive water loss, i.e. direct evaporation from the soil surface in this case, but it may also comprise deep drainage under other conditions. Such a graphical analysis is therefore abetterbasisforexplanation. Table 38. Forageyield, wateruseandtranspiration coefficient (kgwater perkg dry matter)foralfalfa.
Treatment Forageyield (kgha-) 4324 7536 8994 8747 Wateruse (mm) 363 561 635 643 Wateruse efficiency (kgkg"1) 839 744 706 735
Wl W2 W3 W4
(Source: Bauder&Bauer,1978).
128
Exercise44 Whatisthetranspirationcoefficient forthealfalfa of Figure37?
Especially under arid and semi-arid conditions where rainfall is low, the rainfall pattern is generally erratic, which means that the same amount of precipitation in different years may result from widely varying numbers of rainfall events.Thiserraticpatternhasadirect influence ontheproportion of precipitation lost by soil surface evaporation. A large number of relatively small showers will result in long periods in which the soil surface is wet, leading to prolonged highevaporation rates. If thesameamount of precipitation results from a small number of relatively large showers, the soil surface will dryout sometimeafter theshower, leading totheso-called self-mulching effect, i.e. the formation of adry layer acting as aneffective barrierto water transport. Inthat waythe water inthedeeper layers isprotected from evaporation and is stored for transpiration by the plants. The magnitude of soilevaporation losses is illustrated inTable 39, for one measured and twohypothetical rainfall distribution patterns (van Keulen, 1975). Itshows thatevaporationlossesmaybeashighas60%of thetotal moistureinput,whereasunder Sahelian conditions even higher values have been established (Stroosnijder& Kone, 1982). It is important therefore, to distinguish between field water-use efficiency, which may include all sorts of losses and the true transpiration coefficient, whichexpressestheamount of wateractuallytranspired perunitof drymatter produced. In the water-balance calculations both processes are treated thereforeseparately (Section3.2). Table 39. Partitioning of rainfall in evaporation and transpiration under different rainfallregimes. Totalrainfall (mm) 270 250 250 Numberofshowers Evaporation (mm) 19 10 20 79 91 140 Transpiration (mm) 191 159 110
129
3.4 Asimplemodelofwater-limited production H.vanKeulen 3.4.1 Introduction Intheprecedingsectionsthewaterbalanceof thesoil,whichdeterminesthe amount of water available for uptake bythe plant, and therelation between water useand dry-matter production of crops have beentreated. Inthissectionthatinformation willbeusedtopresent acalculationmethod forestimating cropyields underconditions where, attimes during thegrowingseason, watermaybealimiting factor. Thecalculation procedurealsoyieldsinformation on the degree of water shortage for the crop during different periods. Suchinformation givesanindication fortheamountofirrigationwaternecessary to achieve potential production and for the timing of application of supplementalirrigation. The calculation method is in principle identical to the one presented in Section 2.3, i.e. repetitive calculations areperformed starting from achosen point in time, where the state of the system can be described in quantitative terms.Thestateof thesystem, inthiscase, isnot onlydefined bycropvariables, butalso byvariablesdescribing soil-moisture status.At theonset of the calculations this information must be available. The methodology is in first instance illustrated for awheat cropgrowing inasemi-arid environment, for which detailed data on crop, site and weather conditions were available (Hochman,1978). 3.4.2 Experimentaldetails The wheat crop was grown in an experiment to study the effects of water shortageduringspecific growthstagesoncropperformance andyield,aspart of aresearchproject onactual andpotential production of semi-aridregions. The experiment was carried out inthe central Negev desert of Israel (30 N, 34 E). The soil there is a uniform gray desert soil, of eolian origin, witha loamy sand texture. Field capacity, determined in the field, 48 hours after irrigation, is 0.225 cm3 cm"3; wilting point, determined in the laboratory is 0.09cm3cm"3;andtotalporespace0.40cm3cm"3.
Exercise45 What is the maximum quantity of soil moisture, available for uptake bythe crop(Equation 52)? Ifthesoil isatwilting point attheendof thedryseason
130
and 25 mm of water is added, what is the wetting depth? How muchwater mustbeaddedto restorethepotential rootingzoneof 150cmto field capacity?
Springwheat, cv. Lachish, wassownon30October 1977;germinationwas completed in about 10 days. The crop was amply supplied with nutrients (nitrogen at 150kgha"1, phosphorus at 90 kgha"1 andpotassium at 100kg ha"1). Soil-moisture measurements at emergence showed that the volumetric soil-moisture content in the deeper soil layers was 0.16 cm3 cm"3, due to residual moisture from apreviously irrigated crop. The top soil (10cm)was wettedto field capacityjust priortosowingtoensurepropergermination.In the control treatment, sufficient moisture was applied for optimum supply, i.e. theroot zone wasirrigated to field capacity wheneveravailable moisture asdeterminedbygravimetricsampling fell below 30% of itsmaximumvalue. Rooting depth wasdetermined at two-weekly intervals byexamining soil cores. In the treatment illustrated in this example, water stress was allowed to developbetweenmaximumtilleringandanthesisbywithholdingirrigation. Meteorological data, i.e. daily minimum and maximum temperatures, wet anddrybulbtemperaturesandwindrunwererecordedatastandardmeteorologicalstation,about2kmfromtheexperimental field. Rainfall wasrecorded at the site. Daily total global radiation was obtained from a meteorological station about 9 km from the experimental area. These data were used to Table40. Relevantinputdatafor thewheatexperiment
No of 10 day period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 T. P Ic
F
1
(Q
15.2 12.9 10.4 8.4 8.8 7.9 12.4 11.5 12.3 11.7 15.9 13.6 13.2 17.0 19.6
(mm)
(mm)
(kgha-'d" ) 251 257 225 263 257 258 260 297 338 344 402 374 437 464 457
gs
ET0 (mmd" 1 ) 1.85 1.76 1.47 1.14 1.23 1.41 2.22 2.27 2.87 2.72 3.65 4.25 4.40 5.26 5.56
0 0 . 1
^7.4 19.6 1.6 0.2 0 0 0 2.2 0.1 3.9 0 4.2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 81 96 0 0 60 0
131
calculateten-dayaveragesofairtemperature,rainfall andpotentialgross C0 2 assimilation(Table40).Totalevaporativedemandoftheatmosphereiscalculatedonthebasisofweatherdata,applying Penman'sequation(Section3.1). ThesedatatooaregiveninTable40. 3.4.3 Theactualcalculationprocedure ThecalculationprocedureisillustratedinTable41,thebracketedlettersin thetextreferring tothevarious linesof thetable. Becausethisexamplerefers to asemi-arid region with perma-dry conditions, i.e. without agroundwater table affecting moisture content inthe rooting zone, capillary rise isabsent. The values of the hydraulic conductivity are so low that transport from the root zone to deeper layers may safely be neglected, hence unsaturated flow abovethegroundwatertable(cf. (CR- D)inSection3.2)isneglected. Line a: the first line of Table 41 specifies the initial conditions, i.e. those existingattheonsetof thecalculations. Forwheat,themomentof emergence ischosen asthe starting point. This moment is assumed to coincide withthe transition from thesituation wheretheseedlingsgrow from thereservescontainedintheseed,toonewherecurrentassimilationprovidesthesubstratefor growth.Atemergencetherootingdepthof theseedlingsequals 100mm(Line a, Column6).Thetotalamountof moistureintherooteddepth(Wr,Column 17)is22.5 mmof water. Hence, thevolumetric moisture content intheroot zoneis(Column18): SMr = 22.5/100 = 0.225cm3cm
-3
InColumn 19,thematrichead, Sr,intherootingzoneiscalculated, applying Equation27,solvedforS: Sr = exp(JC-lnCSM/SMo)^)1) expstandshere fore, thebaseof thenaturallogarithm, thevalueinbrackets denotingthepower;Instandsfornaturallogarithm. Forthesoil in this experiment avalue of 0.0189 for y was adapted onthe basisofmeasurements,hence: Sr = exp(J(- In(0.225/0.40)/0.0189)') = 250cm From this, the average hydraulic conductivity in the root zone, kr, can be calculatedwithEquation31,giveninSection3.2: (67)
132
,i rfr vo vo
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Table41.(continued)
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41
42
43
TWD
100 195 349 549 1046 1803 2808 3953 5098 5100 5127 5293 7281 8664 10023 11309 11253
TWDL
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kr = a-(S r )- M Thevalueof V appearedtobeequalto22.6,hence: kr = 22.6x(250)"14 = 0.01 mmd"1(Column20) Theamount of moisture inthesoil between the actual rooting depth andthe potential rootingdepth(inthiscase 1500mm)iscalculatedasaseparatestate variable,Wnr,becausethismoisturebecomesgraduallyavailabletotheplants when the roots grow deeper. At emergence, the total amount in that zone equals222.5mm(Column21),whichisassumedtobeevenlydistributed. At emergence, the dry weight of the root system, WRT, equals 50 kgha"1 (Column 28)andthat of theleaf blades, WLV, also 50kgha -1 (Column32). From the latter value, the leaf area index, LAI, is calculated, assuming a constantspecificleafareaof 20 m2kg"',hence: LAI = 50x20xl0" 4 = 0.1 nrm"2(Column39) As in Section 2.3, four auxiliary state variables are calculated: the total amount of above-ground dry weight, TADW (Column 40), which is here equaltotheweightof theleaf blades,theonly above-ground organpresent;
(68)
137
thetotal plant dryweight, TDW (Column41), equaltothesumof leaf blades androots (= 100kgha"1). Finallythelattervalueissubdivided intoliveplant tissue,TDWL(Column42)anddeadplanttissue,TDWD(Column43). Line b:this line covers the first ten- day period of thegrowing period. Averageairtemperatureduringtheperiod,Ta,equals 15.2C(Column2).Integration over the ten-day period yields atemperature sum, TSUM, of 152d C (Column 3). The temperature sum is used to define the phenological development stageof thecrop(Sections2.2;2.3). Forspringwheatthetemperature requirement between emergence and anthesis is 1100 d C (van Keulen & Seligman, 1986). The development stage of the crop is thus calculated as the ratiobetweentheaccumulated temperaturesumand 1100: DVS = 152/1100 = 0.14 (Column4) Potential daily gross assimilation for the period, expressed in CH 2 0 is read from Table 40 as 251 kg ha"1 d"1. The reduction factor for incomplete light interception, RA, is read from Table42. For LAI = 0.1 the reduction factor equals 0.06. Potential gross assimilation in the absence of water stress is calculatedas: PGASS = 251x0.06 = 15kgha"1d"1(Column5) It is assumed on the basis of the experimental results that root extension proceeds at a rate of 12mm d"1, if the soil in which the roots grow is sufficiently wet. In this case the total potential rooting zone is wetted, thus that Table42.Reductionfactor forgrossCo2assimilationduetoincompleteradiationinterception(fh= 1_ e - 0 6 L A I ) LAI 0 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 Reduction factor 0 0.14 0.26 0.45 0.59 0.70 0.78 0.84 0.88 0.91 0.95
138
# %
conditionissatisfied throughout.Therooteddepthattheendoftheten- day periodis220mm(Column6). Maximum evapotranspiration during the ten-day period, ET0, is read from Table 40 and introduced in Column 7. For the present period it amounts to 1.85 mmd"1. Inthenext columns theinputs of moisture into the systemare defined. Forthisten-day period, bothprecipitation (P, Column 8)andirrigation (Ic, Column 9)areabsent, hencetotal infiltration (IM, Column 10)is alsozero.Undertheconditions prevailinginthearea,lossofwaterbysurface run-off hasnotbeenobserved, henceinallcasestotalinfiltration equalsthe sumof precipitation andirrigation. Maximum evaporation from thesoilsurface is derived from potential evapotranspiration, taking into account the reductionfactorfortheshadingeffect ofthevegetation: Em = ET 0 -(l-RA) Itisthusthecomplementary fraction of light interception bythevegetation. Hence: Em = 1.85x0.94= 1.74mmd"1(Column11) Actual evaporation issubsequently obtained from theaveragemoisturecontent inthe root zone. If the soil- moisture content is too low, the supply of watertothesurfacecannotmeettheevaporativedemandandactualevaporation falls short of the maximum. A detailed treatment of the process of soil evaporation is given by van Keulen (1975). In the present approach it isapproximated by assuming a linear decline in evaporation rate between field capacityandair-drysoil,whereevaporationceasescompletely(Section3.2). Themoisturecontent of air-dry soil (SMa), isestimated asonethirdofthat atwiltingpoint.Forthissoilitis0.03cm3cm"3.Hence: Ea = Em(SMr- SMa)/(SMfc- SMa) = 1.74x(0.225-0.03)/(0.225-0.03) = 1.74x1 = l ^ m m d " 1 Potential transpiration could, in principle, be obtained from potential gross assimilation and thetranspiration coefficient, asoutlined inSection 3.3.For most field situations it appears that potential evapotranspiration calculated accordingtoPenmanisareasonableapproximationofpotentialtranspiration for aclosed crop surface, apparently because stomatal control by C0 2 isthe most common behaviour in field crops. Therefore 'Penman' (Column 7) is usedasthebasisforpotentialtranspiration.Tocalculatemaximumtranspiration for crops with incomplete soil cover, the same reduction factor, RA, is usedasforgrossassimilation.Hence: 139 (70) (69)
T m = E T 0 * R A = 1 . 8 5 x 0 . 0 6 = 0.11 mm d" 1 (Column 13) Actual transpiration is only equal to the maximum value, if soil moisture is adequate to supply sufficient water to the plant roots. As explained in Section 3.2, a c r o p - s p e c i f i c critical s o i l - m o i s t u r e content exists, above which roots can freely take up water from the soil. The critical s o i l - m o i s t u r e content is determined by both the physical properties of the soil and the evaporative demand of the atmosphere. It is approximated by: SM cr = ( 1 - p ) ( S M f c - S M w ) + SMW where SM cr p SM f c SMW is critical soil - moisture content (cm 3 cm" 3 ) is soil water depletion fraction (Table 20) is soil - moisture content at field capacity (cm 3 cm" 3 ) is soil - moisture content at wilting point (cm 3 cm" 3 ) (71)
For potential transpiration equal to 1.85 m m d" 1 , the value o f p equals 0.86, hence: SM cr = 0.14 x (0.225 - 0.09) + 0.09 = 0.109 cm 3 cm
-3
As the actual moisture content is well above the critical value, actual transpiration (T, Column 14) equals maximum transpiration. Another 'input* into the p l a n t - s o i l system is the amount of moisture that becomes available to the vegetation as a result of vertical extension of the root system. In the present approach, this is approximated by assuming that the total amount of moisture in that part of the potential rooting zone, where the roots have not yet penetrated, is evenly distributed. The amount, added to the plant - soil system as a result o f root growth, is then calculated as: dM r = W nr R r /D n r where dM r W nr Rr D nr is amount of moisture added to the soil plant system by root growth (mm d" 1 ) is total amount of moisture in the n o n - rooted part of the potential rooting zone (mm) is growth rate of the roots ( m m d " 1 ) is thickness o f the non - rooted part of the potential rooting zone (mm), hence: D r m - D r , with D rm potential rooting depth and D r the rooting depth (mm) (72)
140
On the basis of Equation 72, the increase in available soil moisture by root growth iscalculated as: dMr = 222.5x 12/(1500- 100) = 1.91 mmd" 1 (Column 15) All processes influencing the water balance have been treated now, so that their effect on the rateof change in soil- moisture status of the root zone can beevaluated: dWr = IM + dMr - Ea - T Hence: dWr = ( 0 + 1.91 - 1.74 - 0.11) = 0.06mmd"1(Column 16) Total soil moisture in the root zone at the end of the ten- day period equals the value at the beginning (Column 17, line a) plus the rate of change multipliedbythelength of thetime interval: Wr = 22.5 + 0.06x 10 = 23.1 mm(Column 17) From the amount of moisture in the root zone, the average volumetric soilmoisture content (Column 18) is calculated, assuming it to be homogeneous. Hence: SMr = W r /D r where SMr Wr Dr isvolumetric soil- moisture content in the root zone (cm3 cm"3) issoil- moisturecontent intheroot zone (mm) isrooting depth (mm) (74) (73)
Forthepresent ten- dayperiod: SMr = 23.1/220 = 0.105 cm3cm"3 The values for the matric head in the root zone, Sr,and the average hydraulic conductivity, kr,arecalculated according to Equations 67and 68.Thesevariables are included here for completeness sake, but they are not used, because unsaturated flow above the groundwater table can be neglected in this situation. Inthe remainder of thisexample Columns 19and20will therefore not be treated. 141
The total amount of moisture in the non- rooted zone of the profile at the endof theperiod, isobtained bysubtracting dMrtimesAt(Column 15)from theamountatthebeginningofthedecade(Linea,Column21): Wnr = 222.5 - 1.91x10 = 203.4mm (Column21) InColumn 22actual gross assimilation, AGASS, isintroduced. Forthistenday period it equals potential gross assimilation (Column 5) as there is no reductionduetowatershortage, i.e. actualtranspirationisequaltothemaximum value. Maintenance respiration, i.e. the amount of energy invested in maintaining theexistingcellsandtheirstructures, iscalculated from thetotal livedryweight of thecropand therelativemaintenance respiration rate,Rm. During the pre-anthesis phase of the cropthe lattervalue is set at0.015 kg CH20perkgdrymatterperday,hence: MRES = 0.015x100= 1.5kgha""1 d"1(Column23) Theamount of assimilates available for increase indryweight of thevegetationisthedifference betweenactualgrossassimilationandmaintenancerespiration: ASAG = 15 - 1.5 = 13.5kgha"1d"1(Column24) The rate of increase in dry weight of the vegetation is obtained from the amountofavailableassimilates,takingintoaccountthelossesassociatedwith the conversion of primary photosynthates into structural plant material (growth respiration). For vegetative material of average composition, these losses amount to about 30% of the consumed carbohydrates (Penning de Vries, 1975). Thus: DMI = 0.7xASAG = 0.7x13.5 = 9.5kgha"1d"1(Column25) The assimilates are used to produce various plant organs at the same time (Sections 2.2 and 2.3). The partitioning of dry matter among the various organs is predominantly governed by the phenological stage of the crop. At theproduction leveltreatedinthissection, whereattimesproduction maybe limited by moisture availability, the development of moisture stress in the plant mayinfluence the partitioning pattern, according to the functional balance principle (Brouwer, 1963). The exact influence of water stress in the plant onthedistribution of assimilatesisdifficult toquantify, however.Therefore,thiseffect hasbeenneglectedinthepresentapproach. The relation between phenological stage of the cropandthe traction of assimilates diverted to the various organs is given inTable 43. The independent variabledetermining thefraction of assimilates partitioned totherootsystem 142
Table43. Partitioningfactorsfordrymattertovariousplantorgansasafunctionof developmentstage.

Development stage 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
fr
fi
fs
u
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.50 1.0
0.50 0.42 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.0
0.50 0.58 0.67 0.60 0.52 0.43 0.34 0.23 0.12 0.06 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.14 0.28 0.42 0.56 0.70 0.84 0.42 0.0
(Column 26) is the development stage of thecrop. Foreach ten-day period the relevant value is found as theaverageof thevalues atthe end andatthe beginning,asinSection2.3.Forthepresentperiod: DVS = (0 + 0.14)/2 = 0.07 InTable43 it is found that the fraction of drymatterpartitioned totheroot system atthat valueof DVSequals0.44 (Column26).Therateof increasein dryweightoftherootsystemisthus: IWRT = FR-DMI = 0.44x9.5 = 4.2kgha"1d"1(Column27) The total dry weight of the root system at the end of the ten-day period is equaltoitsvalueatthebeginningoftheperiod(Linea, Column28),augmentedwiththerateofincreasetimesthelengthofthetimeinterval,hence: WRT = 50 4- (4.2x10) = 92kgha' l (Column28) ThefractionallocatedtotheleafbladesisalsoobtainedfromTable43atDVS is0.07 andequals0.56 (Column29).Therateof increaseindryweightofthe leaf blades follows from multiplication of this fraction with the rate of dry matterincrease: IWLV = FL-DMI = 0.56x9.5 = 5.3kgha"1d"1(Column30) The weight of the leaf blades at the end of the period equals its value atthe beginning plustherateof increase multiplied bythelength of thetimeinterval:
143
WLV = 50 + 5.3x10= 103kgha"l (Column32) Inthe early stages of crop development in spring wheat, only roots and leaf blades are produced (van Keulen& Seligman, 1986), thus the fraction allocatedtothestems (FS,Column33)iszero,andconsequently therateof increase in stem dryweight (IWST, Column 34)too. Total stem weight at theend of theperiod (WST, Column 35)isstill zero. Thecropisinitsvegetativestage, hence no grain growth takes place (Columns 36, 37 and 38). The leaf area index at the end of the period is obtained from the dry weight of the leaf blades,takinginto account theconstant specific leaf areaof 20m2perkg dry matterandthesurfacearea: LAI = 103x20xl0- 4 = 0.21m2m"2(Column39) Thetotalcanopyvariablesarefinallyobtained fromtheweightsofthevarious plant organs at theend of the period. Total above-ground dryweight isthe sum of the weights of the above-ground organs, i.e. leaf blades, stemsand grain: TADW = 103 + 0 + 0 = 103kgha"1(Column40) Total dryweight of thevegetation isequal to above ground dryweight, augmentedwiththeweightoftherootsystem: TDW = 103 + 92 = 195kgha"1(Column41) At this moment no dead tissue is present (Column 43), hence total live dry weight (Column 42) equals total dryweight. Thesecalculations complete the treatmentofthefirstten- dayperiod. Line c: the calculations in this period are in principle equal to those in the previousone.Therefore, theywillbetreatedinlessdetail. Average daily air temperature during this ten-day period equals 12.9 C (Column 2), so the accumulated temperature sum at the end of the period is 281dC(Column3)andtheassociateddevelopmentstageisequalto: DVS = 281/ 1100 = 0.25(Column4) Gross assimilation in the absence of water stress is obtained from theradiationdeterminedvalue(Table40)andthereduction factor forincompletelight interception,whichis0.12ataLAIof0.21(Table42).Hence: PGASS = 257x0.12 = 30.8kgha"1d"1(Column5)
144
Rootextension proceedsunhampered,thustherootingdepthattheendofthe period equals 340 mm (Column 6). Potential evapotranspiration, obtained fromTable40, equals 1.76 mmd"1(Column7). Rainfall duringtheperiodis 0.1 mm. To convert this value into a daily rate, it must be divided by At. Hence P = 0.01 mmd"1(Column 8). No irrigation wasapplied (Column9), thus the rateof infiltration isequal to 0.01 mmd"1(Column 10).Maximum soil evaporation is calculated on the basis of potential evapotranspiration, takingintoaccountthereducingeffect ofpartialshadingbythevegetation: Em = ET 0 (1-RA) = 1.76x0.88 = 1.55mmd"1(Column11) The reduction factor for soil evaporation due to soil-moisture content followsfrom: (SMr-SMa)/(SMfc-SMa) = (0.105-0.03)/(0.225-0.03) = 0.38 Actual soil evaporation equals Em x 0.38, i.e. 0.59 mm d"1 (Column 12). Maximum transpiration is the complementary fraction of potential evapotranspirationandequals: Tm = ET 0 -RA = 1.76x0.12 = 0.21 mmd"1(Column13) For thedetermination of actual transpiration the critical soil-moisturecontenthastobecalculatedbyEquation71,substituting0.86 forp(Table20): SMcr = (0.14x0.135) + 0.09 = 0.109cm3cm
-3
Actual volumetric soil-moisture content is0.105 cm3cm"3(Lineb, Column 18),whichisbelowthecriticalvalue.Thereductionintranspirationiscalculatedfrom: T/Tm = (Smr - SMw)/(SMff-SMw) Inthissituationthus: T = 0.21x(0.105-0.09)/(0.109-0.09) = 0.17mmd"1(Column14) To calculate the rate of water addition to the root zone as a result of root growth,Equation72isapplied: dMr = 203.4x12/(1500-220) = 1.91mmd"1(Column15) The rate of change in moisture content in the root zone follows from the balance: 145 (75)
dWr = 0.01 + 1.91 - 0 . 5 9 - 0.17 = 1.16mmd"1(Column16) Totalsoilmoistureintherootzoneattheendoftheten- dayperiodequals: Wr = 23.1 + (1.16x10) = 34.7mm(Column17) Theaveragevolumetric moisturecontent attheendof theten-day periodis thentotalmoisturecontentdividedbytherootingdepth: SMr = 34.7/340 = 0.102cm3cm"3(Column18) Themoisturecontentinthenon- rootedpartoftheprofileequals: Wnr = 203.4 - dMr*At = 203.4 - 19.1 = 184.3mm(Column21) Actual gross assimilation follows from the potential value, taking into accountthereductionduetowatershortage: GASS = PGASS*T/Tm = 30.8x0.17/0.21 = 24.9kgha"1 d"1 (Column22) The maintenance respiration rate is obtained from total live dry weight and therelativemaintenancerespirationrate: MRES = 0.015x 195 = 2.9kgha"!d~!(Column23) The amount of assimilates available for increase indrymatter isthebalance betweenactualgrossassimilationandmaintenancerespiration: ASAG = 24.9 - 2.9 = 22.0kgha*1d"1(Column24) The rate of dry-matter increase of the vegetation, taking into account growthrespiration,equals: ^DMI = 22.0x0.7 = 15.4kgha^d" 1(Column25) The fraction of dry-matter increase partitioned to the root system is obtainedfromTable43atavalueofthedevelopmentstagemidway between the beginning and the end of the ten-day period, hence (0.25-0.14)/2 + 0.14 = 0.195. FRequals 0.33 atthatvalue (Column26) andtherateofincreaseindryweightoftherootsystemfollows from: IWRT = FR-DMI = 0.33x15.4 = 5.1 kgha'1d"1(Column27) 146
and WRT = 92 + 5.1x10 = 143kgha"1(Column28) Thefractionallocatedtotheleafbladesalsofollows fromTable43andequals 0.67(Column29),hence: IWLV = 0.67x15.4 = 10.3kgha"1d"1(Column30) In the present approach it is assumed that leaf blades deteriorate when the vegetation suffers from water shortage, inan attempt to reducetranspirationallosses.Therateofdeclineisproportionaltotherelativetranspirationrate, T/Tm. At severe moisture stress, leaf blades are assumed to deteriorate ata maximumrateof0.03 kgdrymatterperkgleafbladedry- matterpresentper day. Therateofdeclineisthuscalculatedas: DWLV = RDR WLV with: RDR = 0.03 (1 - T/TJ Forthepresentten- dayperiod: RDR = (1 - 0.17/0.21)x0.03 = 0.0057d'1 and DWLV = 0.0057x103 = 0.6 kgha"1d"1(Column31) Leaf-bladedryweightattheendoftheperiodequals: WLV = 103 + (10.3 - 0.6)x10= 200kgha'1 (Column32) At development stage 0.195, the fraction allocated to stem and grain is still zero,henceColumns33till38allcontainzeros.Theleafareaindexattheend oftheten- dayperiodfollows fromthedryweightoftheleafblades: LAI = 200x20x 10"4 = 0.40m2m"2(Column39) Totalabove-ground drymatterequalstheweight of theliveleaf bladesplus theweightofthedeadleaves,hence: 147 (77) (76)
-i
TADW = 200 + 6 = 206kgha"1(Column40) Totalplantdryweightisobtainedbyaddingrootweighttothepreviousvalue: TDW = 206 + 143 = 349kgha"1(Column41) Total livedryweightequals343kgha"1(Column42)andtheamount ofdead tissueis6kgha"1 (Column43).Thesecalculations completethetreatment of thesecondten- dayperiod. Inthe periods 3to 9 no basically different processes take place, therefore these periods are not treated in detail here. From the 8th period onwards, a serious water shortage develops, because irrigation is purposely withheld in thistreatment.Theonsetof moisturestresswassomewhatdelayedbecauseof fairly heavyrainfall inthe4th period.Theresultof thewatershortage isthat growthpracticallyceasesafter the8thperiodandthatgreenleaf areadeclines drastically(Table41). Linek: this is the 10th ten-day period of the growing period (Column 1). Average airtemperature during the period is 11.7 C (Column 2).Temperaturesumattheendoftheperiodequals: TSUM = 998 + 117 = 1115dC andtheassociateddevelopmentstage: DVS = 1115/1100 = 1.02 That is a point beyond anthesis and, because the temperature relations for development aredifferent before andafter anthesis, thisperiod issubdivided into two. The first part covers the period till anthesis, its duration being determinedbytheremainderoftherequiredtemperaturesum: (1100-998)/11.7 = 9d Hence,thetemperaturesumattheendof period 10aequals 1103dCandthe development stageattheendof theperiodis 1.0, i.e. anthesis.Grossassimilation intheabsenceof moisture stressiscalculated intheusual wayandyields 254kgha"1d"1(Column5). Rootgrowthstill proceedsandtherootingdepth attheendoftheperiodequals 1288 mm. Itshould benoted here,that according tothepartitioning factors shownin Table43, thecontribution to the roots is negligible during this period. However, if root extension proceeds, assimilates are necessary. It is likely therefore, thatthemoistureshortage, developing inthisperiod,affected thedistribution pattern to allow root growth. In the present'schematized set-up, 148
however, this effect is not taken into account, and the data of Table 43are used indiscriminately. Potential evapotranspiration rate during the period equals2.72mmd"1,showingthatgraduallytimeismovingtowardsawarmer anddrierspring. Itwastheintentiontoendthemoisturestressatanthesis,therefore aheavy irrigationof81mmwasappliedduringthisperiodtorestorethewatercontent in the root zone to avalue well above the critical level. As there was also a smallrainshower,totalinfiltration amountedto9.24mmd"1(Column10). For thecalculation of the maximum rate of soil evaporation it isassumed that thedriedleaves remainon thevegetation andacteffectively inradiation interception. Thus, in calculating the shading effect, the maximum value of theleafareaindex(LAI = 3.6)isapplied.Forthisperiod: Em = ET0(1 - RA) = 2.72x0.11 = 0.30mmd"1(Column11) Actual soil evaporation fallsshort of themaximum, becauseof thelowmoisture- contentintherootzone,accordingtoEquation70: Ea = Em(0.098 - 0.03)/(0.225 - 0.03) = 0.10mmd"1(Column12) The maximum rate of transpiration is calculated in the usual way from the potential evapotranspiration rateandamounts to 2.22 mmd"1(Column 13). The actual rate of transpiration is derived from the maximum value taking into account the moisture content in the root zone. The critical volumetric soil-moisture content follows from Equation 71 at 0.121 cm3 cm"3. The reductionintranspirationrateisobtainedfromEquation75: T = 2.22x(0.098 - 0.09)/(0.121 - 0.09) = 0.57mmd"1(Column14) Therateof increaseof moistureintheroot zoneasaresult of rootgrowth amountsto 1.72 mmd"1(Column 15).Total soilmoistureintherootzoneat theendof theperiod follows from realization of thecalculated ratesoverthe time interval of nine days and amounts to 210.7 mm. From this, the volumetric soil-moisture content inthe root zone iscalculated as0.163 cm3cm"3 (Column 17). The actual assimilation rate amounts to 73 kg ha"1 d"1 after correcting forthetranspiration deficit (Column22).Therateof maintenance respirationis69.1 kgha"1d"1,calculated onthebasisof totallivedryweight of thevegetation(Column23).Thedifference of 3.9kgha"1d"1(Column24) allows for a rate of increase in dry matter of 2.7 kg ha"1 d"1 (Column 25). Thisamountisdistributedamongroots,leafblades,stemsandgraininaccordancewiththepartitioningfactorsgiveninTable43. Inthisperiod, asintheprecedingten-day period, someof theassimilates are diverted to the grain, although anthesis has not yet been reached. This 149
partitioning pattern has been chosen to account for the fact that during the last part of the pre-anthesis phase, a substantial part of the assimilates is stored in the stem as reserves, which after grain set are translocated to the growing grain (van Keulen & Seligman, 1986). In the present schematized calculation procedure these assimilates are designated grain weight directly. Theremainderof thisperiod followsthesamerulesastheonesthathavebeen discussedindetail. LineI: to follow through the ten-day subdivision, the one remaining day from the 10th period istreated inaseparate line. After anthesis thedevelopmentscalerunsfrom 1 atanthesisto2atmaturity, orinfact attheendofthe grain filling period. The temperature requirement for that period is, for this and most other spring wheat varieties, 650 d C (van Keulen &Seligman, 1986). Thedevelopmentstageinthepost- anthesisperiodisthuscalculatedas: DVS = (TSUM - 1100)/650 + 1 (Column4) Extension growth of the root system isassumed to cease atanthesis, because no more assimilates are invested in growth of the root system (Column 26). TreatmentoftheColumns6till22isnotessentiallydifferent fromthatdetailed inthe preceding lines, therefore thecalculations arenot repeated indetail atthispoint.Afewremarksmayservetodrawattentiontospecificpoints: -the reduction factor forsoilevaporationduetoshadingbythevegetationis kept constant at0.11 (Column 11), corresponding to the maximum leaf area indexof3.6m2m~2. -after cessation of root extension, the 'input' of moistureintotherootzone as aresult of root growth remains zero (Column 15). Transport of moisture between the root zone and the non-rooted part of the profile, caused by developing potential gradients is neglected. Thus the soil moisture stored in thenon- rootedzoneremainsconstant (Column21). - therelativemaintenance respiration rateischanged atanthesis from0.015 kg kg"1 d"1 to 0.01. The main reason for this change is that in general the nitrogen concentration inthevegetative material declines rapidly afteranthesis, due to translocation of nutrients to the developing grain. Moreover, the dry matter accumulating in the grain requires less energy for maintenance. Hence, fromanthesisonwards:MRES = 0.01 xTDWL - the conversion efficiency of primary photosynthates into structural plant drymatter,setat0.7 forvegetativematerialof averagecomposition, ischangedto0.8 for graindrymatter. Again, themajor reason for thischangeisthe fact that the nitrogen concentration of the grain is lower than that of the vegetativematerialduringthepre- anthesisphase. - leaves have a limited life-time and even under optimum growing condi150
tionspartoftheearlierformed leavesdeteriorate.Thisdeteriorationincreases rapidly after anthesis, mainly because of the translocation of nitrogen and otheressential growth substances to thedeveloping grain. Inthepresentmodel this process istakeninto account byassuming arelativedeath rateof the leafbladesof0.02kgkg"! d"'.
Exercise46 Calculate the weight of leaf blades 10days after anthesis, starting from an initialvalueof 2000kgha"1.Employ first thevalueof 0.02 kgkg"1d"1anda timestepofoneday.Applysubsequentlythetimestepofthemodel. Whatdoyounotice?Whatisthereason?
From Table 41 it follows, that under the prevailing environmental conditions, the post- anthesis phase lasts 43 days, the calculated grain yield amountsto6.21ha"landtotalabove- grounddrymatterto 10.51ha"'.
16 total above ground dry matter (t ha" 1 )
14 grain yield (t ha" ) 12 * calculated . measured A control (calculated) 10 6.1 5.6 82
2-
140 time ( d a y s )
Figure 38. Comparison of measured and calculated dry-matter accumulation of wheat growing under temporary water shortage. The calculated dry-matter accumulation of the control is given for comparison.
151
Exercise41 Calculate the transpiration coefficient for this example. Use both total dry matterandabove- grounddrymatter.
3.4.4 Comparison withtheexperiment InFigure38thecalculated growthcurveiscompared tothemeasuredone, showingsatisfactory agreement intermsoftotaldry-matterproduction.The calculated grain yield is however higher than the measured one, for which there is no obvious reason. It is clear from the graph, that the difference is equal to the difference indry-matter accumulation after anthesis, provided that interpolation between the measured points on eitherside of theanthesis dateispermitted.
152
4 CROPPRODUCTIONASDETERMINEDBYNUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
153
4.1 Cropyieldand nutrient requirements H.vanKeulen 4.1.1 Introduction Inthepreviouschaptersithasbeenshownthat plantsneed energy(supplied bythesun),carbon dioxideand water to produce organicmaterial. However, plant tissue contains not only oxygen, hydrogen and carbon, but also other elements like nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur in proteins, and potassium accompanying organic anions. Many other elements are found insmall quantitiesasconstituentsofenzymes. Theseelements must betaken up bytheroot system from the soil. Inmany casesthesoil in itsnatural situation does not supply sufficient plant nutrients to satisfy thedemand of thecrop.Theyield levelobtained isthen determined bytheamount ofthelimitingelementthat canbeabsorbed bythevegetation. In the foregoing chapters a quantitative treatment has been given of the influence of energy and water on the agricultural production process. In this chapter the influence of plant nutrients will be treated, with this difference, however,thatthedynamicaspect, i.e.thechangewithtime,isnot considered. 4.1.2 Nutrientsupplyandcropresponse Since the discovery, during the middle of last century, that inorganic ions are needed by growing crops, an enormous number of fertilizer experiments have been carried out at different locations, with various elements and with many crops. In general these trials yield information of the type presented in Figure 39,i.e. the measured yield ispresented asa function of the amount of anelement supplied.Thisgraph, referring toexperimentscarried out at IRRI, in the Philippines (Tanaka et al., 1964), shows clearly one of the difficulties encountered in interpreting theseexperiments: theresults areextremely variable. It should be realized, therefore, that to obtain a yield response to fertilizer application twoconditionsmustbe fulfilled: ~ the fertilizer that isapplied to the soil (or in thecaseof bunded riceto the water)must betakenupbythecrop. - after uptake by the crop it must be utilized to produce the required plant material, i.e. grains in the case of rice and maize, roots in the case of cassava. Both processesmaybehampered byexternal or internalconditions.Apresen155
grain yield (tha-1) 8-
xdry season =wet season
4i
50
100
150 N application (kg ha- 1 )
Figure 39. Relation between nitrogen application and grain yield for bunded rice grown at IRRl, Los Banos, the Philippines in the dry season and the wet season (Tanaka et al., 1964).
tationsuchasthatinFigure39givesnocluetotherelativeimportanceofboth inthe final response. Foruseful interpretation of fertilizer experiments, yield determinations must be accompanied by chemical analysis of the harvested material, sothattheuptakeof theelementbythevegetationcanbecalculated anditsdistributionintheplant. When in fertilizer experiments both yield and chemical composition have beendetermined, graphical presentation of theresultsassuggested bydeWit (1953) facilitates interpretation. Themethod is illustrated in Figure40, using thesamedataasinFigure39. Figure 40 consists of three graphs: in the first quadrant, Quadrant a, the relationisgivenbetweentheeconomicyield(grain)andthetotaluptakeofthe element intheaboveground partsof thevegetation, that isbothingrainand in straw. This value is calculated by multiplying the amounts of grain and strawharvestedbytheirrespectivenitrogenconcentrations.
Exercise48 Calculatethetotaluptakeof nitrogenforthefollowingexperiment: Napplication Yield Nitrogen concentration

(kg ha"1) 0 50 100 150 (kg ha"1) grain 4400 5450 6200 6350 straw 4500 5200 6250 6400
(%)
grain 1.12 1.29 1.24 1.43
straw 0.44 0.40 0.52 0.55
156
grain yield ( t ha~ 1 )
(a)
.x-
x dry season wet season
120 90 60 30 -1 N application (kg h a ) 30
150 N uptake (kg h a )
60
(b)
90
120 N application (kg ha"1)
Figure 40. The relation between nitrogen uptake and grain yield; the relation between nitrogen application and nitrogen uptake, and the relation between nitrogen application and grain yield for bunded rice grown at IRRI, Los Banos, the Philippines, in the dry season and the wet season (Tanaka et al., 1964). Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fraction of applied fertilizer.
Quadrant bsharestheuptakeaxiswithQuadrant a, whileontheverticalaxis the amount of fertilizer applied is given in downward direction. Quadrant c shows the relation between fertilizer application and yield, i.e. that given in Figure 39. The three graphs are not independent, as one can always beconstructedfromtheothertwothrougheliminationofonevariable. Thelower end of thecurveinQuadrant apasses through theorigin, i.e. at zerouptakenoyieldistobeexpected.Becauseuptakereferstototaluptakein both grain and straw, theoretically asituation could exist whereonlyvegetative material isproduced, which contains some nitrogen, sothat zeroyieldis associated with asmall nitrogen uptake. Forall practical purposes, however, that phenomenon may be neglected and the easily obtained origin may be considered partof thecurve.At lowlevelsof nitrogenuptake,aproportional relation exists between total uptake and grain yield. This proportionality reflects theexistenceof aminimumnitrogenconcentration, bothingrainandin straw. In the grain, no further accumulation of dry matter can take place beyond the point where nitrogen hasbeendiluted to its minimumconcentra157
tion. In the straw, which in the reproductive phase looses nitrogen to the developing grains, a residual non- remobilizable level of nitrogen remains. Thefactthateachunitofnitrogentakenup,yieldsaconstantamountofgrain alsoindicatesthattheratiobetweengrainyieldandtotaldrymatteryield(the harvestindex)isnotstronglyinfluenced inthatrange. Adifferent situationmayariseunderaridandsemi- aridconditions.Moisturelimitationduringthepostanthesisphasemayhampercropassimilation due to stomatal closure and accelerated leaf senescence, and thus interfere withthegrowthofthestorageorgans.Theconsequenceofsuchbehaviourisa veryunfavourable harvestindex.Anadditional effect isthatnotallthenitrogen in the vegetative plant parts can be remobilized and translocated, but material dies with a high residual nitrogen content. Moreover, the nitrogen content of thestorageorgansishigh, because nitrogen isincorporated preferentially in the storage organs and is subsequently not diluted (van Keulen, 1977;vanKeulen&vanHeemst, 1982).Theartof nitrogen fertilizer applicationinsuchsituationsistoapplythefertilizerjudiciously sothatthemoisture is just depleted when the seed ripens. In semi-arid regions, too liberal an application at theearlygrowth stages must beavoided, because that leadsto abundant vegetativegrowthwiththeassociated highwateruseandtheriskof moistureshortageduringthereproductivestage.Theseintricateinterrelations aretreatedandsimulatedindetailelsewhere(vanKeulen&Seligman, 1986). The combination of a poor harvest index and a high protein content in the harvestedplantmaterial,decreasestheefficiency ofnitrogenutilizationconsiderable,evenunderlimitednitrogensupply. Insuchsituationsitis,therefore, muchmoredifficult topredicttheeffect of nitrogenuptakeoneconomicyield quantitatively. A similar situation mayarise when ahigh proportion of thetotal nitrogen uptaketakesplaceafter anthesis. Suchaprocesshardlyinfluences theharvest index, but it leads to high protein contents in thestorage organs andincomplete remobilization of the proteins from the vegetative material. However, such a situation rarely occurs under conditions of limited nitrogen supply, exceptiftemporarywatershortageduringthepre-anthesisphaseis followed byabundant water supply during the post- anthesis phase. Inthe situations describedhere,theyield- uptakecurvemustthusbeappliedcautiously.
Exercise49 Calculate the harvest index for thetreatments of theexperiment presentedin Exercise48. What is the mathematical relation between the harvest index and the grain/ strawratio?
158
With increasing uptake of nitrogen the yield- uptake curve deviates from the straight line, reflecting an increase in nitrogen concentration in theharvestedproducts.Theefficiency ofnitrogenutilization,expressedasgrainyieldper unit nitrogen taken up, thus decreases. However, the quality of the harvestedmaterial,intermsofitsproteincontentincreases. Finally, the yield curve reaches a plateau level, where further uptake of nitrogenisnotreflected inhigheryields.Atthatpoint, nitrogenavailabilityis nolongerthedeterminant factor forgrowthandproduction. Thelevelofthe plateau in any actual situation is determined by the growth factor that is constraining. If there is a sufficient supply of the.other major inorganicelements, suchasphosphorus and potassium, andtheotherchemicalproperties, of thesoil arealso favourable (pH, salinity), theyieldplateau isequaltothat calculated for Production Situation 2, i.e. for situations where either radiation or water may be at times limiting. If by means of proper drainage and irrigation facilities also the moisture status of the soil can be maintained arounditsoptimumvalue,theyieldplateauisthatof ProductionSituation 1, i.e. potential production determined byradiation andtemperature only. The influence of otherlimiting factorsonthelevelof theplateauwillbetreatedin moredetailinSubsection4.1.2.Theyield- uptakecurvewillextendtoapoint where thevegetation hastaken upso much nitrogen that the maximumconcentrationinthetissueismaintainedthroughouttheplantslifecycle. Various analyses of yield- uptake curves have shown that the relationship is independent of the type of fertilizer applied, provided the fertilizer isonly effective through its main acting element (van Keulen &van Heemst, 1982; vanKeulen, 1982;vanKeulen, 1977;deWit,1953). Therelation inQuadrant bappearstobelinearoverthecomplete rangeof applications presented, which is characteristic for the majority of fertilizer experiments for nitrogen. Ofcourse, whenveryhighamountsof fertilizerare applied,asituationmaybecreatedwherethevegetationiscontinuously'saturated' with nitrogen, i.e. it is always at its maximum concentration, so that uptakedoesnot increaseanymoreatthehighest application levels. Formost practicalsituations,however,therelationinQuadrantbmaybecharacterized bytwoparameters:theinterceptwiththeuptakeaxis,representingtheuptake from theunfertilized soil, andtheslopewithrespect tothevertical,representing the proportion of the applied fertilizer taken up by the above-ground plantmaterial.Thisisreferredtoastherecoveryfraction. The nitrogen uptake at zero fertilizer application shows wide fluctuations, partly because of soil characteristics, partly because of variations inenvironmental conditions like temperature and rainfall. Furthermore, management influencesareofimportancesuchascroprotationandwatermanagement. Thefertilizer recoveryfraction mayvarybetween0.1 and0.8:the efficiency ofuptakeisinfluenced bysuchfactorsasfertilizertype,methodandtimingof application,environmentalconditions,etc. 159
Exercise50 In a certain situation, the uptake of nitrogen at zero N application is 20kg ha"1 andata fertilizer rateof 100kgha"1thenitrogen uptakeis60kgha"1. Whatistherecoveryfractionoftheappliednitrogen?
Therecoveryfractionissmallerthanone,becausemanyprocessesarecompetingfortheappliednitrogen:uptakebyplants,immobilizationbybacteria, volatilization, leaching and denitrification. The linearity of the application rate- uptake relation suggests strongly that all these processes proceed at a rate which is proportional to the concentration of mineral nitrogen (N0 3 ", NH4+) inthesoil solution, sothattheycanbedescribed asfirst-order reactions. Itisobvious from thispresentation thatthecurvesinQuadrant cmayvary widely underdifferent conditions, because both uptake without fertilizerapplication and recovery of applied fertilizer show widevariability. Inorderto suggestmethodsforimprovementinagivensituationitis,however,necessary toknowallthreerelationsdepictedinFigure40. Exercise51 ConstructthethreequadrantdiagramfortheexperimentgiveninExercise48.
4.1.3 Yield- uptakerelations Initialslope Rice InFigure41,anumberof representative examplesaregiven for yield-uptakecurvesof nitrogenonrice,representingarangeofcultivars,environmental conditions, fertilizer treatments and management practices. The plateau level in the various examples presented is not necessarily the yield level of Production Situation 2, because at the higher rates of N application other elementscouldhavebeeninshortsupply.However,information aboutthisis, ingeneral, lacking. Forourpurposethatisimmaterial becauseonlytheinitial slope of theyield- uptake curve isconsidered here, and points on this slope materializeonlyifelementsotherthannitrogenarenotlimiting. Examination of thevarious curves shows that the initial slope, expressed in kggrain (ata moisture content of 0.15 kg kg"1) per kg nitrogen taken up varies in the examplesbetween51(Figure41a)and80(Figure41b).Thesevariationsreflect differences in grain/straw ratios in the various experiments, resulting from 160
rV
12ry
(b)
.*
*IR8 Minabar-2
6 3 100 240 200 300 u 400
480 8r
flooded flooding/ drying u

j L
150
50 75 - A 8ry
* broadcast placed
(f)
100
75150 150
Figure 41. The relation between total nitrogen uptake (u, in kg ha"1) and grain yield, y (t ha -1 ), at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg-' and the relation between nitrogen application, A (kg ha~'), and nitrogen uptake of bunded rice. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fractions of applied fertilizer, a. India (Majumdar, 1973). b. Peru (Sanchez et al., 1973). c. USA (Reddy &Patrick, 1978). d. Philippines (Khind &Ponnamperuma, 1981). e. Thailand (Koyama et al., 1973). f. Indonesia (Ismunadji &Sismiyati, 1976).
differences in growing conditions orcultivar characteristics. The experiment of Figure41awascarriedout inIndiawithalocal tall indicacultivar,Raghusail, producing arelatively abundant vegetativeapparatus, hencetheaverage grain/straw ratioof 0.53. Ontheotherhand, theimproved short strawculti161
var IR8growing under theconditions of the coastal plain in Peru, endedup withagrain/strawratioof 1.3(Figure41b).
Exercise52 CalculatetheharvestindexfortheexamplesofFigures41aand41b.
In both situations, however, and in the other examples in Figure 41, the minimumnitrogenconcentration inthegrainswasaround0.01 kgkg"1,whereasinthestrawtheresidual N concentration wasaround 0.004kgkg"1.On thebasisoftheseparameterstheinitialefficiency, Ein,canbecalculatedas: Ein = 1/(0.01+s/gx 0.004) where s is weightofstraw(kgha"1) g is weightofgrain(kgha"1) (78)
Exercise53 Calculatethe'theoretical'efficiencies forthetwoexamplesof Figures41aand 41b. In an extensive analysis of yield-uptake curves for nitrogen on rice(van Keulen, 1977), it wasshown that the initial efficiencies arealways withinthe rangesetbythetwoextremesinFigure41. Alsoinpottrialssimilarvaluesare obtained. InFigure42,asimilaranalysisispresented fortheeffect of phosphoruson rice.Becauselesssufficiently detailedfielddataareavailablewherephosphorus is the limiting factor for rice production, some results of pot trials have also been included. The minimum phosphorus concentrations in grain and straw found in various experiments are0.0011 and 0.0005 kg kg"1, respectively. Applying thesamereasoning asinthecaseof nitrogen and, assuminga value of one for thegrain/straw ratio, leadsto aninitial efficiency of 625kg grain perkgphosphorus taken up.Theslopes inFigure42vary between410 and625 kgkg"1, thevariability beingagain mainlytheresult of variationsin thegrain/strawratio.
162
8ry *Khuntuni soil Paramanpursoil
(b)
/"
u 10 20
* N*0 kgha N*45 10 N90 u 15
Khuntuni soil Bolangir soil
02
\ \0.10 0075% \
022 ,
(e)
3u
4ry
Palampur Titabar u 10
X $
i_
5
10
\
;
15 50
.20
\
w
30
4 0 --
Q08
8 0 -- A
\
X
100 L A
\
Figure 42. The relation between total phosphorus uptake, u (kg ha -1 ), and grain yield, y (t ha-'), at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 and the relation between phosphorus application, A (kg ha -1 ), and phosphorus uptake for bunded rice. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fractions of applied fertilizer (in a and d, u, y and A in g pot-1)a. pot experiment, India (Dash et al., 1982). b. Mali (Traore, 1974). c. Nigeria (Bredero, 1966), d. pot experiment, India (Sadanandan et al., 1980). e. India (Agarwal, 1980). f. India (Motsara &Datta, 1971).
163
Exercise54 Calculate the grain/straw ratio of the experiment presented in Figure 42b, wheretheinitialefficiency is410kggrainperkgPtakenup. In Figure 43 yield- uptake curves for potassium on rice are presented for situations where a clear effect of increased potassium uptake on yield was observed. The number of sufficiently detailed experimental reports found in
6 h ( a ) * rabi '66 kharif '66 42dry season70/71
wet wet
'71 *70
100
100 L
uu - y
y
*""*
(e)
M * * ^
50
u
1.0
20
Figure 43. The relation between total potassium uptake, u (kg ha -1 ), and grain yield, y (t ha -1 ), at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 and the relation between potassium application, A (kg ha -1 ), and potassium uptake for bunded rice. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fractions of applied fertilizer (in c and e, u, y and A in g pot -1 ), a. India (Mahapatra &Panda, 1972). b. Senegal (Beye, 1974). c. pot experiment, India (Esakkimuthu et al., 1975). d. pot experiment, India (Agarwal, 1980). e. India (Patnaik &Gaikawad, 1969).
164
theliteratureisstillsmallerthanforphosphorus.Thevariationininitialslope forthiselementislargerthanforeithernitrogenorphosphorus.Onereasonis that atmaturity thelargerpartof thepotassium isfound inthestraw.Therefore, variationsinthegrain/straw ratiohaveamorepronouncedeffect onthe slope of these curves, whereas also losses of potassium dueto inevitable leaf loss attheendof thegrowingperiod will havegreatereffect. Anotherreason forthevariabilitymaybethefactthattheelementhasadoublefunctioninthe plant. For one part it is an essential element for certain physiological functions, for another part it serves as a positive charge, accompanying organic andinorganicanionsduringtransportthroughtheplant.Inthelatterfunction it may be almost completely replaced by other positive ions, if present in sufficient amounts. However, the minimum concentrations in the vegetative material atmaturity seem to be around 0.008 kg kg"1 and in the grains between 0.0025 and 0.005 kgkg"1. Thecombination of thesetwovalues withagrain/straw ratio of one, yields aninitial slope of 55-80 kggrainperkgpotassium absorbed. TheexamplespresentedinFigure43allfallwithinthisrange. Maize Yield-uptake curves for nitrogen on maize are presented in Figure 44. Despite the fact that maize is a C4 species, which are reported to be more economical with respect to nitrogen (Brown, 1978), the initial slopes found here vary between 55 and 70 kg kg"1 and appear, thus, not to be different from those for rice. Itistruethat underlownitrogenavailabilitytheresidual N concentration in the vegetative structures may drop to values as low as 0.002, which is lower than found for rice, but normal variations in grain/straw ratiomask this effect. Averagegrain/straw ratios for theexperimentsofFigure44varybetween0.85and1.33. InFigure45yield-uptake curves for phosphorus on maize aregiven.The value of the initial efficiency varies between 420 and 590 kg kg"1, which is againverysimilartothevalues found forrice,suggestingthattheminimumP concentrationsinthetissueareidenticalforthisgraminaeaswell. For potassium on maize the number of suitable experiments found in the literature was even more limited than for rice. Whatever was available is presentedinFigure46,whichagainshowsawidevariabilityininitial efficiencies. Inthiscaseit maywell bethat insomeof theexperiments presentedthe potassium- supplying capacity of thesoil intheabsence of fertilizer applicationwassohighthattheminimumlevelsinthetissuewerenotreallyattained. Cassava Yield- uptakecurvesforthethreemacro- elementsoncassavaarepresentedinFigures47,48and49,respectively. Fornitrogen,theinitialefficiency in the examples presented herevaries between 34 kgtuber drymatter per kgN taken up (Figure 47a) to 175 kg kg"1 (Figure 47b). These variations seem a 165
8r-
Id
-y
(a)
6
**
(b)
u
200
100
150
100
90180L A
0.71
i
75
50 -A
200
112.5 -
200
100"
200
Figure 44. The relation between total nitrogen uptake, u (kg ha-1), and grain yield, y (t ha -1 ), at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg-' and the relation between nitrogen application, A (kg ha -1 ), and nitrogen uptake for maize. Numbers in lower half of the graph denote recovery fractions of applied fertilizer, a. Nigeria (Balasubramanian &Singh, 1982). b. USA (Olson, 1980). c USA (Jung et al., 1972). d. USA (Rabuffetti &Kamprath, 1977). e. Brasil (Grove et al., 1980). f. USA (Flynn et al., 1957).
littletoohighif thereasoning followed for riceand maizealsoappliestothis crop. However, theratio of root weight totopweightvariesbetween0.8and 1.75, whichisamuchgreatervariationthaninthecaseof grains.Part ofthis 166
4rV
(a)
2-
>hill band . broadcast
z
A 6ry
/ '
u 10
40L
(c)
^
>K
Suwan Farm Prome's Farm 15 20 25-
Bladen Norfolk u. 30
40LA 8h
50LA
(e)
/^ conventional tillage no tillage u 20
4-
30
60
Figure 45. The relation between total phosphorus uptake, u (kg ha-'), and grain yield, y (t ha-') at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg-', and the relation between phosphorus application, A (kg ha~'), and phosphorus uptake for maize. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fractions of applied fertilizer, a. Mali (Traore, 1974). b. Nigeria (Kang &Yunusa, 1977). c. Thailand (Suwanarit, 1975). d. USA (Krantz et al., 1949). e. USA (Moschler & Martens, 1975).
variation maybedueto the fact that leaves fallen from theplant inthelater growth stages have not been taken into account in the final dry weight (Nijholt, 1936).That hasalsoitsconsequences forthetotal amount of Nutilized, 167
8ry
(a)
Kconventional no tillage u 100 100
4 no dung with dung _1 100
50 75
150 L A
200
L A
* Minn.3 Minn. 4
150
Figure 46. The relation between total potassium uptake, u (kg ha*1) and grain yield, y (t ha -1 ) at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 and the relation between potassium application, A (kgha~')andpotassiumuptakeformaize.Numbersinlowerhalfofthegraphsdenote recoveryfractionofappliedfertilizer,a. USA(Moschler&Martens, 1975).b.France(Loue, 1963).c. USA(Hanwayetal., 1962).
because the nitrogen irreversibly incorporated in those leaves, is neglected in theanalysis. Moreover, thegrowth habit of cassava ismuchmoreindeterminatethanthat of thegrains, i.e. harvestingtimeof therootsvariesbetween6 and24monthsafter planting. Withincreasingage,theratioof rootweightto top weight also increases (Section 2.2). From various sources the minimum nitrogen concentration in the roots at the age of 12 months is estimated at around0.003. Fortheabove-ground plant partsthereisquitesomevariability inthe reported nitrogen concentrations, thevariability being alsorelated to the status of the leaves that were collected. Values range from 0.0065 to about 0.01 kg N per kg dry matter. In the first case, probably more older leaves were incorporated in the analysis. Combination of the extreme values of the relevant parameters given so far will yield the rangeof initial efficienciesthatmaybeexpected.
168
y 300 150
24 r" y
- (a)
(b)
12u
*
.S
1
j S
.1
S^
10
50
100
150
A 10r y
' (d)
Cidra Corozal 200 100
2 0 0 LA *u - y
(e)
10 u 160
80 37.5 036 75 - A
Figure 47. The relation between total nitrogen uptake, u (kg ha"1) and root dry matter yield, y (t ha-'), and the relation between nitrogen application, A (kg ha"1), and nitrogen uptake for cassava. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fraction of applied' fertilizer (in a, u, y and A in g pof 1 ). a. Argentine (Orioli et al., 1967). b. Indonesia (Nijholt, 1936). c. Malaysia (Kanapathy, 1974). d. Puerto Rico (Fox et al., 1975). e. Thailand (Somsak, 1974).
169
y
300 150
^ ^ ,
24rr y
(a)
> ^
*
(b)
12-
0.5
10
25
50
A A -y
(c)
X *
5 --
25
50
Figure 48. The relation between total phosphorus uptake, u (kg ha -1 ) and root dry matter yield,y(tha*1),forcassava(ina, u,yandAingpot*1),a. Argentine(Oriolietal., 1967). b. Indonesia (Nijholt, 1936). c. Malaysia (Kanapathy, 1974).
Exercise55 Calculatetheminimumandmaximumvalueof theinitial efficiency fornitrogenoncassavaonthebasisof thenumericalvaluesgiveninthissection.What equationisapplied?
Thereasoning followed for nitrogen applies also to phosphorus andpotassium. In Figure 48 the initial efficiency of phosphorus utilization varies between 230 and 510 kg tuber dry matter per kg P taken up. For potassium (Figure49)thevalues rangebetween40and 100kgtuberdrymatterperkg K absorbed. On the whole, it must be said that the lack of quantitative data and the indeterminategrowthhabitof cassavaareadisadvantage forthetreatmentof nutrient responseof thiscrop. However, theindicativevaluesgivenhereenableafirst approximationofthenutrientrequirementsofthecropfor different productionsituations. Theceilingyieldlevel As mentioned in Subsection 4.1.1, the ceiling yield level of the yield-up170
24 r
300 150
(a)
12-
u
200 400 600
10 "y 5
(c)
/
X
12 " y
(d)
X
6
/
/
1
50
100
u 150
100
200
300
Figure 49. The relation between total potassium uptake, u (kg ha -1 ), and root dry matter yield, y (t ha -1 ) for cassava (in a, u, y and A in g pot*1), a. Argentine (Orioli et al., 1967). b. Indonesia (Nijholt, 1936). c. Malaysia (Kanapathy, 1974). d. Madagascar (Dufournet & Goarin, 1957).
take curve is determined by the growth factor that is in short supply. By definition thisplateauisbeyondthepointwherethefactorconsidered,i.e.the uptakeofaparticularnutrientelementinfluencesgrowthandproduction. In Figure 50 some experimental data are summarized that illustrate the influence of various growth factors on the level of the plateau. Figure 50a shows theinfluence of the radiation level ina potential production situation (ProductionSituation 1)forbundedriceintheCentralPlainofThailand.The 'dryseason'cropmaturated duringaperiodwithanaveragedailyirradiance of about 22MJ m"2, whereas average daily irradiance during maturation of the'wetseason*cropamountedtoabout 17.5MJ m"2. Figure50billustrates theeffect of moisture supplyontheplateaulevel for maizegrowninMissourri,USA. In 1951,atotalof625mmof rainfellduring thegrowing period of maize, whereas in 1953it wasonly 306mmduringthe sameperiod. The experiment in question was a fertilizer experiment andnot anirrigationexperiment. Therefore itcanbeconcludedthattheplateaulevel isthatof ProductionSituation2in 1953,butin 1951itcouldbeeitherthatof ProductionSituation 1 orProductionSituation2.
171
y 6 4 =dryseason *=wet season 2i-
(b)
=1951 =1953 u,
50' 100
200 - A y 6 4 2
(c)
X
xN'O . s . N 100kgha xP'O P=26kgha" u
50 60 on _A
Figure 50. The relation between nutrient uptake, u (kg ha -1 ), and yield, y (t ha -1 ) and the relation between nutrient application, A (kg ha~l) and nutrient uptake. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fraction of applied fertilizer, a. Rice, Thailand, y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 , u and A are expressed in kg N ha -1 (Walcott et al., 1977). b. Maize, USA. y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg, u and A are expressed in kg N ha -1 (Flynn et al., 1957). c. Grain sorghum, USA. y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg, u and A are expressed in kg N ha -1 (Roy &Wright, 1973; 1974). d. Rice, Nigeria, y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg, u and A are expressed in kg P ha*1 (Bredero, 1965).
Figure 50crefers to grainsorghum intheUSA andillustrates theeffect of phosphorus application on the level of the plateau. If no phosphorus isapplied, the plateau level is a grain yield of about 3500 kg ha"1, whereas ata phosphorusapplicationrateof 22kgha"1theplateaulevelincreasestoabout 5500 kgha"1. Onthe basis of this information it is not possible to conclude whether the latter level indeed represents Production Situation 3, but it does notseemunlikely. Thereverseeffect isillustratedinFigure50dreferringtobundedricegrown inNigeria. Application of phosphorus intheabsence of nitrogen application leads to an increase in yield, but the effect is rather small, because soon nitrogen becomes thelimiting factor. At anitrogen application rateof about
172
100kgha"1theyieldlevelincreaseswithincreasingPuptaketoabout3200kg ha"1. This seems still low for that situation, but onthebasisof theavailable information it is not possible to determine what the yield- limiting factor couldhavebeen. 4.1.4Applicationrateuptakerelations Singleelements Iftheyieldpotentialof agivencropistobeestimated fromtheamountofa particular nutrient absorbed by the vegetation, it is necessary to estimate uptakeasafunction of application rate.Theserelationswillbediscussed for eachnutrientseparately,distinguishingthetworelevantparameters:uptakeat zerofertilizer application(zerolevel)andtheslopewithrespecttothevertical (therecoveryfraction). Nitrogen The intersect of the application rate- uptake curve with the uptake axis represents the inherent fertility of the soil for the element, for agivencrop: the amount available without fertilizer application in the current cropping season. Itsvalueinaparticularcaseispartlyasoilcharacteristic, determined by the mineral composition of the soil and its organic matter content and quality. This is illustrated in Figure 47d, where the soil at the Cidra site suppliedtwiceasmuchnitrogen intheunfertilized situation asthesoil atthe Corozal site. The chemical analyses of the two soils (Fox et al., 1975)show that the total N content of the top soil at Cidra is about 1.3 times that at Corozal, at about the same organic matter content. It must be assumed, therefore, that thequalityof theorganic material, particularly itsC/N ratio, is more favourable at the former site. The amounts of nitrogen taken upat zero fertilizer application are in both cases high for oxisols. This might be attributed to the fact that the experimental sites had fertilizer applications previous to the cassava experiment, which may have improved the nitrogen fertility. Environmental factors, especiallytemperature andprecipitation, alsohave adistincteffect onthezeroNlevel.Temperatureinfluences microbialactivity (cf. vanVeen, 1977)andthusforinstancetherateofmineralization,whichis ingeneralhigherathighertemperatures.OntheotherhandhighertemperaturesmayleadtogreaterlossesofthemineralizedNbyincreased denitrification (againamicrobialprocess)orbyfavouringvolatilizationofammoniacalcompounds(Bouwmeester&Vlek,1981). Rainfall mayhavevariouseffects onthenitrogenbalance:itsuppliesnitrogento thesoil from atmospheric sources andthrough its effect on themoisturebalance in the soil, it influences the rateand duration of mineralization (van Veen, 1977), as well as the magnitude of losses through denitrification andleaching. Suchdifferences inenvironmental conditionsarepresumablyat 173
thebasisof (sometimes large)differences inzeroNlevel betweenyears, asin Figures 41a and 41c. In these cases it is not possible to pinpoint the exact process responsible for the differences, because the reports do not provide sufficient details. Some other examples, mostly referring to experiments in the temperate zone,aregiveninFigure51.Thefirstonereferstothefirst springcutafteran early nitrogen application to permanent pasture in the Netherlands. The springin 1961waswarmwithalmostnormalprecipitation, whereasin 1962 it wasacoldspringwithrainfall about25%abovenormal. Inthelatteryearthe lowtemperatures, hamperingmicrobial activityandthehighrainfall, favouringdenitrification andleaching,resultedinazeroNlevelof lessthanhalfthat ofthepreviousseason. In Figure 51b, the effect of precipitation per se is illustrated for awinter wheat crop in Germany. In one of the treatments of this experiment winter rainfall wasintercepted byprotective shelters, which increased theuptakeof nitrogen in the nonfertilized situation by about 15 kg ha"1, presumably because leaching of the mineralized nitrogen beyond the rooting zone was prevented(andmaybedenitrification wassuppressed). Landreclamation also improves theavailability of native nitrogen asillustratedinFigure51c,whichreferstoanexperimentwithwinterwheatinoneof thereclaimedpoldersintheNetherlands. Inthewelldrainedplot, wherethe watertablewasbelow30cmthroughoutthegrowingperiod,appreciablymore nativeNisavailabletothecropthanintheplotwhereundernaturaldrainage thewatertable waslessthan 10cmbelowthesurface from OctobertillApril. In the latter situation, the high soil-water content and the associated low oxygenconcentrationhamperorganicmatterdecomposition andfavourdenitrification. In many cases, therefore, land reclamation has a triple effect on cropyield,asitimprovesconcurrentlytheplateaulevel,theuptakeatthezero Nlevelandtheefficiency ofnitrogen- fertilizerutilization(Section7.1). Management practicescanalsohaveaninfluence ontheuptakeof nitrogen fromnaturalsources.Figure5Idshowsthattheintroduction of aleguminous cropinarotation increased theuptakeatzerofertilizer application, inthis casebyabout25kgha"1.Themagnitudeof thegaindependsonthegrowing conditions for the legume, theeffectiveness of nodulation and nitrogen fixation and the conditions for decomposition in the subsequent crop growing season. Figure 51e illustrates the effect of weed control on nitrogen availabilityat zerofertilizer application. When weeds are allowed to compete with the crop, partof theavailablenitrogenisabsorbed bytheseunwantedplantsand is thus lost for the crop. In this particular case, the difference in nitrogen uptakebythecropamountstoabout45kgha"1. Theeffect of arathercommonphenomenon ingrowthof riceunderrained conditions is illustrated in Figure 51f:that of temporary,drying of the field when rain is insufficient to maintain awater layer. In the situation depicted 174
>*<
*without vetch vetch inrotation
^55"
\
05
8
r y (e)
weeding *no weeding u
100 12 - y 9 6
/
(c)
,"
J?' shallowwatertable .well-drained
A
75 150 - A
xcontinuousflooding intermittentdrying
u 150
Figure 51. The relation between total nitrogen uptake, u (kg kg*1), and yield, y (t ha -1 ) and that between nitrogen application (A in kg ha -1 ) and nitrogen uptake. Numbers in lower half of the graphs denote recovery fraction of applied fertilizer, a. Permanent pasture, the Netherlands, y is total dry matter (Oostendorp, 1964). b. Winter wheat, Western Germany. yf is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 , c. Winter wheat, the Netherlands, y is total dry matter (Sieben, 1974). d. Rice, USA. y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 (Williams et al., 1972). e. Maize, Nigeria, y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 (Kang et al., 1977). f. Rice, USA. y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg-' (Patrick et al., 1967).
175
here, intermittent dryingsubstantially reducestheavailability of nativenitrogen, ascomparedtosituationsof continuous flooding. Themostlikelyexplanationisthat duringtheperiods of soil drying nitrification takes place,leadingtoanabundanceof nitratesinthesoil. Duringsubsequent flooding, reducedconditionsbuildupintherootzoneandtheresultingdenitrification leads to the loss of nitrogen from the system. Poor watercontrol is in manycases the cause of substantial losses of nitrogen from the soil-plant system of bundedrice. Inconclusion, it maybestatedthat despite theexistence of agreat deal of knowledge about the factors influencing nitrogen availability atzero- fertilizer application, reliable quantitative predictions for concrete situations are verydifficult. Formanysituations, analternative istheanalysisof yielddata atlowinputlevels,fromwhichnitrogenuptakemaybederived(Section4.2). The slope of the application- uptake curve represents the efficiency of uptakeof the fertilizer, orinotherwordsthefraction of that fertilizer thatis recovered inthe (mostly above-ground) plant material. This variabledetermineshow muchof theexpensive input iseffectively utilized andistherefore of primeimportance for decisions oneconomically feasible fertilizer applicationrates. Ingeneralthereisapositivecorrelationbetweentheuptakeatzero- fertilizerapplicationandtherecoveryfraction inagivensituation(cf. Brockmanet al., 1971), because the processes rendering the nutrient unavailable to the plantsactinidentical waysonnitrogen from natural sourcesandonnitrogen applied as fertilizer. In the examples presented in Figures 41, 44 and 47, in mostcasesahigheruptakeof nativeNcoincides withahigherrecovery fraction. In addition to the factors discussed before, the recovery fraction may be
.N0 3 urea *(NHJ2S0* NaN03
Figure52.Therelationbetweentotalnitrogenuptake,u(kgha1)andyield,y(tha*1),and that between nitrogen application, A (kg ha -1 ), and nitrogen uptake. Numbers in lower half of thegraphsdenoterecovery fraction of applied fertilizer, a. Winterwheat,theNetherlands. Netherlands, y is grain yield at a moisture content of 0.15 kg kg -1 (Lehr, 1959). b. Natural rangeland, Mali, y is total dry matter (Penning de Vries et al., 1980).
176
influenced by the type of fertilizer applied, as illustrated in Figure 52a fora winter wheat crop growing in one of the reclaimed Usselmeer polders. The nitrate fertilizer isabsorbed 2.5 timesasefficiently astheammoniacal fertilizer. This is due to losses through ammonia volatilization on the lime-rich grittyclaysoil(pH8.2)inthesepolders. Incontrasttothat,therecoveryof nitratefertilizer islessthanonethirdof thatof ureafor thesituationdepicted inFigure52b.Thisrefers toanexperiment on a heavy clay soil in the Sahelian region, which received run-off water from surrounding areas and was flooded for some time during the growing season. The low recovery of nitrate must be due to denitrification and/orleaching.Themuchhigherrecoveryof ureaindicatesthat nitrification must havebeenslow undertheseconditions, so thatnitrogenremainedinthe systeminammoniacalform. Fertilizer recovery isalso influenced bytiming andmethod of application. Theeffect ofmethodofapplicationisillustratedinFigure41f, whichrefersto anexperimentwithbundedriceonJava, Indonesia. Placement of ureafertilizer directly into the reduced soil layer, where oxygen is absent, prevents the transformation ofammoniumions,formedafterhydrolysisofureaintonitrates(nitrification), andthesubsequentlossthroughdenitrification. Whenurea is broadcast onto the layer of standing water, nitrification takes place inthe aerobic environment, after which the nitrates formed enter the reduced soil layer, eitherbymassfloworbydiffusion. Inthatenvironment, rapiddenitrification follows, whichresultsinamuchloweravailabilityof nitrogenforthe vegetation. Split application of thetotal amount of nitrogen fertilizer generallyresults inhigherrecovery fractions (Figure41e),becauseitleadstoashorteraverage residencetime of theelement inthe soil andhenceto lower losses. Thesame effect playsaroleincomparisonsbetweenearlyapplicationandlaterapplications. Inthelattersituation,therateofcropgrowthishigher,whichincreases thedemandfornitrogenandhencetherateofnutrientuptake. Differences in recovery fraction between different cultivars (Figures 41b and 44c) may also be related to the same phenomenon. Minabar-2 is a traditional tallcultivarthatproducesmuchmorevegetativematerialthanthe improvedshortstrawcultivarIR8(grain/strawratio0.9vs. 1.5).Therecovery fractions inpracticevarytypicallybetween0.1 and0.8, withavalueof 0.5as an Acceptable norm'. If the recovery fraction is much lower than that, too much of the expensive nitrogen fertilizer is lost and achieving much higher valuesmayrequiretoo muchinvestment insophisticated managementpractices. Phosphorus In many parts of the world, crop production under natural conditions is limitedbyphosphorusavailability (e.g. PenningdeVriesetal., 1980).Therefore phosphorus fertilizer applicationisnecessarytoachievepotentialyields.
177
In contrast to nitrogen, amajor part of the total phosphorus store in asoil maybepresentasinorganiccompoundsof lowsolubility, notablyaluminium, iron and calcium compounds. There are, however, large variations in the relative proportions of the inorganic and organic forms of phosphorus in different soils. Theinherent fertilitylevelofthesoil forphosphorus(zeroPlevel)mayvary as a result of variations in mineralogical composition as well as in quantity andqualityoftheirorganicmattercontent. Suchdifferences areillustratedin Figure 45c, where Prome's farm yields almost twice as much P as Suwan's farm. That mayberelated tothedifference inpH, becausethe former soilis slightlyalkaline, thelatteracidic. UnderlowpHtheconcentration of Alions tendstobehigher, leadingto formation of insoluble phosphates when fertilizerisapplied. As for nitrogen, different environmental conditions mayresult in differencesinthezeroPlevel.Thisispartlyrelatedtotheconditionsaffecting decomposition of organic material, which supplies part of the phosphorus, and partlytotheinorganicPcycleinthesoil,whichisaffected bytemperatureand soilmoistureconditions(Beek,1979). There is an interesting example of the interaction between nitrogen and phosphorus inFigure42c, whereincreased Navailability improves uptakeof nativephosphoruseventhoughphosphorusisthelimitingelementforproduction.ThisaspectwillbetreatedinmoredetailinSubsection4.1.4. Therelationbetweenapplicationrateanduptakeismuchmorecomplexfor phosphate fertilizers than for nitrogen, asisclear from Figures42and45.In some situations the relation seems to be a straight line (Figure 45c), but the recovery fraction is so low in this case that not much importance can be attachedtotheseresults. The complexity of the relation may be expected because, contrary to the situation with N, thekinetics of thereactions of phosphorus betweenthesoil solution and the solid phase of the soil are not of first-order (Beek, 1979). Phosphate ions areeffectively removed from thesoil solution byabsorption, precipitationandimmobilization, sothattheconcentrationinthesoilsolution is more or less constant and not proportional to the amount of fertilizer applied. The recovery of applied phosphorus fertilizer istherefore ingeneral low and often decreases with increasing rates of application, because the longerresidencetimeinthesoilleadstolargerproportionsbeingimmobilized byprecipitationorincorporationintheorganicfraction(Figures42c,45b).In such situations, where recovery is low, a more efficient utilization of the fertilizer maybeachieved byconcentrating the fertilizer inalimited soil volume,forinstancebyplacement(deWit, 1953). A 'special' case is encountered in Figure 42f, where the recovery fraction first decreases with increasing application rate and subsequently increasesat higher application rates. A possible explanation for this phenomenon isthat withadditionof phosphatestothesoilprecipitationtakesplace,whichincrea178
ses with increasing concentration of phosphates. At the highest application rate, all free cations that may form insoluble phosphates (Fe3+, Al3+, Ca2+) areexhausted.Thephosphateconcentrationinthesoilsolution willthenrise, resultinginincreaseduptakeofthefertilizer. Theresults presented hereclearly illustrate that therelation betweenphosphorusapplication rateanduptakebyacropmaybehighlyvariableandthat it isdifficult to predict theeffect of phosphorus application without detailed knowledgeofthelocalconditions. Potassium The potassium content in plant tissue isgenerally high as may bededuced from the uptake-yield curves. Inareas with less intensive agriculture, however, yields are predominantly limited by availability of nitrogen and phosphorus, hence potassium shortage is not widespread. Moreover, at harvest, most of thepotassium isinthecropresiduesthatarepartlyorcompletely left inthefield orreturnedtothefield lateron.That isprobablythemainreason thatsofewrelevantexperimentalresultscouldbecollected. The potassium- supplying capacity of soils is mainly determined by their mineralogical composition. Themainsourcesof theelement aremineralslike micas and feldspars, which upon weathering release large amounts of potassium. Therefore clay soils, which contain more of these minerals, aregenerallysuperiorinthesupplyofnativepotassiumtosandysoils. Thereactionsinvolvedinthesupplyof potassium fromthesoilstoretothe plant areequilibrium reactionswhoserateisgoverned bytherelativeconcentrations of the various forms of potassium: ions in the soil solution, ions adsorbedinexchangeable formonnegatively- chargedclayororganicmatter particles and potassium chemically bound in the clay minerals (van Diest, 1978). Thus, conditions changing these relative concentrations influence the zeroK level. Weatherplaysanimportant role:highertemperatures andmore favourable moisture conditions favour weathering of minerals and increase potassiumavailability. Differences betweenyearsmaytherefore beconsiderable(Figures43aandb). It has also been observed that crops differ considerably in their ability to extract potassium from agiven soil (van Keulen& vanHeemst, 1982),which couldberelatedtothedifferent potassiumrequirementsof thecrops,butalso tothelengthofthegrowingseasonandhencethetimeavailableforuptake. Two mainprocesses influence theefficiency of uptakeof potassium fertilizer. Insandy soils potassium ions arevery mobile and may be easily lost by leaching. Clay soils, on the other hand - especially those having a high proportion of a special type of clay minerals (illite, vermiculite) - may fix potassium. In that case, potassium is absorbed at specific sites in the clay lattice, rendering itunavailable for plantuptake.Theresult isthat, especially at lower application levels, the recovery of fertilizer may be very low (cf. Figure 43b) but increases gradually at higher levels of application, whenthe 179
absorptionsitesaremoreorlesssaturated(vanKeulen&vanHeemst, 1982). Wherethe processes of leaching and fixation arenot of great importance, recoveries of potassium fertilizers are generally high, and, as in the case of nitrogen,independentoftheamountapplied(Figures43aand46b). Levelling off of the application- uptake rate at high levels of application (Figure 46b) must be attributed to active exclusion of potassium ions bythe plant at high concentrations in the solution. When the concentration in the tissuehasreacheditsmaximum value, further uptakeisapparentlyinhibited. This will, however, only happen at very high levels, because 'luxury* consumptiondoesapparentlyoccurquiteoften(Figures43band46b). 4.1.5Interactionbetweenelements InSubsection 4.1.2 it was shown that the response of acrop to a specific element is also influenced by the supply of other elements. For example, increased uptake of nitrogen may not lead to higher yields if the supply of phosphorus is insufficient (Figure 50c). However, the uptake of a specific element mayalsobeaffected bythesupplyof otherelements, asisillustrated forexampleinFigures50candd. Itshows,thattheapplicationofphosphorus increases the uptake of nitrogen in the absence of nitrogen application, and viceversa. Similarreactions havealsobeenobserved inSahelian naturalpasture (Penning de Vries &van Keulen, 1982) and in other experiments with bundedrice(deWit,1957). For an explanation of this phenomenon, it is necessary to consider the dynamics of the two elements in the plant tissue. It has been argued that at maturity species- characteristic minimum and maximum element concentrationsexistinthevariousplantorgans,providedthatotherelementsarenotin short supply. This is not only the case at maturity, but at each point in the plants life cycle such characteristic minimum and maximum concentrations maybeestablished. Ingeneralthereisaratioofabout fourtoonebetweenthe maximum and the minimum concentrations of one element at a particular phenological stage. Bothvaluesdeclineduringageingof theplant. Thisgradual decrease in characteristic concentration is related to the physiological functioning of the plant. In the early stages of plant growth, protein-rich' material - mainly intheleaves - isbeing produced, whereas later onmore supportingtissue,suchascellwallsisformed, consisting forthelargerpartof structuralcarbohydrateswithlessnitrogenouscompounds.Thespecific functionof nitrogenandthatof phosphorusintheplantarestronglyrelated:both elementsarefound inthenucleicacids;nitrogen isanessential component of the enzymes, whereas phosphorus plays a role in the molecules that areresponsible for energy transfer in enzymatic processes. It may be expected, therefore, that a correlation exists between the functional concentration of nitrogenintheplantandthatof phosphorus.Thatisborneoutbyexperimental results obtained in the field (Penning de Vries &van Keulen, 1982) and 180
under controlled conditions (Dijkshoorn, personal communication). As the maximumandminimumconcentrations of eachof theelementsNandPvary byafactor of four, theratioof theirconcentrations (theP/N ratio)couldin theory vary 16 fold. However, only about a four-fold variation is found experimentally. The minimum and maximum value of the P/N ratio forvarious grasses and dicotyledons varied between 0.04 for situations where a relative shortage of phosphorus exists to about 0.15 in situations where a relative nitrogen shortage exists. Whenthese limiting values areapproached, absorption of theelement withtherelativesurplusisinhibited, eventhoughit may be abundantly available. This relative shortage should not be confused with an absolute shortage of the element, i.e. the P/N ratio may be at its minimum value, while the nitrogen concentration in the tissue is also at its absoluteminimum.Thusapplication of theelement withtherelativeshortage (phosphorus in Figure 50c) increases the uptake of the other element (nitrogen),whichinturnleadstoaproportionalincreaseinproduction. Underconditions whereboth elements areavailable insufficient amounts, the P/N ratio inthetissue isoften closeto 0.1, whichmaybeconsidered the optimum value. A first approximation of the phosphorus requirements of plantsmaythusbesetequaltoone- tenthoftheirnitrogenrequirements.
Exercise56 Inanexperiment, the following observations weremadeatacertain pointin time. Elementconcentration (kgkg"')
Field 1 Field2 Field3 N 0.02 0.02 0.02 P 0.0018 0.0008 0.003
In which field do you expect that P fertilizer application will increase the uptake of N? In which field will application of N increase uptake of P? Explainyouranswer.
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4.2 Nutrientdemandandfertilizerrequirements P.M. Driessen InSection 4.1 theeffects of themainplant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on crop yield and the relations between nutrient supply and nutrient uptake were discussed using a three quadrant presentation. If these principles are applied to actual cropping situations, four practical questions mustbeanswered: - howcananutrientshortageberecognizedinacertainsituation? - howmuchofthatnutrientdoestheunfertilizedsoilsupply? - whatistherecoveryof acertain fertilizer- nutrient if applied inaspecific way? - how much fertilizer must be applied to realize Production Situation 2, where crop yield is solely determined by weather conditions and water availability? As is evident from the discussion of the principles of nutrient demand and supply, suchquestions pertaining toaspecific cropping situation canonlybe answered withtheaidof information collected infield experiments and from chemical analyses.Thepurposeof thissectionistoshowhowthesequestions can beanswered on thebasis of minimal information. Forpractical reasons, thediscussionwillbelimitedtosituationsinwhichtheavailabilityof nitrogen and/or phosphorus determinescropperformance; situations whereyieldsare limitedbypotassiumshortagearelesscommon. 4.2.1 Recognition ofnutrientlimitation The easiest way to recognize nutrient stress in a crop is through chemical analysisof suchbiomasscomponentsasstrawandseed,or - ifthedeficiency isserious enough to manifest itself inthephysical appearance of thecrop throughidentification of specific deficiency symptoms suchasdiscolouration ornecrosisof plantorgans.Theinformation needed forcorrectdiagnosiscan onlybecollected withthebackingof anadequately equipped plant analytical laboratory. This is the major reason that such data arescarce. Soil chemical data aremorecommonly available asthey areroutinely collected insoilsurveys. Unfortunately, there is not a generally valid quantitative correlation between soil analytical data and crop performance. Soil analysis data canat best give an indication of likely element deficiency or of the occurrence of unfavourable soil conditions which would conceivably obstruct the normal functioningof plants.ThissubjectwillbefurtherelaboratedinSection5.3. A convenient way to recognize nutrient limitation is by comparing actual 182
plant production in the field with the calculated production in Production Situation2. Obviously, suchcalculations mustbedoneforacropspeciesand variety with similar properties asthe one grown inthe field and for weather conditions and a water regime the same as that in the field. Likewise, the actual field production must havebeenobtained underconditions thatapply to Production Situation 2, viz. in aweed-free environment, with adequate control of pestsanddiseasesandwithoptimum harvesting methods. Inaddition, chemical and physical soil conditions must be such that they have no adverseeffect onplant performance. Theoutcome of suchacomparisoncan beeitheroftwopossibilities: - one is that the actual production isclose to thecalculated production. In that case growth is not limited by a defiency of nitrogen or mineral elements. - the other is that the actual production is clearly lower than the one calculated for Production Situation 2. For identification of the element thatisinshortsupplyitistheninevitabletoperformachemicalanalysisof cropcomponents. If, forexample, thenitrogenconcentrations of theanalysed plant partsare distinctly higher than the minimum values as given in Section 4.1, it maybe concluded that nitrogen availability isnotthelimiting factor andtheconcentrations of other nutrients must be checked. Phosphorus shortage is then a likely candidate. If, on the other hand, the nitrogen concentrations of the analysedplantpartsapproachtheirminimumvalues,itmaybeconcludedthat nitrogen shortage limits crop production. It is then worthwhile to consider applicationof anitrogen fertilizer.Theimprovedplantgrowthresultingfrom this N application will also increase the demand for other elements such as phosphorus and potassium. If this additional demand cannot be met bythe soil, i.e. if the effect of N application remains below expectations, mineral elementsmustbeappliedinadditiontonitrogen. In practical plant nutrition research, nutrient demands are not identified sequentially, butsimultaneously. Thisisdoneinfertilizer experiments,which involve cropping anumber of identical fields, arranged ina randomized designandeachplantedtothesamevarietyandfertilizedinasimilarfashionbut withdifferent combinations of N, PandKfertilizers. Theadvantage of such experimentsisthatpossibleeffects ofnitrogenapplication,mineralelement(s) application, or combinations thereof, become apparent after only onecropping season with one weather and one water regime which facilitates their interpretation. Obviously, thenumberof plotsincludedinaparticularexperiment depends on the number of types/combinations and doses of fertilizers tested;itisoften considerable. Moreover, theexperiments mustbedonewith a numberof replications to ruleout misinterpretation of thesituation dueto local anomalies or human failure. Each experiment includes at least oneunfertilized plot, the 'control plot'. The function of this control plot deserves
183
particular attention, as it is instrumental in answering the second practical questionposed atthebeginningof thissection:Howmuchof anutrientdoes theunfertilized soilsupply?
Exercise57 InSection 2.3 (discussing Production Situation 1,wherewater, nitrogenand mineral elements are optimally supplied) anexample was given in which the production of the high yielding ricevariety IR8 was calculated for abunded experimental site near Paramaribo, Suriname. Suppose that on this same stationanunfertilized field plantedtoIR8(onthesamedate)producedatotal above-ground dryweight of 2000 kgha"1 with agrain-straw ratio of 1.0. The total quantity of nitrogen contained in the above-ground production was14kgha"1. - Identify the total above-ground biomass production and the grainyield calculated for Production Situation 1 inSection2.3;calculatetheproductionofstrawinthissituation. - What would the above-ground biomass production be at Production Situation2?(Remember:bundedricefields) - Do you think that fertilizers must be used for high production on that location? - If so, is nitrogen the first element that has to be supplied? (Recall that minimum nitrogen concentrations inricegrainandstrawarearound 0.01 and0.004kgkg"1,respectively)
4.2.2 Nutrientuptakefrom unfertilizedsoils As unfertilized soils cannormally still support acrop, theycannot beentirelydevoidof nutrients.Influx ofelementswithwind,rainorirrigationwater isapossibility, but morecommonly thesenutrients originate from sourcesin the soil itself. Nitrogen is predominantly supplied through microbial breakdown of soil organic matter, which - depending on its botanical originand genetic history - normally has a nitrogen concentration between 0.01 and 0.05 kgkg"1. Mineral nutrientsarealsosupplied inthisprocessbut, withthe possible exception of phosphorus, only in rather negligible quantities. The bulkofthemineralelementsoriginatesfromweatheringrockfragments. The rate at which indigenous nutrients are supplied depends partly on soil characteristics such as organic matter content and composition, soil mineral composition and soil pH, but also on a score of exogenous factors that are often highlyvariable(Section4.1). Anexampleissoiltemperature, subjectto 184
daily and seasonal fluctuations, and also influenced by weather conditions, vegetationcoverandtheaction of man.Tocomplicatethingsevenmore,not all thenutrients released areavailable for uptake byplant roots, astheymay leachoutoftherootzone,precipitateaslow- solubilitycompounds,etc. This complexity makes it virtually impossible to predict the uptake of nutrientsfromanunfertilized soilonthebasisoftheoreticalconsiderationsonly. Forthetimebeing, thequantityof thegrowthlimitingelement takenupby a certaincropfromtheunfertilized soilcanbestbeestablished bysimplydividing the control yield by the slope of the yield-uptake curve for that element.The growth limiting element can be identified, as explained, by determining element concentrations intheplant tissue. Theslope of theyield- uptake curveis established on thebasis of theratio of economic product andcropresiduesandtheirminimumelementconcentrations. If fertilizer trials arecontinued at anexperiment station over anumberof years,itisnotuncommonthatthe'baseuptake',i.e. thequantityof nutrients takenupfrom unfertilized plots, increasesinsuccessiveyears.Tounderstand this,itmustberealizedthatthelocationofthecontrolplotchangeseachyear, because the individual fields of the experiment are laid out in a randomized design. Nutrients applied, but not completely taken up in one year may to some extent remain in the soil and increase the level of soil- supplied nutrients in subsequent experiments. The same happens in practical farming where fertilizers are used: natural soil fertility improves inthe course of the years and base uptake reaches a new (higher) level. The magnitude of this improvement dependsonbothcultivationpracticesandenvironmentalconditions.Thismaybeillustratedbytwoextremeexamples:inthecaseofnitrogen application tobunded rice,carry-over effects areoften lowbecausemostof thenitrogenthatisnotdirectlytakenupislostthroughdenitrification and/or leaching. A completely different situation exists in natural pastures in semi-arid regions, where almost no nitrogen is lost from the soil except by plantuptake. Phosphorus is less mobile in the soilplant- atmosphere system than nitrogen. Therefore, losses of phosphorus from the system arenormally lower than losses of nitrogen and, consequently, the carry-over of phosphorus is higher. Inpractical farming, phosphorus issometimes applied inhighdoses, which promise asatisfactory Psupply overanumberof years. Howeverthis effect should not be overestimated, asalarge part of the fertilizer not taken upinthe first yearistransferredtoformsthatarefarlessavailabletoplants.
Exercise58 Table 44, from 'A Summary Report on Yield Response of some Thai Rice Varieties to Varying N and P205 Combinations' (Thai Rice Department, 1956), presentsaverageyieldsof someThailowland ricevarietiesobtainedin 185
Table44. Averageyields(kgha"l)ofThailowlandricevarietiesatdifferent levelsof N and PcombinationsatBangkhenExperimentStation. Ratesofnitrogen Ratesofphosphorusapplied(kg ha"*) applied(kgha-1) P-0 P-37.5
A. Crop year1952-1953 N-0 N-37.5 N-75.0 N-150.0 1214.4
2107 2211 2389 2232 2394 2484 2493 2551 2727
P-75.0
P-150.0
B. Cropyear1953-1954 N-0 N-37.5 N-75.0 N-150.0 C. Cropyear1954-1955 N-0 N-37.5 N-75.0 N-150.0
1529.4
2706 3074 3159 3048 3220 3665 3164 3303 3649
1755.6
3547 4188 4682 3686 4166 4647 3649 4291 4691
threeconsecutiveseasonsatBangkhenExperimentStation. - Identify the control plot yields obtained in the three consecutive crop years. - Can you explain why the control yields obtained in the three consecutive yearsaredifferent? - Experience with traditional Thai rice varieties has shown that their rough grain*-straw ratio is normally close to 0.5 ('long straw varieties'). The minimumnitrogenconcentrations of roughgrainandstraware0.0078 and 0.0036, respectively. Calculate with these numbers the slope of the rough grain yield N uptake curveandusethisslopetocalculatethenitrogenuptakefromthecontrol plots inthethreeconsecutivecropyears.
Rough grain pertains to unhusked rice with 12percent water; one kilogram of roughriceisequivalentto0.8kghuskedrice(Section5.4). 186
4.2.3
The recovery of nutrients applied in fertilizers
In Section 4.1 it was shown that the increase in nutrient uptake following fertilizer application is generally proportional to the quantity of that nutrient added, at least in the case of nitrogen and potassium. It was also shown that there are exceptions to this rule, e.g. in the case of immobilization or fixation of the added element by the soil. In this section not all possible exceptions will be treated, but element recovery in a normal situation where application- uptake relations are linear in the relevant range will be discussed. It was also explained in Section 4.1 that the slope of the application - uptake relation, i.e. the quantity of a certain element taken up from a fertilized soil minus the quantity taken up from the same but unfertilized soil divided by the quantity of that element contained in the applied fertilizer, is called the recovery fraction, or in amathematical notation: Rx = (u f , x -u 0 , x )/A x where Rx uf x u 0x Ax isthe recovery fraction of element x (kg kg"') isthe uptake of nutrient x from fertilized field (kg ha"x) isthe uptake of nutrient x from control field (kg ha" ! ) isthe application of nutrient x to fertilized field (kg ha"*) (79)
Theoretically, Rxranges in value from close to 0to close to 1.0;it expresses the efficiency with which acertain fertilizer is used. The actual recovery of an element depends on the competitive position of the plant relative to processes in the plant- soil- atmosphere system that render the element unavailable to the plant. Taking nitrogen as an example, volatilization of ammoniacal nitrogen, leaching of nitrogen in nitrate form, denitrification to gaseous N forms and immobilization of nitrogen by soil microbes are processes lowering the recovery of applied fertilizer N. It follows, therefore, that a low recovery can be improved by either increasing the uptake activity of the plant roots or by decreasing the impact of the competing processes, or both. In the case of nitrogen, about o n e - t e n t h of the nitrogen taken up is needed in the root system, so that the maximum N recovery in the above-ground parts of a crop would be of the order of 0.9 kg kg" 1 . In practice, it is often difficult to reach a higher recovery than 0.5 kg kg" 1 . If the actual N recovery is well below this value it is worthwhile to try to improve the situation. It is this aspect, viz. indication of the need for adaptation of variety and/or cultural practice, that makes it so important to quantify the recovery of applied fertilizer nutrients in the analysis of acropping situation. The recovery of a certain element can be calculated from fertilizer experiments, if the biomass components are analysed for that element. It was 187
explainedwhysuchcompleteexperimentsareratherscarce.Theirnumberand regionaldistributionmaybesufficient toindicatewhetherinacertainregiona situation exists or has been created where shortage of a certain element is prominent, butcompleteexperiments arenearlyalwaystoo few innumberto allow sufficiently reliable estimation of the recovery of that element from appliedfertilizers. Inpractical farming, nutrientrecoverydependsnotonlyon plant properties and environmental conditions but also on management factors, such as the type of fertilizer used andthe timing andmode of fertilizer application. If, forinstance,ahighdoseofanitrogenfertilizer isbroadcastat thebeginningofthecroppingseason,whenthenitrogendemandofthecropis still low, high losses of nitrogen from the root zone can be expected and, consequently, lowNrecoveryvalues.Adaptedapplicationmethodsandgood timingof fertilizerapplication mayleadtoincreasedNrecoveryinsuchsituations,aswillbeexplainedlater. Where complete experimental information is scarce, the limited amount available must beusedasefficiently aspossible. Ifitisknownwhichelement ismost likely limiting thegrowth of acertaincropinaparticular situation,a first estimateof nutrient recoverycanbemadewithout further chemicalanalysis of plant components. This is possible because it may be assumed then thatthelimitingelementinthecropisdilutedtoitsminimumconcentrationin thevarious plant parts. The simplest experiment that still yields therequired information, consists of acontrol plotandafertilized plot whose production components, viz.economicyieldandcropresidues,areseparatelyweighed.It must be realized that the reliability of only one recovery value, calculated in thisway, islow andthatsuch resultsareonly indicative. Theresultsofproperly conducted experimental series, normally published as average yieldsper treatment with specified standard deviations, are a sound basis for recovery calculations.
Exercise59 InTable44average yields of rough ricearegiven for threeconsecutiveyears ofN- PfertilizerexperimentsatBangkhenExperimentStation,Thailand. - Fromtheaverageyieldvaluesfor 1954 - 1955,itcanbeobservedthatata givenlevelof nitrogenapplicationdifferent Papplicationsdonotresultin significant yield differences. Which conclusion can bedrawn withregard tothePsupplytothecropinthissituation? - What hascaused thissituation? (Note:look alsoattheeffects of Papplicationonyieldsin 1952- 1953and 1953- 1954).Isitlogical thatthesame situationhasapparentlynotbeenreachedforthesoil'snitrogenstatus? - Calculate the nitrogen recovery fractions realized in 1954-1955 for the fertilizer combinations N 37.5-P 37.5, N 75.0-P 37.5 and N 150.0-P 188
37.5. Assumethesamegrain-strawratioandminimumNconcentrations asinExercise58. Earlierinthissectionitwasarguedthatunsatisfactory recoveryof fertilizer nutrientscanberemediedbyadaptation of cropcharacteristics,environmentalconditionsormanagement, aloneorincombination.Agriculturalresearch hasdeveloped cropvarietiesthatcanrecovernutrientsandrealizeanacceptable yield level under conditions that would be prohibitive for unimproved varieties, for example acidity-tolerant varieties andvarieties whichcansuccessfully begrowninabrackishenvironment. Betternutrient recoveryisnot, or only marginally, involved in the success of the modern high yielding rice varieties(HYV's)developedattheInternational RiceResearchInstituteinthe Philippines.Thekeytothesuccessofthesevarietiesistheirhighgrain- straw ratio, which is of the order of 1.0; HYV's areso-called 'short strawvarieties'.Thehighgrain-straw ratioisassociated withahighinitialefficiency of theyield- uptakerelation, i.e. ahighincrement ingrainyieldperkgnitrogen taken up. Their short posture allows uptake of considerable quantities of nitrogenwithlessriskof lodging, whichquickly follows tooluxuriantvegetativegrowthoftraditional long- strawrices.Incombination, thesetwo effects result in very high grain yields per hectare, provided that the crop is grown under favourable environmental and management conditions that allow a highnutrientrecovery.Underunfavourableconditionssuchasnutrientshortageorheavyweedinfestation, traditional ricevarieties,whichhaveevolvedin thecourseof centuriesof naturalselection byricefarmingcommunities,may wellperformbetter. Increasing nutrient recovery by adaptation of the environment has been practiced as long as agriculture exists. Bunded rice fields are an example: nutrient recovery is promoted by the artificially created conditions in the puddledtoplayerof awetricefield. Often, manipulation of theenvironment involves management measures. Inthemanagement sphere, too, wetlandrice cultivation offers many practical examples of how nutrient recovery can be manipulated and improved. Illustrative of the great practical significance of good management is the mode of nitrogen fertilizer application to bunded rice.Inmanyriceareas,ureaisusedasanitrogensourceandbroadcastonthe flooded fieldatthetimeoftransplanting.Theaveragerecoveryfractionofthe fertilizer N is then often only 0.2, or even lower. This low recovery may be understood as follows: the favourable temperature conditions and oxygenrich environment of the shallow water layer on top of the rice field promote rapidtransformation of ureaNto ammonium ions(NH4+) and subsequently to nitrate ions (N03~) . The nitrate ions are highly mobile and move downward into the soil with percolating water or by diffusion. The oxygen inthe waterlogged soil is rapidly depleted by microbes decomposing soil organic matter, and subsequently some bacterial species use the nitrate ions as an 189
oxygensource. NitrateNisthenconvertedto gaseous forms (N2orN20)and escapes to the atmosphere. A good way to combat this nitrogen loss and improve thenitrogen recovery isplacement of theureadirectly into thelowoxygen layer. There urea N is only converted to NH4+ ions that are, incontrastwithanionslikeN03~ tosomeextent protectedagainst leachingbecause they areretained bythesoil through adsorption atthesurfaces of negatively charged clay and organic matter particles (the process of ion adsorption will bediscussed insomedetail inSection 5.3). Placement of ureainthepuddled surface layer may well bring the recovery of nitrogen to a value of 0.5 or higher. Ingeneral, losses of fertilizer Ncanbereduced andrecoveryimproved, if only small doses of fertilizer are given at a time, so that most of the nutrientappliedcanbeabsorbedbytherootsinarelativelyshorttime.Therefore, repeated application of smaller doses spread over the growing season ('split application') is often superior to application of all fertilizer in one dressing.
Exercise60 TheTechnical DivisionoftheThaiRiceDepartmentinBangkok hasconductedfertilizer experiments withbunded ricetoinvestigatetherecoveryofnitrogen from different types of fertilizer, applied at different moments and in different ways (Lusanandana et al., 1966). Nitrogen application was 60 kg ha on all fields. Inaddition, each field received phosphorus atarateof 26 kgha"1andpotassium atarateof 50kgha"1atthebeginningof thegrowing seasontoeliminatethepossibilityofPorKshortages. Table45presentsessential information onthedifferent treatments, aswellas grainandstrawyieldsandtheresultsofchemicalplantanalyses. - Examine carefully thedifferent treatments tested inthis experiment. Note that four different nitrogen fertilizers were used, applied either at transplantingoratthetimeof earprimordiuminitiation, andatthreemodesof application. - Calculate for each treatment the P/N ratio at the time of primordium initiation.Answerthefollowingquestions: Do the P/N ratios indicate that nitrogen availability isthegrowth- limiting factor in this experiment? Are there indications that N fertilization at transplanting (16July)hasameasurablebeneficial effect onproductionat thetimeofprimordiuminitiation(21September)? - Calculatethegrain- strawratiosatharvesttime.Arethericevarietiesused intheexperimentmodernHYV'sortraditionallong- strawvarieties? Whatdoesthismeanfortheslopeoftheyield-Nuptakecurve?Checkyour answer bycalculating this slope with theresults obtained for one ormore ofthetreatments. 190
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192
- Calculate thetotal nitrogen uptake for each of thetreatments and forthe control(onthebasisofabove-ground parts).Then,calculatethenitrogen recovery realized ineachof theeight treatments andanswerthe following questions: a. Arethe recoveries realized underTreatments A and Bsatisfactory? If so, canyouexplainwhy(forbothtreatments)? b. ComparetherecoveriesrealizedinTreatmentsCandD. Is there reason to expect high losses of fertilizer nitrogen in these treatments?Canyouexplainthedifference inNrecoverybetweenTreatmentC andTreatmentD? c. Compare the N recoveries realized inTreatments Dand H, wheresodium nitratewasappliedatdifferent stagesof thegrowthcycle.Canyouexplain the difference in nitrogen recovery if you consider for each treatment the competitivepositionoftheplantrelativetootherprocessesremovingnitrogenfromtherootzone? d. It has been stated in this section that N recovery from urea, broadcast at thetimeof transplanting isoften lowerthan0.2. Consider theNrecovery realized under Treatment F and explain why you have found a different recoveryvalue.
4.2.4 Thenutrientrequirementfromfertilizer Thequantity of fertilizer that must beapplied to realize Production Situation2,cannowbeestablished. Ithasbeendiscussedinwhichwaythelimiting element canbe identified. InSection 4.1 the minimum concentrations of the three elements in the relevant plant parts are given. The total uptake of a certainelement required formaximumproductioncantherefore becalculated bymultiplyingthedryweightsofeconomicproductandcropresiduecalculated for Production Situation 2, withtherespective minimum nutrientconcentrations. Part of thetotal required uptakeiscovered bythenatural soil fertility or base uptake. This base uptake is established through analysis of the production obtained on an unfertilized field. The difference between therequireduptakeat Production Situation 2andbaseuptakemust besuppliedas fertilizer nutrient, therecoveryof whichisestablished foragivensituationby makinguseofpublishedfertilizerexperiments. This recapitulation demonstrates that the quantity of fertilizer nutrient needed to create Production Situation 2, i.e. the 'fertilizer nutrient requirement', Dx, can bequantified bysubtracting from thecalculated total uptake under Production Situation 2, umx, the uptake under unfertilized (control) conditions, uox, and subsequent division by the recovery fraction, Rx. Ina mathematicalnotation: 193
Dx = (um,x-u0,x)/Rx
(80)
Earlierinthissection itwasshownthatthesamenutrient canbesuppliedby different fertilizer materials. Inthecaseof nitrogen, urea,ammonium fertilizersandnitratefertilizershavebeenmentioned,butothers,bothchemicaland 'natural' (e.g. farmyard manure) areavailable. Table 46 lists some common commercial fertilizers and their concentration of pure nutrient. From this tableitmaybededucedthatacalculatednitrogenfertilizerrequirementof 100 kgha"1canbemet withanapplication of 100/0.21 kgammonium sulphate, but also with 100/0.45 kg urea, provided that nitrogen recovery is the same from bothsources.Thisdifference partlyexplainsthepopularityof ureaasa nitrogensource,especiallywhentransportcostsarehigh.
Exercise61 In Exercise 57 an experiment with a HYV near Paramaribo, Suriname was treated. Assume that in that experiment nitrogen availability is the growth determining factor atanylevel of production. Assume furthermore thaturea isusedasafertilizer andthattherecoveryfraction fromthisNsourceis0.55. Dry-grainyieldofanunfertilized fieldwas1000kgha"1. - Calculate the total N uptake required to realize the production calculated for Production Situation 2. Grain weight and total above-ground dry weightatmaturityaregiveninSubsection2.3.2. - Calculatetheslopeoftheyield- Nuptakerelationandthenitrogenuptake iffertilizersarenotused. - Calculatethenitrogenrequirementof thecropanddecidehowmany25kg bagsofureayoumustreserveforonehectare.(UseTable46).
So fartheconcept of nutrient requirement wasillustrated usingnitrogenas the limiting element and Production Situation 2 as the pursued production target. Itiswellpossible,however,thatafarmerisnotinterestedinproducing themaximumyieldof ProductionSituation2,e.g. ifthereisnomarketforall the produce. He may then aim at a lower yield and adapt his fertilizer use accordingly. Itisalso possible thatcropgrowthisnot limited bynitrogen supplybutby the supply of some other nutrient. Experience has shown that in manysuch casesphosphorussupplyisthelimiting factor. Then, thephosphorusrequirement can becalculated with Equation 80, i.e. by quantifying the total phosphorus uptake needed to realize the production target, subtracting fromthat amount the uptake of P from an unfertilized field'and dividing by the P recovery fraction. Thecalculation procedure is identical for anynutrientbut 194
Table46.CommoncommercialNandP-fertilizersandtheir nutrientconcentration. Nitrogenfertilizers

Ammoniumsulphate Urea Ammoniumnitrate Sodiumnitrate Calciumnitrate Calciumammonium nitrate
N concentration(kg kg'1)
0.21 0.45 0.33 0.16 0.155 0.205
Phosphorus fertilizers0*
P concentration(kgkg~v
Superphosphate 0.08 Triplesuperphosphate(T.S.P.) 0.20 Rockposphateb) 0.16 Data from DeGeus, 1973;ILRI, 1972;JacobandV.Uexkull,1958. a) Phosphorus contents areoften expressed in P2O5;1 kg P205correspondswith0.44kgP. b) Phosphorus contents of phosphate rocks varygreatly; the P-content given refers to Christmas Island Rock Phosphate(C.I.R.P.) thebehaviourof thedifferent nutrientsinthesoil- plant- atmospheresystem is not. Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus is in general not lost from the system in significant amounts. Itschemistryinthesoilis,onthewhole, morecomplicatedthanthat of nitrogen andthat isoften reflected innon-linear applicationuptakecurves. Levellingoff athigherapplication rates,assignalledinSection 4.1 andillustrated inFigure45, isnot uncommon. Itshouldberealizedthatin situationswithnon- linearapplication- uptakerelations,nutrientrecoveryis not independent of the fertilizer application rate anymore! Most problems with phosphorus recovery are related to the low solubility of many P compounds. Low P solubility may be due to a secondary reaction in the soil solution, e.g. precipitation of phosphorus fromasolublefertilizerasinsoluble calcium, ironoraluminium phosphates, buttherearealsoPfertilizersthatare themselves hardly soluble such as rock phosphates. P recovery from, rock phosphate is therefore commonly less than 0.05 (Penning de Vries & van Keulen, 1982), but it does have the advantage that the effect may persist for quite some years even after only one application. Obviously such low recoveries are inadequate to make rock phosphate a suitable fertilizer for realizing Production Situation 2. By treating rock phosphate with sulphuric acid, the 195
fertilizer industry produces so- called superphosphate which has a higher P concentration than rock phosphate and ismore readilysoluble. Consequently, P recovery from superphosphate is higher than from rock phosphate. A recovery of 0.3 may be obtained on some soils, but on soils that strongly immobilize phosphorus, recovery from superphosphate is still very low. Phosphorus immobilization in soils is complex and difficult to predict. As a first approximation, Table47 listsanumber of common soil groups arranged according to the phosphorus recovery that may be achieved if they are cropped with an annual crop, optimally supplied withwaterand nitrogen. In production situations where water may at times be in suboptimum supply, recovery may belowerdueto thereduced activity of plants underwaterstress. Theuncertainty with respect to phosphorus availability insoils makesitgenerally advisable to be generous in the estimation of P requirements. Especially as too much phosphorus does not do any harm and what is not taken up on short notice isadded to the phosphorus stock of the soil and may be used bya subsequent crop. This does not apply to soils that strongly immobilize phosTable 47. Indicative P recovery fractions of superphosphate applied to a graincrop.ThesoilsarearrangedaccordingtodecreasingPrecovery. Class Recovery fraction 0.30-0.15 Soiltype
II
0.15-0.08
III
0.08-0.02
quartziticsandysoils organicsoils/peats young,neutral,coarseand medium-texturedalluvialsoils weakly acid to neutral alluvial clay soils of intermediateage weaklyacidtoneutral soilswithathickblack organicsurfacelayer weakly or medium acid well structured clay soils churningheavyclaysoils neutraltoweaklyalkaline,calcareoussoils permanently waterlogged mucky soils, low in bases old acid red and/or yellow soils, rich in iron andaluminium veryacidleached'podzoPsoils,richiniron strongly acidified soils in pyrite-containing marinesediments,richinaluminium young brown or black volcanic soils, rich in allophanes
196
phorus. With them the availability of fertilizer- P decreases dramatically in thecourseoftime.
Exercise62 In Exercise 61 the nitrogen requirement of a HYV rice near Paramaribo, Suriname, wascalculated undertheassumption that nitrogen availabilitydetermined crop growth. In this exercise it is assumed that the availability of phosphorusisthelimitingfactoratanylevelofproduction. - Calculate the total P uptake under Production Situation 2. Grain weight and above-ground dry weight at maturity aregiven in Subsection 2.3.2. Minimum P concentrations in grain and straw dry matter are 0.0011 kg kg"1and0.0005 kgkg"1,respectively. - Calculate the slope of the yield- P uptake relation and the phosphorus uptakeif fertilizers arenotused.Assumeadry-grain yieldonthecontrol plotof 1000kgha"1. - CalculatethePrequirementofthecropandthequantityofrockphosphate thatmustbeappliedforrealizationof ProductionSituation2.Assumethat Precoveryfromrockphosphateis0.02kgkg"1(ConsultTable46). - Calculatehowmuchtriplesuperphosphate (TSP)wouldhavetobeapplied to realize Production Situation 2. Assume aPrecovery from TSP of 0.15 kgkg"1(ConsultTable46). - Assumethatthereisariceglutandthattheproductiontargetisloweredto 0.8 timestheproductioncalculated forProductionSituation2.Howmuch TSPwould havetobeappliedthen? Explainwhythisquantityislessthan 0.8 timesthe amount needed to realizethe production calculated forProductionSituation2.
Sofaritwasassumedthatonlyonenutrientisinshortsupply:thenitrogen requirement wasdiscussed for asituation withphosphorus sufficiency orthe phosphorusrequirement forasituationwherenitrogensupplywasoptimal.It is, of course,possibletocreatesuchconditions,e.g. byapplyingagenerousP dressing at the beginning of cropping inasituation where nitrogen supplyis knownto belimiting. Therewould belittlerisk involved inahigh Papplication, but the same cannot be said of a high blanket dressing of nitrogen if phosphorusisknowntobeinshortsupply.Excessivenitrogenlossescouldbe theundesirable result. Itistherefore necessarytoestablishtheneed fornitrogenfertilizers, ifthePconcentrationof theplantisknowntobelimiting,and the P fertilizer requirement in the reverse case. It was shown in Section 4.1 that relative nutrient shortage iswitnessed bytheratio of element concentrationsintheplanttissue.Inthecaseofphosphorusandnitrogen,theP/N ratio 197
variesbetweenamaximumof about0.15 andaminimumof about0.04.This knowledgecanbeputtouse:if, forinstance,theavailabilityof phosphorusis limiting,theoverall Pconcentrationof anunfertilized graincropwithagrain strawratioof 1.0hasaminimumvalueof: IX 0.0011 - M X 0.0005 = 0 Q 0 8 2 Its overall N concentration cannot be higher than 0.0008/0.04 = 0.02 kg kg"1. It is also unlikely that the nitrogen concentration is much lower than 0.02, becauseNuptakeisnotdictatedbynitrogenavailabilitybutisentirelya function of P availability. Addition of P would probably result in further nitrogenuptakewithout anyadditionof nitrogen fertilizer (seealsoFigure50 inSection4.1). Assume that in a particular situation the dry-grain yield and dry-straw production of anunfertilized cropare 1000kgha"1 and that for Production Situation 2thecalculated grainyieldequals 5000kgha"1andthestrawyield also5000kgha"1. LetTSPbeusedasaPfertilizer andassumearecoveryof 0.1 kgkg"1.Fromthisinformationthefertilizerphosphorusrequirement, DP, canbeestablishedaccordingtoEquation80: Dp= ((5000x0.0011 + 5000x0.0005) - (1000x0.0011 + 1000x0.0005))/0.1 Hence, DPamountsto64kgha"1,whichcanbesatisfied withTSPatarateof 320kgha"1. To quantify an accompanying N fertilizer application to ensure optimum nitrogen supply at the high production level of Production Situation 2, the same reasoning is followed. However, it would be unrealistic to estimate N uptake from anunfertilized field onthebasisof minimum Nconcentrations, becausethereal(overall) Nconcentration of thecontrol material hasalready beenestimated. LetammoniumsulphatebetheselectedNfertilizerwithanN recovery (established underconditions of mineral element sufficiency) of 0.5 kgkg"1.Thenthemaximumpossible fertilizer nitrogenrequirement amounts to: _ _5000x0.01 + 5000x0.004)-(2000x0.02) _ 6 0 k g h a - i 0.5 Thisrequirement canbesatisfied withanammonium sulphateapplication of 286 kg ha"1. Compared with a calculation based on assumed minimum N concentrations inanunfertilized situation, this represents areduction incalculatedfertilizerinputbynolessthan 114kgha"1. It should be realized that the so calculated N requirement guarantees N sufficiency at aproduction ascalculated for Production Situation 2, butthat thereisstillalikelyoverestimation of theNrequirement. Thetotal Nuptake
D
198
fromanunfertilized field (nowestimatedat2000x0.02 = 40kgNha"1)was limited byPdeficiency andcould conceivably havebeenhigherinasituation with Psufficiency. Inotherwords:natural soil fertility maycontributemore than40kgNha"1iftheTSPhasbeenappliedascalculated. The practical consequences of this - mild- overestimation arenormally not prohibitive. It appears that, in general, the stock of readily available nitrogenisrapidlyexhaustedandthatwithholdingNfertilization foronlyone ortwoyearscreatesalreadyasituationwherePisinsufficient supplyandNis limiting. Innormal soilsthat donot stronglyimmobilize phosphorus, acomparatively small maintenance application of P fertilizer will suffice to maintainPsufficiency onceafavourablephosphoruslevelhasbeenestablished.To whatextent acertainsoil immobilizes P, howhighthemaintenancedoseofa certain P fertilizer should be, and for howlongthat maintenance dosewould probablyensurePsufficiency, canonlybejudged(inaratherqualitativeway) if analysesof soil chemical conditions andsoil mineralogical compositionare available. Some attention will be paid to this in Section 5.3. In practice, maintenance applications are largely a matter of experience, gained from years of fertilizer experiments and transferred to the farming community by agriculturalextensionservices. Above, a situation was considered in which P availability limits plant growthinanunfertilized situation(sufficient Navailabletorealizethecontrol yield but noguaranteed Nsufficiency atProduction Situation 2).Thereisno needtoarguethatthesamereasoningapplies - withtherespective differences considered- to asituation in which the control yield is dictated by nitrogen shortageandPsufficiency atProductionSituation2isuncertain.
Exercise63 InExercise60,anexperimentwithtraditional ricevarietiesatBangkhenExperiment Station, Thailand, was considered. In that experiment different N fertilizers were applied at various moments and with different application techniques. To make sure that the effects of nitrogen application were not blurred by P shortage, superphosphate was given to all fields at the time of transplanting. ThePapplication of thisblanket dressingwas26kgha"1.The valueofthatPapplicationcannowbejudged(refertoExercise60andTables 45and47). - Calculatethetotal Nuptake from thecontrol plot anddividethisvalueby thetotaldryweightofgrainandstrawtoestablishtheoverallNconcentrationof thedrymatterproduced undercontrol conditions. Assumeamoisturecontentof0.12kgkg"1inthefieldproduce. - Wasthecontrol yield limited bynitrogenshortage? Ifso, approximatethe maximum possible P concentration of the dry control material at harvest 199
bymultiplyingtheoverallNconcentrationwiththeappropriateP/Nratio. ThetotalPuptakebythecontrolplotcannowbeestimated. The crop under treatment A (Table 45) produced the highest amount of plant matter, viz. 3335 kggrain plus 12410 kgstraw. Assume anaverage moisturecontent of 0.12 kgkg"1andcalculatethetotal Puptake,whichis minimally required to realize the dry matter production in Treatment A (minimum P concentrations of drygrainand straware0.0011 and 0.0005 kgkg"1,respectively). Bangkhen Experiment Station issituated on soilsbelonging totheRangsit Soil Series. This soil has, under inundated conditions, properties which placeitintheupperhalfof Precoveryclass IIinTable47. CalculatetheP requirement fortheproduction asobtained undenTreatmentA. Assumea Precoveryfromsuperphosphateof0.15 kgkg"1. Wastheblanketphosphorusdressingof26kgha"1arealisticone?
200
5 THECOLLECTIONANDTREATMENTOFBASICDATA
201
5.1 Introduction P.M. Driessen In the preceding chapters of this book, three production situations have been discussed that differ with respect to the number of land qualities that influence plantperformance. Ineachsituation, theinfluence of thelandqualityorlandqualities concerned (i.e. intercepted solar radiation, wateravailability, nutrientstatus)onplantperformance isdescribedinanumberof functional relations.All functional relationsthatplayaroleinagivenproduction situation are included in the crop production model for that situation. It is important to realize that a model cannot predict crop production. Theproduction estimate that is computed is entirely determined by the user of the modelwhodefines thecropcharacteristicsandtheproductionenvironmentin asetof basicdata;amodel merelymakestheconsequences of theuser'sdata selectionvisible. It follows that the quality and reliability of the generated production estimates cannot surpass the quality of the available basic data and therefore basicdatamust besufficiently accurate andcomplete. Basic datausedinthe presentmodelcanbegroupedintofourcategories: basicweatherdata basicplantdata basicsoil/landdata basicmanagementdata.
ThesesameheadingsareusedinTables48,49,and50,inwhichtheminimum basic data requirements for production calculations under Production Situations 1,2and3 aresummarized. Data within one category arenot necessarily all of the samenature.Three different typesof datacanbedistinguished. The first typeconcernsdatathat arecharacteristic for acertainlocation orlanduse. Suchdatadonotchange inthecourseof acropcycle.Theyare'CONSTANTS'.Examplesoftheseare such soil physical characteristics as total pore space and saturated hydraulic conductivity, and plant characteristics such as thethreshold temperature for development or the maximum rate of C0 2 assimilation of single leaves. The second type pertains to data that do vary with time, but their variation is independent of the crop production process. The variables themselves do, however, influence system behaviour. They aretherefore called 'FORCING VARIABLES'. Rainfall, temperature andirradiance areexamples of forcing variables.Thethirdtypeareagainvariables,butvariablesofthistypechange invalueinanendogenousway,i.e.asaresultofthecalculations.Theirvalues must be initialized by the user at the beginning of the computations, after
203
Table48. Basicdatarequirements for thesimulation of cropperformance inProductionSituation 1.Variety,locationandcropcalendarmustbeknown. Symbol Weatherdata H, Ha T. Plantdata Description totalradiationonclearday(Jm~2d _1) measuredtotalradiation(J nr^d"1) measuredairtemperature(C) extinctioncoefficient forvisiblelight specificleafarea(m2kg"1) grossassimilationrateonclearday (kgC0 2 ha- , d- 1 ) grossassimilationrateonovercastday (kgCOiha-'d- 1 ) maximumrateofgrossC0 2assimilation ofasingleleaf(kgC0 2ha -1h"*) conversion efficiency kgdrymatter (kg'1CU20) relativemaintenancerespirationrate (kgCH2Okg"'drymatterd"') temperaturesumbeforeanthesis(d C) temperaturesumafteranthesis(d C) thresholdtemperature (C) leafdryweightatbeginningofthe first interval(kgha"]) totaldryweightat beginningofthe first interval(kg ha~l) Source Table2 MeteorologicalServ MeteorologicalServ normallyke=0.8 Table51 Table 1 Table 1 C3crops:Fg=40 C4crops:Fg=70 Table4 Table4 This volume and a micliterature This volume and a micliterature Table 7andagronc terature Thisvolumeandagi nomicliterature
K
SLA F,
ov
TUpre TUpost To WLVI WI
which they remain invariate for the duration of one time interval. Thus they reflect the state of the system at any moment, which explains why they are termed 'STATE VARIABLES'. Examples of state variables are the soil moisture content and the weight of the leaf mass. A rate of change calculated for one time interval is used to update the variable value at the end of the calculations. The updated value is then used as aninput for thecalculation of system behaviour duringthenext interval.
204
Table49.Additionalbasicdatarequirementsforthesimulationofcropperformancein PJ Situation2.
Symbol Weatherdata P E0 ET0 Plant data P RDI Soil/land data 0
Zt(i)
Description
Source
gauged rainfall rate(cmd"1) potential evaporation rate(cmd"1) potential evapotranspiration rate (cmd" 1 ) soil waterdepletion factor rooting depthatbeginning of first timeinterval (cm) slopeangleof theland () groundwater depthatbeginning of firsttimeinterval (cm) surface storageatbeginning of first timeinterval (cm) total porespace(cmJ cm"3) texture-specific geometry factor (cm"2) standard sorptivity (cm d~ w ) transmission zone permeability (cmd" 1 ) saturated hydraulic conductivity (cmd" 1 ) texture-specific constant (cm 24 d _1 ) texture-specific constant (cm"1) texture-specific suction limit (cm) matricsuction atbeginning of first timeinterval (cm)
Meteorological service Meteorological service Section 2.1 Meteorological service Section 2.1 Table 20 Thisvolumeand agron literature Contour maps Thisvolumeandmaps/ surements Thisvolume andfieldc servations Table 16+soil reports Table 16+ soil reports Table 18+ soil reports Table 18+soil reports Table 17+soil reports Table 174-soil reports Table 17+ soil reports Table 17+soil reports Thisvolumeand field observations User-defined/ Irrigation authority Table 19 Table 19 Table 19 User defined/this volume normally: a = 30 Irrigation authority Irrigation authority Irrigation authority
SSt(i) SM0 7 So A k0 a a
^max
iW)
Management data I rateof waterreleaseat headworks Ed field application efficiency factor Ef field canalefficiency factor Ej conveyance efficiency factor d surface roughness (cm) o DD Ld r<i clod/furrow angle () draindepth (cm) drainspacing (cm) drainradius (cm)
205
Table50.Minimumbasicdataset,needed forestimationof thenutrientrequirement (ProductionSituation3). Symbol Description

Plantdata
Source
Ny
minimumnitrogenconcentrationin marketableproduct (kgkg"1) minimumnitrogenconcentrationincrop residue(kgkg"1) actualnitrogenconcentrationinplant tissue(kgkg"1)

,
N(p.Y) N,
Thisvolumeand agronomic literature Thisvolumeand agronomic literature Chemicalanalysis
Management data
Yc
Ax
controlyieldof fertilizerexperiment (kgha' 1 ) yieldobtainedonexperimentalplotfertilizedwithA kgha"l of nutrientx applicationof nutrientxinfertilizer(kgha"1).
Agronomicliterature Agronomicliterature Agronomic literature
Exercise 64 Carefully examine the input data listed in Tables 48 and 49 and specify for each entry whether it isaconstant, a forcing variable or astate variable. Explain why the input data listed in Table 50 (for Production Situation 3) cannot be classified in constants, forcing variables and state variables. Read once more the introduction to Section 4.1 before attempting to answer this question.
It has been argued before that the quality of the model results cannot be better than the quality of the input data. If complete, accurate and sufficiently detailed basic data arelacking, even the most sophisticated simulation exercise becomes futile. Perfect basic data sets are rarely available. In most practical situations, data sets are incomplete or partly of unknown quality.The gaps must then be filled with approximate data or 'default values'. In some instances, standard values can be used that are, for all practical purposes, not too far from the truth. Examples have been presented in the preceding chapters (e.g. Fg for a C 3 crop equals 40 kg ha"1 h"1; all texture- related soil parameters). Where indicative standard data cannot be used, approximate data must be estimated by the user of the model. This can, in some instances, be done 206
with an interpolation or extrapolation routine (e.g. weather data for areas between meteorological stations). Inother cases, thehelpof aspecialist with localexperience, whocanmakereliableestimatesbyinterpretingaqualitative orsemi- quantitativedescriptionof theproductionenvironment, isrequired. Soilsurveyreportsareexamplesof suchdescriptionsfromwhichsemi- quantitativeinformationcanbeinferred. The models presented so far are essentially mathematical descriptions of processes that takeplace inplant production andtheeffects of specific environmental conditions on these processes. Clearly plant production is acomplex affair and an in-depth analysis of all factors andprocesses involved is beyondthescopeof thisbook. Attentionhastherefore beenfocussed ononly themostimportant aspectsof plantproduction, whichhavebeendescribedin a number of necessarily simple mathematical relations. (Gross simplification isnottheexclusive hallmark of theapproachpresentedhere;someaspectsof plant production are still poorly understood and must be described in an oversimplified fashioninanymodel).Thesenecessarysimplifications areanotherreasonwhythefitbetweenobserved andsimulated plant performance is normally less than perfect. However, such structural imperfections arelikely tobecomelessdisturbinginthefutureasbettermethodologiesaredeveloped. There is also a possibility that the generated production figures deviate from observed figures forreasonsthatcannotbeattributedtoinaccuraciesin thedatabaseorthemodelitself. Productioncouldbeaffected byfactorsthat are not considered in the simulation procedure. The possible occurrence of extreme temperatures, storms, specific soil disorders orendemic diseasesare but a few examples. Forthis reason it is prudent to applythesuggestedproduction calculations only to theregions wherethe cropconcerned isactually grown. Eventhen, the calculation results should not beregarded asanaccurate prediction of cropyields but rather as auseful quantitative approximationoftheproductivecapacityoflandunderconditionsasdefined. Inthefollowing sections, theavailability, determinationandrelevanceofa numberof important weather, soil and plant datawill bediscussed. Inaddition,someattentionwillbegiventomajorenvironmentaldisordersthatmight affect plantperformanceorprecludeproductionaltogether.
207
5.2 Meteorologicaldata H.vanKeulenandH.D.J,vanHeemst Forestimating the production capacity of aregion, the prevailingweather conditions areof majorimportance, a fact that hasbeenmadepatentlyclear intheprecedingchapters.Inthissectiontherelevantvariablesaretreatedina schematic way. For amore detailed treatment of the processes involved, the reader is referred to textbooks on the subject (cf. Grace, 1983; Monteith, 1973). Weatherdataarecollected atweatherstations, runmostlybythemeteorologicalserviceof acountry.Veryoften theseservicesarenotinthefirstplace, ornotatall, concerned withtheuseof theirdatainthefield of agrometeorology. Good contacts with the local service should promote cooperation, especially if the agro- meteorologist or agronomist is able to clearly explain hisneeds. Weatherdata reported bythemeteostations should neverbetakenat face value, but should be judged using common sense and, if possible, the instrumentationandthemethodof collectingthedatashouldbecheckedbythe user. 5.2.7 Radiation Solar energy is the primary source of energy for all terrestrial life. It is trappedbythegreenpigmentsoftheplantandconvertedintochemicalenergy intheprocess of assimilation (Section 2.1). Forthecalculation of (potential) assimilationand(potential)evapotranspirationareasonablyaccurateestimate of solar radiation is indispensable. Total global radiation received at the earth'ssurfacemaybemeasuredbysolarimeters,whichprovideaccuratedata ondailytotalsof global radiation. Unfortunately, suchdataareratherscarce andoften usemustbemadeof recordsonsunshineduration. Forconversion of thesedata,Angstromsequationmaybeused(Section3.1).Asisexplained there, the coefficients applied are location specific, so if, even for a limited period of time, data on both measured radiation and sunshine duration are available,itmaybeworthwiletoderiveaspecificequation. Ifsunshinedurationisalsonotavailable,itmaybepossibletoobtainafirst approximation of sunshineduration from thedegreeof cloudiness asestimatedbyanobserverseveraltimesaday. Itshouldberealizedthatespecially for strongly fluctuating conditions such estimates may not beveryaccurate, but for the purposes of the present approach they may be useful. The average cloudiness weighted according to time can then be set equal to the fraction overcastasdefined inSection2.1,andTables 1 and2canbeuseddirectly. 208
5.2.2 Airtemperature In general daily maximum and minimum air temperature are recorded at screen height. For the present approach, the arithmetic average of the two may serve as a reasonable estimate of the mean temperature sensed by the vegetation. This is due to the fact that most of the temperature- dependent relationsinthemodel areessentiallylinearintherelevant range. If, however, maximumorminimumtemperatureareoutsidethelinearrange,amoreaccurate value of the dependent variable may be obtained by averageing hourly values. If hourly temperature values are not available they can beestimated from minimum and maximum temperature by a procedure developed byde Witetal. (1978),whichcalculates adailytemperatureregimefrommeasured minimum and maximum temperature under the assumption of a sinusoidal dailywave. 5.2.3 Airhumidity Manydifferent types of instruments areusedto determinethehumidity of theatmosphere, butmanyof theseareeithernotverygoodoreasilymisused. The actual concentration of moisture in the air is given by either absolute humidity, whichisthemassofwatervapourperunitvolumeofair,Ww,orby thespecifichumidity,themassofwaterperunitmassofthemoistair. In agrometeorology, air humidity is either expressed by the dew point, Td,thevapourpressureoftheatmosphere,ea,therelativehumidity, hr,orthe wet bulb temperature, Tw. Without going into the details of measurement, relationsbetweenthevariousvariablesarepresentedhere. Thedewpoint of avolumeof airwithtemperatureTaandvapourpressure eaisthetemperature atwhicheawould bethesaturatedvapourpressure.The relationbetweeneaandTdmaybeapproximatedbytheexpression: ea = 6.11xe(17-4xTd/(Td+239)) withTdexpressedinCandeainmbar. The vapour pressure ea (mbar) is often measured directly. It can also be deducedfromtheabsolutehumiditybyapplyingtheidealgaslaw,whichgives theexpression: ea = Tk/0.217xWw where Tk isabsolutetemperature(K),equaltoTa + 273 Ww isabsolutehumidityinkgm~3 209 (82) (81)
The relative humidity of the air is the ratio between the actual vapour pressure of the air and the saturated vapour pressure at air temperature, es. Thelatter,expressedinmbar,maybeapproximatedby: es = 6.11xe(l7'4xTâ+239)) Thewetbulbtemperature, Tw,isthetemperature of awetsurface exposed toatmospheric conditions, butshielded from radiation.Asaresultofevaporation of the water, the temperature of the wet bulb will be lower than air temperature (Section 3.1) andthe temperature difference is ameasure of air humidity: ea = ew - 7(Ta - Tw) where ew issaturatedvapourpressureatwetbulbtemperature(mbar),equaltoew
= 6 . 1 1 x e (17 - 4xT w /cr w + 2 3 9 ) >
(83)
(84)
7 ispsychrometerconstant(mbarC~l)(= 0.66) 5.2.4 Windspeed
Windspeed isrecordedwithintegrating anemometers andveryoften these are read once daily, so that total daily wind run is obtained. As a rule of thumb it maybeassumed that thewind speed during thedayistwicethatat night(deWitetal., 1978). Ifwindspeedisnotmeasuredatthestandardheigthof 200cm,asrequired in the Penman equation (Section 3.1), the wind speed at 200 cm may be calculated, assuming alogarithmic windprofile. If windspeedwasmeasured ata heightH,theequationreads: U200 = U ln(200/zo)/ln(H/zo) (85)
withz0theroughness length of thesurface. As most meteorological observationsarecarriedoutoverashortgreengrasscover,z0maybeapproximatedas 2cm.Theequationthenreducesto: U200 = 4.61UH/ln(H/2.) 5.2.5 Precipitation A raingauge, to recordtheamount of rainfall isprobablythemostwidely spread meteorological instrument in use and consequently rainfall data are generallyavailableinmuchhigherdensitythananyof the othervariables.The 210 (86)
accuracy of the measurements depends very much on thetype of raingauge used,itspositionandtheprevailingwind.Variationsof notlessthan 15% are common. Generally, dailyvaluesof precipitation areavailable, which forthe present approach issufficiently detailed. Itshould berealized, however,that properestimationof, inparticular,surfacerunoff requiresgreaterdetail,as rainfall intensityisthedetermining factor. Toobtainsuchdataa self-recordingraingaugeisnecessary, of whichnotmanyareinoperation. Ifrun- off playsanimportant roleitmaytherefore benecessarytomeasurethatcomponentof thewaterbalancedirectlyandtointroduceitinthemodelasaforcing variable. 5.2.6 Potential(evapo)transpiration Ashasbeendiscussedinprecedingchapters,areasonablyaccurateestimate of potential (evapo)transpiration is obtained by application of the Penman equation, or the Penman- Monteith equation. Application of that equation requires,however, availabilityof suchdataastotalglobalradiationandwind speed, whicharenotalwaysavailable. Insomesituations datamaybeavailable from a so-called evaporation pan, a container with water, from which the daily water loss is determined. Various types of such evaporation pans exist, andareinoperationaroundtheworld.Oneoftheearliesttypeswasthe so-called BPI sunken pan, which was lowered into the soil, with its rim approximately at surface level; it produced reasonable results. Forunknown reasonsthattypewaslargelyabolished infavour of theClassApan,whichis set up at some height above the soil surface. This type, in particular, reacts differently from an extended water layer because exchange of heat mayalso takeplacethroughthepanwalls,andbecausethereisinfluence fromtherim, as the water surface isgenerally some - variable - distance below therim. An additional disadvantage is that the presence of such a body of water, especially in not well-guarded situations, invites attention from men and animals, so that not all the changes in water level are due to atmospheric processes. However, despite these disadvantages, if only pan- evaporation dataareavailabletheymaybeapplied asafirst approximation of theevaporativedemandbymultiplyingthereadingbyafactorof0.7.
211
5.3 Soildata P.M. Driessen
5.3.1 Soilphysicaldata Soil physical data can be obtained from two main sources: field observationsandlaboratoryanalyses.Thetwotypesofdataarecomplementary. Field data are collected in soil surveys and presented in soil survey reports. Such reports contain descriptions of representative observation sites andsoil profiles. Soil profile descriptions specify for each individual layer, or 'horizon', inasoil, thedepth of the horizon, its colour, texture, structure, porosity, mottling and foreign inclusions. Two profile descriptions from Sierra LeonearepresentedinTables51and52,asexamples. A profile description isthusafield recordof observed (and measured)soil characteristics. Theinformation that such aprofile description provides isat best semi- quantitative but nonetheless valuable asit isindicative of importantphysical andchemical soil conditions. Examplesaresoil textureestimates ('field texture') which areindicative of ascoreof physical soil parameters seeTables 16, 17and 18 - and soil colour estimates, which contain implicit information on the contents and distribution of soil organic matter, oxides, etc. Theinterpretation of suchevidence isnot alwayseasyandisbestentrustedtoaskilledsoilscientistwithamplelocalexperience. Profile descriptions arenormallysupplemented byanalyses of soil samples from one or more of the horizons distinguished in the profile description. Such analysis data arealways quantitative and reproducible but, hereagain, datainterpretation isnot alwayseasy. Onedifficulty isthatthesamplematerialisdisturbedandsometimesmodified priortoanalysis.Anexampleofthis isthedrying, sieving anddecalcification of soil material priortothedetermination of its particle size distribution in the laboratory. (This is one reason' why field texture estimates do sometimes differ from texture class estimates basedonlaboratoryanalysis). In all cases, soil data aredetermined on the basis of a limited quantity of soil material. As soils are rarely homogeneous, even accurately determined quantitative data give only an indication of the properties of an entire soil body. Anadditional difficulty ispresentedbythetranslationof soil datainto landcharacteristics, because atract of land includes normally morethanone soil type.Thisregional variability amongsoilsintroduces aneed foraggregation of individual soils in soil (map) units. The map unit criteria, andtherewiththerangeandsignificance oftheprovidedsoilinformation, arecommen212
Table51.ProfiledescriptionofProfileP9,Masuba,SierraLeone.DescribedbyR. MiedemaandA.A.ThomasonMarch20,1968 Location Physiography Relief Vegetation Drainage Parentmaterial Hor.code:Ap Hor.depth:0-19cm Lab.No.:S29810 TopographicmapofSierraLeone,scale1:50000,sheet43, coordinatesHE278-872 Lowerpartofstreambednearvalleyedge. Slope0to3percent Farmwithcassava,Kanditreesandweeds,andmanywild oilpalms. Moderatelywelldrained. Gravel-free,transportedalluvial/colluvialmaterial. Verydarkgrayishbrown(10YR3/2);sandyclayloam; weakfinetomediumangularblocky;veryhard;common macro-andmanymesopores;fewdistinctfinecharcoal mottles;manycoarse,medium,and fine roots;manylarge andmediumantholes;clear,smoothboundarytohorizon below. Palebrown(10YR6/3);sandyclayloam;weak fine to mediumangularblocky;veryhard; manymacro-and mesopores;fewdistinctfinecharcoalmottles;commonfine distinctreddish-yellowtostrongbrown(7.5YR5.5/8)tored (2.5YR5/8)ironmottles;commoncoarse,manymedium and fine roots;lessthan 10% uncoated,nodular,coarse, porous,red,hardenedplinthiteglaebules*,withfewquartz grains; manylargeandmediumantholes;gradual,smooth boundarytohorizonbelow. Verypalebrown(10YR6.5/3);sandyclayloam;weak fine angularblocky; firm; manymacro-andmesopores;many distinctfineandmediumyellowish-red(5YR5/8)and reddish-yellow(7.5YR6/8)ironmottles;commondistinct fineandmediumcharcoalmottles;fewcoarse,common medium,andmanyfineroots,lessthan 10% gravel,and onequartzstone;commonwormholeswithdarkcoatings.
Hor.code: Bj Hor.depth:19-57cm Lab.No.:S29811
Hor.code: B2 Hor.depth:57-170cm Lab.No.:S29812
Soilphysicalandsoil chemicaldata. Classification: 'Plinthic'UdoxicDystropept Horizoncode Depthofhorizon(cm) B, 19-57 B2 57-170 213
0-19
Table51.(continued)
Fractionof entiresample > 2 mm (gg"1) Particle-sizedistribution < 2 mm Totalsand 2.0-.05mm Totalsilt .05-.002mm Totalclay <.002mm
0.0(X)9 64.0 12.6 23.4 1.1 0.16 0.10
0.018 59.6 13.6 26.8 1.3 0.15 0.10
0.020 60.4 13.9 25.7 1.3 0.16 0.10
Bulkdensity(gcm"3) Moisture:SM333(cm3cm"3) SM160oo(cm3cm~3)
Organiccarbon(gg") TotalP(ppm) TotalCaO(%) TotalFe203(<7o) TotalK20(<7o) AvailableK(kgha"') P-BrayNo. Ukgha"1) C.E.C.(me(100g)-,) exchangeableCa me(100g) exchangeableMgme(100g) exchangeableK me(100g) exchangeableNa me(100g) exchangeableA1 me(100g) Basesaturation(%) pH-H20 Source: Odelletal., 1974. a lateritegravel b n.d. isnotdetermined
0.0125
n.d.b 0.133 2.67 1.361 67 9.0 5.71 0.47 0.37 0.03 0.08 0.99 16.6 4.7
0.006
0.005
n.d. 0.078 3.13 1.277 73 3.4 3.79 0.16 0.16 0.02 0.08 1.09 11.1 4.6 n.d. 0.078 3.18 1.200 121 3.4 3.14 0.21 0.16 0.01 0.08 1.05 14.6 4.8
Table52.ProfiledescriptionofProfileKpuabu 1,Manowa,SierraLeone DescriptionafterSivarajasingham. Location KpuabuCocoaExperiment Station;about 450feet (137m) from theKenema-Joru road on theroad totheStation Office,andabout 150feet (46m)ontheright-hand side from theStationOfficeroad. Accordant, flat-topped hillofthedissectedlateriticupland. Upper,convex5percentslope. Cocoa plantation under many tall trees of original secondaryvegetation;goodgrasscover.
Physiography Relief Vegetation
214
Table52.(continued) Drainage Parentmaterial Hor.code:A| Hor.depth:0-25cm Lab.No.:S28558 Moderatelywelldrained. A thin layer of gravel-free material over athick, verygravellylayeroflocallytransportedmaterial. Verydarkgrayishbrown(10YR3/2);sandyclayloam; moderatemediumandfinesubangularblocky;porous;friable, slightly sticky, slightly plastic;common fine, few medium, andveryfew coarseroots;clear,smooth boundarytohorizonbelow. Dark brown (10YR 3/3); very gravelly sandy clay; 70% yellow-coated, nodular,coarseandmedium,dense,red and yellow, hardenedplinthiteglaebules*;weak fine subangular blocky aggregates with no strong interface; friable, sticky, slightly plastic; few fine and very few medium roots;gradual,smoothboundarytohorizonbelow. Dark yellowish brownto yellowish brown (10YR 4/4-5/6); verygravelly sandyclay;60%yellow-coated anduncoated, round, fine, dense, redand black, hardened plinthiteglaebules8; weak fine subangular blocky aggregates with no strong interface; friable, sticky, slightly plastic; very few fine andmediumroots;gradual, smoothboundarytohorizonbelow. Strongbrown(7.5YR 5/8);verygravellyclay;75%yellowcoated, nodular, coarse, dense, red and yellow, hardened plinthiteglaebules*;weakfinesubangularblockyaggregates with no strong interface; porous; friable, sticky, slightly plastic;veryfewfineandmediumroots. Thissoilisverygravellyanddroughtyandwouldbeexpected to be unsuitable for cocoa. The cocoa planted in 1959 appears as stunted trees of very poor health, with many vacant patches because of low survival rate of the planted seedlings. Management is verygood, but shade appears to beexcessive.
Hor.code: A3 Hor.depth: 25-53cm Lab.No.:S28557
Hor.code: B2l Hor.depth:53-89cm Lab.No.:
Hor.code: B22t Hor.depth:89-178cm Lab.No.:S28556
Remarks
Soilphysicalandsoilchemicaldata. Classification:OrthoxicPalehumult(orTypicUmbriorthox)
215
Table 52. (continued) Horizon code Depth of horizon (cm) A, 0-25 A3 25-53 0.70 49.2 12.4 38.4 1.4 0.17 0.13 0.019 370 0.074 8.99 0.180 3.4 2.2 4.5 9.29 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.05 2.50 2.9 4.5
B22t
89-178
0.75 38.9 13.3 47.8 1.5 0.22 0.18 0.007 n.d.b 0.069 11.19 0.215 1.1 0 2.2 6.00 0 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.67 3.0 4.8
Fractionofentiresample Particle-sizedistribution Totalsand Totalsilt Totalclay Bulkdensity(gcm*3) Moisture:SM333(cm3cm"3) S M ^ t c m ' cm"3)

Organiccarbon(gg ') Total P (ppm) Total CaO(%) Total Fe 2 0 3(7o) Total K 2 0 (%) Available K(kg ha"l) P-BrayNo. l ( k g h a _ I ) P-BrayNo. 2(kg ha"1) C.E.C.tmeUOOg)-1) exchangeable Ca(me(100g)"') exchangeable Mg(me(100g)"1) exchangeable K (me(100 g)~ ] ) exchangeable Na (me(l(K)g)"*) exchangeableAl (me(100 g)"l) Basesaturation(%) pH-H 2 0 Source:Odelletal., 1974. a lateritegravel b n.d. isnot determined
c
>2mm(gg"1) <2mm(7o) 2.0-.05mm .05-.002mm <.002mm
0 57.4 11.8 30.8

1.2C 0.19 0.13 0.027 390 0.076 8.10 0.169 10.0 5.6 9.0 11.79 0.01 0.10 0.10 0.04 3.06 2.1 4.3
Estimated
suratewith themapscale, which isdictated bythe number of observations per unit surface area. Inother words:therearedetailed soil mapsandless detailed ('semi-detailed* and 'reconnaissance') soil maps and the information that can be extracted from asoil survey report depends on the observation density andaggregationlevel of thesoil mapunits. The following sequence of taxonomic aggregation levels is widely used in
216
soilscience: Soil Orders Soil Suborders Great SoilGroups Soil Subgroups Soil Families Soil Series (Soil Types) Inthishierarchy,soilordersaretheleastspecificwithregardtosoilproperties, soil types are the most specific. At the lowest, most detailed level, soil types aredistinguished withinsoil seriesonthe basisof texture, asinglecharacteristic (USDA, 1975). Most detailed soil surveys define only soil series, without subdivision in types, because a series is commonly already homogeneouswithregardtotexture.Detailedsoilmapsandreportsdescribingindividualsoilseriesarevaluablesourcesofsoilphysicalandchemical information. Lessdetailed soil inventories providelessspecific information andareconsequentlylessuseful forquantitativecropproductionanalysis. Evenif reliablequantitative dataareavailable, theycannot alwaysbeused inanindiscriminate way. Muchof thesoil physical information required for the modelling of acrop's production environment is related to thegeometry ofthesoilmatrixandcorrelatedwiththematrixtexture.Quantitativecorrelations have been established for standard soils from the Netherlands with a normal mineral composition for Dutchconditions. A different situationmay exist in the tropics and this may affect the relation between soil textureand soil physical characteristics. Itisalso possible that thematrixgeometry itself differs from thetypical situations studied intheNetherlands.Thisisthecase incompacted soils orinsoilswithaveryloose matrix, insoilswithveryhigh organic- mattercontentorinverygravellyorstonysoils.Themostimportant factors that disturb the tabulated relation between matrix texture and soil physical parameters (Tables 17, 18and 19)will bediscussed inthe following. When such deviations occur, measured relations and variables must beused insteadoftabulatedstandardvalues. Therelationbetweenmatrixgeometryandphysicalsoilproperties - Theinfluenceofthepackingdensity Normally, soil is athree-phase system. It is composed of asolid component(mineralsand/orsoilorganicmatter),aliquidcomponent (soilmoisture) andagaseouscomponent(soilair):
Vt = Vs + V, + Vg
(87)
where
217
V, Vs V, Vg
isthesamplevolume (cm3) isthevolumeof solid soil materials (cm3) isthevolume of soil moisture (cm3) isthevolume of soil air(cm3)
The fraction of the soil volume not occupied by the solid phase is the total porespace, SM0(cm3cm"3),whichmaybeexpressedas: SM0 = (Vt - V $ )/V t (88)
The actual value of SM0 is largely determined by the 'bulk density' (BD, expressed in g cm"3) of the soil material. The bulk density is basically the weight perunitvolume of drysoil material: BD = W t /V t where Wt isthedrysampleweight (g) (89)
In 'normal* soils, bulk density values vary between 0.9 and 1.5 g cm"3. The solid component, Vs, has a weight that is almost identical to Wt, because the weight of a unit of soil air is negligible when compared with the weight of a similar unit of solid soil material. The weight of one volume unit of the solid component is called the specific density (SD, expressed in g cm"3) of the soil material;itmaybeexpressedas: SD = W t /V, Combination of Equations (88), (89)and (90)yields: SM0 = 1 - BD/SD (91) (90)
The overall specific density of composite (i.e. mineral and organic) soil material depends to some extent on themineral composition of thesolid phase, but is much more influenced by the soil organicmatter content. Soil minerals normally have a specific density of approximately 2.60 g cm"3; the specific density of organic matter ranges between 1.30 and 1.50 g cm"3, with a typical value of 1.43 g cm"3. Consequently, the compounded specific density of an organic mattercontaining soil material canbeapproximated by: SD = 1/((1 - O J / 2 . 6 + O m /1.43)
218
or SD = 3.72/(1.43 + 1.17x.OJ = 1/(0.38 + 0.31xOm) where Om istheweightfractionoforganicmatterinsoil(gg ') Insomesoilsurveyreports,theorganicmattercontentofthesoilisexpressed asthecarboncontent of thematrixmaterial (Cm,expressedingg"1).Asmost soil organicmatterconsists forapproximately 0.55 gg"1of carbon,theoverallspecificdensitycanalsobeestablishedwith: SD = 3.72/(1.43 + 2.13x C J = 1/(0.38 + 0.57x C J (93) (92)
Compression of soil material does not affect SD, but increases BD. Consequently, it lowers SM0(Equation 91).Total porespacevalues, whichdeviate from values typical for soils within agiven texture class, areassociated with a- typical hydraulic soil properties (k^- \p and SM^ - yp relations) andthis directlyaffects plantperformance insituationswherewateravailabilitytothe plantissuboptimal.
Exercise65 Reconstruct theSM0values of thethreesoil horizons distinguished in profile P9(Table51). Compare the calculated SM0values with the indicative SM0value for sandy clayloamastabulatedinTable 16(Section3.2).
- Highsoilorganicmattercontents Equation92demonstratesthatthepresenceofsoilorganicmatterdecreases the overall specific density of soil material. However, it lowersthebulkdensityevenmore, because organic mattercementsindividual soil particlestogether to form loosely structured aggregates. The overall result of organicmatter accumulation in a soil is therefore generally an increase in total pore space.Thequantityoforganicmatterinasoilisdeterminedbythesupplyrate of plant litterand bytherateat whichthis litter isdecomposed bysoil organisms. Equilibrium between supply and decomposition of organic material maybeapproached insoilsunderanaturalvegetationcoverandinagricultural soils long cultivated under steady management. High organicmatter 219
contents build upwherethe decomposition of organic material isreducedby factorsthathamperorprecludetheactivityofsoilorganisms,suchaslowsoil temperature,lowsoilpH,prolongedperiodsofwaterloggingortheformation of toxinsorcompoundswithahighresistancetomicrobialattack. Ingeneral, tabulated soil physical parameters cannot be applied if organic carbon contentsexceed0.04kgkg"linmorethanone- thirdoftherootablesurfacesoil.
Exercise66 Explain why the upper 19 cm layer of soil profile P9 has a lower BD and higherSM0thanthetwosubsurfacehorizonsofthisprofile. Thebulkdensityofhighmoorpeatsvariescommonlybetween0.05and0.15g cm"3; the mineral content of such peats is low, say between 0.01 and 0.05 g g"1. CalculateV$ofsuchpeats.
- Dominanceofswellingandshrinkingclayminerals Certaintypesof clayminerals, knownas'smectite'clays, shrink involume upon drying. This causes the formation of deepsoil cracks duringdroughts. Theclaysswellagaininasubsequent wetperiod, whichresultsinthedestruction of voids andpores. Smectite- rich 'Vertisols', also knownas 'Regur'or 'Black Cotton Soils', are notorious in this respect. Drying of their topsoil causes the formation of athingranular surface layer of hardclay aggregates on top of dense (BD around 1.55 gcm"3) polygonal structures, separatedby deep, widecracks.Swelling of theclaysinwetperiodscausessmearingofthe surface soil during tillage and shearing phenomena at some depth. Clearly, this affects SM^ - \J/ andk^- \p relations. The mathematical description of thewaterregimeofVertisolsisthereforevirtuallyimpossible. - Highcontentsofsesquioxidesintheclayfraction Manygenetically old, redandyellowsoils inthehumidtropics haveaclay fraction ( < 0.002 mm) dominated by aluminium oxides and iron oxides ('sesquioxides'). Suchsoilsareclassified as'Oxisols'orbearanameinwhich theprefix 'ox'occurs.Profile P9,classified asa'PlinthicUdoxicDystropept', isanexampleof suchasoil richinsesquioxides (Table51).Theoxidescement individual clay particles together to stable sand- sized aggregates that have fine poresinside. Inthelowsuction range,these fine poresremain filled with waterand do not influence the SM^ - \p relation, which resembles that of a sand.Inthehighsuctionrange,coarsesoilporesareallempty.Anormalsand withsolidparticleshasthenlostvirtuallyallof itswaterbecauseveryfew fine poresoccurbetweenthecoarsesandgrains.AcementedOxisol, however,has fine pores inside the cemented aggregates. This explains why its SM^ - \p relation resembles that of aloam soil inthe high suction range. Soils highin
220
sesquioxides havetypically compound SM^ - \p relations;inwater- balance calculations forOxisolsonehastoapproximatetherequiredSM; - ^combinationsbylinearinterpolationbetweenmeasuredvalues.
Exercise67 CalculateSM333andSMI6000forasandyclayloam(useEquation27andTable 16; Section 3.2). Compare the calculated values with values measured for profileP9(Table51). CalculateSM333forprofile P9,usingSM0ascalculatedinExercise65andy = 0.035cm"2(avalueappropriateformediumcoarsesand).Comparetheresult withthemeasuredSM333value(Table51). CalculateS M i ^ for profile P9, usingSM0ascalculated inExercise 65and y = 0.017 cm"2(a value appropriate for loam soils). Compare the result with themeasuredSM16000value(Table51).
- Slakingsoils A lowstructurestability of theuppermost soil layermayleadinsomesoils todispersion of theindividual soil particles intimesof excessivewetnessand tosubsequent formation of ahardsurface crustupondrying. Thisphenomenon is known as 'slaking' of the soil; it is associated with clogging of pores and it lowers the infiltration capacity and surface storage capacity of water. Slaking is particularly prominent in fine sandy soils that are low in organic matter andcalcium. Slaking isaggravated byunnecessary tillage operations, which enhance the destruction of aggregates and intensify thebreakdown of soilorganicmatter. - Gravellyandstonysoils Soil texture determinations - both in the laboratory and in the field disregard the presence of anycomponent withadiameter inexcess of 2mm. Insomesoils,suchinclusions makeupaconsiderable partof thematrix.The presenceof gravel reducesthevolumeof soil materialthatcanbeexploredby therootsandconsequently thequantity of waterthatthesoil cansupplytoa crop. Normally, gravel contents areestimated inthefieldandexpressed asa fraction ofthevolumeofeachsoilhorizon.Anexampleisthesoil description of profile Kpuabu 1,presentedinTable52.Insomecases,gravelcontentsare determinedinthelaboratory.Thisisthecaseforsoilsinwhichgravelcontents arelowandcannot beestimated inthefieldwithanymeasureof accuracy.In thatcase,gravelisseparatedfromthesamplematerialbysievingandissubsequently weighed. Thegravel content isthenoften expressed asaweight fraction (i.e. in g g"1); profile P9, presented inTable 52, is anexample. Weight fractions areeasilyconverted tovolume fractions (i.e. incm3cm"3)bymulti221
plying the weight fraction by BD/SD (cf. Equation 91). Clearly thequantity of ultimatelyavailablewaterinthesoil(Wa,seeEquation52inSection3.2)is affected if the rooted surface soil contains gravel. A soil which contains a fraction *X' cm3cm"3ofgravelcontainsonly(1 - X) Wacmavailablewater. Asaconsequence, watershortagedevelopsmorerapidlyongravellysoilsthan onsimilarsoilswithoutgravel.Thisstatementisillustratedbyaremarkonthe description form of profile Kpuabu 1, agravelly soil in the Manowa Series, SierraLeone(Table52).
Exercise68 Calculate SD and SM0for theanalysed horizons of profile Kpuabu 1,Table 52.UseEquations93and91. Approximate foreachoftheanalysedhorizonsavalueofy thatappliesunder conditionsoflowsuction.Usetheequation SM333 = SM0 e"7 x (,n333)2, or7 = 0.03 ln(SM0/SM333) Calculate SM100for each horizon withthelow suction 7 andSM0valuesestablished.UseEquation27. Calculatethefraction of ultimatelyavailablewatercontained ineachhorizon (= SMI00 - SM16000). Convert fraction tocm(multiplyeach fraction bythedepthof thehorizonin cm). Correctforthepresenceofgravelineachhorizon. Calculatethequantityof ultimatelyavailablewaterintheupper 178cmofsoil (assume that horizon B21 has 2.8 cm available water, before correction for gravel,andagravelcontentof0.6cm3cm"3). Calculate the quantity of waterthat would havebeen available to thecropif thesoilcontainednogravel.
Soilmorphologicalindicators Detailedexaminationof asoilprofile canproducevaluableinformation on soil rootability, homogeneity and water regime. Although it requires much experience to benefit fully from the interpretation of soil morphology, some profile characteristics areratherstraightforward reflections of important soil physical conditions. A few morphological clues to maximum and minimum groundwater depthsovertheyear, to past rooting depthsandtotheintensity ofbiologicalsoilhomogenizationwillbediscussedbriefly. - Ironmottlingandwatertable fluctuation Most soils contain iron, originating from rock weathering or from influx
222
from outside. Depending ontheaerationstatusof thesoil material, ironions occurinatrivalent(Fe3+, 'ferric')orinabivalent(Fe2+, 'ferrous')form.Well aeratedsoillayerscontainferricoxides('rust')whicharestableandimmobile aslong asoxidized conditions persist. However, underconditions of prolonged water saturation of the soil, ferric ions aretransformed to ferrous ions, whichareeasilytransportedwithmovingwater.Thisferrousironisreconvertedtotheimmobile ferric formnearair- filled pocketsintheotherwisereduced soil mass. Thus, accumulation of iron oxides takes place at these places andthisshowsupasred,brownoryellowrustmottling.Theabundance,size, colour, shapeandcontrast of thesemottles areindications of theintensityof groundwatertable fluctuations in the past. For our purposes a few rules suffice: - Insubsoil horizons whicharepermanently below groundwater, rustmottlingiscompletelyabsentandmatrixcoloursarecommonlygreyish. - Surface horizons that arenot saturated commonly have reddish orbrownish matrix colours, witnessing evenly distributed ferric oxides. (Organic matteraccumulation maycausedarkbrowncoloursbuttherearenosigns ofironredistribution). - Distinct iron mottling indicates thezone of past groundwatertable fluctuations. (Agroundwater tableshallower thanafew metresatthetimeof thesoilexaminationisrecordedintheprofiledescription).
Exercise69 Check the profile descriptions of profiles P9 and Kpuabu 1 for depth and abundanceof reddishmottles.Whichoneofthesetwoprofiles hasthedeeper groundwatertable? Figure53presentsthegroundwatertablelevelinP9duringthesecondhalfof 1968.Arethegroundwatertabledepthsrecordedinthatperiodexceptional?
So* surface in
a 25 2 51 z
UJ
. - - - M a s u t > a P55 Maiuba P 9

i* i
76 V
K32UJ
a.
I
l DM?
OTV> f
O u 127 ^ 4 153 <*
No reodmg
&?=i MA(<2Q MAV
,~y
p ~t*y ; trrr
" *iFpV
r
MOV
<
bC
JOSE T N E J U L Y ' " A U G
OCT
AN.
FEb
MAN
APft
MAT
JUNE
JULY
1968
(>> ih* 6 7 ifKfte* (171 cm)
'
1969
Figure 53. Water table fluctuations at site Masuba P9 during the second half of 1968. (Source: van Vuure &Miedema, 1973)
223
- Depthofundisturbedsubsoilandrootprints Surface soil homogeneity is an important assumption in the cropproductionmodelpresentedhere.Thisconditionmayresultfromdeepweatheringof homogeneous parent rock or from prolonged sedimentation in astableenvironment.Morecommonly, however, soilhomogeneity resultsfrom biological mixing of the surface soil by the soil fauna and plant roots. The depth and intensityofhomogenizationprocessescanbeinferred fromsoildescriptions. Soils that are intensively homogenized by biological activity lack abrupt horizonboundariesandhaveacomparatively uniform matrixtexturethroughout the root zone. A well homogenized surface soil is porous with many 'macropores*and *mesopores\ asaresult of theactivity of smallorganisms, andisperforated bywormholes,antholes,etc.Plantrootsalsocontributeto the biological mixing of soil material. When roots die, they desintegrate and leave voids in the soil matrix. Dark coloured surface soil material often leachestodeeperstrataalongtheseformerrootchannels.Underwetconditions, thechannels act asairductsbringingatmospheric oxygen to thepoorlyaerated subsoil. Transformation of soluble ferrous iron to ferric oxides canthen produceareddish liningof rustalongthechannel wallswhichbecomevisible as 'root prints'. The number and size distribution of root prints in a soil reflect theintensityofrootactivityinthepast.Wherebioporesandrootprints are absent, the soil is called 'undisturbed*. If the upper boundary of the undisturbedsubsoilisdeeperthanapproximatelyonemetrebelowsoilsurface and evidence of surface soil homogenization isclear, it is not to beexpected thattherootactivityofcropswillmeetanymechanicalimpediment. Absolute criteria for the degree of soil homogenization cannot be given because soil homogeneity depends not only on the intensity of mixing but also on the uniformity and stratification of its parent material, which is a geological datum.
Exercise70 Check the profile descriptions of profiles P9 and Kpuabu 1 for depth and abundance of roots. Payalsoattention toevidence of antandwormactivity. Isrootingimpededinanyofthetwosoils? Inwhichofthetwosoilsisbiologicalsoilhomogenization moreintense?
5.3.2 Soilchemicaldata
Chemical analysis of soil samples isaroutinepartof thestudyof soilsand of soil suitability for agricultural use. Chemical analyses areparticularlyneededto establish theapproximate fertility status of thesoil. Forthat purpose, thefollowing issuesmustbedealtwith:
224
- whatarethetotalquantitiesofplantnutrientsinthesoil? - towhatextentarethesenutrientsavailableforuptakebyplants? - what is the capacity of the soil to temporarily store nutrients for later releasetothesoilsolutionandthentothecrop? - aretheresoilchemicalanomaliesthathampercropproduction? Soil chemical data as such are of very limited value. In association with measuredplantperformance theygainsignificance, butreliableandgenerally applicable correlations between soil chemical data and crop productioncannotbeexpected.Exogenousconditionsthatdiffer eachyear(e.g.theweather) obscuresuchcorrelationsandallowatbesttheidentification of generallysafe ranges in the chemical status of the soil. Outside these ranges, plants are exposed toeithernutrient deficiency ortoexcesslevelsof elementsinthesoil solution,whichhaveatoxiceffect oncrops. Inthis subsection those soil chemical data will bediscussed that areroutinely collected for soil profiles representing themajor soils of important land units.Thesignificance of soilchemicaldataasindicatorsof nutritionaldisorderswillbeexplainedtoidentify soilchemicalconstraintsonplantproduction inanumberofsituations. Totalelementcontents The determination of total element contents helps to indicate structural nutrient deficiency (e.g. inmineralogically poorsoils orinexploited andchemicallyexhaustedsoils)butsuppliesnoinformation ontheexactquantitiesof nutrientsthatcropscanactuallytakeupfromthesoil.Totalnutrientcontents are normally determined after digestion of asoil sample with astrongagent such as nitric or perchloric acid. Modern analysis techniques, e.g. X-ray spectroscopy, permit non- destructive determination of total element contents. In view of the limited significance of total element data for practical agriculture,thissubjectwillnotbetreatedanyfurther.
Exercise71 Calculatethetotalquantityofphosphorus(P,expressedinkgha"l) contained intheupper 53cmof soil profile Kpuabu 1, Sierra Leone. Forsoil chemical dataandBDvaluesofthisprofileseeTable52. Repeatthecalculationsforpotassium(K,expressedinkgha"1). Note: 1 kgK20isequivalentto0.83kgK.
Contentsof 'available'nutrients Only a limited part of all nutrients in a soil can actually be taken up by crops in the course of one growth cycle. The other part is lost or tied upin mineralsand/orinstableorganicandorgano- mineralcompoundsandbeco225
mesavailabletoplantrootsonly after weathering orbiochemical decompositionof organicstructures('mineralization'). Soil fertilityspecialistshavelong tried to find extraction agents that mimic the action of plant roots. Such agents should remove available nutrients from thesoil whileleaving theunavailable fraction untouched. Their quest has not been entirely unsuccesful. Many 'mild* (i.e. weakly acid oralkaline)agents havebeenidentified, which give, under specific conditions, areasonable correlation between element extraction from a soil and total contents of the same element in the tissue of plants grown on that soil. An extractant that reflects nutrient availability to anycropunderallconditionsdoesnotexist,becausethedemandofacropfor nutrients and its competitive position relative to other consumers is partly dependent on exogenous factors. In practice, preference for the use of a certainextractant isbasedonlocalexperience. Extractantsthatareoftenused are listed in Table 53. As this table suggests, there are no extractants for estimatingtheavailabilityofnitrogeninsoils. Sections4.1 and4.2containtheimplicit information thatthereisinorganic nitrogen in the plant- soil- atmosphere system, e.g. fertilizer N, as well as organicnitrogen,incorporatedinsoilorganicmatterandinsoilmicro- organisms. Nitrogen losses through leaching, denitrification or volatilization act mainlyonnitrogeninitsinorganic form. Organicnitrogenislargelyresponsible for the N status of unfertilized soils; it becomes available for uptake by plants through mineralization during decomposition of the organic matter. Thequantityof nitrogenthatismineralized fromtheorganicstructuresinthe course of decomposition isa function of the quantity of carbon used bysoil micro-organisms tosupport theirmetabolic activities (Bouldin etal., 1980). This is the reason that in some soil survey reports the C/N ratio of the soil organicmatterisspecified inadditiontotheorganicmatterororganiccarbon content. AC/N ratiolowerthan 15indicates asituation inwhichdecompositionof soilorganicmatteryieldsappreciablequantitiesof mineralnitrogen;a Table53.Somecommonextractantsusedforthedeterminationofavailablephosphorusorpotassium.
Element extracted P P P P P K K Nameof extractant BrayNo. 1 BrayNo.2 Truog Olsen ModifiedOlsen

Chemicalcompositionof extractant 0.03NNH4F + 0.025NHC1 0.03NNH4F + 0.01NHC1 0.002NH2S04(pH 4.8) 0.05NNaHC03(pH 8.5) 0.5NNaHC03 + 0.5NNH4F(pH8.5) 23ôNaN03 1 NNH4acetate
(Sources: Dabin,1980;Odelletal.,1974) 226
highC/N ratioof 30ormoreisindicativeoflownitrogenlevelsinunfertilized soils. In many traditional agricultural systems an equilibrium situation exists in which inputs of nitrogen equal losses by crop removal, denitrification, leaching, etc. In such situations, the quantity of nitrogen furnished by natural soil fertility can be reliably estimated with the procedures presented in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. However, when this equilibrium is disturbed, e.g. by a change in management system, a non-steady state occurs in which the soil organicnitrogen content changes towards anew equilibrium level. Thisinvolves changes in the rates of decomposition and resynthesis of soil organic matter. Boththeseprocessesareextremelycomplicated anddependonquantityandcompositionoftheorganicmatterinthesoilandalsoonenvironmental conditions such as soil moisture content, soil pH and soil temperature. Consequently, there areno generally valid guidelines for estimating, bytests onsoilsamples,theabilityofsoilorganicmattertosupplynitrogentoplants. Available phosphorus in the soil originates from weathering rock, dissolving phosphorus compounds and also from the organic soil component, but the latter plays a less prominent role than in the case of nitrogen. Tropical soils atanadvanced degreeof development havelost most of theirweatherable minerals and have therefore a high probability to be structurally low in phosphorus. However, P deficiency is also widespread in younger soils becausedissolved phosphorusmaybeinactivatedbythesolidsoilphase(phosphorus fixation), precipitateasaninsolublephosphateorbe(temporarily)tied up in microbial bodies. Dabin (1980) quotes a study by Roche et al. (1978), indicatingthatthephosphorus fixation capacityof 140soilsfrom20different countriescorrelated withthecontentsof clayandfine silt (r = 0.51), organic matter(r = 0.7), totalaluminium(r = 0.63), 'exchangeable'aluminium(r = 0.86),andtotaliron(r = 0.55),allsignificant atthe0.1%level.Withsomany variables involved (andtherearemore!), itisto beexpected thatthecorrelation between extractable phosphorus and phosphorus taken up by a crop variesamong soils andextractants. Inotherwords, different extractantsgive different results and locally established correlations are not transferable to otherareas. Inmanycountries, Olsen-type extractants arepreferred forthe determination of phosphorus availability; soil fertility specialists in Sierra Leone(Tables51and52)useBrayNo. 1 and/orBrayNo.2.Table54illustrates thelimited significance of 'availableP' - figures without thorough local experience. Thetablepresents thephosphorus uptakebyrice from anumber of important soil series inThailand, and 'availableP' inthese soils obtained withdifferent extractants(Puh&Khunathai, 1971). The difficulty in interpreting such values is increased by the necessity to judgetheavailabilityof phosphorusinrelationtothecontentsof otheressential elements, because crop response to the presence of aspecific nutrient in thesoil depends verymuchon thebalance orimbalance of thetotal nutrient supply(Section4.1). Dabin(1980)statesthatthecriticalvaluesof extractable
227
Table54.Phosphorusuptakebyriceandavailablephosphorus(ppm)byfourmethods
Soil Series Code Bn(l) Bn(2) Db Sb(l) Cn Ok(l) Sm Np(l) Hd Re(l) Bn(3) Rs Ok(2) Sb(2) Re(2) Ub Lp Np(2) Pb Bk Pcontentof controlplants (mgPperpot) 59 40 65 176 143 4 88 119 56 33 222 52 68 49 135 47 63 135 93
BrayNo.1
BrayNo.2
Truog
Olsen
6.6 1.2 3.0 6.1 2.3 2.8 0.6 3.8 2.3 4.2 4.4 7.1 10.7 3.3 9.2 8.2 5.3 7.5 15.7 4.7
9.0 6.0 6.9 12.8 8.8 7.8 9.0 16.0 7.2 8.5 21.8 26.0 29.5 8.4 11.9 8.8 7.3 13.8 53.2 , 5.9
2.7 0.9 5.4 6.9 3.6 2.2 3.3 5.4 5.1 2.2 9.1 5.8 9.1 2.9 2.9 1.0 2.9 3.5 11.3 2.9
7.3 8.0 4.6 9.9 13.1 3.3 5.8 12.2 5.5 6.2 8.4 2.9 6.6 3.2 3.6 1.6 2.3 3.2 9.6 2.5
Source: Puh&Khunathai, 1971. soil P are co- determined by the soil's total nitrogen content. For modified Olsen P he gives the following empirical rule: for soils with average to low fixation capacity of phosphorus (i.e. roughly Class I and the upper half of Class IIinTable47), thecritical phosphorus level isestimated at0.025times thetotalnitrogencontent. Forsoilswithamoderatetohighfixation capacity (lower half of Class IIinTable47)that level canbetwiceashigh andinthe caseof soilswithveryhighphosphorus immobilization capacitythelevelcan beincreasedevenfurther. Phosphorus immobilization isparticularlyprominent incertainyoungvolcanic soils withahighcontent of hydrated ironandaluminium oxides inthe clay fraction ('allophane'- rich soils) and is also widespread in old reddish and yellowish tropical soils with ahigh sesquioxide content. As explained in Subsection 5.3.1, the profiles Masuba P9 and Kpuabu 1from Sierra Leone (Tables 51 and 52) are examples of such soils, which formed as a result of progressiveweatheringofrockintheabsenceofrejuvenationthroughmineral influx fromelsewhere. Immobilization of potassium also occurs, buttheprocess isdifferent from 228
phosphorusfixation. Inthecaseofpotassium,theionsareincorporatedinthe lattice of certain clay minerals. Many crops take up similar quantities of potassium andof nitrogen, particularly root andtubercropsandmanyvegetables and fruits. Soil potassium originates from weathering clay minerals (biotite, hydrousmica, illite)and - atamuchslowerrate- fromthebreakdownof feldspar andmica. Flood waterorirrigationwaterisanothersource of K. Many weathered tropical soils, such as quartzitic sands and red or yellowresidualsoilsongeologicallyoldparentrock,arestructurally deficient inpotassium. Immobilization of potassiumbyclaymineralswithahighselectivity forpotassiumcanbeof importancetopracticalagriculture. Mitraetal. (1958)workingwithpureclaysfromIndiafoundthattheclaymineralsbentonite and illite fixed some 4 mg Kg'1. The most common clay mineral in tropicalsoils,kaolinite, fixedonlysome0.13 mgKg"1.This,andthefactthat theK- fixation capacityislowerinacidsoilsthaninneutraloralkalinesoils, explains whypotassium fixation islessprominent - andlesswellresearched - intropicalsoilsthanincertainsoilsintemperateregions.DatabyKemmler (1980)suggestthatavailablepotassiumlevelsare'low'whereextractionwith 1 Nammoniumacetateremoveslessthan6mgKper100gsoilmaterial. 'Minorelements'suchascalciumandmagnesium,and/or 'traceelements', suchascopper, zincandmanganese, areoften inshortsupplyinold,leached tropical soils. Calcium deficiency is associated with soil acidity (pH < 5); application of lime (Ca) or ground magnesium limestone (Ca, Mg)remedies thesituation. Sulfurdeficiency alsooccurs,butpublishedinformationindicates no association between sulfur deficiency and soil or climatic factors that wouldbeusefulinpredictingareasoflikelydeficiency (Blairetal., 1980).
Exercise72 Compare the total quantity of phosphorus contained in the upper 53 cm of profile Kpuabu 1(Exercise71 andTable52)withthequantity of availableP extractedwithBrayNo. 1.Canyouexplainthedifference? Supposethat3000kgofricegrainwastobeproducedonasoillikeKpuabu1. Would P fertilization be necessary? Explain your answer. (Recall that the slope of the yield- uptake curve is 50to 70 kggrain per kg N and the P/N ratiointhetissueisaround0.1underbalancedsupply). IsthereaneedforK- fertilizersonKpuabu1? Explainyouranswer.
Ionadsorptioninsoils Plants take up nutrients from the soil solution which is essentially a low concentration solution of a mixture of ions. This 'soil solution' would be rapidlyexhausted if ions, takenupbythecrop, werenot replenished.Fortunately,mostsoilshaveacapacitytomaintainastockofpositiveions(cations) 229
adsorbed atthenegatively chargedsurfaces of solid soil particles (bothmineral particles, particulary in the clay fraction and organic matter). The most important cations inthis respect areCa, Mg, K, Na and H. These ionsenter the soil solution if the existing equilibrium between the concentration of a certain ion in the soil solution and the quantity adsorbed at the 'exchange complex'ofthesoilisdisturbed,e.g. throughnutrientremovalbyplantroots. A new equilibrium will then be established. The reverse also applies: an increaseintheconcentrationof acertainioninthesoilsolutioninduces adsorption of that ion at the exchange complex. This implies that cations added to the soil, for instance with fertilizers, are not necessarily lost if not instantly taken upbyacrop, because part of the ions become available overalonger period via a process of exchange between theexchange complex and thesoil solution. The capacity of a soil to adsorb cations depends mainly on the surfacepropertiesof thesolidsoilparticles, notablytheirspecific surface(i.e. thetotal surface areaperunit weight of soil) andtheelectric charge perunit surface area. Finely textured (clay) soils have a high specific surface and therefore ahighercationexchangecapacity'C.E.C, expressedinmilli equivalentsper 100gsoilthancoarsertexturedsoils.Themineralogical composition of the solid soil phase isalso of influence because clayminerals vary intheir surface charge. Table 55 presents typical values for the specific surface and C.E.C. of some common solid phase components. Itshowsthat soil organicmatterhasacomparatively highcationexchangecapacity,therefore the overall C.E.C. of soil material is often higher in the organic matter containingsurfacehorizonthanlowerintheprofile. Thecationexchangecomplex playsanimportant role inthedetermination of soil acidity, i.e. the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. Often infieldsituations, asubstantial part of the exchange complex maybe occupied by hydrogen ions, even at relatively low concentrations of thatelementinthesoil solution, becausetheseionsareadsorbedpreferentially. This Table55.SpecificsurfaceareaandC.E.C.ofselectedsolidphasecomponents.
surfacearea
(HIV)
V** C . V_S.
me(100g)"1 1-10 80-120 120-150 20-40 20-40 10-150 100-300
Clayminerals: kaolinite montmorillonite vermiculite mica chlorite allophane Soilorganicmatter
10-20 600-800 600-800 70-120 70-150 70-300 800-900
(Source:Bohnetal., 1979). 230
preferential adsorption is ontheonehand associated withreplacement of Al and Mgions in the clay minerals by H ions, and on the other hand withthe surface properties of the soil organic matter. The result of these processes is that soilsexhibit anextended buffering range, i.e. addition of relativelylarge amounts of H ions will only slightly increase their concentration in the soil solution. Hence, thepH (defined as -log (concentration H+ ions)) will only decreaseverylittle.Ontheotherhand,ifthesoilhasalowpHvalue,andthus ahighconcentrationofHionsinthesoilsolution,considerablequantitiesofa competitive cation, such as calcium, may be necessary to increase the pH. That quantity expressed in kilograms of CaO required to change pH by 0.1 unitisreferredtoasthe'limingfactor*. To characterizesoils with respect to thecomposition of theadsorbedions, thesumofadsorbedcalcium,magnesium,potassiumandsodium - inmeper 100gsoil - expressedasafraction of thetotalexchangecapacityof thesoil, isdefined asthesoil's 'base saturation'. A low basesaturation, i.e. lessthan 0.4 is typical for most cultivated soils in the tropics. The remainder of the exchangecomplexisoccupiedbysuchionsashydrogen,aluminium,iron,etc.
Exercise73 ApproximatetheC.E.C. of themineralsoilmaterialinthesurfacehorizonof Kpuabu 1 (Table52).AssumethatthesoilorganicmatterhasaC.E.C. of 100 me per 100 g; and recall that an organic matter content of 0.01 kg kg"1 correspondswithanorganiccarboncontentof0.0055 kgkg"1. IsthepresenceoforganicmatterinthesurfacesoilofKpuabu1 important for thesupplyofnutrientstoacrop?Explainyouranswer.
Elementtoxicities Element toxicity occurs if elements haveaccumulated inthesoil inquantities that are noxious to plants. However, toxic effects can also occur at low absolute element concentrations if the soil solution is dominated by one or only a few elements and, consequently, ion supply to the roots is grossly imbalanced. Accumulation of highlevelsof saltsin(surface)soilsmayoccurinaridand semi-arid regions, where adistinct evaporation surplus is associated witha predominantly upward movement of soil solution and ions. When this soil moisture evaporates, soluble salts accumulate on top of the soil or in the rooted surface horizons andhamperroot activity:thesoil hasbecomesaline. Thedegreeof soilsalinity isestablished bymeasuringtheelectrical resistance of a water-saturated soil paste. The inverse value of electrical resistance is theelectricalconductivity (ECe,expressedinScm"1,Sstanding forSiemens). Normal plantgrowth isinhibited atconductivity valuesinexcessof 16x10~3 231
S cm"1, corresponding to a salt concentration in the soil of approximately 0.01 kg kg"1. Salt damage becomes apparent already atmuchlower electrical conductivity values (ECC > 4x 10"3Scm"1). Salt accumulation can beremediedbyleachingof thesoilwithfreshwater.Theharmful effects of saltsinthe root zone gain prominence if the accumulated cations are dominated by sodium ('saline-alkali soils'). Salt accumulation outside arid or semi-arid regions is usually limited to low- lying coastal areas subject to saline seepage ortoperiodicinundationwithsalineorbrackishwater. Element toxicity at low salt levels in the soil solution is widespread in acid (pH < 5)soilsinthehumidtropics.Soilacidity, associated withhighlevelsof hydrogen ions in the soil solution, hampers crop growth directly, but it is often more harmful because it results in the formation of toxic levels of aluminium and/or manganese inthe soil. Accumulation of aluminium ionsis particularly harmful: crop production is affected already at low levels of aluminium and is drastically reduced when aluminium occupies more than two-thirds of the exchange complex. Aluminium poisoning is most prominenton dryland;itrarelyoccurs wherewetland riceisgrown, withtheexception of certain acidifying soils in coastal areas ('Acid Sulphate Soils'). Wet-
Table 56. Criteria for the recognition of some important constraining soil chemical conditions. Poorparentmaterial/ leachingofcations Ndeficiency Pdeficiencyassociated immobilization <7 mecations/100gsoilmaterialinINammoniumacetate extractantatpH7.0(C.E.C. <7 me/100g) Widespread agronomic evidence of nitrogen deficiency in principalcrops.Noquantitativesoildefinition Top soil clay fraction dominated by allophane (X-ray amorphous),or>20%ofclayfractionasFeandAloxides and >30% clay intopsoil, orpH <7.3, or fizzing of soil materialwithHC1 (= presenceoffreeCaC03) <0.6mgKper100gsoilintop50cm. Soiltestvaluesbelowcriticallevelsformaincrops >67%AlsaturationofC.E.C.intop50cmorpH<5.0 < 100ppmacidextractableMnintop50cm. >300ppmferrousironintopsoil. ECC> 4 x 10~3mScm-1intop50cm. > 15% Na-saturationofC.E.C.intop50cm. pHdropstovalues<3.5upondryingofsoilmaterial.
Kdeficiency Deficiencyofother nutrients Altoxicity Mntoxicity Fetoxicity Salinity Alkalinity Acidsulphatesoil conditions
Source: Buoletal., 1974; SanchezandCochrane,1980.

232
land rice is known to suffer from excess organic acids or hydrogen sulphide but suchdamage iscomparatively rare. Morecommon isdamagetowetland rice by toxic levels of ferrous iron. The mechanism of iron accumulation in intermittently wet soils hasbeenoutlined inSubsection 5.3.1. Ironpoisoning occurswhenriceonflooded landisexposedtoasoil pHlowerthan6.5 anda dissolved iron content in excess of 300 ppm (Moormann &van Breemen, 1978). Insoilswithlownutrient levels,especially PandK,anironcontentas low as30ppmmayevenbetoxic.Table56summarizesindicativecriteria for themostcommonchemicalsoildisorders. Popularmisconceptionsinsoilchemicalanalysis Although chemical soil analysis is a practice of long standing, it suffers from anumber of persistent imperfections that complicate theinterpretation of analysisresults.Thoseshortcomings, whichpertaintotheroutinelycollectedsoilchemicaldatadiscussedinthissubsectionwillbementionedhere: - Soil chemical data are traditionally expressed on a weight basis, e.g. as percentage, ppm or me per 100g. Such data give no information on the quantities of nutrients (in kgha"1) present intherooted soil volume. Itis therefore essential that bulk density values (which vary by a factor of almosttwo,viz. between0.85 and 1.55 gcm"3,inmineral soils)arespecifiedwiththeelementconcentrations.Unfortunately, thisisrarelythecase. An extreme example may demonstrate the possible implications of this omission.Peatsoilsaregenerallyconsideredhighinnitrogenwithatypical nitrogenconcentrationbetween0.01 and0.02kgkg"1.However,anormal peatsoilwithabulkdensityof0.20gcm"3andanitrogenconcentrationof 0.02kgkg"1hasatotalnitrogencontentof4000kgha"1initsupper 10cm layer, whereasamineral surface horizon withanitrogenconcentration of only0.005 kgkg"1, but abulk density of 1.5 gcm"3, hasatotal nitrogen content of 7500 kg ha"1. Inspite of the seemingly high N concentration, nitrogendeficiency isquitecommononpeatsoils.Forthatreasonanalysis resultsshouldbepresentedonaweight- perunit- volumebasis.(Driessen,1978). - Thestoninessofasoilmustbespecified ifcriticalelementlevels(Table56), defined to indicate deficiencies ortoxicities of elements, areto be useful. Thisisrarelydoneinroutinesoilanalysis. - Cation- exchange capacity is traditionally determined by measuring the ammonium retention of analiquot of soil inaneutral ammonium acetate solution (buffered to pH 7.0). However, the surface charge of organic matter and of some clay minerals (notably kaolinite, chlorite and allophane, see Table 55) is strongly pH dependent. As field pH is normally lower than 7, theactual exchange capacity of tropical soils isoften lower thansuggestedbychemicalanalysisdata. OnlyC.E.C. datadeterminedat field pH would allow a meaningful comparison of soils with regard to exchangecapacityandbasestatus.
233
Exercise74 Deeper than 25 cm below soil surface, Profile Kpuabu 1 (Table 52) has a gravel content of more than 0.7 kg kg"1. What does this information imply withregardtothissoil'snutrientstatus? Profile P9 (Table 51) contains less than 0.02 kg kg"1 of gravel throughout. How does its real capacity to retain cations compare with that of profile Kpuabu1?
234
5.4 Plantdata
H.vanKeulen In the foregoing chapters it was shown that a quantitative assessment of plant growth and crop productivity can be obtained in different production situations, on the basis of knowledge about basic properties of plants and soils. In this section some of the required plant data will be summarized, methodstoobtainthemoutlined andindicativevaluesprovided for first estimates. 5.4.1 Photosyntheticcapacity Asoutlined inSection2.1,grossC0 2 assimilation of acanopy, Fgc,maybe calculated from theleaf areaindex and measured orestimated values forFg, thediffusionlimitedmaximumgrossassimilationrateofasingleleafathigh light intensity. Thelattercharacteristic maybeexperimentally determinedby measuring the C0 2 absorption by a leaf of known surface area at high light intensities.Thisismost conveniently donebyenclosing theleaf inachamber throughwhichairispassedataknownflow rate.Theconcentrationof C0 2is measuredattheentrancetothechamberandattheoutlet, sothattheamount of C0 2 absorbed can be calculated. As assimilation and respiration proceed concurrently, the measured value represents the net assimilation rate, thatis thedifference betweenassimilationandrespiration.ThustoobtainFg,asused byGoudriaan&vanLaar(1978a),themeasuredvaluemustbeaugmentedby thevalueof thedarkrespiration(Subsection5.4.2)implicitlyassumingthatit proceeds atthesamerateinthelight. Suchexperiments arenormallycarried outundercontrolledconditions,withthedisadvantagethatitisoften difficult toobtainsufficiently highlightintensitiesfromartificial lightsourcestoreach lightsaturation, especially forplantsof theC4type.Although thevalueofFg varieswithsuchcharacteristics asageof theleaf, itsnitrogencontent andits positioninthecanopy(especiallyitspositionwithrespecttothesun),characteristic values of maximum C0 2 assimilation range from 15-50 kgha"1h"1 forplantsoftheC3typeand3 0 -90kgha"1h"1forC4species.Ifthevalueof Fgisunknownforaspecies,40kgha"1h"1foraC3speciesand70kgha"1 h"1 foraC4speciesisgenerallyareasonableguess. Listsof C4species havebeenpublished byDownton(1975)andRaghavendra& Das(1978).WhetheraspecieshastheC3ortheC4type photosynthetic pathwaycanbededuced fromanatomical features. InC4typeplants,mesophyllcells arearranged radiallyaroundchlorenchymatic bundlesheaths,whereasinC3typeplantsmesophyllcellsarelaminar.Thesedifferencesareclearly 235
visibleunderamicroscope. An alternative method is based on the fact that the C0 2 compensation point, that isthevalueof theC0 2 concentration intheoutsideair, wherenet C0 2assimilationbecomeszero,isabout 10ppmvforC4speciesand 120ppmv for C3species.Whenanunknownspeciesisgrowninanairtightenvironment in the presence of a C4 species, it will cease functioning long before theC4 speciesif ithappenstobelongtotheC3 group. Itwillholdout approximately equally long if it is a C4 species. In the closed system, the photosynthetic process will lead to gradually declining concentrations of C0 2 . When these havefallenbelow 120ppmv,respirationoftheC3speciesexceedsassimilation, whereastheC4speciescontinuetoassimilateatapositiverateuntill about 10 ppmv. 5.4.2 Respiratorylosses Measurement of respiration isinprincipleidentical tothat of assimilation, i.e. the C0 2 exchange rate is determined in the absence of an energy source ('darkrespiration').Whenplantsthathavebeeninthelight forsometimeare transferred to thedark and C0 2 exchange is measured, thegeneral pictureis thatat first therateof C0 2 evolution ishighbutgraduallydeclineswithtime and finally reaches a more or less stable value. In analyzing such data it is often assumed that the stable value represents maintenance respiration, and thattheadditional component inthebeginningresultsfromtheconversionof assimilatesinstructuralplantmaterial,i.e.growthrespiration. Themagnitude of therespiration losses depends primarily onthechemical compositionofthestructuralmaterialoftheplant(Section2.1).Bothmaintenance respiration andgrowth respiration arehigher, whentheprotein(nitrogen)concentrationofthematerialishigher. Valuesof themaintenancerequirementsmaybeestimated fromtheprotein concentration andtheashconcentration of thematerial, byassuming thatat 20 C the proteins require about 0.035 kg CH20 per kg per day for maintenance and the minerals about 0.07. In a situation where each of these two components makes up about one tenth of the total weight of the standing crop, the maintenance requirement will thus be 0.0105 kg CH20 per kgdry weightperday. *
Exercise75 Calculate the carbohydrate requirement for maintenance respiration in kg ha -1 d""1, foracropwithadryweightof 10000kgha"1,anitrogenconcentration of 0.025 kg kg"1 and an ash concentration of 0.01 kg kg"1 (N.B. the nitrogenconcentrationofproteinsis0.16kgkg"1).
236
In most cases, however, such detailed analyses cannot be performed, because insufficient data areavailable. Moreover, inthehierarchical approach presentedhere,thenitrogenconcentration of thematerial isnot knownwhen the respiratory losses have to be calculated (Sections 2.3 and 3.4). In that situationapproximatevaluesmaybeapplied,asillustratedinTable3. The effect of growth respiration may be expressed bythe conversion efficiency, explained in Section 2.1. Thus, if the conversion efficiency is 0.7, growth respiration amounts to a fraction 0.3 of the weight of the primary photosynthates. Thusagain, highproportions of proteins, butalso fats, lead tohighlossesingrowthrespiration.
Exercise76 Calculate the rateof increase indrymatter in kgha"1 d"1 for acropwhich, aftermaintenance,hasacarbohydratesurplusof400kgha"1 d"1: - if cassava tubers are filled (composition: proteins 0.075 kg kg"1; starch 0.925kgkg"1) - ifmaizegrainsarefilled (composition:proteins0.125 kgkg'1;starch0.875 kgkg"1) - ifsoybeanseedsarefilled (composition:proteins0.4 kgkg"1;starch0.4kg kg"1,lipids0.2kgkg"1) Whatarethecarbohydratelossesduetogrowthrespirationinthesecases?
Ifnoexactdataareavailableforspecificsituations,theconversion efficiencies as tabulated inTable 3maybe applied for thevarious groups of crops. Chemicalcompositionof storageorgansofvariouscropsaregivenbySinclair &deWit(1975)andPenningdeVriesetal.(1983). 5-4.3 Phenology One of the most important crop characteristics that has to be taken into account in establishing production potentials is phenological development (Section 2.2). It has been explained that various methods exist to describe phenological development asa function of temperature and daylength. The most simple method, which, however, yields good results in many cases is referredtoastheThermalUnitapproach. Inthatapproachitisassumedthat for each phenological period, the rate of development can bedescribed asa linearfunction of temperature.Therateof development duringsuchaperiod isthendefinedastheinverseofthedurationofthatperiod,thus: Rv = 1/Nd = bt(T. - To) (94)
237
where Rv Nd bt Ta T0 israteofdevelopment(d"l) islengthofaphenologicalperiod(d) isaconstant(d" l0 C _I ) isaveragedailyairtemperature(C) is apparent threshold temperature or base temperature (C), below whichphenologicaldevelopmentcomestoastandstill
Exercise77 Calculate therateof development for thewheat cropof the followingexample.Nhmdenotesthenumberofdaysfromheadingtomaturity. Location Harrow Ottawa Normandin SwiftCurrent Lacomoe Beaverlodge FortVermilion FortSimpson T. 21.1 20.6 15.0 19.1 14.7 13.9 15.3 16.4 N
hm
31 29 54 41 59 54 48 38
Makeagraphof theresults, temperature onthehorizontal axisanddevelopment rate on the vertical. Draw an eye-fitted straight line and estimate the values of T0 and bt. How many days will it take this wheat variety from headingtomaturityatanaverageairtemperatureof 12.5C?
ApplicationoftheThermalUnitconceptleadstothenotionthataconstant temperaturesum,countedabovethebasetemperature,hastobeaccumulated during a certain phenological period. That period can be between any two phenological eventsthatareimportant from thepoint of viewof production. For modelling purposes, ingeneral two phases aredistinguished, one before themomentthatgrowthofthestorageorgansstarts,oneafterthat. Incereals thatisthemomentof anthesis,inrootandtubercropsitisthemomentofthe startofbulking.Forbothperiodsascalefrom0to 1 isthenassigned.Inmost cases it is convenient to start the pre-storage organ phase from emergence, because the temperature relations for germination may be quite different. Inpractice, therelation betweentemperature anddevelopment ratecanbe determined experimentally by observing the dates of emergence and that of thestartofthestorageorgangrowthandmeasuringtheambienttemperatures 238
duringthatperiod. If onlydatafor oneyearareavailable, basetemperatures asgiveninTable7(Section2.2) maybeusedtoconstruct thelinearrelation. Foramoreaccuratedescription, it willbenecessary, asarule,to performat least two experiments under different temperature conditions to be able to derivethebasetemperature. Suchexperimentscaneasilybecarriedoutunder controlled conditions, i.e. in climate rooms or greenhouses. For the period after the start of storage organ growth, experimental determination maybe moredifficult, becausethemomentof maturityisoften notclearlyrecognizable. Fordifferent crops, different criteria have been specified (for maize for instanceformationoftheblacklayeratthebaseofthekernel).Onthebasisof these criteria, the maturity point may then be estimated and an identical procedureapplied.Asarule,theslopeof thedevelopment rate- temperature relationisdifferent fortheperiodbeforethestorageorganstartsgrowingand theperiodthereafter.
Exercise78 Calculate the rate of development for the period emergence to anthesis for twospringwheatcultivars.TaisaverageairtemperatureinC;Nacisduration oftheperiodindays.
cv.Timgalen
*a
cv.Orca T 11.6 13.2 17.0 N 95 78 69
âc
12.5 14.1 17.0
93 72 61
Dothesamefor theperiodofanthesisto maturity.

cv.Timgalen T x
a
cv. Orca
am
N X1
T x
N 43 40 39
19.5 20.5 22.1
49 48 41
17.6 17.6 16.9
Plot thecalculated data asin Exercise 77for thetwo different periods in two separategraphs.Draweye-fitted curves.What doyounoticeabout theslope ofthetwolines?
239
For modelling purposes the relation between temperature and development ratewillthushavetobeestablished foratleasteachgroupof cultivars(short durationvs.longduration)withinaspecies. 5.4.4 Drymatterdistribution Thedistribution of thedrymatterformed betweenthevariousplantorgans is a major determinant for both total dry matter production and economic yield. Ifintheearlystagesof cropdevelopment alargeproportionof thedry matter formed isinvested in theroot system, leaf area development isrelativelyslow, hencelightinterceptionwillbeincompleteforalongperiodoftime andtotalproductionwillremainlow. Inthesameway,economicyieldmaybe affected if during the period of storageorgan growth other organs of the plant still claim asubstantial proportion of theavailable assimilates orif the green area rapidly declines because of translocation of essential elements to the developing storage organs, as may be the case under nitrogen shortage. Since the basic processes governing dry matter partitioning arepoorlyunderstood, the subject istreated inanempirical way. Thesimplest method of analyzingdistributionpatternswouldbetodescribetheincreaseindryweight ofthevariousplantorgansinrelationtothetotalincreaseindryweightofthe plant, i.e. to its age. However, asindicated in Section 2.2, theinitiation and development of plant organsisgoverned byphenological development of the plant, which is a function of environmental conditions, such astemperature anddaylength, ratherthanof age.Thepartitioning patterninplantsistherefore relatedtothephenological stageof thecrop.Thisstartingpointseverely limits the availability of suitable experimental data for the determination of partitioning patterns, because thenumber of reports inwhich not only sufficiently detailed cropdataarereported, but also environmental conditions, is verylow. If, however, all of thesedataareavailable, ananalysis maybecarriedout, yieldinginformation thatcanbeusedforextrapolationandprediction.Thisis illustrated with an experiment on bunded rice, reported by Erdman(1972). Thebasicdataof theexperimentaregiveninTable57.Thesedataareusedto calculate the derived data as given in Table 58: for each harvest date the development stage of thevegetation isdetermined astheratio betweenaccumulated temperature sumandthetemperature sumrequired fromtransplanting to anthesis (1950 d C for this variety). As the distribution factors are calculated for periods between two consecutive harvests, the value of the developmentstagehalfway betweenthesetwodatesisenteredinTable58.For eachperiod, theincrease indryweight of thevarious plant organsiscalculated as the difference between the weight at"two consecutive harvests. From these partial values, increase in total dry weight is obtained and from these numbersthefraction allocatedtoeachof theorgansineachperiodiscalculated.
240
Table 57. Basic data on dry matter distribution from a field experiment with bunded rice. Time (daysafter transplanting) T. (C) dryweightof plantorgans(gplant "*) roots leafblades stems sheaths + ear structures 0.15
total
26.0 11 26.3 0.26 26.3 25 26.3 32 26.3 39 26.2 46 26.2 53 26.2 60 26.2 67 26.3 74 26.3 81 26.3 88 3.37 9.11 21.94 34.42 3.36 11.85 21.48 36.69 3.17 10.77 26.83 40.77 2.99 9.76 21.46 34.21 2.81 7.82 12.76 23.39 1.93 6.06 9.37 17.36 0.81 3.98 4.48 9.27 0.34 2.19 2.23 4.76 0.94 0.84 2.07 18 0.26 0.24 0.65
Theaccuracyof theindividual observations isnot high.Evenwithareasonable number of replicates, the variance in dry matter yield is high, so the increase in dry matter of individual organs is even less accurate. Ingeneral, therefore, observations of several experiments havetobecombinedtoobtain auseful relation. InFigure54,thedataof Table58aresummarizedbyeye fitted curves, illustrating the variability in the data. However, for the time beingitisnecessarytorelyonthistypeofanalyses. After anthesis, only the grains increase in dry weight, the other organs eitherremainingconstant ordecreasing inweight, whentranslocation ofsubstances, nitrogenous compounds aswell ascarbohydrates, to the developing graintakesplace. AsexplainedinSection3.4,thistranslocationprocessistakenintoaccount in the calculations by assuming partitioning of part of the assimilates to the 241
Table58.Deriveddataondrymatterdistributionfroma field experimentwithbunded rice.

Period Rd (days after transplantirig) Increase indrywei ight leaf blades gplant-1 0.26 0.68 1.25 1.79 2.08 1.76 1.94 0.99 1.08 negative fraction 0.40 0.48 0.46 0.40 0.26 0.29 0.18 0.15 n.a.** n.a. 'stems' gplant"1 0.24 0.60 1.39 2.25 4.89 3.39 8.70 5.37 negative negative fraction 0.37 0.42 0.52 0.50 0.60 0.56 0.80 0.82 n.a. n.a. roots gplant" "! 0.15 0.14 0.05 0.47 1.12 0.88 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.01 fraction 0.23 0.10 0.02 0.10 0.14 0.15 0.02 0.03
0-11 11-18 18-25 25-32 32-39 39-46 46-53 53-60 60-67 67-74*
0.075 0.195 0.29 0.385 0.475 0.57 0.665 0.76 0.855 0.955
* AnthesisatDay74 **Notapplicable grainbeforeanthesis. The grain weight calculated with the model is on a dry weight basis. For comparison with field data, the air dry moisture content of the grains has to be taken into account. Normally grain yields are reported at 1 2 - 14% moisfraction to organs
0.80 _ stems*sheaths*ear structures
0.60
O ^
0.40 ^ 0.20 roots ^N^s*-. *

I * I
leaf blades
>^
N.
0.2
i * " i X 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 development stage
Figure 54. Partitioning pattern of total dry matter increase between various organs of bunded rice, as a function of development stage.
242
turecontent, hencethecalculateddrymattermustbemultipliedbyafactorof 1.13. Forcropsotherthangraincropsspecial moisturecontents mayhaveto betakenintoaccount. Thisemphasizes, however, that forexperimentalwork tooanaccuratedefinition ofthereporteddataisnecessary. For rice the situation is somewhat more complex: in most cases yield is expressed in rough rice (paddy) at a moisture content of 14%. Rough rice, however, consistsof thetruefruit (brownrice)andthehull,whichconsistsof leaf- likestructures.Brownriceislargelytheendospermandtheembryo,but stillcontains several thinlayersof botanically different tissuesthatareremovedduringmilling,afterwhichwhiterice,milledriceorpolishedriceisobtained.Inthemodel,brownriceistheresultofthecalculations.Toconvertfrom white rice to brown rice a conversion factor of 1.25 is generally used, from brownricetopaddyafactorof 1.2. If the growing conditions are suboptimal, i.e. when shortage of water or nutrientsoccurs,theplantwillgenerallyrespondwithachangeinitsdistributionpattern. Inbothcases,themostcommonresponseisanincreasedinvestment in the root system, because that part of the plant is responsible for its supplywithwaterandnutrients.Thisphenomenon isoften referred to asthe functional balance (Brouwer, 1963). A quantitative treatment of thisphenomenonisdifficult withinthescopeofthepresentapproach,moreoverthedata baseisnarrow. 5.4.5 Stomatalbehaviour Stomatal aperture in plants can change in response to internal orexternal conditions, so that plants canreact to theenvironment. Onesuch reactionis thatof closureof thestomataunderconditions of waterstress,which effectively reduces transpiration. However, even under optimum moisture supply, stomatal opening may vary. One mechanism governing stomatal aperture is theresponse to light, i.e. stomata open inthelight andclose inthedark, the transition zone being rather narrow. However, in certain plants, stomatal aperture is regulated in such away, that theconcentration of C0 2 insidethe stomatal cavity ismaintained within narrowlimits.Thismayeitherbeaconstant value, which isaround 120ppmv for plants withthe C4type of photosynthesis andaround 210ppmv for plants withtheC3type. Analternativeis thattheinternal concentration isadjusted insuchawaythat aconstant ratio of about 0.7 for C3speciesandabout0.4 for C4speciesbetweenexternaland internal C0 2 concentration is maintained (Goudriaan &van Laar, 1978b). Under present conditions thereis hardlyanydifference between thetwomechanismsinthefield, becauseatanexternalvalueof340ppmvaboutthesame internalvaluesresultforbothsituations. The type of stomatal control is of prime influence on water use efficiency (Section 3.2). The ratio of the amount of C0 2 fixed to the amount of water lost isabout twiceashigh forplantswithC0 2 inducedstomatal regulationas
243
for plants without that mechanism. It is therefore important to know what typeof regulation operatesinagivencrop.Unfortunately, that isdifficult to predict,becausenotonlydifferences existbetweendifferent species,butapparentlythesamespecies mayreact indifferent ways, depending onexternalor internal conditions. The only way to determine experimentally the type of regulating mechanism is by measuring concurrently C0 2 assimilation and transpiration atarangeof external C0 2 concentrations. Suchdatapermitthe construction of the type of graphs, schematically presented in Figure 55. Increased C0 2 concentrations in the external air lead to stomatal closure in regulating plants, hence decreased transpiration and aconstant assimilation. In non- regulating plants assimilation increases, but transpiration is hardly
transpiration /assimilation
transpiration
non-regulating assimilation
regulating
external C 0 2 Concentration
Figure 55. Schematic representation of transpiration and assimilation as a function of external CO: concentration for plants with and without CO> induced stomatal regulation.
244
affected asthestomataremainopen.Themostcommontypeseemstobethat inwhichaconstant ratiobetweenexternalandinternalconcentrationismaintained. Theabsence of C0 2 induced regulation ismost likely associated with maintenanceof optimummoisturesupplythroughout theplant'slifecycle.In situations where noinformation on stomatal behaviour isavailable,assumptionoftheconstantratioismostrealistic. 5.4.6 Nutrientrequirements InSection4.1 itwasshown for maizeandricethatunderconditionswhere yield is determined byavailability of aspecific nutrient element, theconcentration of that element at a given development stage of the crop reaches a species- characteristic minimum value. The determination of total nutrient requirements as proposed in this approach, require the minimum element concentrations atmaturity. Suchdatacanbedetermined forspecific cropsin pot experiments, because thesevalues areindependent of thegrowing conditions. Asafirstapproximation, values havebeencollected from theliteraturepertaining to groups of crops. Thedeterminant factor for eachgroupis thechemical composition of thematerial formed. Thedatausedinthemodel structurearesummarizedinTable59. 5.4.7 Someadditionaldata For initialization of the calculations for Production Situation 1or2(Sections 2.3 and 3.4), the values of above-ground dry weight and root dry weight are necessary. It is possible to determine these values experimentally foraspecific trial. Howeveramoregeneralapproachistolook attheconversion of the substrate contained in the seed into structural plant material. Experiments with a number of species have shown that about half of that energyislostinrespiration, whereastheremainderisequallydividedbetween shoot androot (Penning deVriesetal., 1979).Thusboth root andshootdry weight at emergence may be estimated as about one fourth of the seedrate, Table59.Minimumconcentrations(kgkg"1)ofthemacro-elementsineconomicproductsandcropresiduesforanumberofcropgroups
Cropgroup Economicproduct N 0.01 0.0155 0.008 0.0045 P 0.0011 0.0045 0.0013 0.0005 K 0.003 0.0055 0.012 0.005 Cropresidues N 0.004 0.0034 0.012 0.015 P 0.0005 0.0007 0.0011 0.0019 K 0.008 0.008 0.0033 0.005 245
grains oilseeds rootcorps tubercrops
Table60.Indicativespecificleafareaofmajorcrops(m2kg"1). CropSpecificleafarea(S.L.A.)
Barley Cassava Chickpea Chillie Cotton Cowpea Grasspea Groundnut Jute,capsularis Jute,olitorius Kenaf Lentil Maize Mungbean Mustard(black) Onion Rapeseed Rice Sesame Sorghum Soybean Sugarcane Sweetpotato Tobacco Wheat 25 22 13 27 20 25 13 28 31 28 25 33 18 30 23 25 23 25 23 20 26 10 22 16 20
providedthatgerminationisalmostcomplete. The development of leaf area, important for interception of irradiance, depends on the one hand on the amount of dry matter invested in the leaf blades(Subsection 5.4.4), andontheotherhandontheareathateachunitof leaf blade dry matter produces. In Sections 2.3 and 3.4 this parameter was introduced as the specific leaf area.-It follows directly from simultaneous measurement of dry weight and area of the leaf blades. Special leaf area meters areavailable that electronically scan theareasof theleaves. A widely usedmethodthatrequiresnosophisticatedequipmentistomeasureleafwidth and leaf length and establish a relation between the product of the two and actual leaf area, depending on leaf shape. Forsituations where experimental data on specific leaf area are not available, indicative values for different cropshavebeensummarizedinTable60. Ingeneral,itmaybeconcludedthatforthetypeofcalculationsatwhichthe present approach isaiming, and theirdegree of accuracy, theavailable plant 246
data are of sufficient quality. It means that these estimations can be made withouthavingtogointodetailedplantphysiologicalresearch.
247
6 CROPPINGSYSTEMS
249
6.1 Cropcalendar,workabilityandlabourrequirements H.D.J.vanHeemst 6.1.1 Introduction In the preceding chapters the growth of crops was analyzed in relation to solar radiation, temperature, day length, water and nutrient availability and cropcharacteristics. Itwasshownthatweather andsoilconditions determine cropgrowth and production. So far, thehuman factor hasnot beenconsidered. However, agriculture is distinguished from the natural situation by the intermediaryroleof manintheprocessof converting solarenergyintoedible energybymeansof plantsandanimals.Thisinvolvestillageof thesoil, cultivationandharvestingofcrops,andcareandbreedingoflivestock. Therefore, inaddition to thegrowth factors discussed so far, humanactivity isanindispensable factor in the agricultural production process. In this section attentionwillbefocussed onaspectsofhumanactivityinagriculture.Theseaspects are: - availabilityofhumanactivity - demandforhumanactivity - typeofhumanactivityrequired - choicebetweendifferent possibilitiesofapplyinghumanactivity. InChapter 1 it wasemphasized that inthis monograph onlythetechnicalagricultural aspects of food production would be considered. The aspect of availability of human activity is therefore not treated, because that depends on such factors as the size of the population, its demographic composition, the level of participation, the number of working hours per day and the numberofdaysperyearavailableforagriculturalactivities.Theotheraspects will,however,bediscussedinthissection. 6A.2 Cropcalendar The demand for human activity in agriculture at a particular moment depends inthefirstplace on thegrowing season, thetypeof cropanditsdevelopmentstage.Thetimingofthecropgrowingseasonisinmostcasesdeterminedbytemperature and/or wateravailability. At high latitudes cropcultivation duringwinterisimpossible becauseof lowtemperatures. Inregionswith a distinct dry season, it is impossible to cultivate a crop during that season without irrigation. Even if temperature and soil moisture availability permit growth of certain crops, the conditions may not be suitable for all crops or cr op varieties.Somecropspecies needhighertemperaturesthanothers,some 251
are more susceptible to (temporary) water stress than others and day length requirements aredifferent among crops orcultivars. Thus, if anexistingday length and temperature regime suits one cultivar of a crop species, not all cultivars of that particular crop may mature within the available growing season. Therefore, in most cases only a limited number of crops or crop varietiesissuitableforaspecificenvironment. The demand for human activity depends further on the time required for land preparation, anactivity strongly relatedtothephysical condition of the soil, aswillbediscussed inSubsection 6.1.3. Before sowingorplanting - an absolute prerequisite for cropgrowth - asuitable seedbed has to beprepared.Oncethecropisseededorplanted,thelengthof thegrowing periodofa givencropvarietyisfairlypredictable, asmeantemperaturesataspecific site in a particular season are reasonably constant (Section 2.2). Therefore the averagedevelopment rate, andthusthegrowth duration of that crop, willbe approximately the same each year if the start of the growing period has not beendelayedtoomuchbecauseof, say,unusualweatherconditions. During thegrowing period of acrop, the farmer hasto perform anumber of field operations to create or maintain the most favourable conditions for crop growth. Among these are the reduction of competition by unwanted plants(bydestroyingthem),optimizingtheavailabilityof nutrientsandwater (byfertilizer application, drainageandirrigation), andprotection of thecrop (bypestanddiseasecontrol).Atcropmaturity, harvestingisnecessary.Some on- farmprocessing mayalsotakeplaceandtheproductsarestoredormarketed.Mostoftheseactivitieshavetobecarriedoutinagivenorderandeach of themwithinalimitedtimespan.Therefore acropactivitycalendarcanbe constructed, indicating the most favourable timing of the various activities andthetypeof operationsrequired.Suchcropactivitycalendarsareelaboratedforrice,maizeandcassavainSubsection6.1.5. 6.1.3 Workability Workabilityexpressesthepossibilitytoperformacertainactivityinagiven environment. Whether asituation is workable depends on the availability of labour, farmequipmentandrequiredmaterials,thestateof thecrop,weather conditionsandstateof thesoil, andtypeandnatureof thefield operation.In this subsection attention is focussed on the relation between the state of the soil andworkability. Ingeneral, asoil isconsidered tractable, that issuitable to be worked, if atractor or any other required farm machine can moveon thatsoil andsatisfactorily perform its function without causingtemporaryor lastingdamagetothesoil.Themostcommon formofdamageissoilcompaction.Thatisbasicallyareductioninvolumeof agivenmassof soil. Itmaybe expressed as achange in bulk density or porosity (Section 3.2). Many of the soil physical properties, suchashydraulicconductivity andsoil moisturecharacteristics are affected by bulk density. If bulk density becomes too high,
252
resultingininsufficient airspaceinthesoil, plant-root development maybe hampered,whichwillconceivablyleadtoareductionincropyield.Thedegree of soil compaction is, among other factors, determined by the pressureappliedbythemachineandthesoil- moisturecontent atthetimeof theoperation. The pressure applied bythe machine is a function of the weight of the farmequipmentandthecontactareabetweentheequipmentandthesoil.The soil- moisturecontentatagivenmomentdependsonthewaterbalanceofthe rootzone(Section3.2). The limiting upper soil- moisture content for satisfactorily performing a field operation by hand labour is, rather arbitrarily, set at a soil- moisture suction of 10cm, i.e. nearlysaturated. Foroperations usingdraughtanimals it isset at 100cm, i.e. nearfield capacity. Foroperations usingpowerequipmentitissetat500cm.Theselimitsdonotapplytothecultivationofbunded rice, as special equipment is required for wetland preparation and animportant aimof landpreparation for that cropisthecreation of acompacted subsurface layer to minimize drainage. Landpreparation at theend of adry season, may, especially on heavy soils, behampered byalow soil- moisture content. In that case workability is limited, especially if the work has to be carriedout completely byhandorwithanimal traction, becausethesoil isso hard that cultivation requires too much force. In the present approach, the soil isconsidered workableif, after along dryperiod, atleast 75mmof rain have fallen in the last 20 days before the actual operation has to becarried out. 6.1A Labourrequirements Information onthetimespent ondifferent agricultural operations isgenerally more readily available and more accurate for mechanized operations than for systems wheremanual labouroranimal tractionareemployed.Preferably, labour requirements are defined as the time required to carry out a well-defined operation, under standard conditions, by a skilled healthy labourer, working atnormal pace, usingstandard equipment andatmaximum efficiency. Thistimerequirementincludes,apartfromtheactualoperation: - thetimerequiredforactionsnecessaryforsmoothcontinuationof thejob, e.g. operatingthe filling mechanismofasowingmachine - thetimerequiredtorepairminorbreakdowns - the time required to install the implements, to move them between farm buildingsandfield, andtoperformthenecessarymaintenance. The total set of activities required inthe agricultural production processcan beclassified onthebasisoftimingofthemajoroperationsinvolved: - preparatory activities, such as land preparation and preparation of plant material - plantingorseeding
253
- crop management, such as application of fertilizer, irrigation, thinning, topping,weedcontrolandpestanddiseasecontrol - harvesting - on-farm processing. Most of theoperationscanbeexecutedinvariousways,distinguishedmainly accordingtothesourceofenergyused: - completemanuallabour - useofdraughtanimals - lightorheavymechanicalequipmentusingfossilenergy. Thetimerequiredforanyoperationisexpressedinman- hoursperhectare orinsomecasesinman-hours perunit product weight. Intheanalysis,this definition may lead to certain difficulties. For some operations, thephysical constitution mayinfluence theoperation time, sothat working hoursof children, womenoraged peoplecannot becounted indiscriminately, buthaveto beweighedforconversiontostandardman- hours.Inothercaseshowever,it is not physical strength, but acquired skill that isof importance. Farringtons (1975)datasuggestthattheapplicationofweightingfactorsdependingonage and sex, irrespective of the activities, results in underestimation of labour time, while indiscriminate useof actual working hours results inoverestimation. As there is nogeneral agreement on thevalue of theweighting factors, andassuming thatactivities requiringmorephysical effort aremainlycarried out by men, preference is given to an indiscriminate use of actual working hours,unadjustedforsexorage. Asthetimerequirement formanualproducthandlingvarieswiththequantity of theproduct, thetime required for these activities isexpressed inmanhours per unit weight. When machines or draught animals are used, the labour requirement will in general be independent of the quantity of theproduct, hence for these operations time is expressed in man-hours per unit area. Labour requirement data for operations carried out manually or with draught animals arescarce. Most of thattypeof information originates from socio- economic surveysandcasestudies,inwhichthetimespentonagricultural activities is but one of the aspects treated. In many of these studies, workingconditionsaredescribedinaratherrudimentaryway,theoperations areilldefined from anagro- technical pointof viewand,consequently,the data arenot veryaccurate. Thelabour requirement estimates for thevarious agricultural operations (Tables 61-68), are based on a literature survey by VanHeemstetal. (1981).Amajorpartof thesedataisderived fromthetype ofstudiesindicatedaboveandtheyshow,therefore, largevariations.Ifactual labour requirements are available for a specific region, use of these data is preferabletothebroadaveragespresentedinthissection. 254
Table61. Labourrequirementestimates forlandpreparation(hha"1). Activity Manual Draught Powerequipment animal ploughing,peroperation hillingup,peroperation harrowing,peroperation puddling,peroperation levelling,peroperation bundingplusplastering diggingbyhoe spading,20-25cm Table62.Labourrequirementestimatesforthe pre-treatment of plantmaterial(hha"1) Activity rice,nurserypreparation preparationof cuttings forsweetpotato forcassava shellinggroundnut Manual Mechanical 80 75 25 55 85 28 9 24 29 34 light 17 9 10 13 4 heavy 6 7 3 7 3
20 300 500
7 1
Table63.Labourrequirementestimates forsowingorplanting(hha"1). Activity Manual Draughtanimal Powerequipment 40 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 5 5
rice,transplanting 280 rice,seeding 95 maize 80 sorghum 80 millet 80 cotton 55 groundnut 85 soyabean 85 m ung bean 85 cassava 70 sweetpotato 70 potato 75 yam 75 sugarcane 230 kenaf 50 jute 50 tobacco,transplanting 240
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
255
Table64.Labourrequirementestimatesforbroadcast fertilizerapplication(hha"1). Activity fertilizerapplication 3 Manual Draughtanimal Powerequipment
Table65.Labourrequirementestimatesforweedcontrol(hha"*1). Activity first weeding secondweeding thirdweeding fourth weeding mechanicalweeder sprayer thinning topping desuckering Manual 145 120 65 20 25 60 40 40 7 2 2-16 1-4 Draughtanimal Powerequipment
Table66. Labourrequirementestimates forcrop protectionagainstseedpredationbybirds(hha"1). Crop rice maize sorghum millet groundnut (monkey) Manual 126 55 320 320 20
Table67. Labour requirement estimates forharvestingactivities Activity Manual (hr1) Draughtanimal (hha"1) Powerequipment (hha"1)
allharvestactivities excludingtransport: rice wheat cutting binding binder makingsheaves
95
*
40 5-8 9-16
13
12 8-12 3-6
8-16
256
Table67.(continued) Activity combine maize sorghum millet cotton groundnut soyabean mungbean(threepickings) cassava sweetpotato potato sugarcane kenaf jute tobacco Manual (hf1) 110 210 210 620 195 100 550 12 25 5 13 90 90 800 Draughtanimal Powerequipment (hha"1) (hha"1) 2-10 5
10
35
22
100 7
30 100 18-68
transportfrom field tofarm: rice wheat maize cassava sugarcane stalkdisposal: cotton
42 42 16 8 40
30 28-30 30
Table68.Labourrequirementestimatesforon-farmprocessing. :tivity reshing: rice wheat maize sorghum millet soyabean mungbean Manual (hf) 70(flair) 80 42 75 75 200 80 Draughtanimal (hha"1) 190 Powerequipment (hha"1) 10 11-25
257
Table68.(continued)
Activity winnowing: rice picking: groundnut shelling: groundnut grading,baling: cotton tobacco retting: kenaf jute cleaning,drying: kenaf jute stringing,airing, curing: tobacco tobacco Manual
(hr )
1-5 185 165 570 1000 80 80 350 350
Draughtanimal (hha"1)
Powerequipment (hha"1)
500(suncuring) 800(fluecuring)
6.1.5 Thechoicebetweenalternativeapplications of human activity In general, a farmer cultivates more than one crop during the cropping season, to spread risksorto satisfy hissubsistence needs. Insuch asituation, the farmer may haveto perform various operations atthesame moment, e.g. landpreparation foronecropandcontrolling weedsinanother. If insufficient labour isavailable to carryout bothjobs atthe same time, achoice hasto be made between the two activities: either to abandon cultivation of one crop, with theconsequence of no yield at all, orto becontent with alower yield of theother crop because of weed competition. Especially farmers who perform their field operations completely byhandorwithanimal traction areconfrontedwiththisproblem of timeliness;theyareoften forced tominimizethecare given to their crops, which results in reduced yields. But also in mechanized systemsof agriculture, farmersareconfronted withtheproblemof timeliness. Formaximum benefit, allagricultural operations haveto becarried out atthe 258
verymomenttheyareneeded.Workingconditionssuchastheweather,orthe stateof thesoil, orunavailability of labourorequipment, mayforceadefermentoftherequiredoperation,whichalwaysresultsinayieldreduction. To avoid as much as possible interference between various agricultural activities, a farmer makes his choice among the different crops suited tothe specificenvironment,toobtainacropmixthatmeetshislabouravailabilityin thecourse of time. Thisisdone bydetermining for eachcropacropactivity calendar,andcalculatingthelabourdemandforeachperiodoftheyear.Then thecropping pattern ischosen for whichthelabour demand isdistributed as evenlyaspossibleovertheyear.Innocasemaylabourpeaksoccurtosuchan extent that certain operations are impossible. This procedure is explained in moredetailinSection6.2. 6.1.6 Cropactivitycalendarandlabourrequirementsfor transplantedrice, maizeandcassavainnortheastern Thailand For this example, a location was chosen in northeastern Thailand, near Udon Thani (1723'N, 10248'E), for which average monthly precipitation andpotentialevapotranspirationareshowninTable69. At some time in April, the threshold of 75 mm of rainfall in 20 days is exceeded, hence land preparation for upland crops may start at the end of Aprilorthebeginningof May.Asthesoilsinthisareaarerathersandy,land preparation for cassava may start even somewhat earlier, so that cassava plantingcanbeginearlyinthewetseason.Forbundedrice,landpreparation can only take place with water standing on the field. Therefore it can start
Table69.Averagemonthlyprecipitation (mm)andpotential evapotranspiration(mm)inUdonThani(1723'N, 10248'E),northeasternThailand.

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Precipitation 8 21 41 75 219 252 224 293 293 85 8 2
Potentialevapotranspiration 105 120 162 172 156 139 142 133 129 135 112 98 259
only from the moment that precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration,towardstheendofMay. Land preparation for rice, maize and cassava includes ploughing with a draught animal and an indigenous wooden plough, followed by harrowing once. Formaize andcassavathe seedbed is readyafter theseoperations. For bundedrice,landpreparationiscontinuedbypuddling,levellingandpreparationormaintenanceofthebunds. Maizeisseeded. Cassavaispropagatedbystemcuttings,whichareplanted inparallel rows, l - 1 . 5 m apart, with spacing withintherowof 0.8- 1.5m, depending on the cultivar and local tradition. For bunded rice, seedlingsare raised on a nursery bed and transplanted in the field when 5 - 1 0 weeks old, depending on field conditions. About 0.1 ha nursery bed is required toprovide seedlings for one hectare of paddy field. Fertilizers may be applied at seeding orplanting asabasal dressing, sometimes followed byatopdressing sixweekslater. Weeds compete with crop plants for essential growth factors, such as energy,nutrientsandsoil- moisture,whichaffectscropgrowthunfavourably and may result in reduced crop yields. The effects of weed competition are most detrimental during the early stages of growth, before a closed crop canopy is formed. At that time essential nutrients areirreversibly incorporated in the weeds, while the crop does not yet intercept sufficient light to prevent weed growth. This critical period lasts for cassava for about three months after planting, and for maize and rice approximately until development stage 0.4 (for more details, see Section 6.3). The duration of the pre- flowering phase is about 85 days for rice, and 75 days for maize for the varieties used at this location, hence the ricecrop hasto be kept weed-free for the first 34 days after transplanting, and the maize crop for thefirst30 daysafteremergence.Forrice,abiocidemaybeappliedatheadingtoprotect the crop against pests and diseases. During the last part of the seedfilling period,riceandmaizemustbeprotectedagainstseedpredationbybirds.Bird scaringisgenerallyachild'sjob. Finally, at maturity the crops are harvested. The growing season ends for uplandcropsattheendof Septemberorthebeginningof October,theendof therainyseason.Forbundedrice,growingonheaviersoilswithalargerstore ofavailablewater,thegrowingseasonmayextendanothermonth. If it is assumed that all landpreparation operations are performed with animal traction and all other operations with hand labour, crop activity calendars can be constructed for the three relevant crops. For bunded rice, landpreparation activitiescanstartonlyafter thefieldsareflooded. Atthe endof May,rainfall exceedspotentialevaporation, andwateraccumulateson thefield.Preparations forthenurserybedstartinthe first ten- dayperiodof June. The soil is ploughed twice, harrowed, puddled and levelled to prepare the seedbed before broadcast seeding. During growth of theseedlings, water supply must beassured, if necessary bylifting wateronto theseedbed. After 260
installation of thenurserybed, landpreparation forthepaddy field startsin the last ten-day period of June by a first ploughing, followed by a second ploughing plus harrowing in the first ten-day period of July. In the second ten-day period of Julythe field ispuddled, levelled and bunded. Transplanting starts in the last ten-day period of July, the seedlings being about 5 - 6 weeksold.At transplanting, fertilizer isappliedbroadcast, andtheoperations are completed during the first ten-day period of August. A top dressing of fertilizer is applied at the maximum tillering stage of the rice crop in the secondten- dayperiodof September.Atheading, inthefirst ten- dayperiod of October, a biocide is applied. Bird scaring is necessary during the last ten- day period of October and thefirstten- day period of November. The crop is harvested from the second ten-day period of November onwards. The labour profile of all activities with their labour requirements is shown in Table70,theappropriatelabourtimesbeingtakenfromTables 6 1 - 6 8 . For activities associated with the nursery bed, one overall value is given, including all necessary operations. The harvesting operation is sub-divided into cutting, transport from field to farm compound and threshing. The laTable70.Possiblecropactivitycalendarfortransplantedrice,northeasternThailand. Date 1-10June 10-20June 20-30June 1-10July 10-20July 20-31 July 1-10August ist 10-20August ist ct 20-31 August 51 1-10Sept. 10-30Sept. 1-10Oct. 10-20Oct. 20-31Oct. 1-10Nov. 10-20Nov. Activity startnurserypreparations nursery nursery;firstploughingoffield nursery;secondploughingand harrowingoffield
nursery;puddling,levelling, bunding,plastering field transplanting fertilizer application weedcontrol fertilizer topdressing biocideapplication birdscaring birdscaring cutting(sickle) transport threshing
Labour(hha*1) Field 28 80 52
83 280 3 145 3 25 63 63 238a 105* 175*
Nursery
Assumedyield2500kgha""1. Landpreparationbyanimaltraction,otheroperations b ymanuallabour,birdscaringbychildren. 261
bourrequirements forharvestingactivitiesareexpressedperunitweight,thus thetimerequirement perhectarecanonlybecalculated iftheyieldisknown. For the case presented in Table 70, a grain yield of 2500 kg ha"1 may be assumed.
Exercise79 Construct crop- activity calendars for maize and cassava grown at Udon Thani. Land preparation activities arecarried out byanimaltraction. Unless specified otherwise,allotheractivitiesareperformedbymanuallabour. Land preparation for both crops requires ploughing twice and harrowing once.Fertilizerisappliedatsowingorplantingonly. For maize, start landpreparation in the second ten- day period of May. Handweedingisdoneonce, onemonthafter sowing.Assumeatotalgrowing periodof 110daysandagrainyieldof3000kgha"1. For cassava, start land preparation in the first ten-day period of April. Mechanical weeding isdone once, 20daysafter planting, manual weedingis doneonce, 20dayslater, andhilling upiscarried out once, 30daysafter the manual weeding. Start harvesting the cassava in the first ten-day period of November,assumingayieldof 151ha"1of freshroots.
Exercise80 Calculate for each of the three crops, cultivated according to Table 70and Exercise79,thetotalnumberoflabourhoursperhectare.
262
6.2 Lowinput farming H. Schouten 6.2.1 Introduction Up to this point in the monograph only those production situations have been presented where crop growth was determined by a limited number of well-defined factors that could be at sub-optimal levels. The hierarchical models presented describe methods for a quantitative estimation of possible yieldlevelsunderwell- defined conditions.Inagricultural systemswhereland and labour arethe predominant inputs, theconditions areless well-defined. In such low-input systems it is practically impossible to estimate yield in similar ways, because of lack of knowledge. A general treatment therefore mustproceed alongdifferent lines. A main characteristic of low-input farming systems is the emphasis on production of basic needs, in particular food, bya farm family using itsown labour, possiblysupplemented byanimaltraction. For a family to subsist, the yield of the agricultural land has to be sufficiently large. Therefore in many low-input agricultural systems, relations can be recognized between the size of a family, thenumber of draught animals,thesoilfertility, theyieldand the cultivated acreage.Someoftheserelationswillbediscussedinthissection. 6.2.2 Basicneeds In most low- input farming systems a family isprimarily growing crops to satisfy its basic needs. Today it rarely occurs that all basic needs for food, clothing, shelter, heating and social activitiesareproduced orgathered within the framework of small communities. Subsistence farming refers, therefore, m general to the situation where self-sufficiency in food, fuel and shelter exists,and if possiblepart of theharvest ismarketed toenablethepurchaseof other necessities: clothing, education, health care, to mention a few. As the emphasis ison food subsistence, the family does not aim at yields that are as high as possible under the prevailing environmental conditions, but rather at maintaining a production level that is high enough to cover food needs and keeps the risk of crop failure to a minimum. In that situation, the first question that arises is how much food is required for the family, and the second one,howitcanbeproduced. How much food isrequired depends on the sizeof the family and its composition in terms of age,sexand body weight, and theactivities inwhich itis engaged (Figure56).Although minerals,vitaminsand proteinsareindispensable, they constitute only a minor part of the total food requirements. Most 263
1.0-T
labour efficiency
0.5-
760-
1650
per capita income (Taka)
Figure 56. The relation between income, energy intake and labour efficiency. Estimates based on the Bangladesh Household survey; adapted from Stolwijk (1983).
food norms are based therefore on energy demand, assuming that if the energy demand is met shortages of minerals, vitamins, proteins and other nutrientswillnotoccur.TheenergyrequirementisusuallyexpressedinJoules perkilogramofbodyweight,toaccount fordifferences inageandsex.Foran average family, consisting of threeadultsandthreechildren, withanaverage energyrequirementof 8.4MJperday,theannualenergyrequirementisabout 18.5GJ.Theenergycontentofroughriceatamoisturecontentof0.1kgkg"1 is 15.5 MJper kg. If this isthe main food, this family of sixmembersneeds about 1200kgyr"1forconsumption.Allowing forpreparationlossesof10%, pounding losses of 20%and harvest and storage losses of 15%, 1950 kg of paddy has to be produced. If it is assumed that an excess of 30% has to be produced to meet other basic needs and to buffer against the risk of crop failure, thetotal production requirement will be2500kgof paddyperfamily per year. Whether this is sufficient, depends on market conditions and on whatbasicneedsareconsidered. Theproductiontargetof 2500kgof paddyperyearinalow- inputsystem can be achieved with varying areas of land. On rich volcanic soils or on alluvial soils that receive anannual supply of nutrients through silt inirrigation water, that yield maybe harvested from lessthan one hectare. Onmost 264
soils, however, yieldswill bemuchlower, consequently afarmerhastocultivate morethan onehectareto reachthat production. Itshould also betaken into account that the necessary sowing seed, about 60 kg ha"1, has to be withheld for the next year.This comprises only 2.4 %of the yield at ayield levelof2500kgha~*,butalready24% atalevelof250kgha"*. Therefore,at low yields a considerable area is necessary to meet the production target. In Figure57therelationbetweenyieldperareaandtotalareaundercultivationis shownforaproductiontargetof2500kgofpaddy.
Exercise81 Thetillering potential of wheat is smaller than that of rice , so that for that cropabout 150kgha"1sowingseedisneeded.Constructasimilargraphasthe one in Figure 57 for wheat, assuming a production target of 2500 kg per familyperyear. Ifcassavaisthestaplefood, determinetheyieldthathastobeatleastmaintained to sustain the family (theenergycontent of the fresh cassava root is 6.0 MJkg"'andthenon- ediblefractionis0.2kgkg"1).
grain yield (kg ha- 1 ) 5000-
4000-
3000-
2000-
1000-
V
T
5
0.-=. 0
1 r
10 15 area (ha)
Figure 57. Grain yield required to obtain a production target of 2500 kg paddy from varying areas of crop land. The dotted line represents the amount of sowing seed (60 kg ha-') that has to be preserved.
265
A familypracticinglow-input farmingcan,however, notextendthecultivatedareatoanunlimitedextent,evenifenoughlandisavailable,becausethe maximum area that can be cultivated depends on the availability of labour duringperiodsof peak demand.Therequiredyieldleveltosustainthe family is thus determined by both the cultivable acreage and the total production target. The extent to which actual yields in some low-input agricultural systems differ from these minimum yields will be considered later in this sectionforsomeagriculturalsystems. 6.2.3 Equilibriumyieldsinagriculturalsystems A crop production system inacertain environment submitted to thesame cultural practices yearafter yearwill eventually reach astate of equilibrium, asis illustrated in Figure58 for yields of ryeintheperiod from 1880-1960. Thedataarederivedfromadiluvial, loamysandsoilinGermanyreceivingan annual precipitation of 500 mm. The year-to-year fluctuations are large, butthetrendrepresentedbytheeye-fittedcurveisevident.Thatcurvecould well bedescribed byanexponentially decreasing function of time. However, such a descriptive approach does not explain the dynamic characteristics of equilibrium. What will happen if cultural practices change? How long willit take to reachanewstate of equilibrium? What will betheassociated yields? Explaining the dynamic properties of equilibrium exhaustively, especially in the context of low-input agriculture, is practically impossible, because too manyfactorsmaybeinvolved.
grain yield (kg ha" 1 ) 4000-1
3000-
2000-
1000' \
o-J
880
1
1890
I
1900 20
1910 30
I
1920 40
i
1930 50
i
1940 60
i
1950
1<
10
70
8C ye
Figure 58. Yield of rye from unfertilized land (adapted from Muller and Reiher, 1966).
266
Exercise82 ThecontinuouslydecreasinglineinFigure58canbedescribedbyanexponentialfunction(Exercise 10)oftheformYt = (Y0 - Yc)e"kt + Yc Whatisthemeaningofthesymbols? MakeroughestimatesofY0,YcandkusingthedataofFigure58.
However, simple and general concepts may help to understand the dynamicsof thesystem. Oneof theearliest concepts wasdeveloped byvonWulffen (1823). Although his theory is more than 150 years old it is still worth considering. At that time very little was known about chemical and physical processes involved in plant growth. Therefore the author considered crop yield as a function of the 'Reichtum' (literally: richness, fertility) of thesoil whichwasexpressedinthesameunitsascropyield.A fertility of 20000kgof ryeperhectaremeansthatintotalsufficient nutrientsareavailabletoproduce 20000 kg of this crop from one hectare in the course of time. A single crop cannot extract all fertility in one season. Therefore the 'Tatigkeit' (literally: activity, availability coefficient) was defined as the proportion of the total fertility transferred to cropyield inonecycle. Hypothetically, with aninitial fertility, Rn,of 10000kgof paddy andanactivity, Tc, of 0.1, ayield, Yn, of 1000kgof paddywouldbeproducedthefirstyearandthefertility nextyear, Rn+1> wouldbe9000kgpaddy.Thiscanbeexpressedas: Y = R T Rn + l = R - R T
^n+1
(95) (96)
Figure 59. Relation between 'Reichtum* (Rx) in successive years, Tatigkeit (T) and yields (Yx) m the absence of enrichments.
267
TheseequationsaregraphicallypresentedinFigure59.ThediagonalE representsthepointsatwhichRnequalsRn+!.ThelineThasaslopeof (1 -T c ), so thattheverticaldistancebetweenbothlinesatanypointrepresentstheyieldin a given year. Each year, Rndecreases bythe fraction (1 - Tc), resulting ina decaytozeroinanexponentialway. Inpractice, however, Rnincreases concurrently byweathering, nitrogen fixation, manuring and so on. As a result, Rn and yield will converge towards somenon- zeroequilibriumvalue.Fertilizerapplicationservesthepurposeof increasing Rn.Theactivity, Tc,canbemanipulated byavarietyof cultivation practices, e.g. improving soil aeration, reducing acidity and controlling weeds,pestsanddiseases. In the absence of chemical fertilizers, von Wulffen expressed the quantity of manureusedintermsof ryeequivalents fedtocattleproducingthemanure andcharacterized its efficiency bythe 'Gattung' (manure coefficient). When themanure obtained by feeding theharvest from afield to manandcattleis returned totally tothat field, themanurecoefficient equalsone, assumingno other additions to the fertility, if the yield of that field neither increases nor decreases. Otherwise, themanurecoefficient will behigherthan oneinsome cases(e.g. leguminous crops)andlowerwhenlossesoccur.Thelatterisgenerally the rule. Extended for enrichments, Equation (95) and (96) transform into: Yn = (Rn + Ir)Tc Rn+, = (R+ I r )-d -T c ) Ir = GaGc (97) (98) (99)
Here, the newly introduced Irstands for increase in fertility, Gcfor grain equivalentsof manureorothersourcesof fertility suchasweathering, and Ga for the manure coefficient. Both yield and Rn now approach equilibrium valuesgreaterthanzero,asisillustratedinFigure60.ThetwolinesE' andT' areobtained byshifting theoriginallinesEandTinFigure59overadistance Ir away from the origin. Now each year the yield is equal to the vertical distance between lines E' and T' and the net annual change in Rn to the vertical distancebetween linesE' andT'. Inthelow rangethisnet changeis positive;itisnegativeinthehighrange.Underotherwiseidenticalconditions, the fertility moves towards the equilibrium point, 'Beharrungspunkt' according to von Wulffen, where yields equal Ir, the annual addition to fertility. Yieldscould now becontrolled bytherateof manuringandbymanipulation of Tc and Gavia cultivation practices. In the nineteenth century, many attemptsweremadetoquantify thetheorybymeansof careful book- keeping of yields and manuring. However, the results weredisappointing in thelong 268
R.
Rn+, ( R n * I ) * ( 1 - T ) Yn . ( R n * I ) ~ T
increasing yields
decreasing yields
Figure 60. Relation between 'Reichtum* (Rx) in successive years, Tatigkeit (T') and yield (Yx) with a yearly increase of 'Reichtum* (I).
run, partly because the yields fluctuated too much from year to year, as is illustratedinFigure58forrye.
Exercise83 Whatisthe fertility attheequilibrium point whentheactivity is0.09 andthe yearlyincreasein'Reichtum'amountsto 1200ryeequivalentsperhectare? Whatwillbetheannualyieldatequilibrium? What will be the yields in successive years when the activity is increased to 0.16?
6.2.4 Shiftingcultivation Although quantification isdifficult, thetheory, presented inthepreceding subsection, helpstounderstand agricultural systems.Anexampleinthiscontextconcernsshifting cultivation,broadlydefined hereasanysysteminwhich food is produced for a limited period of time from an area of land, after whichthatareaisabandonedtemporarilyandanotherpieceoflandiscultivated (Greenland, 1974). If population density does not impose restrictions on the availability of land, shifting cultivation practices may be succesfully applied to obtain stable food supplies. Under shifting cultivation, the fertility accumulated duringmanyyearsof restisdepletedbycropyieldswithinafew years. Theland is abandoned assoon asyields decline to alevel wherecrop269
Figure 61. Relation between fertility (Rx) in successive years, activity (T') and yield (Y) under shifting cultivation presented following von Wulffens theory.
ping is no longer worth the effort. The accumulation of nutrients will then start again by weathering and nitrogenfixationin the semi- natural vegetation. This course of action is graphically depicted in Figure 61, following the principlesoutlinedintheprecedingsubsection.Thereisasmallbutconsistent annualincreasein fertility alongthelineE' dunngtheyearsof recovery.Atter clearingandplanting, thisaccumulated fertility ismadeavailablebyanassumedactivityof0.1, resultinginitsrapiddeclinealonglineT.Afteraboutfour harvests the yield is so low that further cultivation is considered not to be worththetrouble.Thelandisthenabandonedandthecyclestartsoveragain. Figure62showsthecourseof fertility andassociated yieldswithtime. Inthis example,asaw- toothpattern,withaperiodof 17years,isestablished. Alongtheselinesitiseasytoillustratewhatwillhappenif, forinstance,the recovery period, possibly due to increasing need for food, is reduced. The initial fertility atthestartof thecropping period will thenbelower, resulting insmaller and possibly fewer harvests. Yields mayevenbetoo low to justify theeffort ofanycultivationatall.Inprinciple,itmaybepossibletoovercome an inferior fertility by increasing the activity by better cultivation practices. This assumes, however, that subsistence farmers have not developed good farming systems; in general this assumption is wrong. Moreover, increasing theannual uptakeresultsinamorerapiddecreasein fertility, thepurposeof whichishighlyquestionable.
270
crop cultivation
rest
17 time (years)
Figure 62. Decline and recovery of fertility and the course of associated crop yields in time under shifting cultivation.
Exercise84 Calculate the annual levels of fertility and the yield in the case that, due to weathering, thefirstis increased by 120kgha"1 each year and for the followingsituations: Fallowperiod Activity years Numberofharvests
0.08 0.16 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.16
15 15 10 10 15 15 10 10
4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
Whataretheaverageyieldsduringthe3or4yearcultivationperiods;what aretheyduringthewholecycleof 10or15years?Inwhatrespect arethe 15yearsrecovery/3 yearscultivation schedules superior compared to allothers?
Shifting cultivation is a good agricultural system for as long as it lasts. However, withincreasingman/land ratiotheperiodof recoverydecreases,so thatultimatelytheyieldwilldeclinetoaleveldictatedbytheannualinputsof
271
nutrients intothesystem. Theseareoften solowthattheycannot sustainthe efforts of farming. Under such conditions other measures should be taken thatmaintainfertilityatasatisfactorylevelandallowpermanentcropping. One of the possibilities is the exploitation of areas not suitable for arable cropping by keeping animals as part of the agricultural system. From large areas of pasture land the manure can be collected and concentrated oncrop land. In the long run, crop yields will be proportional to the amount and quality of manure collected. Because the system is open for nitrogen much more than for the minerals, which remain in circulation, the arable land in suchsystems tendstobecomenitrogen deficient. Theannual supplyofnitrogentothegrassland dueto rainandsomenitrogen fixation maybeabout 10 kg ha"1. Even with proper grazing and with proper handling of themanure notmorethanone-quarterof itisactuallyavailable forthearablecrop.For example,itmaybeassumedthat80%ofthenitrogenistakenupbytheedible portionofthegrass,80%ofthegrassisgrazedoff, 20%ofthenitrogenislost by excretion in the field, another 20%during storage in the manure andthe recoveryinarablecropsis50%orless.Thusatleast4 - 5 hectaresof pasture are necessary to collect sufficient manure to increase the nitrogen supply to the arable crop by 10kg ha"1 and to double in this way the grain yield toa levelofabout 1500kgha -1 (Section4.1). 6.2.5 Paddycultivationinmonoculture In the middle of the nineteenth century the delta of the Irrawady riverin lower Burma was almost unpopulated. The few farmers then cultivating the landinthisareaproduced allof thefamily's food supply, mainlyrice,bythe efforts of thevarious members of the family. Birmatraded ricewithEurope in exchange for textiles and other Western commodities, but the quantities exported were limited. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1859 provided a shorter routeto Europe. This madeit muchmoreprofitable to growrice for export, sothat manymorefarmers settled hereto reclaimtheland forpaddy cultivation. Thelandisverysuitableforpaddy,andbecauseof theuniformly heavy rainfall during a fairly reliable monsoon season, there is little danger of crop failure by lack of water. For six months, rainfall exceeds potential evapotranspiration (Figure 63), so that about three months areavailable for landpreparation and transplanting, the most labour intensive activities. With bullocks or water buffaloes these activities require about 400 h ha"1 (Table70), depending ontheintensity of puddling andlevelling. If itisassumedthat for afamily of sixthelabouravailability is3man- daysperfamily perdayandthatthereare25eighthourworkingdayspermonth,600working hourspermonthareavailable. Suchafamily couldthuscultivate600/400or 1.5 hapermonth. If, asisthecase inlower Burma, thetransplanting period maybeextendedtothreemonths,thefamilymaybeabletocultivate4.5ha.
272
precipitation/evapotranspiration 600-, (nnrn m o n t h " 1 )
500-
400-
300-
200-
100-
0J
N D time
Figure 63. Average monthly precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (dotted line) at Rangoon, Burma.
AccordingtoAndrus(1948),thisisclosetothefarmsizeinlowerBurmaof a family without hired help.The family of six needs about 2000kgof paddy peryearforconsumption (Subsection6.2.2)and,accordingtoAndrus,itsells about half of thepaddyto cover needsotherthan food. Hence, paddyyields haveto beclose to 1000kgha"1. This appears to betheyield level thatmay indeed be maintained in many parts of the delta without the use of external inputs (chemical fertilizers). Because in this system a substantial part of the production is marketed, it is not an example of a pure subsistence system. Nevertheless, it illustrates verywell how agricultural systems areconstrained bylabouravailabilityontheonehand,andfertilityofthesoilontheother. Further east, the rainy season is shorter and less reliable, resulting in a shorter transplanting period for riceand hence asmaller acreagethat canbe handled. Northeastern Thailand maybetaken asanexample. Inthisregion, rainfall exceedspotential evapotranspiration for five monthsonly (Figure64) andthe transplanting period is restricted to one month. This means that the activitiesrelatedtotransplanting, requiring400man-hoursperhectare,have to be performed in a single month. Assuming a family size of sixmembers, againproviding alabourcapacityof 600man-hours permonth, atmost 1.5 haofpaddycanbegrown.Giventhesubsistencerequirementforasix- mem273
precipitation evapotranspiration 600_ (mm month 500)
400-
300
200-
w. . . . / - '
100-
0J
J
F
D time
Figure 64. Average monthly precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (dotted line) at Udon Thani, N.E.-Thailand.
berfamilyof2500kgpaddy(Subsection6.2.2), theyieldmustexceed 1670 kg ha"1. Compared with the actual yields of 1350kgin northeastern Thailand, this figure ishigh. Itshows that farmers therecannot beself-supporting by paddy cultivation alone under low-input agriculture. On the other hand, much labour remains idle at other times of the year that could be used for otherproductionactivities. 6.2.6 A cropmixexamplefor northeastern Thailand As shown in the preceding subsection, rice monoculture does not provide the subsistence requirements in northeastern Thailand. In that situation the onlypossibilityistheintroductionofotherproductionactivitieswithautilization pattern for the constraining resource that differs from that for rice. Because the only resources used in low-input agriculture are land and labour,theemphasisisplacedonmakinggooduseoftheresourcerequirements of different crops. The labour demand of a crop in a certain region can be visualizedinalabourprofile asinFigure65forriceinnortheasternThailand. This picture shows that the area under paddy cultivation is predominantly limited bythelabour requirements for levelling, puddling andtransplanting,
274
f' I ' ' I ' I ' ' I'

J F M A M
Figure65.Labourfilm forpaddycultivationinnortheasternThailandusingdraughtanimals; labourrequirementinmanhoursperhectare.(1)seedbedpreparationandmaintenance. (2)first ploughing.(3)secondploughing.(4)transplantingandrelatedactivities.(5)cropmaintenance.(6) birdscaring.(7)harvesting.

376
(10)
120
95
52
W
(3)
(7)
(9)
21
(i)
(2) # | .
r ** i *' i ' '

J F M
A I ' ' I ' I'

A S O N D time
Figure66.Labourprofile forkenafcultivationinnortheasternThailandusingdraughtanimals; labourrequirementexpressedinmanhoursperhectare.(1)clearing.(2)first ploughing.(3)second ploughing.(4)harrowing.(5)sowing.(6)fertilizing. (7)cutting(at 1500kgha~l). (8)bundling (id.).(9)soaking(id.).(10)handlingrettedkenaf.
which have to beperformed within a single month. Only other crops that do notcompetefor labouratthesametime,canbegrown. Kenaf, a fibre crop, issuch a complementary crop, asshown bythe labour profile in Figure 66. Comparison of both labour profiles shows that there is practically no concurrent demand on labour at any time. However, kenaf production isseverelylimited bytheheavylabour requirement for rettingand associated activities. A yield of 800 kg retted and baled kenaf per hectare
275
420
137 (8)
(10)
67
J)
28 13 2) 13
Tr
!7) St
3}
-iri
D time
Figure 67. Labour profile for cassava cultivation in northeastern Thailand using draught animals for land preparation, cultivation and hilling-up; all other activities by hand labour; labour requirement expressed in manhours per hectare. (1) first ploughing. (2) second ploughing. (3) harrowing. (4) planting. (5) fertilization. (6) cultivation. (7) weeding. (8) earthing-up. (9) topping, lifting (at 12t ha-'). (10) transporting.
requires as much as 225 man-hours within twenty days. Because a sixmemberfamily isableto produceabout400man-hours insuchaperiod,at most 1.8hectareof kenafcanbegrown.Sincethepriceof 1 kgkenafisabout equaltothepriceof 1.5- 2.5 kgpaddy,anequivalentofabout3000kgpaddy canbegrowninthisway. Thisissufficient to fill thegapbetweenactualand requiredproduction. Stillanothercropcouldbeintroduced tooptimizelabouruse. Withrespect tolabourdemand,thenextmost favourablecropiscassava. Only hilling-up (Figure 67) coincides with the transplanting of paddy, but this requiresvery little labour. The fairly heavy labour demand for transport at theend of the growth cycle refers to commercial cassava growing, where harvesting isconcentrated. If cassava is grown for private consumption, harvesting isspread* over a much longer period, thus reducing the labour requirement. A sixmember family, living on cassava only, would require about 4700 kg fresh cassava roots annually, ayield that can be obtained from one hectareunder most circumstances. Fromthelabourprofiles itappearsthatitispossible for onefamilytogrow 1.3 haofpaddy, 1.1haofcassavaand 1.8haofkenaf.All of thelatter isthen sold and, depending on price and preference, part of the paddy and the cassava could be marketed, leaving sufficient food for the familytocoversubsistenceneeds.
276
6.3 Weeds,pestsanddiseases F.H. Rijsdijk 6.3.1 Introduction Factors influencing crop production can be divided into three schematic groups: yield- defining factors such as radiation; yield- limiting factors, such as the availability of water and plant nutrients; and yield- reducing factors,suchasweeds,pestsanddiseases.Yield- defining andyield- limiting factorshavebeentreatedinpreviouschapters.Inthissectionemphasiswillbe placedonananalysisofyield-reducingfactors. Yield reductions caused by weeds, pests and diseases arecommon inagriculturalpractice.Theactualyieldreductionvarieswiththecrop,soil,climate, currentweeds,pestsanddiseases,croprotation,thelevelofcontrolandmany other factors. The effects of weeds, pests and diseases can be taken into account by multiplying the result of the preceding production estimate bya factor oneminusthemeanproportionof loss.Theresultisonlyaveryrough estimate of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases without discriminating between production levels, climatic conditions, etc. Estimates of yield losses obtained from experiments arehighlyvariable, asshowninFigure68,giving therelationbetweentherelativeyieldwithoutweedcontrolandthe frequency of its occurrence for transplanted, flooded rice (Van Heemst, 1979). The expectedmean,mc,anditsstandarddeviation, qe,are0.51 and0.23,respectively.Theexpected meanisacropcharacteristic andthehighvalueof qcisan expression of thevariability inweed species, weed density andthevariability inthecropitself. Thevariability inloss estimates dueto pestsanddiseasesis of the same order of magnitude. Therefore, correcting crop production estimates using this type of information yields only a rough approximation of realityandisnotverysatisfying. Henceasoundermethod of evaluatingyield losses should be developed. In this section a methodology is suggested for assessing the effects of weeds, pests, and diseases in amore detailed wayby theuseof simple explanatory models. Onthebasisof such models it maybe possible to relate the impact of weeds, pests and diseases to the production levelthatispursued. 6.3.2 Weedmodels Damagetocropsthroughweedsisessentiallycausedbythecompetition for radiation,waterandnutrientsbetweenweeds(unwantedplants)andthecrop. However, the degree of weed control in many crops in high- input farming systems, seems to bepoorly related to therisk of competition. Insuchsitua277
420
137 (8)
(10)
5J
28
67
7) 54
13
2)
-ir
TM
"L
M
S)
ry
I''I''I
J
time
Figure 67. Labour profile for cassava cultivation in northeastern Thailand using draught animals for land preparation, cultivation and hilling-up; all other activities by hand labour; labour requirement expressed in manhours per hectare. (1) first ploughing. (2) second ploughing. (3) harrowing. (4) planting. (5) fertilization. (6) cultivation. (7) weeding. (8) earthing-up. (9) topping, lifting (at 12t ha"1). (10) transporting.
requires as much as 225 man-hours within twenty days. Because a sixmemberfamily isableto produceabout400man- hoursinsuchaperiod,at most 1.8hectareof kenafcanbegrown.Sincethepriceof 1 kgkenafisabout equaltothepriceof 1.5- 2.5 kgpaddy,anequivalentof about3000kgpaddy canbegrowninthisway. Thisissufficient to fill thegapbetweenactualand requiredproduction. Still anothercropcould beintroduced tooptimizelabouruse.Withrespect tolabourdemand,thenextmost favourablecropiscassava. Only hilling-up (Figure 67) coincides with the transplanting of paddy, but this requiresvery little labour. The fairly heavy labour demand for transport at theend of the growth cycle refers to commercial cassava growing, where harvesting isconcentrated. If cassava is grown for private consumption, harvesting isspread* over a much longer period, thus reducing the labour requirement. A sixmember family, living on cassava only, would require about 4700 kg fresh cassava roots annually, ayield that can be obtained from one hectareunder mostcircumstances. Fromthelabourprofiles itappearsthat itispossible for onefamilytogrow 1.3haofpaddy, 1.1haofcassavaand 1.8 haof kenaf.All of thelatter isthen sold and, depending on priceand preference, part of the paddy and the cassava could be marketed, leaving sufficient food for the familytocoversubsistenceneeds.
276
6.3 Weeds,pestsanddiseases F.H. Rijsdijk

6.3.J Introduction
Factors influencing crop production can be divided into three schematic groups: yield- defining factors such as radiation; yield- limiting factors, such as the availability of water and plant nutrients; and yield- reducing factors,suchasweeds,pestsanddiseases.Yield- defining andyield- limiting factorshavebeentreatedinpreviouschapters.Inthissectionemphasiswillbe placedonananalysisofyield-reducingfactors. Yield reductions caused by weeds, pests and diseases arecommon inagriculturalpractice.Theactualyieldreductionvarieswiththecrop,soil,climate, currentweeds,pestsanddiseases,croprotation,thelevelofcontrolandmany other factors. The effects of weeds, pests and diseases can be taken into account by multiplying the result of the preceding production estimate bya factoroneminusthemeanproportionof loss.Theresultisonlyaveryrough estimate of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases without discriminating between production levels, climatic conditions, etc. Estimates of yield losses obtained from experiments arehighlyvariable, asshowninFigure68,giving therelationbetweentherelativeyieldwithoutweedcontrolandthe frequency of its occurrence for transplanted, flooded rice (Van Heemst, 1979). The expectedmean,mc,anditsstandarddeviation,qc,are0.51 and0.23,respectively.Theexpected meanisacropcharacteristic andthehighvalueof qcisan expression of thevariability inweed species, weed density andthevariability inthecropitself. Thevariability inloss estimates dueto pestsanddiseasesis of the same order of magnitude. Therefore, correcting crop production estimates using this type of information yields only a rough approximation of realityandisnotverysatisfying. Henceasoundermethodof evaluatingyield losses should be developed. In this section a methodology is suggested for assessing the effects of weeds, pests, and diseases in amore detailed wayby theuseof simpleexplanatory models. Onthebasis of such models it maybe possible to relate the impact of weeds, pests and diseases to the production levelthatispursued. 6.3.2 Weedmodels Damagetocropsthroughweedsisessentiallycausedbythecompetition for radiation,waterandnutrientsbetweenweeds(unwantedplants)andthecrop. However, the degree of weed control in many crops in high- input farming systems, seems to bepoorly related to therisk of competition. Insuchsitua277
Relative cumulative frequency 99^
002 0 0.50 1.00 Relative yield without weed control.
Figure 68. The relative cumulative frequency of the relative yield of transplanted flooded rice without weed control, plotted on normal probability paper.
tionsotherconsiderations areofgreater importance,suchaslossof qualityof the harvested product, unfavourable effects during harvest and the need for weed suppression to a level below competition risk in view of crop rotation schemes.Here,onlycompetition aspectswillbetreated. Sometheoreticalaspects If it is assumed that the physiological characteristics of the weeds and the croparesimilar, thegrowth rates for weedsand cropgrowinginamixturecan bedescribed by: 278
Gc = (LC/(LC + LJ) Gt and Gw= (LW/(LC + LJ) Gt orGc/Gw = Lc/Lw where G isgrowthrate(kgha"1 d"1) L istheleafareaindex;thesubscriptsc,w,trefer tocrop,weedsandtotal,respectively.
(100)
Ifthegrowthrateforbothcropandweedsdependsonlyonthetotalleafarea index, the ratio between Lc and Lw is maintained during the entire growth cycle.The final total drymatterproduction isthusdistributed overcropand weeds in proportion to that ratio, still under the assumption of identical physiological characteristics. Thisimpliesthatthedamageof weedstoacrop can be derived directly from the ratio of the leaf area indices of weeds and cropattheonsetofcompetition, i.e. atemergence.Asthegrowthofseedlings followsanexponentialpattern(Exercise 10),itcanbedescribedby: Yt = Y0ert = NsW0ert where Y0 istotaldrymatteryieldattime0,i.e.emergence(kg ha"l) Yt istotaldrymatteryieldattimet(kg ha"l) Ns isthenumberofseedlings W0 istheaverageweightofanindividualseedling(kg) r istherelativegrowthrate(d"!) Hencetherelative start position of cropandweedsisdefined bythenumber of seedlings and their weight at thestart of the competition. Even underthe crude assumption of identical growth characteristics, some general conclusionscanbedrawnfromthisdescription. Plantedandtransplantedcropswill be less susceptible to weed competition than seeded crops because of their relative advantage in leaf development. Small-seeded crops, like sugarbeet, are more susceptible than big-seeded crops because the weight of the seedlingishighlycorrelatedwithseedweight.Slowgerminatingspecieshavea disadvantageincomparisontofastgerminatingspecies. Cropsandweeds Clearly,theassumptionofidenticalcharacteristics forcropandweedsdoes not hold in many situations. An important difference between a crop and weedsmaybetheirmaximumheightandthetimeneededtoreachthatheight. Whenspecies differ inheight, thetallest species will haveanadvantageover 279 (101)
height
leaf area density
Figure 69. Schematic representation of leaf area density distribution for a mixture of two crops of different height. hc and hw represent the height of the crop and of the weeds, respectively.
theshorteronebecauseofshading,eveniftheirleafareaindicesareaboutthe same.Aquantification of theeffects of heightdifferences isgivenbySpitters &Aerts(1983). Figure69presentsanexampleinwhichtheweedshavereachedaheightHw and the crop a height Hc. The leaves of a species are assumed to be evenly distributed withheightanditsgrowthratetobeproportional totheleafarea index and the radiation intensity at half the height, Hh, of the crop or the weed. The radiation intensity at Hh is a function of the leaf area above Hh (Section2.1).Theextinctionofradiationcanbedescribedby: I=I
o
-kc.L
(102)
with kcthe extinction coefficient and L the total leaf area index above the pointofmeasurement. TheleafareaindexaboveHhw,halftheheightoftheweeds,is: L(Hhw) = Lw/2 4- ((Hc - Hw/2)/Hc) L IfHwismorethandoubleHcthelasttermhastobeomitted, becausethere isnoinfluence ofthecropataheightHhw.TheleafareaindexaboveHhc,half theheightofthecrop, is: 280
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L(Hhc) = Lc/2 + ((Hw - Hc/2)/Hw) Lw Thegrowthratescannowbedescribedby: Gc/Gw = L c /L w .e ( - ke - (L(Hhc) - L(Hhw))) Gc + Gw = Gt
(104)
(105) (106)
Exercise85 Calculatetheratioofthegrowthrateforweedsandcrop,usingEquations105 and106,forHw = 1.2andHc = 0.8andLw = Lc = 1.5andforHw = 0.8and Hc = 1.2,withkc= 0.65inbothcases.
Theratiobetweenthegrowthrateof thecropandthat of theweedswillnow also vary in relation to their heights. A description of the increase inheight with time is necessary to calculate the result of the competition process in termsof partitioningof totaldrymatterbetweencropandweeds.InTable71 theequations aregivento calculate thegrowth of cropandweeds overtime. Thegrowthconditions areassumed to beconstant for thesakeof simplicity. TheresultsaregiveninTables72aandb. 6.3.3 Weeding Inalmost all agricultural systems, removal of weedsbyhandorbytheuse of herbicides is common practice. Because our main interest is cropproduction in developing countries, hand weeding will be treated in some detail. Before planting ordrillinganewcrop,thelandiscleaned from weedsaspart of the seedbed preparation. The crop is planted and after some time the farmerwilljudgetheneedforweeding.Ascompetition forradiationbetween crop and weeds will only become significant at atotal leaf areaindex above 1.5, weeding issupposed totakeplaceif thetotal leaf areaindex, Lt,exceeds 1.5 andtheproportionof weedsinLtishigherthan0.2. Weedingwillremove nine- tenthsoftheweedbiomass,reducingatthesametimeitsaverageheight to one tenth. Tables 73a and 73b show the results of the competition when weeding ispracticed for acropwitharelatively highcompetitive abilitysuch aswheatandforacropsuchassugar- beet,whichhasamuchlowercompetitiveability.
281
Table 71. Basic data and equations forcalculation ofcompetition between crops and weed populations Basic data Potential dailygross C 0 2 assimilation Development stage Specific leaf area Conversion efficiency for dry matter production Relative maintenance respiration rate p gs DVS Q
x
= 300kgCH 2 Oha- , d- 1 seeTable 72 = 20m2 kg"1 = 0.7 = 0.015 d- 1
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Equations to beused sequentially for each time interval Reduction factor for assimilation Relative rateofleaf dying for DVS > 1 Fraction drymatter for leaf growth Potential gross assimilation rate Maintenance respiration Assimilates for increase indry matter Rateofdrymatter increase Leaf areaindex above ViH c Leaf areaindex above ViH w Rateofdrymatter increase ofthe crop Rateofdrymatter increaseof the weeds Height ofthe crop Death rateofthe leavesofthe crop Weight ofthe leavesofthe crop Weight other organsofthe crop Leaf areaindexofthe crop Total dryweight ofthe crop Height ofthe weeds Death rateoftheleavesofthe weeds Weight ofthe leavesofthe weeds Weight ofother organsofthe weeds Leaf areaindexofthe weeds Total dryweight ofthe weeds Total leaf area index RA d, FL PGASS MRES ASAG DMI L(Hhc) L(Hhw) = f(Lt) "^"O.d-1; = 0.02d" 1 = f (DVS) = Pg$.RA kgha-'d" 1 = TDW.R m kgha^d" 1 = P G A S S - M R E S kgha^d" 1 = ASAG.E, kgha-'d" 1 = L c /2+ ( ( H w - H c / 2 ) / H > L w forHw>Hc/2. = L w /2+((Hc- H w /2)/H c )- Lc forHc>Hw/2. DMILce~ - 6 5 *L ( H hc)/(L ce""( L(H hc ) + 1 ^ - 0 . 6 5 ^ ^ ) ) kgha^d"1
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Exercise86 Calculatetheeffect of eachsuccessiveweedingondry-matterproductionof thecropsinTable73andplottheresults. Explain whythe dry- matter production of acompletely weed- free cropis higherthanthatofacropthatisweededseveraltimesduringitsdevelopment.
Theresponseofcropsandweedstosub- optimumgrowingconditionsmay differ. Crop plants consist, by selection and breeding, of populations with uniform properties, tailored to the needs of mankind. Weeds areplantsthat areunwanted and apopulation contains many species that fill the gaps ('niches') not used bythecrop.Sub-optimum growingconditions for thecrop, such asexcess orshortage of water, lack of nutrients, low orextremelyhigh temperatures, favourthosespeciesinaweedpopulationthatarebetteradapted to such conditions than the crop itself. So, as a rule, any condition that willinterfere withnormalcropdevelopment notonlyaffects cropproduction directly, butalsoincreasestheriskof croplossesduetoweeds. Forexample, to counteract theeffects of weeds in ricecultivation, thecropis, if possible, flooded because the crop is resistant against flooding, but many weeds are not.Whenflooding fails,anoutburstofweeddevelopmentistheresult. Thecompetition model presented hereonly demonstrates the principles of competition. Coupling of such models with moreelaborate cropgrowthmodelscansupplymorequantitativeinformation, ifsufficiently accuratedataon growth characteristics of weeds are included. The explanatory value of the competition principle can be tested with data summarized by van Heemst (1985).Table74providesfactsderivedfromtheliteratureontherelativeyield of anumberof cropswithout weedcontrol andspecifies thetime, expressed relativetothetotalcropgrowthperiod,thatcropsshouldbekeptweedfreeto avoidlossesofmorethan5%.
Exercise87 Trytoexplaindifferences incroplosswithout weedcontrol andinnecessary weed-free periods among the crops in Table 74, by applying information giveninthissection.
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Table74.Estimatedendofcriticalperiodrelativetototalcropgrowthperiodandyield without weed control relative to yield with complete weed control for a numberof agriculturalcropsa.
Crop wheat peas potato sorghum cabbage maize soyabean sweetpotato transplantedrice sugar-cane flax groundnut beans redbeet tobacco okra sugar-beet uplandrice yam cassava cotton garlic mungbean carrots onions Estimatedrelativeendof criticalperiod 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.44 0.47 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.56 0.56 0.56 Estimatedrelativeyield without weedcontrol 0.75 0.70 0.68 0.61 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.54 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.41 0.41 0.40 0.34 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.19 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00
Othercrop-specificagriculturaloperationsasearthingup(potato,sugar-cane), thinning (cotton, sugar-beet), transplanting (tobacco, rice)areincluded indetermining the yield without weed control, although these treatments have effects on weed competition. 6.3.4 Pestsanddiseases The effects of pests and diseases on crop yields vary strongly among crops and yield levels. The number of different pests and diseases is so large that a general treatment of the effects of pests and diseases is almost impossible. However, inagricultural practicethenumberof relevant pestsanddiseasesat one siteorinaregionislimited. Becausetheaimisnot anexhaustivedescriptionof theeffects of allpossiblepestsanddiseasesoncrops, thecausal agents areclassified accordingtotheirmodeof actiononthecropandthesusceptibi292
lity of the crop to each of these groups is defined. Adopting this approach may result in a methodology that can be used for a simple evaluation of potential andactual croplossesinrelationtoenvironment andfarmingpractice. Pests and diseases maybe classified according to population development and according to the wayinwhich they interact withthe productivity of the crop. In the first classification, a distinction can be made between 'single interest*and'multipleinterest'pestsanddiseases.Singleinterest(monocyclic) pestsanddiseasesarecharacterized byoneinfection cycleduringthegrowing periodof thecrop.Forthisgroupof causalagents,theexpecteddamagelevel depends mainly on the initial level of attack, for example seed and seedling removal by pests and diseases during avery limited period in cropdevelopment. Smuts and bunts of cereals and some one- generation insect pests belongtothisgroup.Multipleinterest (polycyclic) pestsanddiseasesarecharacterized bytheoccurrence of morethanonegeneration duringthegrowing season.Thedamageleveldependsnotonlyontheinitiallevelofinfection,but alsoontheabilityof thecausal agenttodevelopthroughrepetitivelifecycles to a level that affects crop production. Since the development of such pests and diseases depends, at least partly, on the crop characteristics and the course of crop development, the effects of such pests and diseases mayvary considerablywithproductionlevel. Importantpestsanddiseasesbelongingto thisgrouparecerealaphids,leafblight,leafspotdiseases,rustsandmildews. Another criterion for classifying pests and diseases isthe mode of interaction with the host. Certain pests and diseases remove green tissue or whole plants without affecting the remaining plant parts or plants, except through canopydensity.Examplesofthesearecerealleafbeetlesandvarioussoilpests thatremovewholeseedlings.Manyotherpestsanddiseasesnotonlyaffectthe infestedtissuebutalsoinfluencethephysiologyofplantpartsnotyetinfested, forexamplethrougheffects onphotosynthesisandleafageing,suchascaused bycereal aphidsandmanyleaf diseases. Detailed evaluation of theeffects of thistypeofinfestation isonlypossiblebytakingintoaccountcropphysiology andpopulationgrowthof thecausalagentconcurrently. Examplesof suchan approacharegivenbyRabbinge&Rijsdijk (1982).Inthissection,theemphasisisonamethodology forevaluating effects of polycyclic pestsanddiseases oncropsatdifferent productionlevels. 6.3.5 Dynamicsof polycyclicpopulationgrowth Inprinciple, population growth of apolycyclic organism follows anexponential pattern.Thegrowth rateof that population is, according to differentialcalculus: dP = rP dt (107) 293
Afterintegrationthetimecourseofthepopulationisdescribedby: Pt = Po-e rt where P0 istheinitiallevelofthepopulation t istime(d) r istherelativegrowthrate(d"l) As thepopulation cannot expand infinitely, amaximum level of thepopulation or a carrying capacity has to be defined. The actual growth rate of the population is influenced bythis maximum level, not only atthe momentthe maximumlevelPmisreached,butlongbefore.Thismaybetakenintoaccount if it is assumed that thegrowth rate of the population is proportional tothe fraction of the host that is not yet infected. This inhibition mechanism is explained by non-effective double infections in the case of fungi and by intra-specific inhibition mechanisms in insect populations. The rate of growthofthepopulationisthen: dP = rP (1 - P/Pm) dt Thepopulationsizeattimetfollows fromintegrationofEquation109: P - Pn Pt = ^ - ^ H ;K = ^ 1 1 + Ke rt P0 P (110) (109) (108)
Such a population growth model is called a logistic model. The logistic growth model describes population growth for insects and pathogenic fungi onlyapproximately, becauseinrealitydelaysoccursuchaslatent periods for fungi and non- reproductive periods as larvae and pupae stages in insect populations. These delays arenot explicitely defined intheequations. Introducing those delays, too, leads to numerical models of a more complex nature. Detailed information on crop, environment and pests and diseases is necessary for suchmodels. Nevertheless, logistic models maybeused inevaluating effects of pests and diseases on productivity. For that purpose the relativegrowthrate, r, of thepopulation should bedefined not asaconstant throughout thegrowing cycle, but asafunction of acropcharacteristicsuch asdevelopment stage, which reflects both cropphysiology and pastenvironmentalconditions,andtheresistanceofthehost.Thecalculationofthepopulation dynamics should becarried out for sufficiently small time intervals to takeaccount of theeffects of changesinitsparametervalues.Thevalues for the parameters rand Pmas a function of crop development can beobtained 294
from morecomplex models or from experiments wherepest ordiseaselevels arerecordedsequentiallyincombinationwithcropcharacteristics.
Exercise88 Calculate the r values during crop development from disease readings and crop characteristics as given in Table 75. Calculate the growth rate of the populationatthetimeofdiseasereadings.
Coupling of calculations onpathogenpopulation development anditsconsequences for cropproductionwithcalculations of cropproductionitselfwill bedemonstrated foracerealrustonwheat.Thecalculationprocedureusedin Section3.4forProductionSituation2willbeusedwithsomesimplificationin parameterstoavoidexcessiveuseofcalculus.Thecompletecalculationprocedure is summarized in Table 76. The epidemic of cereal rust takes place by colonizationoftheleaftissuebythefungus.Thelevelofinfectionisexpressed inkilogramsoflivinginfectedleavesperhectare. In the model the amount of infected leaf tissue is thus calculated as a separatestatevariable,Yj.Therateofchangeofthisvariableis: ^Xl = r - Y i - U - Yi/Ym) - Yd where Ym isthetotalweightoflivingleaftissue(kg ha"l) r istherelative growth rateof the fungus population asa function ofthedevelopmentstageofthecrop(seeTable77) (d~l) Yd isthedeathrateofthediseasedleaftissue(kgha~* d"l) Table75. Disease readingsandcropdevelopment of anepidemicof yellow ruston wheat. Time 40 70 90 110 125 135 DVS 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 Severity(Pj/PJ 0.00001 0.0002 0.005 0.08 0.2 0.5 295 (111)
Table76.Parametersandequationsforthecombinedcrop-diseasemodel PotentialdailygrossC0 2assimilation Developmentstageofthecrop Specificleafarea Potentialevapotranspiration Totalwatersupply Soilwaterdepletionfactor Soilmoisturecontentofairdrysoil Soilmoisturecontentat fieldcapacity Soilmoisturecontentatwiltingpoint Potentialrootingdepth Growthrateoftheroots Conversionefficiency fordrymatterproduction Relativerateofdiseasesenescence Relativemaintenancerespirationrate Ratiobetweendyingofdiseasedandhealthyleaves Equationstobecalculatedsequentiallyforeachtime 1. Reductionfactorforassimilation 2. Proportionalityfactorfordiseaseseverity 3. Relativerateofleafsenescence 4. Fractiondrymatterforleafgrowth 5. Fractiondrymatterforrootgrowth 6. Fractiondrymatterforstemgrowth 7. Fractiondrymatterforgraingrowth 8. Potentialgrossassimilation 9. Maximumevaporationfromsoilsurface 10. Maximumtranspiration 11. Actualevaporation 12. Criticalsoilmoisturecontent 13. Actualtranspiration 14. Rootingdepth 15. Moistureaddedtorootedzonebyrootgrowth 16. Changeofmoistureinrootedpartofthesoil 17. Soilmoistureinrootedzone 18. Soilmoisturecontentofrootedzone 19. Amountofmoistureinnon-rootedzone 20. Actualgrossassimilation 21. Maintenancerespiration 22. Assimilationforincreaseofdrymatter 23. Totalrelativerateofdyingofleaves 24. Drymatterincrease 25. Deathrateoftheleavesofthecrop 26. Weightoftheleavesofthecrop 27. Leafareaindexofthecrop 28. Weightoftheroots 29. Weightofthestems 30. Weightofthegrains 31. Totaldryweight 32. Totaldryweightofdeadleaves 33. Deathrateofdiseasedleaves 34. Relativegrowthrateofthedisease 35. Weightofdiseasedleaves 36. Diseaseseverity
Ps
= = = = = = = =
2=
DVS SLA ETO IM P SMa SMfc SMw Drm Rr Eg Qd Rm Fd interval RA Fs Ds FL FR FS FG PGASS Em Tm Ea SMcr T T RD dMr DWr Wr SMr Wnr GASS MRES ASAG Q DMI DWLV WLV L WRT WST WGR TDW TDWD Yd r Y PROPD
= = = = =
300kgCH 2 0/ha f(TIME) 25m2kg"1 f(TIME) f (TIME) f(Tm)seeTable20 0.03 0.225 0.09 1500m 100mm/decade 0.7 .025 0.015 d a y 1 3. f (L)seeTable11 f(PROPD) 0.0;forDVS > 1 Ds = 0.02/day f(DVS)seeTable12 f(DVS)seeTable12 f(DVS)seeTable12 f(DVS)seeTable12 Pgs.RA.At kg/ha ETo.(l - RA)mm/decade ETo.RA mm/decade Em.(SMr- SMa)/(SMfc- SMa)mm/dec^ (l-P).(SMfc-SMw) + SMw Tm;forSMcr > SMr Tm.(SMr- SMw)/(SMcr- SMw) RD + Rr,forRD < Drm Wnr.Rr/(Drm- RD) mm/decade IM + dMr - Ea - Tmm/decade Wr + Dwr.Atmm Wr/RD Wnr - dMr.Atmm PGASS.T/Tm kg/ha TDW.Rm.At kg/ha GASS - MRESkg/ha (Dw.(l-T/Tm) + Ds).Fs; forQ < Qd.PROPDQ = Qd.PROPD ASAG .Eg.(1- PROPD .(1- RA))kg/1* WLV. Q.Atkg/ha WLV + FL.DMI - DWLV kg/ha WLV .SLA .0.0001;forDVS > L ^ 0.5 WRT + DMI.FR kg/ha WST + DMI.FS kg/ha WGR + DMI.FG kg/ha WLV + WGR + WST + WRTkg/ha TDWD + DWLV kg/ha Fd.Q.WLV.Y.At/((Fd-l).Y + WLV) f(DVS)seeTable77 j WLV/(1 + (WLV-Y)/Y.EXP(-r.At)r forY < WLV Y/WLV
= = = = = = = = =s = = =
= = = = =s = = = =
=
= = = = = = = == = = =
* M
zz
296
Table77.Parametervaluesfordevelopmentofanearlyandalatediseaseonwheat.
IE
0
DVS 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
'early* r(rust) 0.11
'late' r(leafspot) 0.04
Yi/Ym 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0
Fds
0.09
1.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.0
100
140
0.13 0.05 0.0 0.0
0.15
0.15
Diseased leavesdie, either from senescenceorasaresultof thedisease.The death rate of diseased leaves is not proportional to the total death rate of leaves, sincenormallythediseaseisnot homogeneously distributed withinthe canopy. Epidemics take time to develop; fructifications that can cause new infections appear only after acertainlatent period, so olderleaves, lowinthe canopy, have a much higher chance to be infected than young leaves. As old leavesdie first, itisassumed that diseased leaves diewitharelative deathrate that is a factor Fdhigherthan healthy leaves. If theoverall relative deathrate of all leaf tissue (Section 3.4) equals qt, the relative death rateof the diseased leaves,q^ iscalculatedas: Q tYm = qi Yf + q/F d (Ym - Ys) which,aftersomerearrangementyields: Q i= Fd qt Ym/((Fd - 1)Yj+ Ym) Thedeathrateof theinfected leavesisthusequalto: Yd = Fd qtYm/((Fd - 1)Yj+ Ym)Yj (114) (113) (112)
Dying of non- infected leaf tissue may becaused bystress through lack of waterorfrom senescence. However, diseasemayalsocausedeathof non- infected leaves,for example enclosures of healthy leaf tissue within infected leaves.Whentheinfestation isrelativelymild,therelativedeathrateof leaves 297
is assumed to beproportional to the level of infestation. Whenthe infection increases, still- healthy leaf tissue in the surroundings of the disease lesions startstodie.Therelationbetweendiseaseseverityanddeathof healthyleaves ischaracteristicforthehost- pathogencombination.Aroughestimateofthis effect forcerealrustsisgiveninTable77.Nowqtisdefinedas: qt = (dw(1 - T/TJ + ds)Fds Fds = f(Y/Ym) where dwand dsare the maximum relative death rate caused by waterstress andsenescence, respectively, andFdstheproportionality factor forthedisease severity. Finally, the effect of ageing of the pathogen itself should be taken into account. Disappearance of the disease by ageing proceeds at a more or less constant relative ratethat is specific for a pathogen- host combination. For cerealrustsitisbetween0.05 and0.01 perday. Itisassumedthatifthisvalue is smaller than qt, all dying infected leaf tissue is taken into account in the previousdefinition. Ifthisvalueqdishigher,itwillreplaceqt. The effect of the epidemic on crop production is incorporated as follows. Infectedleaftissueisassumedtotakepartinassimilationandrespiration.The assimilatesproducedare,however,notavailableforcropgrowthbutareused forgrowthandmaintenanceof thefungus, whilethemaintenancerespiration continues asinhealthyleaves.Thedecline inproduction duetothediseaseis proportional to the amount of diseased leaf tissue. As discussed earlier, the diseaseisnotevenlydistributedwithinthecanopy.Thisimpliesthattheeffect of the disease will be relatively small incrops with a leaf area index of 4or more,becausemostof theradiationisinterceptedbythehealthyleavesatthe topof thecanopy, andtheinfected leavesatthebottomcontributeverylittle toassimilation.Thiseffect canbequantified. First, thedistribution of thedisease inthecanopy will betreated. Forthat purposethecropcanopyisdividedinanupperandalowerhalf,eachwith0.5 LAI. When the proportion of the diseased leaves is close to zero, all the disease will be concentrated in the lower half of the canopy and it will be absent intheupperhalf. Whenall leaves inthecanopy areinfected, e.g. the proportionof diseasedleavesequalsone,thediseaseisevenlydistributedover thecanopy. Thefractionofdiseaseinthelowerhalfofthecanopyis: d,= 1/(1 + Pd) Thefractionofdiseaseintheupperhalfofthecanopyis: du = Pd/(l + Pd) 298 (117) (116) (115)
where Pd = ,/ Theeffect of thedisease on thedry-matter production of thecropdepends on the radiation intercepted by diseased leaves. As demonstrated above, the diseaseisunevenly distributed overthecanopy. Thefraction of theradiation interceptedintheupperhalfofthecanopyis: 1- e-kc'LA,/2 Thefractionofradiationinterceptedinthelowerhalfofthecanopyis:
4
(118)
p"~Ke . LAI/2
p~K e . LAI
ey 1 Q"\
Theproportions of thetotal radiation intercepted intheupperandthelower halvesofthecanopyarerespectively:

1_
e -k c .LAI/2
_c-kc.LAl
- k c . LAI/2 ! _
(120)
A
P, =! 1
- k e . LAI
(121)
e-ke.LAI
Thedrymatter increase dueto interception of radiation intheupperhalf of thecanopy,correctedfortheeffect ofdisease,cannowbedefinedas: DMIU = ASAG EgPu (1 - du 2 Pd) (122)
andthedrymatterincreasedueto interception of radiationinthelowerhalf of the canopyas: DMI, = ASAG Eg P, (1 - dj2 Pd) so DMI = DMIU + DMl!
**""'**~"~~~ ~-"~* ^ ~ ~ ~ * ^ ~ ^
(123)
(124)
^ ^ - ^
Exercise89 Makeaplot of theeffect of diseaseondry-matterproduction forvaluesof V Y m equal to 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 for LAI values of 1, 3, 5, and 7. Assumeavalueof0.65 forkc.
A further adjustment hastobemadebecauseincomparisontotheoriginal model of Section 3.4, thisdiseaseonlyaffects leaf bladesandsometimesleaf sheaths. However, the heads and stems that are not affected, contribute to assimilation, evenifallleavesaredead.Therefore, aminimumvalueforLAI after anthesis of 0.5 is maintained. On the basis of these assumptions it is possibletocalculatecropproductionandtheeffect of theepidemicincombination. Table76givesthecalculationproceduresummarizedinaFORTRAN programme.TheresultsaregiveninTable78. The disease treated in this example develops mostly during leaf developmentbefore anthesis.After anthesis,itsdevelopment slowsdownquicklyand midway between anthesis and maturity it comes to a complete stop. Other diseases Septoria leafspot, for instance develop slowly during leaf formation, but with increasing temperature they continue to develop until crop maturation. Theeffect of sucha'late' disease canbecalculated using arelative growth rate, r, of the fungus as given in Table 77. The impact of both diseasetypes oncropproduction inasituation withoptimum andsub- optimumwatersupplyispresentedinTable79,whichgivesthefinalgrainyields. Themoresevereimpactofthe'early'diseasecanbeexplainedbythefactthat itaffects themaximumleafareaindex,whichhasaneffect onthewholepostanthesis period while the late disease only accelerates leaf death after leaf formationiscompleted. 6.3.6 Interactionofnutrientstatuswithpestsanddiseases. Whennutrientslimitcropgrowth,theimpactof diseasesandpestsoncrop production maybedifferent from that intheoptimumgrowthsituation.For example,whenNsupplyisthelimitingfactor,theyieldestimateisadaptedfor theamount of Navailable. Thedynamics of Ninthecropare, however, not considered. IfNsupplytothecropislimiting, redistributionof Ntakesplace fromvegetativeorganstothegrains.Thatprocess accelerates leaf senescence andcausesincreasedleafdeath,partlyexplainingtheloweryieldthatisobtainedunderNlimitingconditions, astheleaf areaindexdecreasesmorerapidly and assimilation will be considerably lower. As the leaves are the substrate upon which leaf diseases and many pests rely, interaction is to be expected. Theeffect of limiting N supply canbeexpressed intherelative death rateof leaves, which governs the leaf areaduration, i.e. theintegrated value of leaf area index. Table 79 summarizes the results obtained from the calculation procedure.illustrated in Table 76, including the effect of non-optimum.N supply expressed as an increase in ds, for two disease patterns and limited availabilityofwater. Theproportion of losscausedbyadiseaseorpestdepends,therefore, also on the impact of other growth limiting factors. It demonstrates why crops withapotentially highproduction level maysuffer morethanproportionally fromacertaininfestation of apestordiseasethancropswithalowerproduc300
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301
Table79.Calculatedgrainyieldsofacropwithan'early' disease,witha'late'disease, andwithoutdisease, forwetanddryconditions,andforoptimumandsuboptimum nitrogenconditions.

Nsupply Optimum Suboptimum Disease 'early' 'late' 'nodisease' 'early' 'late' 'nodisease' Dry 3435 3521 4026 2204 2221 2375 Wet 6105 6123 6680 4345 4600 4700
tion capacity, especially whenthepest ordisease develops mainly after completionofleafformation. 6.3.7 Effectsofweather Effects of weather conditions on the development of pests and diseases is treated inanindirect wayusing the relation betweenthe relative growthrate ofthepestordiseaseandthedevelopmentstageofthecrop.Ascropandpest ordiseasedonotalwaysreactinasimilar fashiontodifferent weatherconditions, such relations areprobably weather-specific. Because it is impossible toestablishexperimentallytherelationbetweentherelativegrowthrateofthe causalagentandthedevelopmentstageofthecropforeachweathertype,itis advisable to assesseffects of differences inweatherconditions on population growth separately. This can be done by using more fundamental models for populationgrowthofpestsanddiseasesappliedtovariousweatherconditions (Rijsdijk&Zadoks,1979). 6.3.8 Othereffectsonpopulationgrowth Othereffects onpopulation development of pestsanddiseases, suchasthe direct effect of the nitrogen status of the canopy on the growth rate of the population, arenottreatedhere.Thereisevidencethatatleast someimportantpestsanddiseasesthatrelyonlivingtissue,developmorerapidlyoncrops optimally supplied with N than on crops with a suboptimal supply of N (Rabbingeetal., 1981,Rijsdijk, 1980;Darwinkel, 1980a, 1980b).Thereverse may be true for fungi that use dead leaf tissue for fructification. However, information abouttheseeffects shouldagainbeassessedusingmorecomplex models. Theresults of suchstudies maybeincluded inthesimplerapproach byredefiningtheparametervalues.
302
6.3.9 Controlofweeds,pestsanddiseases Control of weeds, pests and diseases isadvisable inmanysituations. Control measurescanbeclassified inpreventive measures, suchasgrowingresistant varieties, using crop rotation schemes in which thecausal agents are,at least partly, controlled by reducing their population in fallow periods, flooding of the land, etc., and direct control measures. Direct control measures aremainly weeding and application of herbicides against weeds, and theuse ofpesticidesagainstpestsanddiseases.Insomecasessophisticatedtechniques of biological control maybeapplied. Thesecontrol measures relyheavily on availableresourcesoflabour,cashandmanagement.Thecapitalisinvestedin spraying equipment and the sprayed product; and management refers to the abilityofthefarmertousetheresourcesasefficiently aspossible.Thelabour requirement for weed control differs markedly between subsistence farming and high-input farming in the Western world. Manual weeding of a crop demands 50-150 times morelabour than the application of herbicides with advanced sprayingequipment. Thisheavylabourdemandlimitstheareaofa cropthat canbetended. Inagricultural practice, generally, control of weeds seems to prevail over control of pest and diseases. One reason may be that controlofpestsanddiseasesisexpensive,sothatitisonlyworthwileinamore orless weed-free crop. Another reason isthe fact that no capital isneeded for manual weeding. Even in the most primitive agricultural system, weeds canberemovedbyhandorwithasimpleimplement,whileforcontrolofpests anddiseases relatively expensive chemicals andat least some sprayingequipment - howeversimple - isneeded. Whenchemicalsareused,aproblemisthattheirapplicationinmostinstancesdoesnotleadtocompletecontrol.Thereasonsforsuchincompletecontrol maybe alimited effectiviness of thechemical control to each specific weed, pestordisease,animproperlytimedapplication,unfavourableweatherconditions, etc. Theability of the farmer tojudge the necessity for application of the appropriate chemicals at the proper time depends on the management skill. In this respect, local expertise, an effective extension service, and the education level of the farmer are of great importance. Even under intensive management, control measures are seldom completely effective due to only partialcontrolofthecausalagent. Itisclearthattheexpectedlossthroughweeds,pestsanddiseasescannotbe the only criterion for estimating whether control measures are economically attractive. An approach is necessary that takes into account differences in efficiency of control asrelatedtomanagement level.Theessential questionis not the magnitude of loss caused by a certain weed, pest or disease but the yield increment that can be gained by control measures. Even under ahigh managementlevel,controlmeasuresareseldomfullyeffective becauseofonly partial control of the causal agents. An approach to answer that question, takingintoaccountdifferent managementlevels,isillustrated inFigure70.It
303
showsafrequencydistributionoftheeffect ofoneapplicationofamixtureof broad-spectrum fungicides against 'ripeningdiseases'ongrainyieldofwinter wheatintheNetherlands. Some five diseasesmaybeinvolved. The fungicide mixturewasapplied atthebeginning of anthesis, irrespective of theintensity ofsymptomsofthediseases(Rijsdijk, 1979).Themeancostsofthetreatment, expressedinkilogramsgrainperhectare,wasslightlyhigherthanthemeanof the effect; the median of the effect was even lower. Clearly, on average, the costofthetreatmentishigherthanthebenefits, soaroutineapplicationisnot profitable. A closer examination of the observations on which Figure 70 is based showed considerable differences in disease incidence among fields and among years. If disease incidence had been used as acriterion for fungicide application,manyfieldswouldnothavebeentreated,whileotherfieldswould havebeentreatedmuchearlierintheseason,toavoiddiseaselevelsthatwould damage the crop irreversibly before the fungicide was applied. This would have significantly increased the cost- effectiviness of the treatments. Aroutine treatment with a fixed mixture of chemicals at a time fixed by date or development stageof thecroprequiresverylittleof themanagement abilities of thefarmer.Theonlyconditionisthatthestandardapplicationmustpayin the long run. The mean expected gain of the treatment should be clearly higherthanthemeanexpectedcostsofthetreatment. Ifthemanagementlevel is higher, the effectiveness of chemical control can be increased by careful inspectionofthecropandadaptationofthechemicalstospecific weeds,pests ordiseases.
frequency
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
yield response to standard treatment(kg ha*1) Figure 70. The frequency distribution of yield response to standard treatment with biocides. ,
304
Exercise90 Explain whyinasituation of sophisticated management, chemical treatment maybeprofitable, evenifthevalueofthemeanyieldincreaseovertheyearsis lessthanthemeancostsofatreatment.
Considering theeffects of theproduction situation onlosses duetoweeds, pestsanddiseasesandtheprospectsof reducingtheselosses, ahypothesis for theircontrolmaybesummarizedasbelow. ProductionSituation1: Productiondeterminedbyradiationandtemperatureonly. Chemicalcontrolof weeds,pestsanddiseases.Ahigheffectiviness of biocide applicationbecauseofsophisticatedmanagement. Productionsituation2: Watersupplylimitingattimes. Chemical control of weeds, pestsanddiseases. Effectiviness of biocideapplicationislessdueto'natural*variationsinyield.Management formissophisticatedtoreasonable. ProductionsSituation3: Waterandnutrientslimitingattimes. Chemical and/or manual weed control. Low control of pests and diseases. Relativelylowlevelofmanagement. ProductionSituation4: Lowinputfarming. Somemanualweeding,nocontrolofpestsanddiseases. Morespecific conclusions for specific situations can,however, only beobtainedbydefining alltheparametersinvolvedandeventuallyusingoptimization techniques tofindthemost profitable combination of input factors foreach productionsituation.
305
7 LANDIMPROVEMENT
307
7.1 Reclamation J.Wolf 7AA Introduction Theproductivity of agricultural landistoalargeextent determined bythe moisture regime of the soil. Potential production can only be attained if the soil-moisture content during the entire crop growth cycle can be maintained withintheoptimalrange.Reclamationcanbeconsideredasthetotalofoperations required to lenghten the period of optimal soil-moisture for crop growth. Reclamation measures consist mainly of excavation and movement of earth. These activitites require a large amount of labour and/or machinery, but they are needed only once or with long intervals in between. This in contrastwithmanyotheroperationsinagricultural production, whichmostly haveto berepeated for everyplanted crop (Section 6.1). Inthis section only reclamationmeasurescarriedoutonthefarmbythefarmerandhisfamilyare considered.Macro-structureslikecanals,dams,dikes,etc.,areassumedtobe constructed by the government and are not taken into consideration. Also, measureslikereclamationofsalineorveryacidsoilsarenotconsideredhere. Fourschematiclevelsofreclamationcanbedistinguished: Reclamation Level I: natural situation; agricultural use limited to extensive grazing, food gathering and fuelwood collection; moisture regime is fully dictatedbytheweatherconditions;thislevelwillnotbetreatedhere. Reclamation LevelII: simple clearance; forest clearing orburning of vegetation,morepermanentcultivationwithorwithout fallowperiods, field-protecting floodwalls, bunds to permit the cultivation of rainfed rice; moisture regime is fully dictated by the weather conditions; range of soil-moisture contentsfromverylowtoveryhigh. ReclamationLevelHI:controlofexcesswater;completionofclearance;levelled or terraced land; field-protecting floodwalls, drainage by open ditches; rangeofsoil-moisturecontentsfromverylowtooptimal. Reclamation LevelIV: completewatercontrol;welllevelled orterracedland; infrastructure forcompletewatercontrol;sufficient wateravailableforirrigation;optimalsoil-moisturecontentthroughout. Inthe following subsections, first themaineffects of reclamation aretreated.Thentheconsequencesof improvingthewaterregimearefurtherillustrated by discussing the results of some computer simulations for a loamy fine sand in northern Thailand. Last, the physical inputs that are needed on the farm for the transfer of land from one Reclamation Level to the next are considered. 309
7.1.2 Effects ofreclamation Reclamation has various positive effects. In the first place, it makes crop growthpossibleorimprovesit, sothathigheryieldsmaybeachieved. Second, the number of crop species that may begrown is increased, as is the freedom of choice with respect to the time of sowing. In addition, it results in a decrease in fertilizer requirements. These positive effects will be considered in moredetailinthissubsection. The gross assimilation rate of a crop is reduced when the soil-moisture content is outside its optimal range, as discussed in Section 3.2 and summarizedinTable80. At Reclamation Level II, the soil-moisture content may range from very low to very high, at Reclamation Level III from very low to optimal and at Reclamation Level IVthesoil-moisturecontentisintheoptimal rangethroughout, barring exceptional weather conditions. The yield level will be reduced proportionally to the period and the degree of sub-optimum soil-moisture conditions, asdiscussedinSection3.4 forProductionSituation2. It has been shown in Section 6.1 that one of the factors, determining the workability of the land is its moisture content. Depending on the cultivating equipment that is used and the type of soil, there is a lower limit of the soilmoisture suction atwhich theland canbeworked without too muchdamage. Initially, three technology levels are distinguished for the field work, (1)manual labour, (2)useof animal drawnequipment and (3)light orheavymechanical equipment. The critical limits for the three levels in terms of soil-moisture suction areassumed to be 10, 100and 500cm, respectively. Thereclamation level also determines the range of soil-moisture suction inthe soil. At
Table80.Theinfluenceofthemoisturecontentofthesoilongrossassimilationrate. Moisturecontent(SM)*
very low low optimal high very high SM SMW SMcr SM100 SM SMW
Reductionfactorfor grossassimilationrate
SM SM SM < < < SMcr SM10o (SM0- 0.05) 0 (SM-SMw)/(SMcr-SMw) 1 ((SM0-0.05) -SM) / ((SM 0 -0.05)-SM 10 o)** 0**
< < < <
>
(SM0- 0.05)
* SMW,SMcr,SM100andSM0-0.05arethesoil-moisturecontentsatwiltingpoint,at thecritical value for optimal growth, atasoil suction of 100cmandatasoilair contentof0.05cm3cm"3,respectively. Thesemoisturecontentsaredifferent fordifferentsoils. **Forrice,reductionfactorisequalto1.
310
Levels III and IV, it is in general not lower than 100 cm, so operations at TechnologyLevels 1 and2arealwayspossible.AtReclamationLevelII under naturaldrainage, thesoil-moisture suctionmaybesolowthatitisimpossible to work the land, even manually, except of course for the cultivation of bundedrice. At theonset of cropgrowth, thesoil should besufficiently moist toenable germination and, in the case of a clay soil, to allow the necessary tillage operations.Itisassumedthattheriskofearlycropfailureduetolackofwater issufficiently small if sowing ispostponed till themoment thatthesoil-moisturesuction is less than 300 cm, or cumulative rainfall over the last 20days exceeds 7.5 cm. Inthis way, the beginning of the growing season on soilsat Reclamation LevelsIIandIIIisfullydeterminedbytherainfall pattern.Asa consequence, the season may become too short to grow certain crops that would otherwise be preferred. The possibility of irrigation at Reclamation LevelIVmakesthefarmer,inthisrespect,independentof rainfall. At Reclamation LevelIIshallowgroundwatertablesmayoccur.Agroundwater table within 10 cm of the rooting depth will result in reduced root activity andeventually lasting damageto theroot system dueto lack of oxygenintherootzone.Theminimumgroundwaterdepththatmayoccurlimits, therefore, thenumberof cropspeciesthatcanbegrown,becausecrops differ distinctlyintheirdepthofrooting,asshowninTable81. In climates with erratic rainfall on land at Reclamation Levels II and III, deep-rooted cropswithalowcritical moisturecontent (Section3.2,Table20) mustbeselected,becausethesewillbelessadverselyaffected bydryperiods.
Exercise91 Whichcropsarenot affected byanaveragegroundwater depthof 1 mbelow thesurface? Whichcropsarebestadaptedtoclimateswithirregularrainfall(intheabsence ofirrigation)?
Theeffect of reclamation ontheavailability of plantnutrientsistreatedas inSection4.1.Therelationbetween fertilizer applicationandyieldislaidout intworelations:onebetweenuptakeandyieldandonebetweentheamountof fertilizer applied and uptake. Both relations are affected by reclamation, as illustratedinFigure71. Theuptake-yieldcurveforaparticularelementischaracterizedbyitsinitial slopeandthemaximumyieldthatmaybeachievedatanoptimalsupplyofthe nutrient. Theinitial slope ismainly acropcharacteristic andisaffected only indirectly byenvironmental conditions, for instanceif at Reclamation Levels IIorIIIasub-optimal watersupplyduringseedfilling reducestheseed/straw ratio. 311
Table81.Indicativerootingdepthofmajorcrops.
cropspecies rooting depth(cm) 160 150 135 135 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 120 100 95 95 95 90 80 75 75 75 75 50 40
sugar-cane sorghum cotton maize barley blackmustard jute lentil rapeseed sesame wheat sweetpotato cassava cowpea gram kheshari chilli rice groundnut kenaf mungbean tobacco potato onion
Exercise92 Do you expect an increase or a decrease of the ratio of yield to uptake asa result of a reduced seed/straw ratio. Explain your answer. Draw anuptakeyield curve in Figure 71 that could be the result of the reduced seed/straw ratio. Iftheaveragesub-optimal soil-moisture content duringseed filling isknown, is it possible to estimate the maximum yield andthe ratio between yieldand uptake compared to that at optimal water supply during seed filling. How wouldyoudothat?Explainyouranswer.
Oneof themainpurposes of reclamation isto improve cropwatersupply, which is reflected directly in an increase in the maximum yield that can*be
312
Figure 71. The effect of various reclamation levels (I, II, III) on the relation between fertilizer uptake (u) and yield (y), on the relation between fertilizer application rate (a) and uptake, and on the relation between fertilizer application and yield.
achieved. The nutrient requirement increases linearly with that yield. The amountof fertilizerneededtomeetthatrequirement,dependsontherecovery ofthefertilizerandtheamountofnutrientstakenupfromunfertilizedsoil.In general, both are favourably affected by reclamation because better water control stimulates theactivity of theroot system, contributes to anincreased mineralization of the soil organic matter, decreases losses by leaching and leadsto lower losses bydenitrification because of reduced waterlogging. Although generalizations in quantitative termscannot bemade, it maybeconcluded that the fertilizer requirement increases less than proportionally with the yield increase due to reclamation. Examples are found in Section 4.1. Theeffects ofreclamationmeasuresaretreatedinthissectionbycomparing cropgrowthatReclamationLevelIIwiththatathigherreclamationlevels.Of coursetheseeffects aremainlypositive,becauseotherwisethelargeamountof Physicalinputswouldnotbeworthwhile.However,whenconsideringclearing of the original vegetation (Reclamation Level I) to allow cultivation of the land,attentionshouldbepaidtopossibleadverseeffects. On slopes of more than 8 to 15% (depending on soil erodibility, slope length, rainfall intensity, etc.) apermanent cover should bemaintained bya perennialcrop,suchasatreecrop, pastureorforest, asindicated forrecommendedlanduseinTable85.Otherwise, soil erosionmayresultinrapidloss of topsoil, causing a decline in soil fertility and soil structure. Moreover, gullies may be formed accelerating erosion even more. Adverse effects may also appear in coastal areas after reclamation of alluvial soils, deposited in brackish water. Suchsoils often become veryacid after drying andaeration.
313
Only when the groundwater table can be maintained at a shallow depth (Reclamation Level IV), maycultivation - mainly of rice - bepossibleonthese soils. Tropical rain forests grow partially on very poor soils. After clearing the original vegetation, the soil organic matter decomposes at a very high rate under thehot, wet tropical climate. This results inarapid loss of soil fertility built up in the course of time (Section 6.2) and a substantial decrease in the moisture- and nutrient-holding capacity of the soil. Within ashort time after clearing the land the production capacity may have declined to such a level that crop production is no longer worthwhile. In addition, fertilizer application isnot veryeffective on these degraded soils because of the low moistureand nutrient-holding capacity, which results in rapid leaching of nutrients under the high intensity of the tropical rainfall regime. A long bush-fallow period of 10to 50years is the best way to restore soil fertility and soil structure. Permanent cultivation on these poor tropical soils appears to be almost impossible. 7.1.3 A simulated example Inthissubsectionimportant differences betweentheReclamation LevelsII, III and IV are illustrated by means of results obtained using a simulation model that calculates theyield levels for Production Situations 1 and2(chapter9).Theyrefer toaslightlyundulating, elevated lowland areawithasoil of loamy fine sand texture in northern Thailand. The physical characteristics of thesoilaregiveninTable82. Theclimate intheregion isof aratherpronounced monsoon type, withthe wet season starting in the beginning of April and ending in November. The simulations are for the year 1974, which had a rainfall of 1440 mm and a potential evapotranspiration of 950 mm from April to November. In the calculations, groundnuts are grown both as an early- and as a late-season crop. Theonset of therainsisso distinct that emergence of theearly-season crop
Table 82. Physical characteristics of the loamy fine sand, used for the simulation exercise. Physicalcharacteristic Saturatedhydraulicconductivity(k0) Totalporespacefraction(SM0) Texturespecificgeometryfactor(7) Fieldcapacity(suction) Fieldcapacity(moisturecontent)
314
Valueforexercise 26.5cmd"* 0.439cm3cm~3 0.0312cm~2 ^ = 200cm(pF = 2.3) 3 SM= 0.183cm cm"3
for all three levels of reclamation was during the 14th ten-day period of the year. Under irrigation, emergence could have been shifted to an earliermoment, but thiswasnot doneto facilitate comparison. Emergence of thelateseasoncropwasset atthe31stten-dayperiod of theyear, inNovember.The variety chosen has a growth period of 100 days, so the growth of the lateseasoncropextendsuntilthebeginningof February, wellintothedryseason. Theearly-seasoncrophastobeharvestedinthemiddleofthewetseason. Itisassumedthatduringthedryseasonprecedingtheearly-seasoncropthe landwasfallowed andkeptfreeof weeds.Thusafterthetopsoil hasdriedout totally byevaporation, no water loss from the profile by evapotranspiration ordrainagewilltakeplace.Thisresultsinasoil atabout field capacitywitha mulchlayerontopatthestartofthewetseason. Crop failure will occur whenthe aircontent inthe root zone is lowerthan 0.05 cm3cm"3 for more than 20consecutive days. At Reclamation Level II, withnocontrol of excesswater, thisoccursdirectlyafter emergence forboth theearly-andlate-seasoncrop.Forthelate-seasoncropthiscanbeavoidedby sowinglater,butthengerminationproblemsmayoccurbecauseof dryingout of thetopsoil. Inaddition, too muchwatermaybelost bydirectevaporation fromthesoilsurface.Toconclude,theconditionsatthislowlevelofreclamation arenot suitable for groundnut cultivation. The land should beused for cropsthatpreferorcanstandwaterloggedsoils,suchasbundedrice. Forboth theearly-andlate-season cropof groundnuts grownatReclamation Level III, thevalues of thevarious terms of thewaterbalance, thesoilmoisturecontent andsomegrowthcharacteristics aregivenbyten-dayperiod inTable 83,together withthetechnology level, therainfall andthepotential evaporation. Thecumulativevaluesof thetermsof thewaterbalance forthe whole season and the yield of pods for Reclamation Levels III and IV are summarizedinTable84. Becauseof thedrainageatReclamation Level III,thesoil-moisturecontent during growth of the early-season crop is maintained at field capacity, i.e. 0.183 cm3cm"3, except betweenthe 18thand20th ten-day periods, atimeof relativelylittlerain.AtReclamationLevelIV,90mmof waterisgivenduring this period. This results inaslight increase inactual evapotranspiration, but hardlyaffects yield. As thegroundnut cropissupposed to begrowingunder optimal nutrient supply, the simulated yields at both reclamation levels are thoseofProductionSituation1. At theendof thewetseasonthereisconsiderable drainageduringthe30th and31st ten-day periods, so that at Reclamation Level III thecropdoes not fail because of waterlogging. The rain stops rather abruptly, so that water stress starts to develop already in the third ten-day period of growth. At maturity,soil-moistureispracticallyexhaustedandduetowaterstressduring themajorpartofthegrowingperiod,thesimulatedyieldisonly 1100kgpods ha"1. At Reclamation Level IV, irrigation starts in the 33rd ten-day period andiscontinued intothesecondten-dayperiodof thefollowing year.Atotal 315
Table83a.Thesimulatedtermsofthewaterbalanceandsomesimulatedgrowthcharac anearlyplantedcropofgroundnut.Emergenceat14th10dayperiodoftheyear.
10dayperiod rain(mmper10dayperiod) mulch3 potentialevaporation(open water),(mmper10dayperiod) actualevapotranspiration, (mmper10dayperiod) drainage(mmper10dayperiod) pF soilmoisturecontent(cm3cm*3) leaves,liveweight(kgha"1) weightpods(kgha"1) technologylevel
a
10 0 m 60 0 0 2.3 0.183 3
11 0 m 62 0 0 2.3 0.183 3
12 20 m 60 22 0 2.3 0.183 3
13 160 56
14 48 54
22 20 120 30 2.3 2.3 0.183 0.183 ^100 2 2
mmeanspresent.
Table83b.Thesimulatedtermsofthewaterbalanceandsomesimulatedgrowthcharactt lateplantedcropofgroundnut.Emergenceat31st10dayperiodoftheyear.
10dayperiod rain(mmper10dayperiod) mulch potentialevaporation(open water),(mmper10dayperiod) actualevapotranspiration, (mmper10dayperiod) drainage(mmper10dayperiod) pF soilmoisturecontent(cm3cm*3) leaves,liveweight(kgha*1) weightpods(kgha"1) technologylevel 27 66 42 16 50 2.3 0.183 2 28 30 40 16 10 2.3 0.183 2 29 8 40 16 0 2.3 0.183 2 30 50 42 16 30 2.3 0.183 2 31 116 36
.
14 100 2.3 0.183 ^100 2
of 100 mm of water was given, which more than doubled the yield. Not surprisingly, the growth of such a late-season crop is considerably improved byirrigation. Only during seedbed preparation and sowing of the early crop, and during harvest of the late crop, is the soil dry enough to permit use of the heavy equipment associated with Technology Level 3. Harvesting of the early crop and seedbed preparation for and sowing of the late crop is carried out well within thewet season, but thenonly the light equipment of Technology Level 316
16 54
17 66
18 12
19 6
20 14
21 136
22 72
23 38
50 36
20 2.3 0.183 1300 2
48 40
30 2.3 0.183 2000 2
48 40
0 2.5 0.156 2500 200 2
48 40
0 3.0 0.099 2700 500 3
48 40
10 3.4 0.065 1600 1000 3
50 42
46 30
44 22
40 120 0 2.3 2.3 2.3 0.183 0.183 0.183 700 200 ^100 2100 1600 2300 2 2 2
33 0
34 0
35 16
36 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
30 22
0 2.7 0.131 1400 3
28 22
0 2.8 0.120 1900 200 3
32 26
0 3.1 0.090 2200 500 3
30 22
0 3.5 0.058 1500 900 3
32 12
38 4
38 4
0 3.9 0.035 ^100 1100 3
!6
0 2.4 0.169 800 2
0 0 3.8 3.9 0.040 0.035 600 ^100 1100 1100 3 3
2 can be used. Fully mechanized agriculture is therefore not possible on this soil inthisregion.
Exercise 93 Yield of the late-season crop of groundnut at Reclamation Level III is seriously reduced compared to the yield of irrigated groundnut (Table 84). Calculate the critical soil-moisture content at a maximum transpiration rate of 2.5 mm 317
Table84.Summarizeddataforthewholegrowthperiod
ReclamationlevelIII earlycrop 838
ReclamationlevelIV earlycrop latecrop 838 304 130 100 404 560 +4 2300 252 190 -38 2400
Rain(mm) Irrigation(mm) Actualevapotranspiration(mm) Drainage(mm) Soilmoisture increase(mm) Yieldofpods(kgha",)
latecrop 304
378 460 0 2300
220 190 -106 1100
d _I on loamy fine sand (SM0 = 0.439cm3cm"3, y = 0.0312). Use Table20 andEquation53. Estimate the number of days of unrestricted assimilation starting from the 35th ten-day period (end of rainfall), using a rooting depth of 75 cm anda maximumtranspirationrateof2.5mmd"1.
Exercise94 Calculate the reduction in gross assimilation rate (seeTable 80) at ReclamationLevelIIIinten-dayperiods36,2and4,comparedtotheassimilationrate ofirrigatedgroundnuts.
Exercise95 RepeatthecalculationsofExercise94forsorghum,wheatandonionusingthe samedata, except forthesoil-waterdepletion factor pandtherpotingdepth. Whichcropwillperformbestinthisperiod?
7.1.4 Physicalinputsforreclamation Physiography, slopeandsoiltypearethemaindeterminantsofthetypeand amountof physicalinputsneeded forreclamation. Forexample, erosioncontrol is hardly needed on level lowland, flood control is superfluous in the uplands,thesteepnessof theslopedeterminestheamountof earthmovement forridgingandterracing, anditismoredifficult tomoveclaythansand. Ina * 318
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schematized setup,sevenlandunitshavebeendistinguished inThailand,rangingfrom levellowlandtosteepupland.Theselandunitsarecharacterizedin Table 85intermsof slope, thedegreeof natural drainage and recommended land use. Theexample of the previous subsection referred to Land Unit U2, leveltoundulating elevatedlowlandwithaslopebetween0and8 percentand moderatenaturaldrainage.Thesoilisaloamyfinesand. For a proper assessment of reclamation possibilities, reasonable estimates of labour requirements for upgrading land from onereclamation level tothe next arenecessary, becausethe labour requirements for reclamation arehigh if carried out in hand labour. Because most soils can only be worked inthe growing season, when labour requirements for other activities arealsohigh, labourisoften thelimitingresource.Thatisthereasonwhyinmostinstances heavyearth-movingequipmentisused. To upgrade an hectare of Land Unit U2 from its more or less natural situation of Reclamation Level Ito Reclamation Level II, thevegetation has to be destroyed by slashing and burning. In this activity heavy trees, tree stumpsandtermitehillsarenotremoved.Manuallythiswouldtakeabout300 man-hours per hectare, but if heavy equipment were to be used the labour requirementisreducedtoabout7man-hoursperhectare.Thismachinerycan also beusedto build flood walls, neededto protect against highwaterlevels. Manually this would take 100man-hours per hectare, but with heavyequipmentitisreducedtoabout8man-hours.Becausethelandisundulating,some erosioncontrol bycontourridgingisnecessary.Onthislandunit,3ridgesper 100metre of field length will on theaverage suffice. Assuming ridges witha widthandheightof 0.5 metreandalengthof 300mha"1,thenecessaryearth movement amounts to 37.5 m3 ha"1. If done by hand, that will take for a loamyfinesandabout20man-hoursperhectare. Thecalculationspresentedintheprevioussubsectionshowthatthechances of crop failure duetowaterlogging arehigh,sothatthe farmerwillprobably choose for bunded rice. Inthatcasebundsmustbeconstructed that havethe same dimensions as the ridges. To increase the surface storage capacity, the numberof bundshastobehigherthanneeded forerosioncontrol.Thebunds are placed at an average distance of about 6 m, so about 1600mof bundis needed per hectare. The labour requirement for their construction is about 100man-hoursperhectare. Assumingthatamainroadsystemisprovided,thelandhastobeopenedup bysimpledirtpaths.Atthisreclamationlevel, 50mof path,onemwide,per hectarewillsuffice. Thisrequiresanearthmovement of 10m3 ha"1or5 manhours of manual work. The total labour requirement for construction of roads and bunds is about 100man-hours per hectare. This is still verysmall compared with the 1000 man-hours of work needed for the cultivation of 1 hectareof bundedrice. Itistherefore likelythatthetimeforthisworkcanbe found,providedthelandisclearedandprotectedagainst floods. Toupgradeland from Reclamation Level IItoLevel III,thelandhastobe ~
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Table 88. Total manual and mechanical labour requirement (h ha1), to convertthe originalsituationintoonehigherreclamationlevelonthedifferentIandunits\
Landunit Reclamation level ItoII ItoII (withbunds) 420-620 14-17 500-710 15-18 300-500 6-9 530-730 11-14 960-1170 21-24 500-710 15-18
tm
IItoIIIb
Ill toIVb
Ul manual Ul mechanical U2manual U2mechanical U3manual U3mechanical U4manual U4mechanical U5manual U5mechanical U6manual U6mechanical U7manual U7mechanical
370-570 13-16 390-600 13-16 240-450 5-8 290-500 6-9 380-580 8-11 390-600 13-16 380-580 8-11
1600-2000 36-56 2370-2770 46-66 1680-2080 42-62 2390-2790 60-80 3020-3420 76-96
-
400 16 500 20 330 20 530 32 730 44

-
- notrelevant a It is assumed, that clay is the dominant soil texture in the lowlands (landunitsUl, U2,U6)andthatsandysoilsdominateintheuplands(landunitsU3, U4, U5,U7). b Mechanicalexcavationsofditchesaresupposedtobedonewithadragline. cleared of tree stumps, termite hills and big trees. Manually that requires another 600 man-hours per hectare, but with the proper machinery the work can bedone in about 20man-hours perhectare. As it istheintention togrow also other crops than bunded rice at Reclamation Level III, the soil hasto be properly drained. It is assumed that this isthecase when theland isterraced, with 4 terraces per 100 m along the slope. At an average slope of 4% that requires an earth movement of 1250 m3 ha"1 over an average distance of nearly 17m. The average productivity for digging, loading and transport per wheelbarrow is 1.0 m3perman-hour, so thelabour requirement is 1250manhoursperhectare, if donemanually. Ifabulldozerisused,only 14man-hours perhectareareneeded (Table 86). Inaddition, itisnecessary to construct 500 mof drainage ditch perhectare, one hundred metresalongtheslopeand four times one hunderd metres along the ridges of the terraces. This requires the movement of 500m3of soil, which takes400man-hours if done byhandand 20man-hours withadragline. At Reclamation Level III, dirtpathsneedtobe replaced by dirt roads with awidth of 4 mto allow the use of animal-drawn and mechanical equipment. That requires the movement of only 30m3ha"1,
324
whichtakes 15man-hours perhectare, if done byhand andlessthan 1 manhour,ifabulldozerisavailable. Hence, theupgrading of one hectareof land from Reclamation Level IIto Reclamation Level III takes about 2400 man-hours perhectare, if donemanually. As most of the work can only be carried out during the growing season, itcanhardlybeexpectedthatthistimecanbemadeavailable.Therefore unless machinery is available, it is most likely that the farmer has no optionbutthecultivationofbundedriceatReclamationLevelII. ToupgradetheterracedlandatReclamationLevelIIItoReclamationLevel IVit suffices to add 500mof irrigation ditch perhectare, which requiresthe sameamount of work astheconstruction of drainageditches.Thisisnegligible,comparedtothecostsofthetotalinfrastructure forirrigation. Asummaryof allreclamationactivitiesdescribedinthissection,thecorrespondingearthmovementandmanualandmechanicallabourrequirementson LandUnit U2aregiveninTable 87. Becauseclayisassumed tobethedominant soil texture class on this land unit (lowlands), the labour requirements giveninTable87refertoclaysoilsonly. Asummaryof thetotal manualand mechanical labour requirement, for converting the original situation (ReclamationLevelsI,II,III)intoonereclamationlevelhigherisgiveninTable88.
Exercise96 Calculate earthmovement andlabourrequirement (bothmanual andmechanical) for the various activities required to obtain Reclamation Level II, III and IVon Land Unit U4 (sandysoil). Theinformation required issummarizedinTables87and 88.
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8 APPLICATIONOFAGRONOMICINFORMATION
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8.1 Theuseof agronomic information inthesocio-economic models of the CentreforWorldFoodStudies D.C.Faber 8*1.1 Introduction Although theworldproduces sufficient food for thetotal population, and although it has been estimated that agricultural output can be increased at least twenty-fold (Buringh &van Heemst, 1979; see also Chapter 1), more than400millionpeoplesuffer fromlessthanadequatenutrition,andmanyof themfrom starvation.Togettotheroot of this hungerandpovertyproblem anagro-technical andsocio-economic analysis must bemadeinaglobalcontext. Inparticular, themechanisms that determine thedistribution of resourcesandpurchasing power,throughproductiveemployment, havebeen found tocauseanunbalanceddistributionofavailablefood (Linnemanetal., 1979). To improve the food situation, efforts should therefore be directed towards reduction of income inequalities between rich and poor countries, aswell as between different income groups within countries. Policies to influence that distributioncouldbeinitiatedattheinternationallevel,whileinterdependence of national policiesshouldalsobetakenintoaccount (seeChapter 1).Global policyanalyses haveindicated thegeneral direction of solutions but havenot beenabletoquantify theeffects of suchmeasures.Anecessarystartingpoint ofaninvestigationintothenatureandcausesofthehungerproblemtherefore liesinthedevelopmentandconstructionofasetofindividualcountrymodels, thatinteractthroughinternational marketsandarelinkedthroughinternationalagreements. The focus on relationships between agro-technical factors and economic processes, and on national policies and linkage of nations, which together determinethecharacteristics of thefood market, requiresamulti-disciplinary approach.Thisapproachnecessitatesstartingsuchananalysiswithadetailed descriptionofthephysicalenvironmentdeterminingactualandpotentialagricultural production, and its limitations (as outlined in this monograph), as wellasaninquiryintothesocio-economic structureof theagricultural sector and its interrelationships with the rest of the economy. Such economy-wide models will not be used to forecast orto make predictions (Meadows et al., 1972),butrathertoenabletheanalysisofpossiblealternativefutures.Quantitativemodelling of theserelationships andinteractions cancontribute toincreasedinsight into thecauses of thehungerproblem, whichinturnmaylead to the formulation of useful policy proposals. At the national level, it is Particularlyimportant thatsuchmodelsareapplicable formedium-andlongtermplanningandthattheycontainallelementsthatmayinfluence thenational food market. At theinternational level, themodel systemshould provide 329
explicit andreliablesuggestions for international policycoordination. Before theexplicitlinkagebetweenthephysical factorsandsocio-economicstructure isdiscussed,thegeneralstructureofthefullmodelisoutlined. 8.1.2 Characteristicsandstructureofthestudy:amodellingapproach Thepursued research objectives aredecisive for thechoice of themethods to be used. First, the complex system of interacting economies in a world market must be described. Second, at the national level, economy-widemodels are needed to describe the agricultural and food sectors in theirappropriate context. Third, the formulation of the intricate interrelationships between physical factors that determine agricultural production and the socioeconomicfactorsthatgovernbehaviourrequireanin-depthstudy. Three main components, the main characteristics of the model structure thatareconsideredinlinewiththeseobjectivescanbedistinguished: - thegeneralstructure,describingtheinteractionamongcountrymodels - theagriculturalsupplymodel - thephysicalcropandlivestockgrowthmodels. Thegeneralstructure The international system - or linkage system - comprises a number of countrymodelsconnected throughtheworldmarket.Thesystemcontainsall countries,someofthemexplicitlymodelled,othersaggregatedtoa'restofthe world'group. Itthusdescribes worldtrade. Linkageof models requiresaset of stringent conditions andagreementstobefollowed intheformulationand development of eachindividual model. Eachnational model mustdistinguish fourlevelsofanalysis: - aninternationalmarket - anationalgovernmentandanationalmarket - classification of thepopulationinproducersand/orconsumersofagriculturalandnon-agriculturalcommodities - agronomicinformationatasubregionallevel. Theunique feature of thisapproach isthat it attempts to model andanalyse themutualdependencebetweeneachandalloftheselevels(Figure72). Thecountrymodel In the national model, the government, the agricultural and the non-agricultural population groupsarethemainactors, i.e. thegovernment andeach of thesocio-economic groupsaredecisionmakersandcanactandreactindependentlyinthemodel. Itisessential, therefore, thatacountrymodeldescribes realistically the behaviour of theactors and their reactions to achanging
330
nternational level
international market
national level
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government
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Figure 72. The international linkage system; actors in the economic model.
and fluctuating environment, and apattern of relationships between theactors.Amainfeatureof thenational modelistheroleplayedbyeachactor including the government - given his endowments (resource structure) and the constraints governing their use. Thus the government must use its instruments - taxes,tariffs, quotas,publicinvestment - toinfluencethebehaviour of the other actors to achieve pre-stated objectives, such as growth, stabilityanddistribution. Theproduction andconsumption behaviour of the otheractors isgoverned bythephysical andeconomic environment towhich theyareexposed. Theagriculturalsupplymodel Withinthenational model, theagricultural productionmodel describesthe farmer's behaviour that isrelevant for thedetermination of agricultural output.Incomemaximizationand/orsatisfactionofsubsistencerequirementsare pre-defined objectives andact, therefore, asdriving forces inthismodel.The output of the crop growth model (the production of both marketable yield and crop residues of a given crop) and the necessary farm and non-farm inputsto achievethat yield onthespecified landtype arethentransferred to theinput file of alinear programming tableau. Thelinearprogramme* isan optimization technique used for maximizing revenues of theagriculturalsector (over regions and farm sizes) subject to anumber of physical and socioeconomic constraints. Part of theinformation required for the LPtableauis *SeeforinstanceR.R. Benneke& R.Winter(1973)forapopulardescriptionofthe linearprogrammingtechnique.
331
shown in Table 89 (this information and other exemplary material given in this subsection are derived from ongoing research to develop suitable socioeconomic models for Bangladesh). The output of the linear programming model consists of thelevel of production, production patternandinputrequirements, where the production pattern is determined by the relative prices, resource structure, agro-technical possibilities and the socio-economic environment. Agricultural activities - i.e. feasible enterprises that canbe undertakenby a farmer, for exampletheplanting of apaddycropintheamanseason, isone activity, andtheplantingof apaddycropintheboro seasonanother - canbe distinguished by type. The two main ones, closely interrelated in traditional agriculture, arecropandlivestock production, towhichprocessing of agricultural products and household activities can be added (trade, non-agricultural production, renting and hiring of production factors, etc.). Within the agricultural sector distinctions can be made between (agro-ecological) regions, farm sizes and applied technology level. For each region, each farm size and Table89. Exampleof output of thecropgrowthmodel andrequired farmandnonfarminputsforaspecific croponaspecified landtypeunderthreetypesofmanagement.
1310 Rl/Amanpaddylocal 18 3
/transplanted C7IWL2 1306 -1931.00000 -4754 .00000 0 .00000 0 .00000 0 .00000 0 ,00000 1.,00000 1,,00000 0,,00000 0 .ooooo 0 ,00000 0 .00000 1.00000 1,,00000 1,,00000 1. 00000 1931. 00000 4754. 00000
/start:21/177 days C7IIWL2 1307 -2006.00000 -4936 .00000 16 .00000 1.00000 0 .00000 0 .00000 1,,00000 1,,00000 0,.mm 0 .00000 0 .00000 0 .00000 1.00000 1..mm 1..00000 1,.00000 2006, mm 4936. mm C7IIIWL2 1308 -5236.00000 -12678.00000 192.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 5236.00000 12678.00000
YLDPADDY1373 PADSTRAW1374 FERTEQVS1322 FRTCPT011323 FRTCPT021324 FRTCPT031325 WEEDCT011328 WEEDCT031330 DRAINCAP1369 IRRCAPDS1371 LODGPREV1372 PDCTRCAP1346 PRRCCT151361 PRRCCT161362 SGSDCAP 1306 HCARCT171431 HCWRCT171493 HCSRCT171555
332
Table89.(continued*
1336 Rl/Cotton /sown/loc C16IOL2 1476 -770.00000 -3217.00000 -415.00000 0.0G000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 415.00000 3217.00000 var/start: C16IIOL2 1477 -1015.00000 -4241.00000 -547.00000 108.00000 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 547.00000 4241.00000 26/233days C16IIIL2 1478 -3213.00000 -13419.00000 -1730.00000 451.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000
COTTSEED1394 COTSTALK1395 YLDCOTTN1393 FERTEQVS1322 FRTCPTO11323 FRTCPT021324 FRTCPT031325 WEEDCT011328 WEEDCT031330 WEEDCT051332 DRAINCAP1369 PDCTRCAP1346 CTSDCAP1315 THINCT021337 THINCT041339 HCACOT221460 HCWCOT221522 HCSCOT221584
l.ooobo
1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1730.00000 13419.00000
eachleveloftechnologyasetofactivities,asmentionedabove,isconstructed. Thus as the degree of detail increases, the number of activities within the agricultural supply model increases atanexponential rate. Forexample, two paddy growing activities (Aus - HYV and amanbroadcast paddy) in two agro-ecological zones (Northwest and Sylhet), on small-owner operated and large-owneroperated farms, withhandandanimaltractiontechnologyunder two levels of management (no fertilizer and 100 kg fertilizer per ha) would represent32individualactivitiesinthemodel(2n, n = 5).However, themany combinations may for the larger part be generated in a systematic way, as showninthetreatmentofthephysicalcrop-growthmodel. Thephysicalcrop-growthmodel In the physical crop-growth model, environmental characteristics such as soil typeandclimatearetakenaspoints of departure for astep-wisecalculationofpossibleoutputsbycrops(alreadyoutlinedinpreviouschaptersofthis monograph).This,incombinationwithinformationonoptionsforlanddevelopment andproduction technologies, providesthebasicinformation needed to model actual andpotential agricultural production activities. Thephysical
333
crop-growthmodel, providingtheinputsusedinthecountrymodelischaracterizedbythehierarchical structureasoutlined inChapters 1-4of thismonograph.Thedistinguished levels account for all physical factors that influence crop production and yields. The relationship between crop growth, nutrient uptakebythecropandnutrient application bythe farmer isdescribed inthe fieldwork and management component and is accounted for, together with theotherrequiredfarminputs,inthesupplymodel. Thetypeof information generated bythephysical crop-growth modeland thefield workandmanagement moduleispresentedinTable89.Theheading of the first setof activities inthetableindicatestheregion(R,),thecropand variety(alocal varietyof aman paddy),thedatethecrophastobetransplanted (the21st ten-dayperiod)andthelength of thegrowingperiod (177days). The column codes, e.g. C7IWL2, indicate the crop species (C7), Activity Level (I) (i.e. lowest production level), water supply limited (W), and Land Unit (L2). The third column, C7IIIWL2, indicates Activity Level III, the highest production level, where production is only limited by radiation and temperature. Inthesecond set of activitiesthesameinformation isgenerated for cotton under optimal water conditions, as indicated by the Oin thecolumnheadings, e.g. C16IOL2. Thethreecolumns giveinformation onyields that canbe obtained under specified conditions, indicated by anegative () signonahectarebasisandontherequiredinputsperhatoachievethatyield, indicated by apositive sign. Most inputs assume the value 1, indicating that for that particular input thephysical resources, suchasman-hours of labour and a certain type of equipment are being requested from another data file calledOPERATforvariouslevelsoftechnologyasspecified inSection6.1. Inthisparticularcase,aman paddywillyieldunderthespecified conditions 1931, 2006 and 5236 kgha"1 of paddyand4754, 4936and 12678 kgha"1 of paddystraw,respectively,ifsuppliedwiththespecified requiredinputs,e.g.: FERTEQVS 0.0000 16.0000 192.000
This meansthat atActivity Level Ino fertilizer is required, whileatActivity LevelIIandHI16.0and 192.0kg,respectivelyofpureNmustbeapplied.The line WEEDCF01 1.0 ,1.0 1.0
indicates that atallthreeactivity levelsweedingisrequired, wherethe coefficient(1.0)isatransfercoefficient calling fortheappropriatetechnical coefficientsofweeding 1 haofamanpaddy. Thelivestockmodel Thefarmingsystemsin, forexample,SouthandSouth-EastAsiahavebeen developedoveraverylongperiodinbalancewiththeenvironment.Underthe
334
present circumstances, in which these regions are subject to a number of destabilizinginfluences suchas, forexample,highratesofpopulationgrowth and economic recession, the sustainability of agriculture and, therefore, the environmental balance isbeing endangered. To beabletorecommend better management options to redressthissituation, theinterrelationships thatexist between the two sub-sectors of arable cropping and livestock and the socioeconomic environment must beanalyzed and, if possible, quantified because they are of considerable importance for the analysis of the problems and potentialsofsuchfarmingsystems. Therefore livestock ismodelled incloserelation to thearable farmingsector, both in terms of energy provided to cropping as draught power and manureandintermsofconsumptionofcropby-products,residuesandwaste. Moreover,grazingof range, forest andwastelandsareconsideredintermsof areaandyield (Figure73).Thelivestock simulation model itself specifies the individual factors that determine feed intakeandtheconversion of feed into animalgrowth,production,andoffspring. Themodeldescribestheindividual animal as a system that converts energy into traction, weight gain, livestock products (milk, wool, meat), offspring or heat loss. These functional relationships provide an insight into the growth characteristics of an animal or herd and yield the estimated quantities of concentrate feed and roughage necessarvtoachievethespecifiedgrowthrates. Thetype~of data used in the supply model's linear programme consists of feedrequirementsformaintenance,growth,etc.fordifferent typesandageof
purchase .sale, rental of factors of production
Figure 73. A schematic representation of interaction within the agricultural sector.
335
livestock. Forexample, Table 90showsthat the activity COWYMNGA - a young cow, maleor female, onamaintenance andgrowth ration - requires COWYOUNG, i.e. one newborn animal, and will yield an animal one-year old of 55kg.TheFEEDDAYS indicatethenumberof daystheanimalneeds to be kept on the indicated ration. DMINTAKE, CPINTAKE and MEINTAKEindicatetherequireddrymatter(kgd"1),digestableprotein(gd'1)and metabolizable energy (MJ d"1)intake, respectively, on adaily basis. Finally, MANUREPR and NIMANURE indicate the daily manure production inkg of dry matter per day, and the pure nitrogen content in the produced daily manureingd"1. The other activities, COWGMSGM, COWGMNGM, etc. define productionandrequirements foragrowinganimal(olderthanoneyear)thatreaches mature weight at different rates of growth. COWGMSGM indicates slow growth of males (1870 days to reach mature weight) and COWGMNGM showstherequirements fornormalgrowthof amaleanimal. Thelastactivity refers to female animals.Theenergyandproteincontent of thevarious feeds andby-products,aswellaswaste,arealsodefined. Thesedataarethenlinked withthefeed availability forthedomesticlivestock. Inthisfashionthemodel will eventually find anequilibrium between thetotal required feed androughagestockandthesizeofthelivestockherd. Theintegrationofthecropandlivestock modelcomponentsintoacomprehensiveanalytical systemthat isgoverned bythebehavioural relationships of the farm households, is a unique characteristic of this modelling approach. Such a synthetic modelling approach that can subsequently be validated by field experiments, is particularly valuable as it permits quantitative description of alternative methods of cropandlivestock production andenablesthe analysis of alternative and feasible farming systems. The integrated research on crop and livestock production in various farming systems under defined environmental and socio-economic conditions provides a basis for quantitativelandevaluation, whichobviously goes farbeyondthepureagronomicor technicalassessmentsundertakenelsewhere. 8.1.3 Farmenergy Theagronomic modelling effort of theCentreattempts to describe acomplex system of mutually dependent factors representing the agriculture and food sector. One important dependency, increasingly recognized today in agriculture,isthefood-energy nexus.CurrentresearchattheCentreemphasizestheroleplayedbytraditionalenergysources,suchasmanure,twigs,leaves and firewood, as well as that of alternative energy sources in the rural economy.Thereisnodoubtthatthefood-energy relationisasignificant considerationinthechoiceof farmingsystemsandtechnologytobeusedinthem. Threeenergyfunctionscanbedistinguished: - energyasagriculturalinput 336
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- energyasagriculturaloutput - energyasdomesticfuel. Their integration in the agricultural modelling system permits a number of innovativeanalyticallinkages.Forexample,themodelcantracetheeffects of energypricesonproduction,incomeandthedistributionofincomeinagriculture,ortheimplicationsofagriculturalenergy-extensivetechnologyonenergy andfood supply. Furthermore, itcangiveinsightintotheproductionpossibilitiesof 'green'energy,asembodiedinwood,biogasandalcohol,andintothe effects ofrelativeenergyscarcityontheproductivityoflandandlivestock. 8.1.4 Thesocio-economic factors Thesocio-economic factors that playsuchanimportant roleintheprocess of resource allocation to various production activities, and in achieving income-maximization, arepervasivethroughouttheagriculturalandruraldevelopment process. Landtenureandownershippatterns, farmsize, familysize, allocation of labourwithinthe family, custom andreligious factors, on-farm and off-farm employment opportunities, migration and market and credit facilitiesareallfactorsthatmustbeaccountedforwhenestimatingandanalyzing alternative production possibilities. Thusthesocio-economic factorsgovernandconstraintoalargeextenttheactualagriculturalproductionprocess. The economic analyses based on these alternatives are necessary to supply sufficient knowledge and information to the government as a basis for its decisionstoimplementcertainpolicies.Hencetherigoroususeofquantitative modelsandmethodscanaccomplishtwothings:increasedinsightintheplanningsituation andaqualitative improvement of decisionmakingonthebasis ofexistingknowledge. 8.1.5 Regionalplanning Planning takes many forms and may serve a multitude of purposes and objectives. It comes about because national leaders are convinced that only partof thegovernment's objectives will berealized if left tothe forces of the freemarketandprivateenterprise. Regional planningmaytakeplacebecause agovernmentpursuesabalancedgrowthwithinoramongregions.Therefore, regionaldevelopment plansareformulated becauseaparticularregionisconsideredtohavephysicalorsocio-economic development potential, orbecause thatregionispoorlyendowedphysicallyandthereforelagsbehindindevelopmentrelativeto otherregions. Planning modelsthusmakeitpossibletoanalyse certain development opportunities through improved existing technologiesorexistingtechnologies, thatareunusedintheregion,orcompletelynew technologiesderivedfromexperiment stations.Thustheeffect of introducing
338
new technologies on, for example, regional income and employment canbe estimated. Development plans must thus describe the actual situation and formulate alternative courses of action that mayleadto alternative development paths. To successfully plan and to be useful for decision making the information supplied must be of relevance to theplanning situation of the policy makers andmust relatetotheinstrumentsthatthepolicymakerisabletoapply.For example,ifthegovernmentwantstoincreasefoodproductionitdoesnothave the tools to physically force farmers to increase agricultural production (at least inmarketeconomies), butitcanmanipulaterelativepricesof agricultural commodities, or it may subsidize fertilizers or other inputs, or invest in land improvement or infrastructural works and thus stimulate agricultural production.Themodel shouldthenbeabletoindicatewhichof thesemeasureswouldbemoreeffective intermsofsatisfying ormeetingthegovernment's objectives. Inanother situation, if thegovernment wantsto increasegovernment revenue by raising direct taxes, it might want to know whether sucha measurewouldadverselyaffect thepoorgroupsmorethanthehigher-income groups; in other words, would it skew the income distribution in the right direction? Would such a measure affect the terms of trade of agriculture? Planning models must be able to accomodate such questions to be of useto decisionmakers. 8 J.6 Internationaltradeandaid As C.T. de Wit stated in his introduction to this monograph, the food problemisnot onlyalocal ornational problem, itisaproblemwithinternationalpoliticalandeconomicdimensions,becausefooddeficitsandhungerdo not stop at borders but transcend national boundaries insuch forms as food aidandcapital flows toachieveamoreequaldistributionof incomebetween andwithincountries*. One of the important features of the modelling exercise presented hereis thatallsuchcountrymodelscanbelinkedtoaninternational linkagesystem. Theoutput of that system lendsitself for anevaluation andanalysis of trade policies. Inparticularitallowsananalysisof theeffects of internationaltrade (and commodity) agreements and their impact on trade and balance of payments of developing countries and, even more importantly, on the income distributioneffects withindevelopingcountries. At the national level one can analyse the effects of international trade
*Analternativeviewwouldbethat food aidandcapitaltransfers tochronically food deficient countriesaretheother side of thesamecoin, namely international migration of labour to eventually achieve anoptimal international division of labour.In otherwords,development aidcanbeseentobesomesortof pay-off tokeeppeople withintheirboundaries. 339
measuresandtheresultingcostsondevelopingcountries.Thus,modellingthe economies of individual countries, where each individual country model has beensuppliedwiththepolicyinstrumentsthateachparticulargovernmenthas at its disposal, has the advantage that the system permits analysis of the effects of one country's or a group of countries economic policies on other countries,andviceversa.Thus,capital flowstodevelopingcountriesresulting from a negative balance of payment add to the resources for development. Themodelthencanbeusedtoanalysetheeffects ofalternativelevels,compositionsandallocations of theseflows. Uponcompletion of thelinkagesystem (withallitssatellitemodels),theresultsmayindicatethosecountriesthatcan beexpectedto havecontinued food deficits andthosepopulationgroupsthat maycontinuetobesubject tohungerandmalnutrition.Theadvantageofthis modelling system over a more fragmented modelling approach is that the effects of anysetof policies,boththroughinternational agreementsandemanatingfromindividualcountries,canbeanalyzed. 8.1.7 Summary The present national model may be used as a tool for analyzing the food situation and for determining policies conducive to combat hunger. Because national model building is done in close cooperation with local researchers andgovernment institutions,themodelshouldbesuitablefortransfertolocal institutions. The presentation of the methodology in this monograph is an example of thewayinwhich themodels canbetransferred. Oneof theCentre'sobjectives istomakeitsmodels fully available tothegovernment of the country in question for useasatool to makeits own policy analyses. Policy analysiswiththehelpof themodel doesprovidegovernment decisionmakers with a number of choices focussing on increasing food production and the impliedgrowthof incomeandpurchasingpowerof thelowestincomegroups. 1 For any developing country such information is of crucial importance. For foreign donors it may also provide guidance in cases where they want to channel moreof theirresourcesto ruraldevelopment andinparticulartothe basicneedsofthelowestincomegroups.
340
9 COMPUTERMODELSOFCROPPRODUCTION
341
9.1 AFORTRANmodelofcropproduction
J.Wolf,F.H. Rijsdijk andH.vanKeulen 9.1.1 Introduction In the preceding chapters of this monograph the method to calculate crop production for the various production situations has been illustrated using a desk-top calculator. However, whenthemethod hasto beapplied inamore practical situation, where the number of alternatives in terms of soil types, weatherconditionsandcropspeciesislarge,thetimerequired for calculations with a desk-top calculator may be prohibitively long. In these situations a microcomputer, that canperform repetitivecalculations rapidlyisindispensable. Inthissection aprogram ispresented, written inFORTRAN 66,whichis available on most microcomputers, that permits theexecution of calculations for varioussite- specific basicdatasets. The terminology used in this section corresponds to that used byde Wit& Goudriaan (1972)and Penning deVries& van Laar (1982)in earlier volumes of the Simulation Monographs series*. A listing of the simulation model is given in Subsection 9.1.4. Because the acronyms used in this model are not alwaysidentical tothoseusedintheprecedingchapters,analphabetical listof acronymsisprovided (Subsection9.1.5). The model calculates crop growth and production in a dynamic way both for thesituation of potentialcropproduction (Production Situation 1)and for that of water- limited production (Production Situation 2). Production for the third production situation, i.e. unfertilized soil, is subsequently determined from thesupply of nutrients bynatural sources.Thissupplyisintroduced in the model as an exogenous variable, derived from fertilizer experiments (Section 5.3). In addition, the fertilizer application required to arrive at both potential and water- limited crop production iscalculated from a exogenouslyderived fertilizer recovery fraction and from the calculated yields of marketableproducts and crop residues with their crop specific minimum nutrient concentrations. Finally, ayieldlevelisdetermined asinfluenced bythe effects ofweeds,pestsanddiseases. In Subsection 9.1.2, a short description isgiven of the functional relations and thedata used in the model. Becausethey are mostly identical to theones treated in the preceding chapters, it is superfluous to go into great detail; reference will be made to the equations or subsections, where more extensive information can befound. In Subsection 9.1.3,anoutlineisgivenof the data that havetobechangedtousethesimulationmodelinthereader's situation.
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9.1.2 Descriptionofthesimulationmodel ThelinesstartingwithaCinthefirstcolumnareinFORTRANconvention commentlines;theyareignoredduringexecution. Lines RANDOM 120 This routine is used to transform sequential files with data on soilcharacteristics,capillaryriseandclimate(Tables92to94)to random access files in which the required data can be readper record number. Thus this program is not used during the crop growth simulation. Forexample, whennewdataonclimateare available, the sequential file CLIMEAN.DAT has to be changed.NextbyrunningtheprogramRANDOM, CLIMEAN.DAT is transformed to a random access file. After that the calculationsofcropgrowthcanbeexecuted.
RANDOMP 19 This routine is used to transform sequential files with data on crop characteristics (Table 95) to random access files in which the required data can be read perrecord number. It acts inthe samewayasRANDOMbutisonlyusedforplantdata.
WOFAUTN 32 At compilation, the COMMON blocks of the data base called WOFOST.CMNareinserted. 33 - 35 Dimension declaration of database. Inthepresent examplethe data base is restricted to six land units, but this number canbe expandedwithoutanyproblems. 36 - 43 Foreachof thesixlandunitstherelevant climaticdataset, soil textureclasses,surfaceroughness, slopeangleof theland,minimumandmaximumdepthofthegroundwatertableandrelative area with particular soil texture class are specified. Names of somelandunitsinBangladesharegiveninTable91. 45"- 46 Theselinesspecify for24cropspeciesorcultivarsthefactorsto convert the calculated dry matter yield of the economic plant partstothemarketableproduct. 47 Harvestlossesasafractionoftheeconomicplantpartarespecifiedpercropspeciesorcultivar.
344
4-
Table91.Soiltextureclasses,cropspecies,landunits. 1.= Coarsesand 2. = Loamysand 3. = Finesand 4. = Finesandyloam 5.= Siltloam 6.= Loam 7.= Loessloam 8.= Sandyclayloam 9.= Siltyclayloam 10.= Clayloam 11.= Lightclay 12.= Siltyclay 13.= Heavyclay 14.= Peat 1.= SpringWheat 2.= RiceHYVIR8 3. = RiceBR3boro/aus 4.= RiceBR7aus 5.= RiceBR9boro 6.= RiceBR41.aman 7.= RiceNizersailt.aman 8.= Jute(C. capsilahus) 9.= Jute(C. olitorius) 10.= Groundnut 11.= Cassava 12.= Maize 13.= Lentil 14.= Chickpea 15.= Tobacco 16.= Cotton 17.= Sugarcane 18.= Chillies 19.= Rapeseed 20.= Barley 21.= Sweetpotato 22.= Onion 23.= Sesame 24.= Potato 1. = N.E.Barindtract 2. = N.Tistafloodplain 3. = Gangustidal flood plain 4. = Chittagonghilltract 5. = Daccase 6. = Sylhetbasin 345
48 -
51 54 -
61 -
70 -
76 86 -
94 102 -
114 -
50 Cropsaredividedintotwogroupsthathaveadifferent susceptibility to pests and diseases (IDISR = 1(less susceptible) or 2 (susceptible)). The relation between relative yield (see lines 132 - 147)andthereductionduetopestsanddiseasesisspecifiedin datasetsTAB1andTAB2forgroup1 and2,respectively. Specification of crop part that constitutes the marketable product:1 (leaves),2(stems)or3 (storageorgans). 59 To open input files for data on specific crop growth calculations, on soil and crop characteristics and on capillary riseand climate, and to open the output file inwhich the results of the simulationwill bewritten.Thecontentsof these files areshown in Tables 92 to 96 and they are specified in subroutines PLANTR, CRDAT,CLIMIN,SOILR. 69 Readspecification oflandunit,cropspeciesandstartingdateof cropgrowthforwhichthecalculationhastobecarriedout.The dates are counted according to the Julian calendar for astandard year of 365 days. Forthe specified land unit, theclimatic data set, surface roughness, slope angle of the land and minimumandmaximumgroundwaterdeptharefound. 74 For the specified land unit, the calculations are carried out for five soil texture classes, unless the relative area for agiven soil texture class equals 0. If IOPT is larger than zero, the crop growthsimulationwithoutwaterbalanceisomitted. 84 Callsubroutines,whicharedescribedfurtheron. 91 AvariableIPScontrollingoutputisspecified, thevariablespecifying day number is set equal to the starting date, thebaseuptake of nitrogen and phosphorus and the recovery fraction of appliednitrogenandphosphorusfertilizeraregiven. 100 Call subroutines, which aredescribed later. Cropproduction is first calculated without water balance (IWB = 0 ; potential production)andsubsequentlywithwaterbalance(IWB = 1). 113 The output of the crop-growth simulation model is specified. Thecalculatedproductionof leaves,stemsandstorageorgansis given for potential production (1-3), water- limited production (4-6), nutrient- limited production (7-9) and water- plusnutrientlimitedproduction(10-12), respectively. 120 The calculated production of leaves, stems and storageorgans, expressed in dry matter, is corrected for harvest losses, and is multiplied by 1.15to arriveatair-dry material. Depending on the marketable product (leaves, stems or storage organs, i.e. IHP = 1, 2 or 3), the harvested product is converted into the form inwhichit isgenerallyexpressed intheagriculturalstatistics. Hence, grains are expressed on an air-dry basis, brown riceisconvertedtopaddy;juteisexpressedinfibre;groundnut,
346
sesame, lentil, rape-seed and chickpea are expressed in air-dry seed; cassave in dry matter; tobacco and sugar-cane in air-dry leaves and stems, respectively; onions, sweet potato andpotatoinfreshtubers;cottoninseedpluslintandchilliesin dry matter. The sequence of the 24 crop species or cultivars is giveninTable91. 122 - 131 For the marketable plant organ, the additional yield per unit applied fertilizer nutrient, both for thepotential andthewater- limitedproductionsituation,iscalculated. 132 - 147 For Production Situation 4, the effects of weeds, pests anddiseases on production are taken into account. The yields in the absence of control measures are calculated from the water- limited and water- plus- nutrient- limited production through application of a reduction factor. The value of this reduction factor isafunction of therelativeyield, i.e. theyieldcompared to the potential yield. Therelation is suchthat agreaterreduction isassumed at higher yield levels. Two cropgroups aredistinguished comprising less and more susceptible crop species (lines48 - 50). 149 - 160 Write in the output file of aparticular crop growth simulation the relevant land unit, the texture class with its relative area, cropspecies,startingdateofcropgrowth,totaltranspirationfor potential and water limited production and total surface runoff duringthecropgrowthperiod.Writefurthertheyieldincrement per unit of applied nitrogen or phosphorus (legumes only) fertilizer, andtheproduction of leaves, stemsandstorage organs for the potential and the water- limited production situation, for the nutrient- limited and the water- plus- nutrient- limited production situation, both with and withoutreductionfortheeffects of weeds,pestsanddiseases.Thelimiting nutrientisnormallynitrogen,but fornitrogen- fixing cropspecies, such as legumes, it is supposed to be phosphorus. At the end of a complete sequence of calculations the files areclosed andthecalculationsstopped. BLOCKDATA 164 - 192 At compilation the COMMON blocks, called WOFOST.CMN, areinserted. 194 - 200 A data block is given herewith initial or default values for the variables used in thecalculations of cropgrowth andthewater balance.Thesoil default valuesrefermainlytoTextureClass7, i.e. loess loam. Forothertextureclasses, dataareread froman inputfileandreplacethedefaultvalues.
347
202 - 207 Therelationbetweenairtemperatureandareduction factor for gross C0 2 assimilation rateis given for C4and C3cropspecies. TheC3speciesaresubdividedintothosenormallygrowingunder temperateandtropicalconditions,respectively.Thebaseuptake of nutrients is defined for crops with a growth period of 120 days. For crops with shorter or longer growth periods thebase uptakeiscorrectedonthebasisoftherelationgiven. FUNCTIONAFGEN 209 - 232 This function allows linear interpolation in a table for agiven value of the independent variable X. The table consists of 15 values for the independent variable (odd numbers, i.e. TABLE(l), (3)...) andof 15 valuesforthecorrespondingdependent variable(evennumbers,i.e. TABLE(2), (4)...) Thevalueofthe independent variable X iscompared with the values of theodd numbers. When the value of TABLE(I) exceeds the value of X forthefirsttime,theslopeofthefunction iscalculated fromthe values of the independent variables nearest to X. This slope is equaltothedifference betweentwoadjacentevennumbersdividedbythedifference betweenthetwocorresponding oddnumbers. Thevalue that results from theinterpolation inthetables forthegivenvalueXiscalledAFGEN.Forexample,TABLE(5) isthefirstvaluelargerthanX.Then, SLOPE = (TABLE(4) - TABLE(6))/ (TABLE(3) TABLE(5)) AFGEN = TABLE(6) + SLOPE (XTABLE(5)) If the independent variable X is largerthan orequal to thelargestindependentTABLEvalueorissmallerthanorequaltothe smallest independent TABLE value, the largest or the smallest dependentTABLEvalueischosen. SUBROUTINESOILR 236 - 264 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 266 - 271 Read from the input file on unit 7 starting on record 1for soil texture class, 1record 2 for texture class 2, etc. In total, data for 14 soil texture classes (Table 91) are included, which are giveninTable92.Thedataprovided pertextureclassare: saturatedhydraulicconductivity, thesuctionlimit(Equation31),the transmissionzone conductivity, empirical constants 1and 2, respectively (Equations 30, 31), geometry factor (Equation27), slope angle of the land, surface roughness, clod/furrow angle, 348
initial groundwater depth, standard sorptivity and total pore space. Inthepresentset- uptheslopeangleisassociatedwitha textureclass.That isnot always necessary, however. Themaximumrootingdepthisassumedequalto 150cm. 272 - 275 Intheselinesamessageisdefined thatappearsif soil datafora textureclasscannotberead. SUBROUTINEPLANTR 279 - 307 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 310 - 328 Read from theinput file on unit 8starting onrecord 1 forcrop 1, record 25 for crop 2, record 49 for crop 3, etc. Data for 24 crops or cultivars (Table 91) are included, which are given in Tables 95 and 96. For each crop, the following data are supplied: - nameofcrop - croptype (1 = C4crop;2 = C3crop, adapted totemperate regions; 3 = C3 crop, adapted to (sub)tropical regions; 4 = leguminous crop);withorwithout airducts (1or0);increasein maintenance respiration rate per 10 C temperature increase; extinction coefficient for total radiation; efficiency of convertingassimilatesintoleaf,storageorgan,rootandstemstructural drymatter,respectively;lifespanofleaves;relativemaintenance respirationrateofleaves. - relativemaintenancerespirationrateofstorageorgans,roots and stems, respectively; extension rate of roots; relative death rate of leaves due to water stress; relative death rate due to ageingof rootsandstems, respectively;specific podarea;specific stem area; minimum nitrogen concentration in storage organs. - development rate dependent or not on day length; initial rooting depth; initial total dry weight (living); maximum developmentrateforthepre-anthesis period;criticaldaylengthfor maximum and for zero development; maximum development rate for the post- anthesis period; minimum nitrogen concentration incropresidues;minimum phosphorus concentrationin storageorgansandincropresidues,respectively. - tablesof thepartitioning factors of assimilates to roots,leaves, stems and storage organs, respectively and thespecific leaf area,allasafunctionofthedevelopmentstage. - tableoftherelativedevelopment rateasafunction oftemperature. 349
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350
- table of the soilwater depletion fraction as a function of potentialtranspiration. 329 - 332 Inthese lines amessage is defined that appears if aset of crop datacannotberead SUBROUTINECRDAT 336 - 364 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 366 - 371 Read from the output file on unit 9 starting on record 1 for texture class 1, record 11 for texture class 2 etc. In total, data areprovided for 14textureclasses.Thesedataarederived from Rijtema(1969)andrelatetherateof capillaryrise(8values)and the soil suction in the rooted zone (10 values) to the distance between root zone andgroundwater level (RIJTEM (10,8)). An exampleof thisinput file derived fromTables21to34isshown in Table 93. These data are used in subroutine RIJTEMA to calculatetherateofcapillary rise. 372 - 375 In these lines a message is defined that appears if aset of data cannotberead. SUBROUTINECLIMIN 379 - 407 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 410 - 432 Read from the input file on unit 10 starting on record 1 for climatic data-set 1, record 14 for climatic data-set 2 etc. In total 6data sets areincluded. From each set the following data areread: - name of the location for which the climate applies and its geographicallatitude - values for the 12monthly averages of daily airtemperature, monthly rainfall, daily potential evapotranspiration rate, daily potentialevaporationrate,dailygrossC0 2assimilationrateofa closed C3 or C4 crop canopy, respectively, monthly effective irrigationandthenumberof rainydayspermonth.Anexample of this input file is shown in Table 94. The climatic data are entered in tables derived from the data statement DAYNUM that contain initially only the day numbers (the middle of each month in the Julian calendar) and zeros for the corresponding climaticdata(lines408 - 411). 433 - 447 For the potential evaporation rate and evapotranspiration rate themonthlyaveragevalueiscalculatedandenteredinthetables. Foreachoftheclimaticvariablesthevaluesforthemiddleofthe 351
first and the last month of the year are averaged to obtain the valuesforthefirstandthelastdayof theyear. Table93.Partofthesequential file RIJTEMA.DAT,containingdatafor4soiltexture classes.
20.0 43.3 44.4 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 44.5 3.7 11.6 13.9 14.5 14.7 14.9 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.3 19.7 47.9 82.0 92.8 94.1 95.1 95.9 96.4 96.8 97.0 19.1 47.0 88.0 137.0 140.9 143.3 145.4 146.6 147.5 148.0 18.3 44.2 81.2 20.0 44.1 45.4 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 4.3 13.6 16.4 17.2 17.5 17.7 17.9 18.0 18.1 18.2 19.7 48.3 84.5 97.3 99.0 100.2 101.3 101.9 102.4 102.6 19.3 47.5 90.1 145.4 150.0 153.1 155.6 157.1 158.3 158.9 18.6 45.3 84.2 20.0 45.0 46.7 46.7 46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8 5.0 16.5 20.1 21.1 21.5 21.8 22.1 22.3 22.4 22.5 19.8 48.7 87.4 103.3 105.4 107.1 108.5 109.3 109.9 110.3 19.5 48.1 92.3 155.5 162.0 166.0 169.4 171.4 173.0 173.9 18.9 46.3 87.6 20.0 46.1 48.5 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 6.0 20.9 26.2 27.6 28.2 28.7 29.1 29.4 29.5 29.6 19.9 49.1 90.8 111.7 115.0 117.4 119.5 120.7 121.7 122.3 19.7 48.7 94.7 169.8 179.4 185.3 190.4 193.4 195.8 197.1 19.3 41.5 91.3 20.0 46.8 49.8 49.9 49.9 49.9 49.9 50.0 50.0 50.0 6.6 24.2 31.0 32.2 33.7 34.3 34.9 35.2 35.5 35.6 19.9 49.3 92.7 117.9 122.1 125.4 128.2 129.9 131.2 131.9 19.7 49.0 95.5 179.5 192.0 199.4 206.7 210.7 213.9 215.6 19.4 48.1 93.3 20.0 47.6 51.6 51.7 51.8 51.8 51.8 51.8 51.9 51.9 7.5 28.9 38.3 41.1 42.4 43.3 44.1 44.6 45.0 45.2 19.9 49.6 94.8 126.7 133.1 138.0 142.2 144.6 146.2 147.6 19.8 49.4 97.2 192.3 210.6 222.4 232.5 238.4 243.2 245.8 19.6 48.7 95.4 20.0 48.4 53.9 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.2 54.3 54.3 54.3 8.3 34.4 48.1 52.7 54.8 56.4 57.7 58.5 59.1 59.5 20.0 49.7 96.7 138.3 148.7 156.8 163.8 167.9 171.2 172.9 19.9 49.6 98.3 206.9 235.5 254.7 271.6 281.5 289.5 293.7 19.8 49.2 97.2 20.0 49.4 58.8 59.2 59.5 59.7 59.8 59.9 60.0 60.0 9.4 43.1 68.8 81.5 87.6 92.3 96.4 98.7 100.6 101.6 20.0 49.9 98.9 165.8 194.6 218.1 238.9 251.0 260.9 266.1 20.0 49.9 99.4 230.0 297.1 350.6 399.9 429.3 453.2 465.9 19.9 49.7 '99.0
352
Table93.(continued)
127.7 134.4 138.6 142.3 144.4 146.1 147.0 17.7 42.2 74.0 102.6 104.6 105.9 107.0 107.7 108.2 108.5 18.9 43.8 65.4 71.5 74.2 76.2 78.0 79.0 79.8 80.3 19.4 47.3 85.1 110.0 113.9 117.0 119.6 121.1 122.3 123.0 14.0 31.0 48.1 58.2 61.4 64.7 67.5 69.1 70.4 137.2 145.4 150.7 155.3 157.9 160.1 161.2 18.2 43.5 77.7 111.0 113.7 115.3 116.7 117.5 118.2 118.5 19.1 44.9 69.0 76.4 79.8 83.3 84.5 85.8 86.8 87.3 19.5 47.8 87.5 116.3 121.2 125.0 128.2 130.1 131.6 132.4 14.9 33.5 53.1 65.3 69.4 73.5 76.9 79.0 80.6 149.2 160.0 167.0 173.0 176.6 179.4 180.9 18.6 45.0 82.1 122.1 125.7 127.8 129.7 130.7 131.6 132.1 19.3 46.0 73.3 83.0 87.4 90.8 93.7 95.4 96.8 97.5 19.6 48.3 90.1 124.4 130.9 136.0 140.3 142.8 144.8 145.9 15.9 36.5 59.4 75.0 80.5 85.9 90.5 93.2 95.3 165.7 181.4 191.9 201.0 206.3 210.6 212.8 19.0 46.5 87.0 137.8 143.1 146.3 149.1 150.7 152.0 152.7 19.5 47.3 78.9 92.7 99.3 104.4 108.8 111.3 113.4 114.4 19.7 48.9 93.0 136.0 145.7 153.2 159.6 163.4 166.5 168.1 17.1 40.0 67.9 89.5 97.4 105.6 112.5 116.5 119.8 176.8 197.2 211.1 223.2 230.2 236.0 239.0 19.3 47.3 89.8 148.8 155.7 160.1 163.8 165.9 167.7 168.6 19.7 47.9 82.4 100.1 108.8 115.6 121.3 124.7 127.5 128.9 19.8 49.1 94.6 144.3 157.0 167.0 175.6 180.6 184.6 186.8 17.7 42.1 73.3 100.1 110.6 121.3 130.5 135.9 140.2 191.3 220.5 241.0 259.1 269.6 278.2 282.8 19.5 48.2 92.9 164.0 174.2 180.6 186.2 189.4 192.0 193.4 19.8 48.6 86.8 111.2 124.0 134.1 142.7 147.8 151.9 154.1 19.9 49.4 96.3 156.0 174.6 189.4 202.3 209.8 215.9 219.1 18.4 44.4 80.0 115.3 130.8 146.7 160.4 168.5 175.0 207.3 252.1 285.4 315.2 322.8 347.0 354.6 19.7 48.9 95.6 182.0 198.4 209.1 218.3 223.7 228.0 230.3 19.9 49.1 91.1 126.6 147.3 163.8 178.7 168.7 193.5 197.1 19.9 49.7 97.7 170.9 200.3 224.5 245.8 258.3 268.4 273.8 19.0 46.4 86.6 134.7 159.4 185.2 208.0 221.4 232.2 231.3 326.9 414.7 500.3 552.2 594.7 617.4 19.9 49.6 98.5 214.3 256.5 287.2 314.4 330.5 343.5 350.5 20.0 49.7 96.6 165.5 218.3 264.7 307.0 332.1 352.5 363.4 20.0 49.9 99.2 201.7 272.7 338.6 400.5 437.6 467.9 484.0 19.7 48.8 94.9 175.0 235.7 305.6 371.7 411.5 443.9
353
Table93.(continued)
71.1 12.1 25.6 37.6 43.6 43.9 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.3 17.1 40.8 73.4 114.5 122.0 127.1 131.3 133.8 135.8 136.9 12.3 22.3 28.0 33.8 37.1 39.7 41.9 43.1
*"f*T **
*T*"T *
4.7 7.9 9.4 10.4 11.0 11.4 11.8 12.0 12.2 12.3 15.4 22.9 24.4 25.9 26.7 27.3 27.9 28.2 28.4 28.5
81.5 13.1 28.3 42.4 49.7 50.1 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 50.6 17.6 42.4 77.4 124.7 134.0 140.3 145.6 148.7 151.2 152.6 13.3 24.8 31.7 38.9 43.1 46.2 49.0 50.5 51.8 52.5 5.5 9.5 11.3 12.6 13.3 13.8 14.3 14.6 14.8 14.9 16.1 24.8 26.6 28.5 29.5 30.3 30.9 31.3 31.6 31.8
96.5 14.3 31.7 48.8 58.2 58.7 58.9 59.1 59.3 59.4 59.4 18.1 44.0 81.9 137.9 150.1 158.3 165.4 169.6 173.0 174.7 14.5 28.0 36.7 46.2 51.7 56.0 59.6 61.7 63.4 64.3 6.7 11.7 14.1 15.8 16.8 17.6 18.2 18.5 18.8 19.0 16.9 27.1 29.6 32.0 33.4 34.4 35.3 32.8 36.2 36.3
121.5 15.8 36.0 57.7 71.2 71.8 72.2 72.5 72.7 72.9 73.0 18.7 45.8 87.0 156.0 173.8 186.1 196.7 203.0 208.0 210.7 15.9 32.3 44.4 58.1 66.3 72.6 78.0 81.2 83.8 85.1 8.6 15.5 19.0 21.6 23.0 24.1 25.1 25.6 26.0 26.3 17.8 30.4 34.0 37.6 39.7 41.2 42.5 43.3 43.9 44.3
142.6 16.7 38.6 63.8 80.9 81.8 82.3 82.7 83.0 93.2 83.3 19.0 46.8 89.9 168.3 191.4 207.7 221.8 230.1 236.8 240.4 16.8 35.2 50.0 67.7 78.5 86.9 94.1 98.4 101.8 103.6 10.0 18.5 23.0 26.5 28.4 29.9 31.1 31.8 32.4 32.7 18.3 32.7 37.4 42.2 44.9 46.9 48.7 49.7 50.5 51.0
178.5 17.7 41.7 71.8 95.2 96.4 97.2 97.9 98.2 98.5 98.7 19.3 47.8 93.0 184.5 217.3 241.3 262.4 274.9 284.9 290.3 17.2 38.8 58.1 83.0 98.8 111.3 122.1 128.4 133.5 136.3 12.0 23.1 29.5 34.6 37.5 39.7 41.5 42.6 43.5 44.0 18.8 35.8 42.5 49.5 53.5 56.6 59.2 60.8 62.0 62.7
238.0 18.5 44.7 80.3 113.7 115.8 117.1 118.2 118.8 119.4 119.6 19.6 48.6 95.6 202.4 252.0 290.7 325.5 346.1 362.9 371.8 18.6 42.4 67.9 105.0 130.2 150.7 168.6 179.1 187.6 192.1 14.3 29.0 38.7 47.0 51.7 55.4 58.5 60.3 61.8 62.6 19.3 39.3 49.5 60.8 67.4 72.5 76.9 79.5 81.5 82.6
461.1 19.5 48.1 92.0 153.9 160.2 164.0 167.2 169.1 170.7 171.5 19.9 49.5 98.5 229.3 332.9 432.8 532.3 593.1 642.9 669.6 19.5 47.1 84.8 158.0 220.6 277.1 329.4 360.7 386.1 399.7 17.6 39.8 60.1 82.2 95.9 106.8 116.1 121.5 125.9 128.3 19.7 45.0 66.5 95.6 114.4 129.5 142.5 150.1 156.3 159.6
Table94.Thesequential file CLIMEAN.DAT forsixsitesinBangladesh. N.E. Barindtract 17.6 19.8 24.5 28.3 28.7 28.7 28.9 28.8 28.4 26.7 22.4 18.8 1.01 1.23 2.01 5.34 16.6 34.1 39.8 32.7 30.5 13.3 .950 .080 .159 .249 .386 .524 .532 .464 .408 .411 .364 .337 .220 .149 .213 .311 .459 .614 .640 .564 .493 .504 .445 .422 .285 .202 595. 678. 799. 879. 869. 736. 611. 654. 584. 666. 626. 587. 25.5 468. 530. 619. 679. 678. 593. 510. 533. 478. 525. 491. 462. 25.75 .156 .240 .366 .488 .487 .436 .429 .431 .382 .347 .195 .149 .210 .311 .448 .584 .594 .532 .526 .527 .467 .431 .294 .198 571. 704. 798. 842. 831. 697. 690. 690. 617. 637. 576. 520. 451. 548. 618. 655. 653. 568. 562. 558. 500. 505. 457. 415. 22.5 .215 .305 .435 .520 .524 .412 .396 .375 .400 .353 .260 .189 .271 .371 .513 .618 .631 .496 .482 .451 .488 .434 .327 .250 581. 654. 709. 779. 793. 585. 588. 532. 630. 622. 605. 601. 460. 516. 559. 613. 627. 492. 493. 452. 510. 497. 478. 473.
1.
1. 1. 2. 4. 9. 19. 16. 16. 13. 6. 1.

1.
N.Tistafloodplain 17.3 19.5 23.5 27.7 27.8 28.3 28.7 29.2 28.9 26.5 22.4 18.9 1.13 1.48 2.82 8.46 29.8 49.2 41.1 33.3 31.7 16.6 1.00 .140
1. 1. 2. 4. 9. 19. 16. 16. 13. 6. 1. 1.
Gangustidalflood plain 19.6 22.2 26.6 29.0 29.5 28.7 28.2 28.3 28.6 27.7 23.9 20.5 1.59 1.90 4.81 10.4 19.6 42.3 45.1 39.5 28.5 19.0 4.23 .990
1. 3. 6. 11. 16. 12. 16. 12. 7. 1. 1.
355
Table94(continued)
Chittagonghilltract 19.6 21.6 25.4 27.8 28.4 27.8 27.4 27.3 27.7 27.1 24.0 20.7 Daccase 18.6 21.2 26.0 28.8 29.3 28.6 28.1 28.5 28.5 27.1 23.2 19.3 Sylhetbasin 18.5 20.6 24.1 26.4 26.8 27.2 28.0 28.0 27.8 26.2 22.9 20.0 1.96 4.74 8.18 31.5 49.4 97.3 73.5 60.0 42.5 17.6 3.53 1.80 .178 .261 .383 .442 .435 .374 .391 .382 .349 .320 .232 .168 .231 .325 .454 .531 .534 .456 .477 .467 .426 .402 .298 .214 574. 663. 720. 746. 744. 577. 606. 600. 560. 625. 604. 511. .560 .530 4.65 8.99 24.7 32.8 33.4 33.9 23.5 15.2 10.8 3.44 .214 .312 .482 .597 .608 .469 .454 .454 .435 .386 .273 .163 .268 .373 .555 .690 .719 .561 .550 .547 .523 .467 .340 .240 587. 664. 738. 797. 847. 657. 675. 665. 630. 624. 625. 576. 1.74 2.88 5.86 13.4 25.1 49.3 54.3 46.9 30.8 15.8 6.36 3.81 .217 .308 .443 .549 .548 .463 .426 .430 .396 .350 .273 .198 .276 .380 .532 .654 .662 .559 .518 .529 .484 .423 .351 .258 588. 710. 788. 848. 863. 688. 644. 691. 629. 573. 666. 562.
23.
465. 553. 612. 659. 674. 561. 531. 558. 509. 464. 520. 446. 24. 464. 522. 578. 625. 663. 540. 551. 541. 510. 497. 492. 455. 24.75 454. 520. 566. 591. 596. 488. 506. 498. 462. 497. 477. 409.
1. 1. 2. 5. 10. 15. 19. 15. 11. 7. 2. 1.
1. 1. 3. 6. 11. 16. 12. 16. 12. 7. 1. 1.
2. 2. 3. 11. 18. 22. 25. 24. 16. 8. 1. 1.
356
SUBROUTINEAPPLE 459 - 487 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 493 - 535 At initialization most variables are set to zero. In the default option the initial soil- moisture content is set equal to amoisture content at a matric suction of 100cm. The soil- moisture contents at a matric suction of 100 cm and 16000 cm (wilting point)arecalculatedwithEquation27andthemaximumsurface storage capacity with Equation 41. For the latter calculation, clod angle and slope angle are converted from degrees to radians.Thecalculationproceedswithtimestepsof 1 day(DELT). 537 - 549 Thetotal amounts of roots, leaves, stemsandstorage organsat initialization aredetermined from thetotal amount of drymatteratemergenceorattransplanting, andthepartitioning factors forthevariousplant organsatdevelopment stageequaltozero. Thetotal amount of drymatterat initialization issupplied asa crop- specific variable intheplant data. If different sowingor plantingdensities aretobeexamined, thisvariablecanbechanged. Boththe specific leaf areaandthe partitioning factorsdependonthedevelopment stage.Theleaf areaindexiscalculated fromthespecific leaf areaandtheleafweight.Thecontribution of photosynthetically activestemsand/orpodsisalsotakeninto account,ifitisofimportance. 551 - 556 Writeintheoutput file thesoil textureclass,thestartingdayof cropgrowth,thenameof thecropspeciesandthatof theclimaticdataset. Subsequently, writeintheoutput file thedaynumber, the amount of roots, leaves stems and storage organs, the leaf areaindex, thegroundwater depth, thesoilmoisturecontent intheroot zoneandthedevelopment stage, all referring to thedateof emergenceortransplanting. Anexampleof thisoutputfileisshowninTable97. 558 - 569 Thedynamicpartof thecalculations thatisrepeatedeverytime stepDELTstartshere. Ifthedevelopment stageequalstwo,the cropgrowthcycleiscompletedandthecalculationsareterminated. The duration of the cropgrowth period is calculated here. Data on temperature, rainfall, gross C0 2 assimilation rate,potential evapotranspiration rate, potential evaporation rate and effective irrigation ratefor dayIDAYarederived fromsubroutineCLIMAT.WithsubroutineDAYLENthedaylengthiscalculated asfunction of dateandgeographical latitude. Thefractionof interceptedradiationiscalculatedaccordingtoEquation 5. If control parameter IWBequals zero, the simulation runis executedwithouttakingintoaccountthewaterbalance. 357
573 - 581 Thevolumetricsoil- moisturecontent at field capacity iscalculatedwithEquation27foramatricsuctionequaltothegroundwater depth. The matric suction is calculated with the same equation, solved in the opposite direction for the actual volumetricsoil- moisturecontentintherootingzone(Equation68). Thehydraulicconductivity resultsfrom Equation 30,solved for this matricsuction. If thematricsuction is higher thanatexture-specific suction limit, Equation 31 is used. The maximum infiltration rate is determined by the actual sorptivity plus the transmissionzonepermeability(Equations33and34). 585 - 590 Theactualevaporationrateiscalculatedfromthepotentialrate, taking into account thereduction duetosoil- moisturecontent andshadingbythevegetation(Equations37,40and71).Ifcrop growth is calculated without water balance, the maximum insteadoftheactualevaporationrateiscalculated. Inthecasethat awaterlayercoversthefield, evaporationtakesplaceoutofthis waterlayerinsteadof fromthesoil. 594 - 599 Thechangeinsurfacestoragedependsonrainfall, irrigationand evaporation. The actual infiltration rate is the maximum of either the calculated change in surface storage or the maximum infiltration rate.Themaximuminfiltration ratecouldbecorrected for rainfall distribution and slope angle. However, these functions arenot yetdefined inthemodelanddonotaffect the infiltration capacity. Subtracting theactual infiltration rateand the maximum surface storage capacity from the calculated surface storage results in the runoff, which is integrated for the whole crop growth period. These relations are given as Equations42,43and44. 603 - 614 Belowtherootzone, thedirectionof waterflow dependsonthe distancebetweenthebottomoftherootzoneandthegroundwaterlevelandonthematricsuctionintherootzone.Ifthesuction exceedsthis distance, capillary risewill occur, therateof which is calculated in subroutine RIJTMA. This upward water flow can, however, not result inamoisture content inthe root zone above field capacity. In the reverse case, i.e. gravity potential exceeds matric suction, natural drainage will take place(Equation48),butonlytheamountof waterintherootzoneinexcess of fieldcapacitycanberemoved. 618 - 637 Thepotentialandthemaximumtranspirationratearecalculated according to Equations 51 and 52. The critical soil- moisture content is calculated in accordance with Equation 53, with a soil- waterdepletion fraction dependingonpotentialtranspirationrateandcropspecies.Theactualtranspirationratedepends on the soil- moisture content. The reduction in transpiration 358
641 -
646 -
653 -
665 -
683 -
rateappliedherediffers tosomeextent fromthatusedinSection 3.2 (Equations 54and55),especially athighsoil- moisturecontents. Here the decrease in transpiration rate is directly proportional to thesoil-air content, between 0.10 and0.05 cm3 cm -3 . Reduction in the transpiration rate does not occur in wet soil if thecrophasairducts(AIRDUC = 1). 642 The change in volumetric soil- moisture content in the root zoneisdetermined bythebalancebetweentheactual infiltration rate, the rate of capillary rise, or drainage below the root zone, andtheactual rateof evaporation andtranspiration, takinginto account thedepth of therooting zone (Equation 24). Inthecase that thesimulation isexecuted without waterbalance, theactual ratesof evaporationandtranspirationarenotcalculated andthe changeinsoil- moisturecontentissettozero. 648 In situations where artificial drainage systems are available, the resulting drainage canbecalculated withEquation 59, assuming that the depth of the groundwater table and the drains, the hydraulic conductivity of thesoil, and thedrainspacing anddrain radiusareknown. 655 The depth of the groundwater table maychange either bynaturaldrainageorbycapillaryriseandartificial drainage (Equation 60). The pore space emptied or filled with water at a change in thegroundwater depth issupposed to beequal to the air- filled pore fraction in the root zone. When groundwater enters the root zone, the change in groundwater depth and the change in soil- moisture content are calculated in a different way. The groundwater depth (ZTF)andthesoil- moisturecontent (SMF) obtain fixed values at the moment that the groundwater enters the root zone (lines 775 - 777, 783 - 785). The change in groundwater depth is then calculated from the rates of infiltration, evaporation and transpiration using the fixed air-filled pore fraction. The relative change in groundwater depth, in comparison to ZTF, is multiplied with the fixed air- filled pore fraction toobtainthechangeinsoil- moisturecontent. 679 The development rate before flowering depends on day length and temperature. After flowering, the development rate only depends on temperature and differs from that before flowering at the same temperature. The specific leaf area of the growing material and the partitioning factors for dry- matter allocation to leaves, stems, etc., depend on the development stage andare obtained bylinearinterpolation incrop-specific tables (Section 2.2). 689 The gross rate of C0 2 assimilation depends on the potential gross assimilation rate, the fraction of intercepted radiationand 359
the actual transpiration rate (Equation 5and Section 3.3). The potential gross C0 2 assimilation rate is calculated before and added to the climatic data. The maintenance respiration rate depends on the amount of dry matter in the various plant organs, the relative maintenance respiration rate per plant organ and the temperature. It cannot exceed the gross assimilation rate, i.e. it is assumed that thevegetation will not be *self-destructive'intermsof carbohydrates. Grossassimilation rateminusmaintenancerespirationrateresultsintheamountofassimilates available for conversion into structural plant material (Equation 6). The conversion efficiency of carbohydrates to structuralplantmaterialiscalculated astheweightedaverageof theefficiencies forthevariousplafttorgans. 693 - 748 The growth rate of roots, leaves, stems and storage organsdepends on thetotal drymatterincrease of thecrop, thepartitioning factors and the death rate of each of the plant organs. Roots and stems start to die after development stage 1.5 has been reached. Dying of the leaves often starts earlier, because leaves not only die when the oldest leaves exceed their lifespan (DALV),theyalsodieatanincreasingratewithincreasingwater stress, i.e. adecrease inthe ratio of actual transpiration rateto the maximum rate (DSLV1). Inaddition it is assumed thatdue toself- shading,theleavesinexcessofaleafareaindexof7will die(DSLV2).Thegrowthrateof theleavesiscalculatedseparatelypertimestep,i.e. perday,viaLV(1) = GRLVxDELT(line 727);atthesametimethecorresponding leaf areaiscalculated. Each day, leaf weight and leaf area areshifted by one classvia lines 725 and 726. To the oldest class of leaves, the amount of leaves present at emergence or at transplanting is added (line 729). Leaves that have exceeded their life span will die(DALV = LV(ISPAN);line721).However, ifthoseleavesdiedbecause of stress(DSLV),dyingduetosenescenceissuppressed (vialine 709). Iftheamountof leavesfrom theearliest date, (LV(IL)),is insufficient tocoverleafdeath fromstress,leavesthatare1 day, 2 days, etc., younger (LV(IL- 1), LV(IL-2) etc.) will die(line 715).Thus,dyingof leavesduetowaterstresstakesplaceatthe cost of the oldest leaves. The total leaf area is the result of combiningtheleafareasofallleafageclasses(line734). 752 - 759 The development stage andthe dryweights of living roots,leaves, stemsandstorageorgansarecalculated fromtheamountat time t and the development or growth rate during time step DELT. Combining the dry weights of the living plant organs results in total above-ground dry weight and total dryweight (living)ofthecrop. 360
761 - 769 The dry weight of dead roots, leaves, stems and storage organs are calculated from the amount at time t and the death rate during time step DELT. The total dry weights of roots, leaves, stems and storage organs result from combining the weights of thelivingandthedeadplantorgans. 774 - 785 The soil-moisture content in the root zone follows from the rate of change in soil- moisture content, but it is confined between the moisture content of air-dry soil and that of almost saturated soil, respectively. When groundwater enters the root zone, fixed values for soil- moisture content (SMF) and for groundwater depth (ZTF) are established (lines 775 - 777 and 783 - 785). Subtracting the actual infiltration and runoff from the total surface storage, which is the total of the original surface storage plusthebalance of rainfall, irrigation andevaporation(line594),resultsinthenewsurfacestorage.Thegroundwaterdepthisdetermined bythechange ingroundwater depth,but it isconfined between aminimum andamaximum value, which arespecified foreachlandunit(lines40and41),asafunction of physiography, river level, etc. Root extension ceases when rootingdepthhasattaineditsmaximumvalue. 786 - 796 For crops with air ducts this part is not relevant. When the rooting depth is less than 10 cm above the groundwater level, root extensionceasesbecauseoxygen shortagepreventsit.When groundwater enters the root zone, roots are dying and the rooting depth decreases. When the amount of assimilates partitioned to the roots becomes zero, root extension will be zero too. The number of days the rooting depth is less than 10 cm is calculated via RTDF. After five daysof waterlogging (RTDF = 5), amessage of crop failure isprinted instead of dryweights of plantorgans,etc., andthecalculationisterminated. 798 - 800 Thegreen areaindex (leaf, pod and stem)iscalculated from the specific areas and the weights of leaves, stems and pods. The rooting depthresults from integration of theroot extensionrate. Waterusebytranspiration during thewholecropgrowth period isobtainedbyintegratingactualtranspiration. TEMPORARY OUTPUT 804 - 817 Every 10days, thedate(Juliancalendarday),thedryweights of roots, leaves, stems and storage organs, the leaf area index, the groundwater depth, thesoilmoisturecontent and thedevelopment stagearewritten intheoutput file (Table 97). Thecalculations are then continued for the next day. When the development stage reaches two or the leaf weight becomes zero, crop 361
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growth is terminated. In that case the same variables that are written every 10 days are saved in the output file for the last time. 818 - 825 Thecalculated weights of leaves, stems and storage organs,the growthdurationandthetotal waterusebytranspiration forthe potential production situation are renamed to be distinguished fromthoseofthewater- limitedproductionsituation. SUBROUTINECLIMAT 833 - 861 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 862 - 871 Air temperature, potential evaporation rate, potential evapotranspiration rate and effective irrigation areread from theclimatic tables by linear interpolation for a given day number, designated RI40. Withtheexception of temperature, thesedata have to beconverted from monthly to daily values. Depending on croptype, thegrossassimilation rateonagivendayisreduced in the case of sub-optimum air temperature. Inaddition, theassimilation rateexpressed incarbondioxideisconvertedto carbohydrates. Daily rainfall is obtained from subroutine RAINDA, usingthedataonmonthlyrainfall andthenumberof rainydayspermonth. SUBROUTINERAINDA 874 - 885 Rainfall onagivendayiscalculated inthissubroutine fromthe total monthly rainfall andthenumberof rainydayspermonth. A data statement is given with 30 random numbers, i.e. the random day numbers in a month. From the given yearly day number(IDAG),themonthlydaynumber(ICD)andthemonth number (ICM) are derived by using the data statement IDGN thatcontainsthenumbersofthefirstdaypermonth. 887 - 902 Random day numbers (IRAND) arecompared with thepresent day number (ICD) for an equal number of repetitions as the number of rainy days (RDA). If these day numbers areequal, rainfall (RN) on the given date is calculated from the monthly rainfall (RTB)forthegivennumberofrainydays.Otherwisethe rainfallonthegivendateiszero. SUBROUTINERIJTMA 909 - 944 The capillary rise is derived here from the tables of Rijtema (Tables 21-34). In these tables, the rate of capillary rise 367
(CCR(8)) isgiven as a function of the distance between thebottom of therooted zoneandthegroundwater level (R(8, 10))and the matric suction in the root zone (CMH(IO)) for each texture class. If the matric suction is less than 20cm, the tables cannot be used. In that low suction range, capillary rise is calculated withEquation 44. If thematric suction equals 20cm, thevalues of R(l,1) toR(8,1)areused. Iftheactualdistanceissmallerthan R(l,l) or larger than R(8,l), the capillary rise is 0.5 or 0.0 cm d"1, respectively. Otherwise, the actual distance is compared with the values of R(2,l) to R(8,l). If, for example, the actual distance, Dj, is less than or equal to R(5,l), the slope of the function isfirst calculatedas: SLOPE = (CCR(4) - CCR(5))/(R(4,1) - R(5,l)) andtheresultingrateof capillaryriseis: C = CCR(5) - SLOPEx(R(5,l) - Ds) If the matric suction is equal to or higher than 16000 cm, the values of R(l,10) to R(8,10) areused. The same method is used asfor asoil suctionof 20cm.Thusthecapillaryriseis0.5 or 0.0 cm d - 1 , if the actual distance is smaller than R(l,10) or more thanR(8,10),respectively. Otherwise, forexample: SLOPE = (CCR(4) - CCR(5))/(R(4,10) - R(5,10)) C = CCR(5) - SLOPEx(R(5,10) - D;) If the actual matric suction is between 20 and 16000 cm, this suctionhastobecomparedwiththesoilsuctiondatagiveninthe array CMH. If, for example, the actual suction is less than or equal to CMH(4), the slope of the relation between matric suctionanddistanceisobtained from: SLOPE = (R(I,3) - R(I,4))/ (CMH(3) - CMH(4)) and the resulting 8 values (I = 1,8) for the distances VMH obtained from interpolation for theactual matric suction values are: VMH(I) = R(I,4) - SLOPEx(CMH(4) - RMH) Inthis case, too, thecapillary riseis0.0 or0.5 cmd"1, respectively, iftheactual distanceislargerthanthehighest (VMH(8))or smaller than the lowest value (VMH(l)) of the distances found by the interpolation. Otherwise the actual distance is compared with VMH(2) to VMH(8). If, for example, theactual distanceis less than or equal to VMH(5), the slope of the relation between capillaryriseanddistanceinthetableisobtained from: SLOPE = (CCR(4) - CCR(5))/ (VMH(4) - VMH(5)) andtheresultingrateof capillaryriseis: C = CCR(5) - SLOPE X (VMH(5) - DJ
368
SUBROUTINEDAYLEN 950 - 955 Daylengthiscalculated hereasafunction of geographical latitudeanddeclinationof thesun.Thedeclinationisafunction of thedate. FUNCTIONASIN 956 - 965 Thearcsine function is, for example, used inthecalculation of thedaylength. Itisapproximated herewiththeequationsgiven becausethemicrocomputer useddoesnot haveanarcsine functioninitsFORTRANlibrary. SUBROUTINENUTRI 972 -1000 At compilation the COMMON blocks, defined in WOFOST.CMN,areinserted. 1002 -1008 The base uptake of phosphorus and nitrogen obtained from independent data(Section5.3) isgiven foracropwithagrowth period of 120 days. For crops with shorter or longer growth duration, thebase uptakeis reduced orincreased. Thedata for thisrelationaregiveninBLOCK DATA. Therecovery fraction of applied fertilizers isalso defined independently. Thecountry to which this example applies (Bangladesh) showed only small variations in base uptake and recovery fraction, so only one value for all soil types is used. In a different situation, tables maybeincluded relatingthebaseuptakeandtherecoveryfraction to soil texture class, land unit, region or soil type. The variablesMANF1 andMANF2areoneatthismoment,butthey offer the possibility to express differences in capability of farmerstoincreasetherecoveryfraction of applied fertilizer orthe baseuptake, forexamplebysplitapplicationof fertilizer, better seedbedpreparation,watercontrol,etc. 1009 - 1012 Therequirednitrogenuptakeforthepotentialproductionsituationisobtainedbymultiplyingtotal dryweight of cropresidues by their minimum nitrogen concentration and adding theproduct of dryweight of storage organs andtheir minimumnitrogen concentration. Thecalculation method for the nitrogenrequirementinthewater- limitedproductionsituationisidentical to that for the potential production situation, but the amounts of leaves,stemsandstorageorgansmaybesmallerduetowater stress. The amount of nitrogen to be applied as fertilizer for potential or water- limited production is determined from the nitrogen requirements in these production situations minus the 369
base uptake, divided bythe recovery fraction of applied fertilizer. 1014 - 1024Inthecasethatnofertilizerisapplied,thenitrogenuptake(base uptake) in Production Situation 3 is a fraction of the nitrogen uptake in the potential production situation. The amount of plantorgansproduced whennofertilizers areappliedisreduced in proportion to this fraction. When, in addition to nitrogen, water also limits crop growth at some stage, the amounts of plant organs produced are assumed equal to the minimum amount found at either situation. The required nitrogen fertilizerapplication is calculated, both for the potential and for the waterlimitedproductionsituation. 1029 - 1044If leguminouscropsareconsidered (CROPT = 4),thenitrogen requirementislargelymetbysymbioticnitrogen fixation. Therefore phosphorus is thenutrient limiting thegrowth of legumes. Thetotalphosphorusrequirement,therequiredphosphorusfertilizer application for the potential and the water- limitedproduction situations and the amount of plant organs produced without fertilizer application are calculated in the same wayas describedfornitrogen(lines 1009 - 1024). 1047 - 1051Writeintheoutput file on unit IPS:theamount of nitrogenor phosphorus to beapplied for potential andwater- limitedproduction;thebaseuptakeof nitrogenandphosphorus foracrop with agrowth period of 120days;the recovery fraction of applied nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer; the minimum and maximum groundwater depth; the required fertilizer nutrient application forpotential andwater- limitedproduction;thetotal water usebytranspiration of crops growing inthepotential and water-limited production situations; total surface runoff; dryweight of leaves produced inthepotential andnutrientlimitedproductionsituations;dryweightofstemsproducedinthe potential and nutrient- limited production situations; dry weightof storageorgansproducedinthepotentialandnutrient- limited production situations; dryweight of leavesinthewater limited and water plus nutrient limited production situations; dryweight of stems inthe water limitedand water plus nutrient limited production situations; dry weight of storage organs in the water and water plus nutrient limited production situations. An example of thisoutputfileisshowninTable97.
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9.1.3 Variabledatabaseofthesimulationmodel Inthepreceding subsection adescription wasgivenof alltherelationsand data that are used in the simulation model. To apply the model it is not necessarytospecify allthesedataandrelations.Thereforeasummaryisgiven here of only those data that have to be changed to adapt the model to a particularsituation. Ifnospecific dataareavailable,thedefaultvaluescanbe usedorintelligentguessesmaybemade.Foreachpartof themodel, thedata and the specifications of the data files aregiven. A list of thevariableswith theirdefinition isgiveninSubsection 9.1.5 andmoreinformation issupplied inSubsection9.1.2. WOFAUTN Lines36 - 50: CLIMT, SOILTY, SURROT, SALT, ZTMIT, ZTMAT, LUSTXT, CONV, HVL,IDISR,TAB1,TAB2. It is assumed in the present set- up that the land unit determines a unique combinationofthetextureclasses,climaticdata,surfaceroughness,slopeand clod angle, and minimum and maximum groundwater depth from thesearrays.Thatisofcoursenotalwayssoandinthatcaseprogramstatementshave tobechanged.Therelativeareaofalandunitwithaparticulartextureclassis specified in LUSTXT. If the harvested product is required in an other form (Subsection 9.1.2), other data for CONV have to be introduced. Sometimes more specific information on harvest losses (HVL) oronthe effects of pests and diseases (TAB1, TAB2) may be available, which can replace the^data givenhere.
372
lines54 - 59: Thenumbersof thelandunitsandthecropspeciesorcultivars (Table91)and thedaynumber of thestartof cropgrowth for whichthecalculations haveto be carried out, are read from the file WOFOST.IN according to FORMAT no. 1002(line62). SOILDATA.RDM, RIJTEMA.RDM and CLIMEAN.RDM are random access files containing data on soil characteristics, capillary rise and climate, respectively. To change the contents of these files, first the sequential files with the same data, called SOILDATA.DAT, RIJTEMA.DAT and CLIMEAN.DAT, must bechanged. Thecontents of these files aredescribedlater insubroutines SOILR, CRDATandCLIMIN. Withtheprogram RANDOM, these sequential files are transformed into the random access files SOILDATA.RDM, RIJTEMA.RDM and CLIMEAN.RDM. After that, the calculations of crop growth can be executed with the new data set. PLANTDAT.RDMisarandomaccess file containing dataoncropcharacteristics. To changethis file itisnecessaryto change first thesequential file containing the same data, called PLANTDAT.DAT. The contents of this file are described insubroutine PLANTR. With theprogram RANDOMP this sequential file is transformed into the random access file PLANTDAT.RDM. After that, the calculationsofcropgrowthcanbeexecutedwiththenewdataset. RESULT.DAT istheoutput file (lines59and 149 -' 151),containingtheland unit, the texture class, the relative area of the land unit with a particular textureclass,thestartingdateof cropgrowth,totaltranspiration forpotential andforwater- limitedproduction andtotal surface runoff duringthecrop growth period and the additional yield perunit applied nitrogen orphosphorus (legumes only) fertilizer nutrient, the crop growth duration and the production of leaves, stems and storage organs in thepotential and water-limited production situation and in the nutrient- limited and water- plus- nutrient-limited production situation, both without andwith reduction for the effects ofpestsanddiseases. lines88 - 91: NBASE,NREC,PBASE, PREC Thebase uptake and therecovery fraction for both phosphorus and nitrogen will often depend on soil type orsoil texture, land unit or region; then adata arraymaybegiven,preferably basedonexperimentalevidence. BLOCKDATA (lines 162 - 207) lines194- 200: Thesedataaredefault valuesthatareusedifnodataforthesevariablescanbe derived from PLANTDAT.RDM or SOILDAT.RDM. It is not necessary to change these values, unless to do calculations for a specific combination of
373
data that is not yet available via data files SOILDAT.RDM and PLANTDAT.RDM. lines202- 206: Therelation betweenairtemperature andthereduction factor for grossassimilation rate and that between the crop growth period and the base uptake shouldbechangedonlyifotherpertinentdataareavailable. SUBROUTINESOILR(lines234 - 275) Soil characteristics per texture class are read from SOILDATA.RDM. The sequential file SOILDATA.DAT (Table 92)contains data for 14soil texture classes.Normallythisfile doesnotneedanychangeexcept forveryparticular soil types. A complete description of therequired soil characteristics pertextureclassisgiveninSubsection9.1.2.Whenalternativesoilcharacteristicsare inserted inthe sequential file, it has to betransformed first into therandom access file SOILDATA.RDM with program RANDOM, before calculations canbeexecutedforthesenewdata. SUBROUTINEPLANTR(lines277 - 332) Dataoncropcharacteristics perspeciesorpercultivarareread fromrandom access file PLANTDAT.RDM. To change this file, first modifications must beintroducedinthesequential file PLANTDAT.DAT. After thatthesequential file is transformed into the random access file PLANTDAT.RDM, with theprogramRANDOMP. Foranycropspeciesorcultivarthecropcharacteristics, as specified in Table 96 for wheat, as an example, are required. A completedescriptionof thesecropcharacteristicsisgiveninSubsection9.1.2. InTable95apartofthefilePLANTDAT.DATisgiventhatreferstothehigh yieldingricevarietyIR8andwheat,respectively. SUBROUTINECRDAT(lines334 - 375) Data on the rate of capillary rise as a function of the distance between the bottom of the root zone and the groundwater level, on one hand, and the matricsuctionintherootedzoneontheotherhand(RIJTEM(10,8)),areread from random access file RIJTEMA.RDM. The sequential file RIJTEMA.DAT (Table 93) contains data for the 14 soil texture classes (Tables 21 -34). Normallythis file does not needanychangeexcept forveryparticular soil types. With the program RANDOM this sequential file has to be transformed intotherandomaccess file RIJTEMA.RDM before calculations canbeexecutedfornewdata. SUBROUTINECLIMIN(lines377 - 453) 374
ClimatedataarereadfromrandomaccessfileCLIMEAN.RDM.Thesequential file CLIMEAN.DAT (Table94) contains data for six regions of Bangladesh.Acomplete descriptionof therequiredclimaticdataperregionisgiven in Subsection 9.1.2. When other climatic data are inserted in the sequential file, it has to be transformed first into the random access file CLIMEAN.RDM with program RANDOM before calculations can be executed withthesenewdata. SUBROUTINEAPPLE(lines455 - 829) Inthispartoftheprogram,thedynamiccalculationsofthewaterbalanceand crop growth are executed. For each time step, i.e. each day in the present version, all relevant calculations areupdated. This continues until thedevelopment stageof thecropequalstwo.All datausedforthesecalculationsare derived from subroutines SOILR, CRDAT, PLANTR and CLIMIN, which aretreatedabove. lines551- 556,808- 810, 817: Every ten days, day number, dry weight of roots, leaves, stems and storage organs, leaf area index, groundwater depth, volumetric soil- moisture content in the root zone and development stage are stored on unit ISP, i.e. are printed (Table 97), because ISP is set equal to one via line 86 in program WOFAUTN. Whenthecalculations of boththepotential andwater- limited crop growth calculations are completed, the remainder of Table 97 follows fromsubroutineNUTRI. SUBROUTINENUTRI(lines968 - 1067) Therequired data for thecalculations inthissubroutine arespecified inprogramWOFAUTN.Aftercompletionofthecropgrowthsimulationinsubroutine APPLE, the resulting data on crop growth are printed. Below these tables,theresultscalculatedinsubroutineNUTRIareprinted,i.e.theamount of fertilizer nutrients to beapplied for potential and water- limited production, respectively, the base uptake and recovery fraction per nutrient, the minimumandmaximumgroundwaterdepth,theadditional dry-matterproductionperunitappliednutrient,thetotalwateruseintranspiration,thetotal surface runoff, the dry weights per plant organ for the various production situations.AnexampleofthisoutputfileisshowninTable97.Moredetailed informationabouttheprintedvariablescanbefoundinSubsection9.1.2. 9.1.4 Listingofthemodel(seeappendixA)
375
9.1.5 Listofacronyms Acronym ADMI AIRDUC ASRC CCR(I) CLIM CLIMT CLM CLMNAM Description above- grounddry- matterincrease indicatespresenceofairductsinplant(logical) carbohydratesavailablefordry- matter increase valuesofrateofcapillaryriseinTables21to34 persoiltextureclass variableindicatingparticularclimaticdataset arraycontainingvariablesindicatingclimatic datasetperlandunit variableindicatingclimaticdataset namebywhichclimaticdatasetisdesignated (alphanumeric) clod/furrow angle clod/furrowangle valuesofmatricheadusedinTables21to34 persoiltextureclass conversionfactorfromCalculateddry- matter productiontomarketableproductpercrop species rateofcapillaryriseorofnaturaldrainage cropspeciesorcultivar croptype:C3(tropicalortemperate),C4, leguminous nameofcroporcultivar(alphanumeric) averageefficiency ofconversionofassimilates intoplantdrymatter efficiency ofconversionofassimilatesintoleaf drymatter efficiency ofconversionofassimilatesinto storageorgandrymatter efficiency ofconversionofassimilatesintoroot drymatter efficiency ofconversionofassimilatesintostem drymatter distancebetweengroundwaterandrooting depth daylength,insubroutineDAYLEN deathrateofleavesasaresultofageing draindepthofartificial drainagesystem Units kgha-'d" 1 unitless kgha-'d' 1 cmd' 1 unitless unitless unitless unitless degrees radians cm
CLODAN CLODAR CMH(I) CONV (ICROP) CRMD CROP CROPT CRPNAM CVF CVL CVO CVR CVS D DAGLEN DALV DD
376
unitless cmd"1 unitless unitless unitless

Kg Kg Kg Kg
kg kg kg kg kg kg cm h kgha-'d"1 cm
Acronym DECL DELT DISFAC DL DLC DLO DMAX DMI DRA DRAINS DRLV DRRT DRSO DRST DSL DSLV DSLV1 DSLV2 DSP DVR DVRC DVRC1 DVRC2 DVRED DVRET DVRETB DVS DWLV DWRT DWSO DWST
DZ
E EO
Description Units declinationofthesun degrees timeintervalofintegration d reductionfactorforcropproductiondueto pestsanddiseases unitless daylength,insubroutineAPPLE h lowerthresholddaylengthfordevelopment h optimumdaylengthfordevelopment h rateofartificialdrainage cmd"1 rateofdry- matterincreaseofthecrop kgha"1 - i drainradius cm presenceorabsenceofdrains(logical) unitless totaldeathrateofleaves kgha-'d" 1 deathrateofroots kgha^d" 1 deathrateofstorageorgans kgha^d" 1 deathrateofstems kgha^d" 1 variableindicatingdevelopmentratebeinga ^-1 functionoftemperature deathrateofleavesduetowaterstressordueto ahighLAI kgha~ ! d _1 potentialdeathrateofleavesduetowaterstresskgha"1d"1 potentialdeathrateofleavesduetoahighLAI kgha"ld"l drainspacing cm actualdevelopmentrateofthecrop d"1 maximumdevelopmentrateofthecrop d"1 maximumpre- anthesisdevelopmentrateof thecrop d"1 maximumpost- anthesisdevelopmentrateof thecrop d"1 reductionfactorfordevelopmentrate;function ofdaylength unitless reductionfactorfordevelopmentrate;function oftemperature unitless tableofreductionfactorfordevelopmentrate; functionoftemperature unitless developmentstageofthecrop unitless dryweightofdeadleaves kgha"1 dryweightofdeadroots kgha"1 dryweightofdeadstorageorgans kgha"1 dryweightofdeadstems kgha"1 rateofchangeingroundwaterdepth cmd"1 actualsoilevaporationrate cmd"1 potentialsoilevaporationrate cmd"1
377
Acronym EOTB(I)
Description tableofpotentialsoilevaporationrateversus daynumber evaporationratefromsurfacewaterlayer EL EM maximumsoilevaporationrate ETO potentialevapotranspirationrate ETOTB(I) tableof potential evapotranspiration rateversus daynumber EXC extinctioncoefficient fortotalradiation FINT fractionof radiationinterceptedbythecrop FL fractionofshoot drymatterincrease partitionedtoleaves FLTB tableof FLversusdevelopment stage FO fraction of shootdry- matterincrease partitionedtostorageorgans FOTB tableof FOversusdevelopment stage FR fraction oftotaldry- matterincrease partitionedtoroots FRBASO baseuptakeasfraction oftotalnutrientuptake inthepotentialproductionsituation FRTB tableof FRversusdevelopmentstage fractionof shootdry- matterincrease FS partitionedtostems FSTB tableofFSversusdevelopment stage GASS actualgrossassimilationrateof thecanopy expressedinCH 2 0 GDUR variableindicatingcrop- growthduration GDURO counterforcrop- growthduration geographicallatitudeof location, insubroutine GEOP CLIMIN GP geographical latitudeof location, insubroutine DAYLEN GRLV rateof increaseinleafdrymatter GRRT rateof increaseinrootdrymatter rateof increaseinstorage- organdrymatter GRSO rateof increaseinstemdrymatter GRST GWLV netrateof increaseinleafdrymatter GWRT netrateof increaseinrootdrymatter GWSO netrateof increaseinstorage- organdry matter GWST netrateof increaseinstemdrymatter HVL(ICROP) fractionharvestlossespercropspecies
Units unitless cmd"1 cmd"1 cmd""1 unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless kgha"1 d d degrees degrees kgha"1 'd- 1 kgha"1 'd- 1 kgha"1 d"1 kgha"1 d"1 kgha"1 d"1 kgha"1 'd"1 kgha"1 d"1 kgha"1 'd-' unitless
i
-i
378
Acronym HRD ICROP IDAG IDAY IDISR (ICROP)
Description difference betweenmatricheadandgravity headatrootingdepth ranknumberof cropspecies numberof Juliancalendardayinsubroutine RAINDA numberof Juliancalendarday
Units cm unitless unitless unitless
subdivisionofcropsinspeciesbeingmoreand lesssusceptibletopestsanddiseases(logical) IHP(ICROP) variableindicatingplantorgan 1.leaves;2. stems;3.storageorgans unitless IL counterfordaysafteremergence d IOPT parameterallowingomissionofcrop- growth simulationwithoutwaterbalance unitless IPS outputcontrolparameter,determiningtheunit onwhichtheoutputofthecrop- growth simulationiswritten unitless IRAND tablecontaining30randomized(day)numbers unitless ISPAN lifespanofleaves d IWB parameterallowingchoicebetweencropgrowth simulationwith(1)orwithout(0)waterbalance K0 cmd"1 saturatedhydraulicconductivity KMH cmd"1 hydraulicconductivityatMH LA(I) haha"1 arraycontainingleafareagrowthperday LAI haha""1 greenareaindex(leaf, podandstem) LASUM haha"1 totalgreenleafarea LUNIT unitless ranknumberof landunit LUSTXT arraycontainingrelativeareaof landunitwith particularsoiltextureclass unitless LV(I) arraycontainingleafdryweightgrowthperdaykgha"l LVBAS1 nutrient- limiteddry- matterproductionof leaves kgha - i LVBAS2 water- plus- nutrient- limiteddry- matter kgha l productionof leaves LVOPT kgha"1 potentialdry- matterproductionof leaves MANF1 factoraccounting foreffect of farmers unitless capabilityonrecovery fraction MANF2 factoraccounting foreffect of farmers capabilityonbaseuptake unitless MH actualmatricheadinrootzone cm MHMAX texture- specific suctionlimit cm
379
Description maintenancerespirationratecropataverageair temperature MT hydraulicheadmidwaybetweendrains NBAS actualbaseuptakeofnitrogen,functionof cropgrowthdurationandfarmersability NBASE baseuptakeofnitrogenbycropspecieswith growthdurationof 120days NEO requiredfertilizer- nutrientapplicationforthe potentialproductionsituation NEW requiredfertilizer- nutrientapplicationforthe waterlimitedproductionsituation NEOC additionalyieldperunitappliedfertilizer nutrientforthepotentialproductionsituation NEWC additionalyieldperunitappliedfertilizer nutrientforthewater- limitedproduction situation requirednitrogenfertilizer forthepotential NMAXO productionsituation requirednitrogenfertilizerforthewater NMAXW limitedproductionsituation requirednitrogenuptakeforthepotential NOPT productionsituation minimumnitrogenconcentrationinstorage NPERSO organs minimumnitrogenconcentrationincrop NPERVE residues NREC recoveryfractionofappliednitrogenfertilizer NWAB requirednitrogenuptakeforthewater limitedproductionsituation OUTPUT(I) arraycontainingdrymatterproductionper plantorganforthevariousproduction situations actualbaseuptakeofphosphorus, functionof PBAS cropgrowthdurationandfarmersability baseuptakeofphosphorusbycropspecieswith PBASE growthdurationof 120days maximumrelativedeathrateofleavesdueto PERDL waterstress PERRT relativedeathrateofroots PERSO relativedeathrateofstorageorgans PERST relativedeathrateofstems Acronym MRES
Units
kg ha cm kg ha kg ha kg ha kg ha kg kg
-i
kg kg kg ha kg ha kg ha kg kg
Kg Kg
kg kg kg ha kg ha kg ha kg ha
d"1 d'1 d"1 d"1
380
Description Units potentialgrossassimilationrateof closed -i canopyexpressedinCH 2 0 kgha" PGS3TB(I) tableof potentialgrossC0 2 assimilationrateof -i aclosedC3cropversusdaynumber kgha" PGS4TB(I) tableof potentialgrossCQ2assimilationrateof -i aclosedC4cropversusdaynumber kgha PMAXO requiredphosphorus fertilizer forthepotential productionsituation kgha PMAXW requiredphosphorus fertilizer forthewater limitedproductionsituation kgha POPT requiredphosphorusuptakeforthepotential productionsituation kgha PPERSO minimumphosphorusconcentrationinstorage organs kgkg PPERVE minimumphosphorusconcentrationincrop residues kgkg' PREC recoveryfraction of appliedphosphorus fertilizer kg kg" PWAB requiredphosphorusuptakeforthewater limitedproductionsituation kgha" Q10 increaseinrelativemaintenancerespirationrate per 10Cincreaseintemperature unitless arrayusedinsubroutineRIJTEMA, containing R(I,J) distancebetweenbottomof rootingzoneand groundwaterlevelpertextureclass(Tables21to 34) cm RAIN dailyrainfall cmd"1 RAIND(I) arraycontaining numberof rainydaysper month dmonth"1 RAINTB(I) arraycontainingrainfall permonth cmmonth"1 RD rootingdepth cm RDA(I) arraycontainingnumberof rainydaysper month,insubroutine RAINDA dmonth"1 RDM maximumrootingdepth cm REC recoveryfraction of appliednutrient, function -i of typeof nutrientandof farmersability kgkg RIJTEM(IK,I)array containing distancebetweenbottomof rootingzoneandgroundwaterlevelpertexture class(Tables21 - 34) cm RMH actualmatricheadinrootingzone cm RML relativemaintenancerespirationrateof leaves d"l
Acronym PGASS
381
Acronym RMO RMR RMRES RMS RN RR RSM RTB(I) RTDF S SO SAL SALR SALT SLA SLATB SM SMO SM10 SMCR SMF SMFC SMFCF SMW SOBAS1 SOBAS2 SOILTY SOOPT
Description relativemaintenancerespirationrateof storage organs relativemaintenancerespirationrateof roots maintenancerespirationrateofcropat temperatureof25 C relativemaintenancerespirationrateof stems dailyrainfall, insubroutine RAINDA verticalextensionrateof rootsystem rateof changeof soil- moisturecontentin rootingzone arraycontainingrainfall permonth,in subroutine RAINDA counterfornumberof dayswithRDlessthan 10cm actualsorptivityof thesoil standardsorptivityof thesoil slopeangleof theland slopeangleof theland arraycontainingslopeangleof thelandper landunit specific leafarea tablecontaining specific leaf areaasafunction of development stageofthecrop actualsoil- moisturecontent totalporespace soil- moisturecontentataircontentof0.10 cm3cm"3 criticalsoilmoisturecontent soilmoisturecontent fixed atmoment groundwaterenterstherootzone soil- moisturecontentatfield capacity soil- moisturecontentatfixed field capacity, i.e. matricsuctionof 100cm soilmoisturecontentatwiltingpoint nutrient- limiteddry- matterproductionof storageorgans water- plus- nutrient- limiteddry- matter productionof storageorgans tablespecifying soiltextureclassperlandunit potential drymatterproductionof storage organs
Units d"1 d"1 kgha-'d- 1 d- 1 cmd"1 cmd' 1 cm 3 cm" 3 d _1 cmmonth"1 unitless cmd" 05 cmd" 05 degrees radians degrees hakg"1 unitless cm3cm cm3cm cnrcm" cm3cm" cm3cm' cm3cm" cm3cm" cm3cm" kgha"1 kgha"1 unitless kgha
-i
382
Acronym SOPE SPA SPAN SR SS SSA SSMAX SSR STARTD STBAS1 STBAS2 STOPT SURRO SURROT SWDEP SWDPTB T TO TAB1 TAB2 TADW TBIRR(I) TCC3M
TCC3T
TCC4
TDW TEFF
Description transmissionzoneconductivity specificpodarea lifespanofleaves rateofsurfacerun-off actualsurfacestorage specificstemarea maximumsurfacestoragecapacity actualsurfacestorageavailableinonetime interval(= SS/ DELT) startingdateofcropgrowth nutrient- limiteddry- matterproductionof stems water- plus- nutrient- limiteddry- matter productionofstems potentialdry- matterproductionofstems surfaceroughness tablespecifyingsurfaceroughnessperlandunit soil- waterdepletionfraction tableofsoil- waterdepletionfractionversus potentialtranspirationrate actualtranspirationrate potentialtranspirationrate relationbetweenrelativecropproductionand reductioninproductionduetopestsand diseases(lesssusceptible) relationbetweenrelativecropproductionand reductioninproductionduetopestsand diseases(moresusceptible) totalabove- grounddryweight(living) arraycontainingeffectiveirrigationrateper month relationbetweenairtemperatureandthe reductionfactorforgrossassimilationrate(C3 cropoftemperateregions) relationbetweenairtemperatureandthe reductionfactorforgrossassimilationrate(C3 cropoftropicalregions) relationbetweenairtemperatureandthe reductionfactorforgrossassimilationrate(C4 crop) totalcropdryweight(living) temperatureeffect onmaintenancerespiration
Units cmd"' hakg"1 d cmd"1 cm hakg"1 cm cmd"1 d kgha

-i
kgha"1 kgha"1 cm cm unitless unitless cmd"1 cmd"1 unitless unitless kgha"1 cmmonth - i unitless unitless unitless kgha"1 unitless 383
Acronym TEMP TEMPTB(I) TEXTCL TM TSC1 TSC2 TSGF TSR TWLV TWRT TWSO TWST UPTB WLV WRT WSO WST WUSE WUSEO WUSEW XIE XIM XIMMAX ZT ZTF ZTMA ZTMAT ZTMI ZTMIT ZTMRD
384
Description Units averagedailytemperature C tableofaveragetemperatureversusdaynumberunitless soiltextureclass(alphanumeric) unitless maximumtranspirationrate cmd"1 texture- specificempiricalconstant 1 inmatric cm2.4 A -1 head - hydraulicconductivityrelation texture- specificempiricalconstant2inmatric cm - 1 head - hydraulicconductivityrelation texture- specificgeometryfactorinmatric cm"1 head - soil- moisturecontentrelation totalsurfacerunoff cm totaldryweightofleaftissue kgha"1 totaldryweightofroottissue kgha"1 totaldryweightofstorageorgans kgha"1 totaldryweightofstemtissue kgha"1 tablecontainingrelationbetweengrowthperiod andrelativebaseuptake unitless totaldryweightoflivingleaves kgha"1 totaldryweightoflivingroots kgha"1 kgha"1 totaldryweightoflivingstorageorgans kgha"1 totaldryweightoflivingstems totalwaterusebytranspirationover cm crop- growthcycle totalwaterusebytranspirationduring crop- growthcycleforthepotentialproduction situation cm totalwaterusebytranspirationduring crop- growthcycleforthewater- limited productionsituation cm effective irrigationrate cmd*-i actualinfiltrationrate cmd"-l maximuminfiltrationrate cmd" l actualgroundwaterdepth cm groundwaterdepthfixedatmomentthat cm groundwaterentersrootzone cm maximumgroundwaterdepth arraycontainingmaximumgroundwaterdepth perlandunit cm minimumgroundwaterdepth cm arraycontainingminimumgroundwaterdepth perlandunit cm distancebetweengroundwaterdepthand rootingdepth cm
10.ANSWERSTOEXERCISES
Exercise1 The results are obtained from Table 1(for C3 species) and Table 2 (for C4 species) throughinterpolation. Ageneral formulation toobtain avaluey(grossassimilation inthiscase)corresponding to a value x (latitude in this case) by interpolation between two points (x,, y,) and(x2,y2)is:
y = yi + to yi) (xx,)/(x 2 x,)
Exercise2 ForLAI = 1.5, Equation5 yields:fh= i_ e -- 8 x l - 5 = 0.7 Multiplying gross assimilation obtained in Exercise 1 with this reduction factor resultsinthevaluesforanLAI = 1 . 5 . Exercise3 Followthecalculation schemeasgiveninTable6, substitutingyourownlatitudeinthe interpolation procedure. Exercise4 Development rate(d1) forspecified temperatures Temperature(C) 10 o * x D 0.0091 0.0098 0.0118 0.0143 17.5 0.0143 0.0147 0.0192 0.0250 0.0114 25 0.0192 0.0192 0.0238 0.0303 0.0192 32 0.0213 0.0222 0.0233 0.0333 0.0250
Notice that the relation between temperature and developmentrateislinearoverawiderangeoftemperatures. Exercise5 Thepost-anthesis period forbothcultivarsrequiresaTUvalueof 650dC. At 20 C the duration of the post-anthesis period is650/20 = 32.5 days, hencethe development rateis 1/32.5 = 0.031d"1. At25 Cthedurationis650/25 = 26days,andthedevelopment rateequals 1/26 = 0.038^.
385
Exercise 6 At Phabujon, the average maximum air temperature is 27 C; the average minimum air temperature is 20 C. Therefore, average temperature equals (27 + 20)/2 = 23.5 C. At Chang Khian, maximum and minimum air temperatures are 24 and 17 C, respectively, so average temperature is20.5 C. Location Phabujon Chang Khian
emergence 8 June anthesis 16 September duration of pre-anthesis period 100d maturity 13 October duration of post-anthesis period 27 d average temperature 23.5 C TUprc.amhcsis 100 X 23.5 = 2350 dC
T U post-amhesis
5June
1 October 118d 2 November 32d 20.5 C 118 x 20.5 = 2419 d C 32 x 20.5 = 656 d C 1/118 = 0.0085d'1 1/32 = 0.0313 d 1
development ratepre.antncsis development ratepoS,.anthcsis
1/100 = 0.01 d" 1/27 = 0.037d*1
27 X 23.5 = 634.5 d C 1
Exercise 7, see page 387 and 388 Exercise 8 TUprc.anthesis = 7 6 0 d C TUpost_antheSjS = 660 d C
Threshold = 10 C
Developmentstageinpre-silkingperiod(endingwhenDVS = 1.0) follows from: DVS= ^(T.-lO/TUp^.he.u

i = t0
Development stageinpost-silkingperiod follows from: DVS= 1+ E^d.-lO/TUpo,,^,^ where Taisaverageairtemperatureondayi t0isdayof emergence tiisdayof silking t2isdayof maturity.
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^raf^Tj-nvor-ooa\
388
Exercise8(continued) Date
June1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ta10 r(Ta10) DVS Date

6 5 4 6 8 7 6 3 0 -1 2 6 10 13 12 9 8 8 6 10 12 11 14 11 10 9 10 9 13 8 10 12 11 9 8 8 10 9 11 11 12 13 20 10 14 14 6 11 15 21 29 36 42 45 45 45 47 53 63 76 88 97 105 113 119 129 141 152 166 177 187 196 206 215 228 236 246 258 269 278 286 294 304 313 324 335 347 360 380 390 404 418
Ta10 L(Ta10) L(Ta10) DVS

579 594 608 623 637 653
0.0
July
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
28 16 29 15 30 14 3115 14 Aug. 1 216 315 416 517 614 715 814 916 10 17 11 18 12 20 13 21 14 18 15 21 16 20 17 19 18 18 19 21 20 22 21 21 22 20 2319 24 19 25 20 26 16 27 23 28 18 29 19 30 16 31 23 23 Sept. 1 220 320 419 518 620 719 818 919 10 18 11 17
0.8
668
684 701 715 730 744 760
1.0
17 35 55 76 94 115 135 154 172 193 215 236 256 275 294 314 330 353 371 390 406 429 452 472 492 511 529 549 568 586 605 623 640
111
795 815 836 854 875 895 914 932 953 975 996 1016 1035 1054 1074 1090 1113 1131 1150 1166 1189 1212 1232 1252 1271 1289 1309 1328 1346 1365 1383 1400
1.5
389
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
13 12 13 10 12 13 14 13 14 16 15
431 443 456 466 478 491 505 518 532 548 563
0.6
12 20 13 16 14 15 15 16 16 15 17 14
1420 1436 1451 1467 1482 1496
660 676 691 707 722 736
2.0
0.7
Foremergenceon 15June,thecalculatedtemperaturesumhastobediminishedby76 dC,whichisthetemperaturesumon14June.

Emergencedate development stage 0. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 daysbetweenemergence andsilking averagedevelopmentrate daysbetweensilking andmaturity averagedevelopmentrate Exercise9 1 June date 1June 22June 7July 19July 30July 9Aug. 26Aug. 12Sept. 69d 0.01449^ 34d 0.02941d'1 15 June date 15 June 29June 13 July 25July 4Aug. 13Aug. 30Aug. 17Sept. 59d 0.01695d'1 35d 0.02857d'1
DVS
Daysafter Increase germination inleaf weight

0
10 1200 20 1400 30 1700 40 1200
Total leaf weight
Increase Total Increase Total instem stem . intotal dry weight weight weight weight
0.0 0.154 0.308 0.462 0.615
200 300 1400 500 2800 1200 4500 1800 2000 3000 800 2900 6500 300 1900 3600 0 1500 1700 200
390
0.769
50
5700
3800
9500
DVSis calculated taking into account a65 day period between emergence and silking ataconstanttemperature. The fraction of the total weight increment allocated to the leaves in relation to the averagedevelopment stageofthecropisgiveninthefollowingtable(Figure76). DVS 0.077 0.231 0.385 0.539 0.692 fraction toleaf 1.0 0.8 0.737 0.586 0.400
Exercise10 Qinkgha"1.Atindays.Thendimensionof Rqiskgha -1 d"1. Qt+At= Q t + R q . At = 200 + 15 x 10 = 350kgha-' Exercise11 Qt+At= Qt + Rq At = Qt + a Qt At = Qt (1 + a At) Numericalvalues:Q0 = 5kgha"1;a = 0.1d"1.
fraction allocated toleaves
Figure76.Thefractionofassimilatesallocatedtotheleafbladesasafunctionof. developmentstageformaize. 391
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Thedifferent values for Q30that result from theuse of different time stepspoint to thefactthatthesmallerthetimestep,themoreaccuratetheresultwillbe.Ifthetime stepis five days, theassumption that Qtisconstant overthat periodismoreinaccuratethanif thetimestepis3days. Ingeneral, thesolution improvesasthetimestep decreases. Thephenomenon described here,wherethegrowthrateisproportional tothequantitypresent, iscalledexponential growth.Ageneralexpression forthequantity after ntimeintervalscanbefoundasfollows: Qi = Qo^(l + At. a) Q2 = Q,.(1 + At.a) Qn= Q n - i . ( l + At.a) Theexpression forQncanbetransformed into: Qn = Qo(l + At.a) n Qnisthevalueafternstepsof At,hencencanbesubstitutedbyTIME/At: Qn= Qo(l + At .a)TlME/At or Qn= Qo*((l + l/X) x ) a * T,ME withX= l/(At.a) These manipulations are helpful to arrive at a so-called analytical solution for the equationdescribingexponentialgrowth. When At approaches zero, X approaches to infinity and the expression for Qnapproaches: Q = Q0.ea TIME Thenumbere,thebaseofthenaturallogarithmstandsfor: e = lim(l + 1/X)X = 2.7182
X-*oo
The equation with e allows calculation on a pocket-calculator of the exact solution forQat30days:
30 ^ 0 e
e0.1x30 = e 3 =
20.09
Q30 = 100.43 This result shows that time steps of 1day still lead to underestimation of Qat day 30. 393
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395
Exercise13 ThesolarconstantexpressedinkJm~2s~'equals 1.4 i.e. 1.4 x ^ k J m ^ m i n - 1 = 1.4 x 60/ lOOOOkJcm^min-1 = 1.4 x 60 x 1000/10 OOOJcm^min-1 = 1.4 x 60/ lOJcm^min- 1 = 1.4 x 6/ 4.182calcm"2min"1 = 2calcm- 2 min- 1 . Exercise14 Ri = RA (aA + bA nN"1),withaA= 0.29andbA = 0.42
Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. n (h) 7.1 5.9 5.9 5.1 4.4 4.0 3.7 2.9 3.3 3.9 4.9 5.9 N (h) 11.4 11.7 12.0 12.5 12.8 13.0 12.9 12.7 12.3 11.8 11.5 11.3
RA
(MJm- d- ) 29.9 32.9 35.8 37.5 37.7 37.5 37.4 37.3 36.4 33.8 30.7 28.8
(MJm^d" 1 ) 16.5 16.5 17.6 17.3 16.4 15.7 15.4 14.4 14.7 14.5 14.4 14.7
Ri
Exercise15 RB = a Tk*(0.56 - 0.079ea0*) (0.1 + 0.9nN"1) Analysisofunits: Jm~ 2 d _I = Jm"2d",K~4 K4 (unitless) (unitless) Hence,(0.56 - 0.079e5)isunitless;becauseeaisinmbarthe factor0.079isinmbar-05. Witheainkgm"3(at20C)thefactorwouldbe: 0.079mbar"05 X(kgrn^mbar"1)-05 = 0.079 x ((20 + 273)/0.217)"05 = 0.00215 (kgm- 3 )- 05 WitheainmmHg,thefactorwouldbe: 0.079mbar"05 x (mrnHgrnbar"1)-05 = 0.079 x (0.75)'05 = 0.091mmHg"05 Exercise16 RB= a TJ (0.56 - 0.079e5) (0.1 + 0.9nN"1)
Month (0.56- Ofi79e5)
a-T?
39.16 39.90 40.71 41.19
0.1 +0.9nN" 1
2
(MJnT- d" ' ) 0.6605 0.5539 0.5425 0.4672
(MJm- 2 d-') 4.79 3.54 3.15 2.48
RB
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
0.1853 0.1603 0.1427 0.1287
396
onth
(0.56-0.79ea5)
(MJm-M- ) 40.92 40.60 40.33 40.22 40.33 40.28 39.90 38.95 0.4094 0.3769 0.3581 0.3055 0.3415 0.3975 0.4835 0.5699
0.1 + 0.9nN"1
RB
(MJm-M- 1 ) 2.11 2.04 1.98 1.55 1.77 2.12 2.88 4.08
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
0.1259 0.1331 0.1368 0.1259 0.1287 0.1324 0.1495 0.1836
Exercise17 RN = R, (1 - r) - RB withr = 0.05 forwater. Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Ri (MJin-M"1) 16.5 16.5 17.6 17.3 16.4 15.7 15.4 14.4 14.7 14.5 14.4 14.7
RB
RN
1
(MJirrM- ) 4.79 3.54 3.15 2.48 2.11 2.04 1.98 1.55 1.77 2.12 2.88 4.08
(MJm- 2 d- ! ) 10.9 12.1 13.6 14.0 13.5 12.9 12.7 12.1 12.2 11.7 10.8 9.9
Exercise18 hu=au ( l + b u u) witha=6.4X 105andb=0.54 Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July u (ms"1) 2.0 2.5 2.8 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.4 hu (MJnr'd-^C-1) 1.33 1.50 1.61 1.57 1.50 1.50 1.47 397
Month
u (ms"" ' ) 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.1 1.4
hu
(MJm^d-^C" 1 )
Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1.50 1.43 1.37 1.37 1.12
Exercise19 Apsychrometerisaninstrumenttomeasurethehumidityoftheairandbelongsthusto thegroupof hygrometers. Thepsychrometeralwaysconsistsof twothermometers, onenormallymeasuringairtemperature,theotheriskeptwet,andisthuscooledby evaporationfromthewetsurface;itregisterstheso-calledwetbulbtemperatureTw. Ifshieldedfromradiation,thebehaviourof thewetbulbcanbedescribedbyEquation 11. H+LE=0. SubstitutingEquations 12and14yields: hu(TwTJ + ku(esea) L = 0 Hence ea=es+h u .ku~ L~ (TWTJ Thisequationprovidesthusthepossibilitytodetermineeaasafunctionofthetemperature difference between the dry and the wet bulb. For this purpose nomograms or tablesareavailable. Theunitsofthepsychrometerconstantare: (7)=(h u ).(k u - , ).(L- , )=Jm- 2 d- , 0 C- , .(kgm- 2 d- , mbar- , )- , (jkg-'r^mbarX-1
Exercise20 Thesensibleheat lossis: H= h u (T 8 -T a ) Theevaporative heat lossis: LE= ku(esea)
ji*ro
January:R,= 1.65X 10 7 Jm^d - 1 R N =10.9xl0 6 Jm- 2 d- 1 hu= 13.3x10 sJm^d-^C" 1 ku=0.8225kgm-2d-,mbar-1 Lxk u=20.2xl0 5 Jm- 2 d- , mbar- 1 Ta=26.0C ea=22.5mbar T$=20C;e$readfromFigure20equals23.4mbar. H = 13.3xl0 5 (20-26) LE = 20.2x10 s (23.4-22.5) Balance = = = -79.8 x10 s Jm^d" 1 18.2x 10sJm^d" 1 -61.4x 10sJm" 2 d _1
T$ = 21C;e,readfromFigure20equals24.9mbar. H = 13.3x10 s(21 -26) LE = 20.2X10s(24.9- 22.5) Balance = = = -66.5x 10sJm^d" 1 48.5x 10sJm^d" 1 -18.0x10 sJm^d" 1
Ts = 22C;e8readfromFigure20equals26.5mbar. H = 13.3x10 s (22-26) LE = 20.3x 10s(26.5 - 22.5) Balance = = = -53.2x 10sJm- 2 d' 1 81.2x 10sJm^d" 1 28x 10sJm^d" 1
T8 = 23C;e,readfromFigure20equals28.2mbar. H = 13.3x10 s (23-26) LE = 20.2x10 s (28.2-22.5) Balance = = = - 39.9x 10 s Jm^d" 1 115.1X10sJm^d" 1 75.2x 10sJm^d" 1
Ts = 24.0C;esreadfromFigure20equals29.9mbar. H = 13.3x10 s (24-26) LE = 20.2x10 s(29.9-22.5) Balance = = = - 26.6x10sJm^d" 1 149.5x 10sJm^d" 1 122.9x10 sJm^d" 1
From Figure 77, the equilibrium temperature, that is the temperature where the balanceofLE+ HequalsRNis23.7C. T$ = 23.7C;esreadfromFigure20equals29.4mbar.
399
Sum of evaporative and sensible heat loss (10 6 Jm" 2 d" 1 ) 40
30
20
10
N
UJ
20
22" L
24
26
J_ 28 30 surface temperature (*C)
Figure 77. Illustration of the graphical analysis to determine evaporative heat loss from a water surface.
H = 13.3Xl0 s (23.7 -26.0, LE = 20.2xlO 5 (29.4 -22.5) Balance Atthatsurfacetemperaturetheevaporationrate,E,is: 1394 x 10s 2450 x 10* = 5 - 6 9 k 8 m _ 2 d - ' = 5-69mmd-'
SO^xlO'Jm-M- 1 139.4x10 sJm-M" 1 108.8x10 sJm^d" 1
Exercise21 ThevaluesforthedewpointtemperaturecanbereadfromFigure22attheappropriate * vapourpressurevalues.Alternatively, Equation 15 canbeused:

e s = 6.11 . e ( , 7 4 xV<V239
If thedew point temperature (Td)is substituted for Tsin this equation theresulting vapourpressureequalsea. Hence e a = 6.11xe(17-4x V<Td+"9 or (,7 4x,T /(T +239)) ea/6.11 =e - <' < or ln(ea/6.11) = (17.4 x Td/(Td + 239)) or (Td + 239) x ln(ea/6.11) = 17.4 x Td or Td x ln(ea/6.11) + 239 x ln(ea/6.11) = (17.4 x Td) or Td = 239 x ln(ea/6.11)/(17.4- ln(ea/6.11))
400
For: ea= lOmbar ln(ea/6.11) = 0.49;Td = (239 x 0.49)/(17.4-0.49) = 6.9C ea = 15mbar ln(ea/6.11) = 0.90;Td = (239 x 0.90)/(17.4-0.90) = 13.0C ea = 50mbar ln(ea/6.11) = 2.10;Td = (239 x 2.10)/(17.4-2.10) = 32.8C Exercise22 Thevalue of A, the slope of the saturated vapour pressure curve, can be read from Figure 22at the appropriate temperature, i.e. readesat atemperature onedegree belowtherequiredvalueandonedegreeabovethatvalue,anddividethe difference bytwo: A(5) = (es(6)-es(4))/2 Alternatively,Equation 15 canagainbeapplied: e s =6.11 xe (,I4x V' T s +239)) This equation describes thecurve;A, theslope of thecurve(plotted inFigure78) equalsde$/dT,hence,fromdifferential calculustheory:
A = 1 7 . 4 X 6 . 1 1 X e 7 ' 4 X T s /(T s+239))x(l-Ts/T$+239)MTs+239))
or A= 17.4 x es x (1-TS/(TS + 239))/(Ts+ 239)

T 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 es 7.06 7.36 12.29 16.00 20.67 26.49 33.69 42.54 53.35 66.48 A 0.51 0.65 0.82 1.04 1.30 1.62 2.00 2.44 2.98 3.60
Exercise23
1 (7) = mbarX-
(A\
(es- ej
mbar
(Ts - TJ
= mbarC~1
401
(RN) Jm-'d" 1 (hu) " j m - 2 d - 1 0 C
= C
Exercise24 Insituationswerethesurfacehasthesametemperatureastheair:
T,=Ta=Ta+ - J - 5 H __ _ .(Ta- Td)

7 + A hu 7 +A Hence RN = hu(Ta - Td) A/ 7 TsequalsTaif, intheabsenceof radiation,airtemperatureisequaltothedewpoint temperaturei.e.whentheairissaturatedwithwatervapour. T$ > Taiftheenergygainfromnetradiationexceedstheenergylossbyevaporation, i.e. R N >h u (T a -T d )*A/7 T$<Taiftheenergylossbyevaporationexceedsthegainfromnetradiation,i.e. R N <h u (T a -T d )* A/ 7 Intheabsenceofradiation,Equation20becomes: T, = T a - - A - ( T a - T d ) A+7 InthisequationT$nowstandsforthewetbulbtemperatureandTdforthedewpoint temperature. Hence
T, = Ta - -T^TA + ^ - T d
A+7
A+7 A+7
T,=T a (l--4-)+-4-T d
A+7
T,=-4(7*T a + A-Td)
A+ 7
402
Exercise25 Thecalculationisbasedonapplicationof Equation22. Month

T
a (Q 26.0 28.9 29.3 28.2 28.2 27.4
A d (mbar) (mbar C l) (mbar) 2.00 2.31 2.36 2.23 2.23 2.14 22.5 27.9 30.2 28.7 29.8 27.0
RN
2
(MJm' d" ^(MJm'V^C"1) 10.9 13.6 13.5 12.7 12.2 10.8 1.33 1.61 1.50 1.47 1.43 1.37
January March May July September November
33.7 39.9 40.9 38.3 38.3 36.6
y = 0.66mbar^C"1 L = 2450 X 103J kg"1 E0 = ( ! (ARN+ hu(ed-ea)))/L inkgnf2d"* =mmd"1 A+7 E0 5.63 6.97 6.48 5.99 5.56 5.29
Month January March May July September November
Exercise exercise26 zo As explained in the text, the original Penman equation is a fair approximation of potentialevapotranspiration, ifthealbedoissetat0.25. ThusRNis different. Month January March May July September November
RN
0 z
(MJm" d" 7.59 10.05 10.19 9.57 9.26 7.92
ET0 (mmd' 1 ) 4.62 5.85 5.42 5.01 4.63 4.39
403
Exercise27 A soilmaterialconsisting of 0.2gg~l clayand0.4gg~'siltbelongstothetextureclass loam(accordingtoFigure25). Atamatricheadof 1000cm SM, = SM0 . e - * * ^ 2 = SM0 e"* *
(In I000) 2
AccordingtoTable 16,SM0 = 0.503cm3cm"3andy = 0.0180cm' 2 foraloamsoil. Thisyields SM, = 0.503 x e - 00,80x(,n,000 > 2 = 0.213cm3cm"3 Exercise28 Fromequation27 SM, = SM0 e_1r*(,^)2 AccordingtoTable 16,SM0 = 0.507andy = 0.0065 forasiltyclay. ForSM, = 0.3 cm3cm"3thisyields:0.3 = 0.507 x e"00065x(,n*)2. The minus sign in the exponential function can be eliminated by interchanging the nominatoranddenominatorontheothersideof theequal sign. Hence,e00065x(,n')2 = 0.507/0.3 (lm/02 = In(0.507/0.3)/0.0065 tf= exp((ln(0.507/0.3)/0.0065)05) = 7981.2cm. According to Equation 29, thegravity head (gn)isequal to the vertical distancebetweenpointnandthegroundwaterlevel. Inthepresent example, thegroundwater tableisat 1 mbelow soil surface andpoint nis 10cmbelowthesoilsurface, sogn = 10 - 100 = - 90cm. Ifthesoil wasaloam instead of asiltyclay, SM0 = 0.503andy = 0.0180. For SM^ = 0.3cm3cm"3,thematricheadwouldbe: yp = exp((In(0.503/0.3)/0.0180)05) = 212.4cm. Thetotalhydraulicheadwouldthenbe: Hn = 0 + gn = 212.4 - 90 = 122.4cm. Exercise29 Thehydraulicconductivity of aloam soil atamatricheadof 100cmcanbecalculated with k^= k0e"ax*(Equation30)because\pislowerthanthesuctionlimit\max. Table 17 suggestsforaloamsoil: k0 = 5.0cmd"1;a = 0.0231cm _I ; ^max= 300cm. With^= 100cm,k, = 5.0 x e"0-0231x l0 = 0.50cmd"1. Withi> = 1000cm(thisiswellabove^max = 300),Equation31hastobeused: k^= a .tf- M AccordingtoTable 17,foraloamsoil a = 14.4cm2,4d M 1 kiooo inm = 14.4 x 1000- = 0.00091 cmd" ,
:
2.4 A - 1
404
Exercise30 Tables 16and 18suggestthatforaloamsoilSM0 = 0.503, S0 = 11.73cmd"05andA = 3.97cmd"1. SM, = 0.35 cm3cm"3,At = 3h = 0.125 d. Equations33and34yield: S = So H - SM/SMo) = 11.73 X (1 - 0.35/0.503) = 3.568cmd IMmax = S (At)"05 + A = 3.568 x 0.125"05 + 3.97 = 14.06cmd"1.
-0.5
In0.125 d, atotal of 14.06 x 0.125 = 1.76 cmcaninfiltrate. Thatvalueexceedsthe rainfall of 1.5 cm, consequently the land will not flood. Substituting At = 6 h = 0.25dforAt = 0.125dyields: IMmax = 3.568 X0.25"5 + 3.97 = 11.11cmd"1 Whentheraincontinues for6hoursatthesameintensity, 3cmof rainwillfall.This exceedsthe 11.11 x 0.25 = 2.78cmthatcanenterthesoilin6hours,hencetheland will flood. Exercise31 Ep = Ed Ef Ej (Equation36) UseTable19. Inasmallirrigationscheme(lessthan 1000ha)withapredeterminedschedule, Ej= 0.7 Whensmallblocksareservedfromunlinedcanals,Ef = 0.7 UsingsurfaceirrigationonaloamsoilresultsinEd = 0.7 Epthereforeequals0.7 x 0.7 x 0.7 = 0.343 Exercise32 Em = E 0 -e-- 4 x L A I = 0.5 x e"-4x3 = 0.15 cmd"1 According to Tables 21-34thecapillary risein asituation wherezt = 100cmand ^ = 1000cm,equalsforthe 14soilclasses: 1. coarsesand CR < 2. loamysand CR < 3. finesand CR = 4. finesandyloam CR > 5. siltloam CR > 6. loam CR = 7. loessloam CR = 8. sandyclayloam CR > 9. siltyclayloam CR = 10. clayloam CR = 11. lightclay CR > 12. siltyclay CR < 13. heavyclay CR = 14. peat CR <
0.02 cm d"1,soamulch 0.02 cm d"1,soamulch 0.4 cm d"1,soamulch 0.5 cm d"\ soamulch 0.5 cm d"1,soamulch 0.5 cm d"1,soamulch 0.2 cm d"\ soamulch 0.5 cm d"1,soamulch 0.2 cm d"1,soamulch 0 . 1 cm d'\ soamulch 0.5 cm d"\ soamulch 0.15 cm d"1,soamulch 0.02 cm d"1,soamulch 0.06 cm d"1,soamulch
layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill layerwill
beformed beformed notbeformed notbeformed notbeformed notbeformed notbeformed notbeformed notbeformed beformed notbeformed beformed beformed beformed 405
Exercise33
Withslopeangle<f> = 10, d = 20cmandfurrowangle8 = 30( Equation40yields:
SSmax = 0.5 x d - 0.5 x 20 x
sin2(q - 4>) Jtan(a + <))-' 4- (tan(a - <f>)Yx sina 2 x cos<t> x cosa

5
^ (tan(40))- f (tan(20))- = sm30 2 x cos 10 x cos30
Thisissomewhatlowerthanthe5.5 cmreadfromFigure26. Exercise34 At = 10d;P = 0.5cmd"1;^ = 623cm;LAI = 4.0;SSt = 0cm;< = 10; d = 2cm;a = 30;E0 = 0.4cmd - 1 ; ^ = 150cm 1.IMmax = S0 (1 - SNySMo) (At)"05 + A ForaclayloamSM0 = 0.445cm3cm 3;A = 0.76cmd"1; S0 = 4.70cmd"05;7 = 0.0058 SM, = SM 0 . e"**fln*)2= 0.445 x e"00038x fln623)2 = 0.35 cm3cm"3 IMmax = 4.7 x (1-0.35/0.445) x 10"05 + 0.76 = 1.08cmd"1 2. SSmax accordingtoFigure28is0.5 to0.6 cm;accordingtoEquation40, SSmax = 0.54cm.Thelattervalueisusedinthefollowing calculations. 3.P = 0.5cmd"1 4.I e = Ocmd -1 5.E m = E0 x e- 0 4 x L A I = 0.4 x e" 0 4 x 4 = 0.08cmd"1 6. Equation39istobeusedtocalculatedEa. Ea = Em (SM^ SM16000/3)/(SM0 - SM16000/3) SMI6000 = 0.445 x e-00058^ln,6000>2 = 0.258cm3cm"3 SM0 = 0.445 Ea = 0.08 X(0.350.258/3)7(0.445 - 0.258/3) = 0.059cmd"1 7. Q = P + Ic - Ea - IMr max = 0.5 + 0 - 0.06 - 1.08 = -0.64 cmd"1
L
406
8.and9. Qislessthan0soQhastobecomparedtoSSt/At. SSt = 0,so - QisgreaterthanSSt/At Inthatcase: IM = P + Ic - Ea + SSt/At = 0.5 4-0 - 0.06 + 0 = 0.44cmd"1 DS = SS/At = Ocmd"1 SR = 0cmd"1 Exercise35 a. ^> gn>soupwardwaterflowispossible. b. RD = 100cm;\p = 300cm;Zj = 250cm; soiltextureclass: loam.
e-a(zt-RD)-
5 0 X fe~ 0231 *30 g-0.0231x150\

~"
e -0.0231
x 150 _ i
= 0.156cmd"1 c. AccordingtoTable26,CRwillbeabout0.15cmd"l (usingthedistancebetweenrootsandwatertable,250 - 100 = 150cm). d.Atanyonemomentwatercanflowinonedirectiononly,i.e. D = 0ifCRisgreater than0,andviceversa. So(CR - D) = CR = 0.15cmd"1 Exercise36 RD = 100cm,\[/ = 100cm,z, = 250cm. Inthiscase,gn= 100 - 250 = - 150cm.Waterwillflowdownwardsas Hn = \p + gn = 100- 150 = - 50cm(negativesignindicatesdownward flow). D = k, = k0 e*a-*= 5.0 x e- 023i x 10= 0.5cmd"1 CR - D = - D i f D > 0,henceCR - D = -0.5 cmd"1 Exercise37 UsingthedataofExercise34,andassumingRD = 75cm, Hn= I - (z, - RD) = 623 - (150 - 75) = 548cm (CR - D) = CR. AccordingtoTable30,CRequals0.175cmd"1overthedistanceof75cm. Exercise38 Usingthedataof Exercise34andassumingET0 = 0.35cmd"!,E0 = 0.4cmd"1, \p = 623cmandLAI = 4.0: l.T 0 2.Tm = E T 0 - 0.1 x E0 = 0.35 - 0.1 x 0.4 = 0.31cmd"1 = (1 - e"08x^ -T0 = (1 - e- 08x4) x 0.31 = 0.297cmd"1
407
3. SM^ 4.SMcr SM160oo So SMcr 5.SMI0
= 0.35 cm3cm"3(Exercise34,step1) = (1 - p) (SMJOO - SM16000) + SMI6000 AccordingtoTable20,p = 0.8 Accordingtoexercise34,step6, SMI00 = 0.393cm3cm"3; = 0.258 cm3cm"3 = (1 - 0.8) x (0.393 - 0.258) + 0.258 = 0.285 cm3cm"3 = 0.445 Xe"00058* (,n10)2 = 0.432cm3cm"3
6.SMîslessthanSM,0andSMI00,butgreaterthanSMI600oandSMcr. HenceT = Tm. Exercise39 RSM = (IM + (CR- D) - T)/RD (Equation24) RD = 75cm IM = 0.445 cmd"1 (step8/9, Exercise34) (CR- D) = 0.175cmd"l(Exercise37) T = 0.297 cmd"1 (step6,Exercise38) Thisyields: RSM = (0.445 + 0.175 - 0.297)/75 = 0.00431cm3cm"3d"1 Themoisturecontent attheendof thetime-intervalis SM^+A0 = SMô+ RSM At= 0.35 + 0.00431 X 10 = 0.393cm3cm"3. Thematrichead,^,attheendof thetime-intervalis
^
=
gUNSMQ/SMf)/^ _
0 5 e((!n(0.445/0.393)/0.058) - )
_ J Q 2 . 4 CIT1.
Exercise40 RD = 50cm, \P = 100cm, DD = 160cm, L = 5000cm, r = 8cm, mt = 60cm,At = 10days. zt = DD - 0.5mt = 160 - 0.5 x 60 = 130cm Dmax= k0*ml/(ml + L/ -K ln(L/(?r r))) = 60
x
60 + 5000/3.1416 x ( I n ^ ^ ) 3.1416 x 8 1 0.035 cmd" CRaccordingtoEquation45isequalto: k0x ( e " a x t - e-aX(zt-RD)

e
sooo
" ~
- a x(z, - RD)_j x 100 __ e -0.023I x 80
= 5.0 x = 0.346cmd"1
e -0.023l
e .o. 02 3ix8o^ 1
Thismeans(CR - D) = 0.346cmd"1 Az = (Dm + (CRV- D))/SM0 = (0.035 + 0.346)/0.503 = 0.757cmd"1

408
z t +At = zt + Az At = 130 + 7.6 = 137.6cm ni(t+ AD = 2 (DD - z , +J = 2 x (160 - 137.6) = 44.8cm Exercise41 lkgHjOha-'d- 1 = 1 dm'HiOha-'d" 1 = l O W ^ O h a - ' d " 1 = 106 X lO-^mm'HjOmm^d" 1 = 10" 4 mmd- , .Thus, 1 mmdêquals104 kgha-'d- 1 = lOm'ha-'d-'. Exercise42 C4specieswithstomatal regulation;Ttol = 200mmH 2 0; RH = 75%. According to Table 36,thetranspiration/assimilation ratio for aC4cropwith regulating stomata equals35kgH 2 0perkgC0 2 fixed. FromExercise41,200mm = 2 x 106kgha"'. Fgct= Ttot/TAR = 2 x 10V35 = 57 lOOkgCOiha"1. A total of 57 100kg C0 2 ha"1 can thus befixedunder these conditions. In Section 2.1 it has been argued that the daily increment in dry-matter production can be estimated fromgrossassimilationwith: AW = 0.7 X ( F g s - 0.015W) The average Wover agrowing season maybeapproximated by half thedryweight at harvest, i.e. 0.5 W,ot. If the total growing season lasts 100days, the formulation thusbecomes: Wtot = 0.7 x (Fgst - 0.75Wtol) Fgctisequalto57 100kgC0 2 ha -1 . FirstconversiontoCH 2 0:Fgst = 57 100 X 30/44 = 38932kgCH 2 0ha Wtot = 0.7 x (38932 - 0.75 Wtot) = 27252 - 0.525Wtot 1.525Wtot= 27525;Wtot= 17870kgha"l For C3 species lacking stomatal regulation, according to Table 36, TAR = 90kg U20kg-lC02 Fgct= Ttol/TAR = 2 X 10V90 = 22200kgCO 2 ha- 1 ConversiontoCH 2 0yields: 15136kgha"1. Followingthesamereasoningasinthepreviousexampleyields: Wtot = 0.7 X (15 136 - 0.75 Wtot); Wtot= 10595 - 0.525Wtot Wtot = 6948kgha"1 Theseresultsshowthatanefficient C4speciesoutyieldsaninefficient C3speciesbya factorofmorethan2.5undermoisturelimitedconditions.
-l
409
Exercise43 TheinverseoftheslopeofthelineinFigure31is: 0.75 X 10"6 2.04 x 10"3 (unitsarekgC0 2 m' 2 s"V(m s"1) = kgC0 2m~\ whichindeedisaconcentration). Fortheconversion intoppm(v/v),thegaslawisapplied:atatemperature of 20C thevolumeof 1 kMolofagasis24m\ Thus 0.37 kgC0 2 = 0.37/44 x 24 = 0.2m3 Thedropinconcentrationisthus 0.2 x 10"3m3m"3 = 0.2 x 10"3 x 106 = 200ppm(v/v). Therefore theconcentrationinsidethestomatalcavityis 330200 = 130ppm(v/v) C0 2 . Exercise44 Thetranspirationcoefficient isobtained fromFigure35astotalwater useminusnon-productivewateruse,dividedbydry-matterproduction: (500 - 98) mm/6.6 t ha"1 = 402 kg H 2 0 m"2/0.66 kg m"2 = 609.1 kg H 2 0 kg"1 drymatter. Exercise45 Soil-moisture storage capacity for availablewater is (0.2250.09) = 0.135 cm3cm"3. Wilting point = 0.09 cm3cm"3; 25 mmwater = 2.5 cm3cm"2. Thevolume of soil that can be brought to field capacity with this amount of water is equal to that amountdividedbythedifference betweenwatercontent atfield capacityandthatat wiltingpoint: Vc = 2.5 /(0.225 - 0.09) = 18.5cm3 As this iscalculated inunits of cm"2, the soil will beatfieldcapacity upto 18.5cm depth. The amount of water needed to restore the soil down to adepth of 150cm tofield capacityis 150 x (0.225 - 0.09) = 20.25cm3cm"2 = 202.5mm
-2
= 0.37 x 10"3kgCO2m"3.
'
410
Exercise46
Day 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 WLV 2000 1960 1921 1883 1845 1805 1769 1734 1699 1665 1632 DWLV 40 39.2 38.4 37.7 36.9 36.1 35.4 34.7 34.0 33.3
Usingthemodelsapproach:DWLV = WLV x 0.2 = 400,sotheweightof leaves after 10daysisequalto2000 - 400 = 1600. The difference between the approximation used in the model and the use of time stepsof onedayisaresult of thelongtimeinterval used.Thisviolatestheassumptionthatthevalueoftheintegral(WLV)isconstantovertheentiretimeinterval. Exercise47 Total seasonal transpiration equals 190.7 mm and total above-ground dry weight 11200kgha"1. Calculatingthetranspirationcoefficient onthebasisofabove-groundmaterialonly, yields: transpirationcoefficient = 190.7/11200 = 190.7kgH 2 Om- 2 /l.12kgm"2 = 170.3 kgH20kg -1drymatter. Calculatingthetranspirationcoefficient onthebasisoftotaldryweightyields: ÔZ/kgHzOirrVlÔOkgha-1 = 160.3kgHiOkg"1drymatter.
Exercise48 Na (kgha"1) 0 50 100 150 Ng (kgha"1) 49.3 70.3 76.9 90.8 Ns (kgha~ 19.8 20.8 32.5 35.2 Ntol (kgha"1) 69.1 91.1 109.4 126.0
*)
Exercise49 Na Harvestindex 0 0.494 50 0.512 100 0.498 150 0.498
411
mbarC"
3-
2-
1 -
"T0 5 1010
15 15 20
-T-
~T~ 20 25
30
-r35 30
40C
Figure78. Therelation betweentemperatureandtheslopeof thesaturated vapourpressure curve. Denotegrainweight bygandstrawweight bys. Thegrain/straw ratioequalsg/s, and theharvestindexequalsg/(g+s).Henceg/(g+s) = (g/s)/(g/s + s/s) = (g/s)/(g/s + 1) ThusHI = (g/s)/(g/s + 1) Exercise50 Recovery fraction of theappliednitrogenequals(60-20)/100 = 0.4. Exercise51 SeeFigure79 Exercise52 FromExercise49:HI = (g/sj/(l + g/s) ForFigure39a g/s = 0.53,soHI = 0.53/1.53 = 0.346 39b g/s = 1.3 ,soHI = 1.3 /2.3 = 0.565 Exercise53 Theoretical efficiencies, inkggrainperkgnitrogen, for Figure41a: Ein = 1/(0.01 + 1.89 x 0.004) = 57.0 Fig41b: Exercise54 Thegrain/straw ratioiscalculated fromtheinitialefficiency accordingto: Ein = 410 = 1/(0.0011 + 0.0005 x s/g) g/s = 0.0005/(l/E in - 0.0011) = 0.37 Exercise55 Theequationappliedis
412
Ein = 1/(0.01 + 0.77 x 0.004) = 76.5
Ein = l/(n r + n$ x shoot/root) with nrand n$being the limiting nitrogen concentrations in root and aboveground organs,respectively. nrisapproximately0.003. nsvariesbetween0.0065 and0.01 androot/shoot isbetween0.8 and 1.75. Initialefficiencies asfunction of relevantvariables:
n$
shoot/root 1/0.8 1/1.75
0.0065 89.9 148.9
0.01 64.5 114.8
Exercise56 P/N Field 1 Field2 Field3 0.09 0.04 0.15
Using the rule that there is relative nitrogen shortage if P/N approaches 0.15 and that there is relative phosphorus shortage if P/N approaches 0.04, it may beexpected that P fertilizer application will increase the uptake of N in Field 2 and that N fertilizer application willincreasetheuptakeof PinField3. InField 1 theP/N ratio isclosetoitsoptimumvalue,hencethesupplyof PandNiswellbalanced. Exercise57 TADW = 12418kgha"1(Column21,Table 11) WGR = 6844kgha"1(Column 19,Table11) Theproductionof strawamountsto(TADW - WGR) = 5574kgha"l Inthe case of well managed bunded rice (remember: this is an experiment station), the crop will always be optimally supplied with water. Therefore the production in Production Situation 2will be equal to that calculated for Production Situation 1, i.e. 12418kgha-'. Ifanunfertilized cropproduces2000kgha"1, whilethemaximumproductionunder Production Situation 2is 12418 kgha -1 , there iscertainly good reason to consider theuseof fertilizers. If nitrogen is at its minimum concentration, the unfertilized crop contains 1000 x 0.01 kgNinitsgrainand 1000 x 0.004kgNinitsstraw. Thiscorreponds to (10 + 4) = 14kgNtaken up.Thesamequantitywas found inachemical analysis. Itmay therefore beconcludedthatnitrogenavailability limitsplantproduction. Exercise58 Thecontrolplotsreceivednofertilizeratall.Thecorresponding roughriceyieldsare: Cropyear 1952-1953: 1214kgha
-i
413
Cropyear1953-1954:1529kgha" Cropyear1954-1955:1756kgha" The control plot in crop year 1953-1954 has probably received fertilizer(s) in the previousyear, whenitwasincluded intheexperiment asafertilized plot(randomizeddesign).Thecontrolplotincropyear 1954-1955mayhavebeenfertilizedtwice, viz. incropyears 1952-1953and 1953-1954.Carry-overof nutrientsmanifests itself inahighernaturalsoilfertility,whichleadstohighercontrolyields. Thegiven grain-straw ratio of 2 permits calculation of theslope, Ein, of theyielduptakecurveasfollows: E=
I =66B7keke~ B Y x 0.0078 + (2 XY) X0.0036 '
inwhich2 x Ystandsforequaltotwotimesthegrainyield. Thenitrogenuptakefromthecontrolplotsinthethreeconsecutiveyearsamountsto Y/Ein: Uptakeincropyear1952-1953:1214/66.7 = 18.2kgha"1 Uptakeincropyear1953-1954:1529/66.7 = 22.9kgha -1 Uptakeincropyear1954-1955:1756/66.7 = 26.3kgha"l Exercise59 When addition of phosphorus no longer gives increasing yields, there is obviously P sufficiency. TheentirePneedsof thecropcanbemetbythesoil; P fertilization is notneeded. Incropyear 1952-1953, Pfertilizer application resultedindistinctlyhigheryieldsin comparisontothecontrol. In 1953-1954therewaslesseffect of Pfertilizerapplication,presumablybecausesomeofthephosphorusappliedinthefirstyearwastaken uponly in the second year. Carry-overof unused phosphorus in the soil tosubsequent seasons leadsto Psuffiency after threeyears. Nitrogen ismuchmoremobile inthesystemthanphosphorus.NlossesarethereforehigherthanPlossesandcarryover of N is lower than carry-over of P. Hence the conclusions drawn from this experimentdonotseemillogical. Yield(N37.5 - P37.5)in 1954-1955 = 3547kgha"1.Theslopeoftheyield-uptake curvewas66.7kggrainkg'1 N(Exercise58),sothatNuptakefromplot (N37.5 P 37.5) amounts to 3547/66.7 = ,53.2 kg ha - , = umn in Equation 79. Nitrogen uptake from the control plot amounts to 26.3 kgha"1 = uon in Equation 79.The quantityofnitrogenappliedis37.5kgha"l = AninEquation79. Hence,recoveryfractionRn= (53.2 - 26.3)/37.5 = 0.72 ForField(N75.0 - P37.5),Rn= (62.8 - 26.3)/75 = 0.49 ForField(N 150 - P37.5),Rn= (70.2 - 26.3)/150 = 0.29 The fact that the apparent recovery fraction decreases with increasing fertilizer 414
application rate could indicate that at the higher application rates the harvested materialnolongerhadtheminimumNconcentration, becauseinSection4.1 itwas shownthattheapplication-uptakerelationisastraightlineinmostcases,atleastup tothelevelof75kgha"!.Anotherpossibilitycouldbethatthesetraditionalvarieties respond to nitrogen application mainly by producing a more abundant vegetative growth, so thatthegrain/straw ratioisunfavourably affected andapplication ofa constantgrain/strawratiointhecalculationunderestimatesrealnitrogenuptake. The nitrogen recovery fraction of 0.29 is lower than necessary. An application method should be chosen that increases Rnto a value above, say, 0.5. Thai rice farmers are among the best in the world and will probably not apply such ahigh dose inonedressing. Inanexperiment itis,of course, perfectly inordertoinclude suchsuboptimaltreatments. Exercise60 The nitrogen fertilizers used are ammonium sulphate, urea, ammonium nitrate and sodium nitrate. Application dates are 16 July 1966 and 21 September 1966. The fertilizers were broadcast or placed either in rows at the surface, or in rows at a depthof5cm. TheP/N ratiosatthetimeofprimordiuminitiationare: TreatmentA TreatmentB TreatmentC TreatmentD P/N = 0.06 P/N = 0.07 P/N = 0.07 P/N = 0.09 TreatmentE: P/N = 0.05 TreatmentF : P/N = 0.05 TreatmentG: P/N = 0.06 TreatmentH: P/N = 0.06
The P/N ratio in plant tissue lies normally between 0.04 and 0.15. The low ratios calculated forthisexperimentsuggestarelativePshortage.ThisPshortageinterfereswithNuptake:P/N ratiosarelowinallcases. NitrogenfertilizerapplicationattransplantingresultedinLowerP/N ratios,causedby higher N concentrations inthetissue and slightly lower Pconcentrations. Duetothe fertilizerapplication,theNavailabilityincreasedbutPuptakeremainedessentiallythe same. Thegrain/strawratiosatharvesttimeare: TreatmentA:0.27 TreatmentB:0.28 TreatmentC: 0.28 TreatmentD:0.40 Treatment E:0.34 Treatment F: 0.38 TreatmentG:0.39 TreatmentH:0.40
Modern high yielding varieties have grain/straw ratios close to 1.0. The calculated ratiosaremuchlowerandsuggestthattraditionallongstrawvarietieswereusedinthis experiment. The relatively large proportion of straw is associated with a low initial efficiency of theyield-uptakecurve. Inthecaseof aHYV,theinitialefficiency ofthe yield-uptakecurveistypicallyoftheorderof 70.ForTreatmentAinthisexperimentit equals3335/(3335x0.0086 '+ 12410x0.0032)=48.7. 415
Total nitrogen uptake under Treatment A amounts to: 3335 x 0.0086 + 12410 x 0.0032) = 28.68 4- 39.71 = 68.4kg h a " ^ u ^ . Total nitrogen uptake from the control plot amounts to 1930 x 0.0091 + 4085 x 0.0036 = 17.56 + 14.71 = 32.3 kgha'Ûo.n. Thenitrogenapplicationisthesameunderalltreatment:An= 60kgha"1. Equation79canbeusedtocalculatetherecovery fraction Rn realizedunderTreatment A: Rn=(68.4 - 32.2)/60 = 0.60kgkg"' TheRnvaluescalculated foreachof thetreatmentsareasfollows: TreatmentA:Rn=0.60kgkg"1 Treatment B:Rn=0.59 kgkg"' TreatmentC:Rn=0.43 kgkg"1 Treatment D:Rn=0.16kgkg"* Treatment E:Rn=0.55 kgkg"1 Treatment F:Rn=0.41 kgkg"' Treatment G:Rn=0.33 kgkg"1 TreatmentH:Rn=0.27 kgkg"'
a. A recovery fraction of 0.6 is satisfactory. In both treatments, the fertilizer was placed at some depth, i.e. in the oxygen-poor sub-surface layer. In Treatment A, ammoniumistosomeextentadsorbedonthesurfaceofclaymineralsandprotected against leaching. In Treatment B, urea N is transformed in the soil to ammonium and is equally effective as ammonium ions from an ammonium fertilizer (as in Treatment A). Subsequent transformation of ammonium N to nitrate N does not take place in the low-oxygen sub-surface soil and this prevents excessive nitrogen lossesthroughleachingand denitrification. b. Ncompoundsaddedtothesoil surfacewillmovedownwardwithpercolatingwater and/or bydiffusion. If nitrate ions enter the low-oxygen subsurface soil, denitrification will readilytakeplace. Furtherdownward transport of Ncompounds brings the nitrogen out of reach of the rice roots (leaching). There is, therefore, good reason to expect high losses of nitrogen under Treatments C and D and consequently low recoveries. Under Treatment C, part of the nitrogen was furnished as ammonium ions. Ammonium is not subject to denitrification and leaches lessrapidly than nitrate ions because it is to some extent retained by clay minerals. It is therefore tobeexpectedthatnitrogenrecoverywillbedisastrously lowunderTreatment D, and slightly higher, but not good, under Treatment C. The calculated recoveryvaluesconfirmthis. c. Under Treatment D, highly mobile nitrate ions were brought into the root zoneat the time of transplanting when the root system is small, and the nitrogen requirementof theplantislow.Theresulting longresidencetimeof thenitrogeninthesoil must lead to high losses due to denitrification and leaching. Under Treatment H, sodium nitrate was added at a time when the crop was fully developed and in a muchbetterpositiontotakeuptheaddednitrogen. d. Under Treatment F, urea is broadcast at atime when the crop had ahigh demand fornitrogenandafully developed root system, capableof takingupmuchnitrogen in a short time. This is not the case at the time of transplanting and consequently the observed nitrogen recovery is higher than the 0.2 suggested for urea broadcast attransplanting. 416
Exercise61 TADW = 12418kgha"1(Column21,Table11) WGR = 6844kgha"'(Column 19,Table11) Strawweightsequals(12 4 1 8 - 6 844)=5 574kgha -1 TotalminimumNuptakeinProductionSituation2equals: 6844 x 0.01 + 5574 x 0.004 = 90.7 k g N h a - ^ . n ) Theinitial efficiency of theyielduptakecurveiscalculated asWGR/total Nuptake 6844/90.7 = 75.5. TheNuptakefromanunfertilized plotwithayieldof 1000kggrainis: 1000/75.5 = lSJkgNha-Ûo.n). Atanitrogenrecovery,Rn,of0.55, thenitrogen fertilizer requirement, Dn,equals: Dn = (um>n-uo>n)/0.55 = (90.7-13.3)/0.55 = 140.7kgha"1 Thiscorresponddswith 140.7/0.45 = 312kgurea. Exercise62 TotalminimumPuptakeinProductionSituation2amountsto: 6844 x 0.0011 + 5574 x 0.0005 = 10.3 k g h a ' ^ u ^ Theinitialefficiency oftheyielduptakecurveamountsto WGR/total Puptake = 6844/10.3 = 664. P uptake from anunfertilized plot withayieldof 1000kggrainis: 1000/664 = 1.5 kg
ha-Ûo.p.
At a P recovery, Rp, of 0.02, the phosphorus fertilizer requirement, Dp, equals(10.31.5)/0.02 = 440kgha"1,whichissatisfied withanapplicationof440/0.116 = 2750kg rockphosphateperhectare. Exercise64 Statevariables : WLVI,WI, RDI,z,,SS(, ^. Forcingvariables : Ha,Ta,P, E0,ET0,SLA, Fov,Fd. Constants :Hg,ke,Eg,Rm,TUpre,T U ^ , T0,p,0, SM 0 ,7.S0, A, K0,a, a, ^max,Ed,Ef, Ed, a, DD, Ld,rd. Forthecalculation of production for Production Situation 3,dynamicsimulation is not applied. Hence, the variables used in that calculation cannot be classified in thoseterms. Exercise65 SM0 = 1 BD/SD
417
AP Bulk Density
B, 1.3 0.006 2.578 0.496

-3
B2 1.3 0.005 2.582 0.497
cm
SD SM0calculated
(gem 3) (gg"1) (gem 3) (cm3 cm - 3 )
1.1 0.0125 2.554 0.569
TheindicativeSM0(Table 16):0.432cm3cm
Exercise66 The lower BD and higher SM0 are explained by a higher organic carbon (organic matter)contentof thesurfacehorizon. A peat which consists for 0.01 to 0.05 gg" 1 of mineral material has an organic mattercontent of (1(0.01 to 0.05)) gg"1, orOm = 0.99 to0.95 gg"1. According to Equation 92, its specific density lies between 1.44 cm"3 and 1.46 g cm"3. It follows from Equation 91 that thetotal porespaceliesbetween 1 - 0.05/1.44 and 1 - 0.15/1.46, or between 0.965 cm3cm"3and0.90 cm3cm"3. The solid fraction, V$/Vt = 1- SM0,occupiesonly0.035 to0.10cm3cm"3!! N.B.: Most mineral soils haveasolid fraction occupying 0.4 to0.6 cm3cm - 3 (Vs = (1 SM0) x Vt). Peats have an exceptional matrix geometry. Natural peats are saturated with water. When the Roman historian Tacit (A.D. 55-118) described peatlandshewroteThey areneitherlandnorwater'. Exercise67 SIvty = SM0 e -*-<In*)2(Equation27) Forasandyclayloam,SM0 = 0.432cm3cm"3andy = 0.0096cm"2. Measured:SM333 = 0.150.16cm3cm"3;SM,5000= 0.10cm3cm"3 B, With7 = 0.035 cm"2andSM0 = CalculatedSM333: 0.569 0.176 0.496 0.153 B, 0.497 cm3cm"3 0.153 cm3cm"3
ThesecalculatedSM333valuesareclosetothemeasuredvalues. With7 = 0.017 cm"2andSM0 = CalculatedSM160oo: 0.569 0.116 0.496 0.101 0.497 cm3cm"3 0.101 cm3cm"3
ThesecalculatedSMi6ooovaluesareclosetothemeasuredvalueof 0.1cm3cm"3. Exercise68 SD = 3.72/(1.43 + 2.13xCm)(Equation93) SM0 = 1 BD/SD (Equation91)
418
B22t
Source
cm =
BD = SD = SM0 =
0.027 1.2 2.501 0.520
0.019 1.4 2.530 0.447
0.007gg"1 Table52 -3 1.5 gem Table52 3 2.575gcm" Calculated 3 3 0.417cm cm" Calculated
7 = 0.03 Xln(SM0/SM333)
SM333 = 7=
0.19 0.030 0.275 0.145 25 3.6 0 3.6
0.17 0.029 0.242 0.112 28 3.1 0.70 0.93
0.22 cm3cm"3 0.019cm"2
Table52 Calculated
CalculatedSM10o = SM,ooSM16ooo = Thehorizondepth =
0.279cm3cm"3 Equation27 0.099cm3cm"3 Table52 89 cm 8.8 cm 0.75 cm3cm"3 2.20cm Table52 Equation51 Table52 Calculated
w a=
gravel(Xg) = (1X g ) x Wa =
CalculatedforB2I:Wa= 2.8cm;Xg = 0.6cm3cm"3;(1Xg) x Wa = 1.1cm. Thequantityofultimatelyavailablewateris(3.6 + 0.96 + 2.25 + 1.1) = 7.9cm. Ifthesoilweregravelless,Wa= (3.6 + 3.1 + 8.8 + 2.8) = 18.3cm. Exercise69 In P9 iron mottles are observed at shallow depth, viz. in Bi (19-57 cm), whereas in Kpuabu 1no such iron mottling is described. Therefore, Kpuabu 1 hasthedeeper watertable. Profile P9 displays iron mottles in horizon B2 (at a depth of 57-170 cm);theobservedwatertabledepthisnotuncommon. Exercise70 RootsareobservedinP9inhorizonB2(57-170cm)with'fewcoarse,commonmedium and many fine roots'. There are worm and ant holes throughout. Rooting is not impeded in anyway. In Kpuabu 1, very few fine and medium roots are observed deeper than 5cm and no mention is made of worm or ant activity. In Kpuabu 1, rootingisnotexactlyimpeded,butitisnotanidealrootingmediumeither. Manymacro-andmesoporesandwormholesareobservedinthedeepesthorizonof P9. IntheprofiledescriptionofKpuabu1,suchevidenceofbiologicalactivityisnot recorded. It is therefore concluded that biological soil homogenization is moreintenseinprofileP9thaninKpuabu1.
419
Exercise71
A, Horizondepth Horizon volume Bulkdensity Weight Pcontent
=
A3 28 28x10 s 1.4 3.92xlO 9 370 0.000370 cm cm3ha-1 gem" 3 gha' 1 ppm kgkg"1 gha" 1 kgha"1
i
Source Table52 Table52 Table52
25 25xl08 1.2 3xl09 390 0.000390
TotalPineach horizon
1.17X106 1.45XlO6 1170 1450 = Total Pinupper53cm:(1170+ 1450)=2620kgha" 0.169 0.00169 0.00140 4.200X106 4200 0.180 0.0018 0.00149 5.841XlO6 5841
K20content
=
/o
kgkg"* kgkg _1 gha"1 kgha"1
-i
Table52
Kcontent TotalKineach horizon =
TotalKinupper53 cm:(4200+5841)= 10041kgha
Exercise72 Total Pis335timeshigherthan Bray-extractableP. ThehighPretention capacity of soilKpuabu 1 isnotsurprising:thissoilishighinexchangeablealuminium.Table47 indicatesalowRpinoldsoils,thatarehighinFeandAI,forthesamereason. Production of 3000 kg of rice grains requires a nitrogen uptake of 3000/(50 to 70)=43to60kgha"1. WithaP/N ratioof 0.1 underbalanced supply, 0.1x(43to 60)=4.3 to 6.0 kg available P is required. For the profile horizons A, and A3, available P isestimated atabout 8kgha"1 (with Brayno. 1)or 13.5 kgha"1(with Brayno.2).TheneedtoapplyPfertilizersseemsnon-existing. Becausemost cropsrequiresimilarorhigherquantities of potassium thanof N,43 to60kgha"!wouldhavetobeavailable. Thethreehorizonscontainatotalamountof 14.5kgKavailableperha;thereseems tobeaneedforapplicationofpotassiumfertilizers. Exercise73 CECtotal=11.79me(100g)-, CEClotaI=OmxCECQm+(1 - Om)xCECmin orgC=0.027gg"1 Om=orgC/0.55=0.0489gg"1 CEC0 =100 CECjn =(CECtotal- OmxCECQ )/(l - OJ= (11.79- 0.0489x 100)/(1- 0.0489)=7.25me(100g) (Table52) (Table52) (Table55)
-i
ThisislowcomparedtothelistedCECsforpureclaysinTable55.TheKpuabusoil hasalowcapacitytoretainandexchangeaddedKions.
420
The organic matter in the surface soil is important for the supply of cations. Although it represents only 0.0489 gg"1 of the surface horizon, it is responsible for 41.5% ofthe totalCEC ofthe surfacesoilmaterial. The observed base saturation of less than 0.03 me me"1 indicates a poor overall nutrientstatus. Exercise74 Thegravelcontentof0.7 cm3cm"3inlayersdeeperthan25cminKpuabu 1 makesthe overallnutrientstatusofthissoilevenpoorer. Thesurface soil of profile Kpuabu 1hasaCECof 11.79me(100g)' 1 , versusonly 5.71me(100g)"1inprofileP9.NotethehigherorganicmattercontentofKpuabu1. Deeperthan25cmbelowsoilsurface,only0.3 cm3 cm' 3ofsoilKpuabu 1 takespart in ion exchange. Thegravel fraction can be considered inert; it is removed before analysis. Theconclusion is that the real capacity to retain and exchange cations is aboutthesameinbothprofiles:itisverylow. Exercise75 An amount of10.000 kg dry matter contains 250 kg N ha"1, that is equivalent to 250/0.16=1562.5 kg proteins ha' 1 . Maintenance requirement is0.035 kg CH20 kg"1(proteins)d"1.Thus1562.5x0.035=54.7kgCHiOha-'d"1. Anamountof 10.000kgdrymattercontains 1000 kgmineralsha"'. Maintenancerequirementis0.07 kgCH20kg"'(minerals)d"l. ThuslOOOx0.07=70kgCH2Oha",d-1. Total:54.7+70= 124.7kgCHjOha-'d"1. That is0.0125 kgCH20 kg"1 (drymatter)d"1, which isclose tothevalueof 0.015 suggestedinSection2.1. Exercise76 For proteins, growth efficiency is 0.404, if N03"is the basic component, or0.616 if NH4* isthe basic component (thedifference is theenergy requirement for nitrate reduction). Forstructuralcarbohydratesthegrowthefficiency is0.826,andforlipidsitis0.33. Theoverallgrowthefficiency withN03" assource,isthuscalculatedas: 0.404xfprot+0.826xfcarb+0.33 xflip andwithNH4+ assource: 0.616 xfprot+0.826xfcarb+0.33 xf,ip a. Cassava Growthefficiency usingN03": 0.404x0.075+0.826x0.925+0.33 x0. = 0.794 usingNH4+:
0.616 x 0.075 + 0.826 x 0.925 + 0.33 x 0. =0.81
421
b. Maize Growthefficiency, usingN03": 0.404 x 0.125 + 0.826 X0.875 + 0.33 X0. = 0.773 using NH|: 0.616 x 0.125 + 0.826 x 0.875 + 0.33 x 0. = 0.80 c. Soya-bean Growthefficiency, usingN03~: 0.404 x 0.4 '+0.826 X0.4 + 0.33 X0.2 = 0.558 usingNH4+: 0.616 x 0.4 + 0.826 X0.4 + 0.33 x 0.2 = 0.643 Thecorrespondinggrowthratesare: a. Cassava 1.400x0.794 = 317.6kgha1 d*1 2. 400 x 0.81 = 324.0kgha*1d 1 b. Maize 1. 400 X0.773 = 309.2kgha1 d"1 2. 400 x 0.80 = 320.0kgha"1 d'1 c. Soya-bean 1.400x0.558 =223.6 kgha1 d'1 2. 400 x 0.643 = 257.2kgha*1 d*1 Exercise77
Location Harrow Ottawa Normandin Swift Current Lacomoe Beaverlodge FortVermilion FortSimpson 1/N 0.0323 0.0345 0.0185 0.0244 0.0169 0.0185 0.0208 0.0263 T 1
a
21.1 20.6 15.0 19.1 14.7 13.9 15.3 16.4
T 0isestimatedtobe5C,andb = 0.002d"1 C I (Figure80) Thedevelopmentrateatanaverageairtemperatureof 12.5Cis 0.002 x (12.5 - 5) = 0.015. Itwilltake1/0.015 = 67days fromheadingtomaturityforthisvariety. Exercise78 Rateofdevelopmentoftwospringwheatcultivarsfromemergencetoanthesis:
422
grainyield
N-appllcatlon
N-uptake 150kgha
"I
150 kgha'1
r
100
150kgha* N-app)1cat1on
Figure 79. The relation between nitrogen uptake and grain yield, the relation between nitrogen application and nitrogen uptake, and the relation between nitrogen application and grain yield for a hypothetical grain crop.
0.035-
0.030-
0.025-
0.020-
0.015-
0.010 -
0.005-
10
15
20 C
Figure 80. The relation between average temperature and the rate of development for a wheat crop.
423
T 1
cv.Timgalen 0.01075 0.01389 0.01639
T 1
cv.Orca 0.01053 0.01282 0.01449
12.5 14.1 17.0
11.6 13.2 17.0
Rateofdevelopmentoftwospringwheatcultivarsfromanthesistomaturity:
T 1 cv.Timgalen 0.02041 0.02083 0.02439 Ta 17.6 17.6 16.9 cv.Orca 0.02326 0.025 0.02564
a
19.5 20.5 22.1
TheseresultsaregraphicallypresentedinFigure81. Exercise79 Maize Time Activity manual 10-20May 21-30May 1-10June 1-10July 1-10Sept. 11-20Sept. 21-30Sept. 1-10Nov. 1stploughing 2ndploughing + harrowing sowing + fertilization weedcontrol scaringbirds | scaringbirds / scaringbirds ) harvest transport processing Activity manual 1stploughing 2ndploughing + harrowing prep,cuttings Labourrequirement (h ha"l) draughtanimal 28 28 24 80 3 145 55 330 126 210 Labourrequirement (hha*1) draughtanimal equipment (heavy) 28 28 24 25 6 equipment (heavy) 6 6 3
Cassava Time
*
1-10Apr. 11-20Apr. 21-30Apr.
424
Cassava Time
Activity
Labourrequirement (hha"1) manual draughtanimal equipment (heavy)
11-20May 1-10June 1-10July 1-10Nov.
+ planting + fertilization weedcontrol weedcontrol hillingup harvest transport
70 3
2-16
120 85 180 240
Exercise80 Totalnumberof labourhoursperhectarefor: rice maize cassava 1343 1029 810
Exercise81 Wheat a. 150kg ha*1 sowing seed is needed for wheat. With a production target of 2500kg perfamily, therelationbetweenyieldandacreagecanbedescribedby: Acreage = 2500
(yield150)
(seeFigure82)
b. Cassava Energycontentis6.0MJ kg*1. Familyrequirementsare 18.5GJ yr*1.
0025-
DVR 0.020 H -1
0.020-
0.015
0.015-
0.010-
(a)
* Timgalen Orca
-I
0.010-
0.005-
0.005-
10
15
20 C
Figure 81. The relation between average temperature and the rateof development for two wheat varieties in the pre-anthesis period (a) and the post-anthesis period (b). 425
Edibleyieldhastobe
18 5 x 1(XK)
= 3100kgyr1.
6 Withanon-edibleportionof0.2,3100/0.8 = 3875kgyr1mustbeproduced. Thisamount of 3875kgyr'1isforconsumption purposesonlyanddoesnotinclude theamountofcassavaneededforplanting. Exercise82 Yt isyieldattimet(yearselapsedsincestartingyear). Y0 isyieldatstartingyear. Ye isequilibriumyieldi.e.yieldattimeequalsinfinity, k isfactordescribingtherelativeannualdeclineinyield. Estimatesare: Y0 = 2200kgha*1 Ye = 900kgha"1 Att = 19year,Yt = 1500kgha"1 Thus, 1500 = (2200900) x e kx19 + 900 600 = 1300e kx19 k = -ln(600/1300) 19
=
0.04Q7y r i
Exercise83 At the 'Beharrungspunkt'(theequilibrium point),theyieldinsuccessiveyearsisconstant: Rn+1 = (Rn + I r ) ( l - T c ) =Rn Hence R-(K)xR

n
= Irx(l-T()
Rn x Tc = Ir x (1 - Tc) R= Ir x (1 - Tc)
T
,1 = IrXt p - 1)
WithIr = 1200ryeequivalentsha"' Tc = 0.09 . thisyields: Rn= 1200 x (- - 1) = 12133ryeequivalentsha"' J 0.09
426
At equilibrium (that isRn+, = Rn)theyieldisequal to Iri.e. 1200ryeequivalents ha" After increasing 'Tatigkeit' from 0.09 to0.16 theyieldswillbe:
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 yield 2133 1984 1859 1753 1665 1590 1528 1475 1431 1394
R n+ l
11200 10416 9757 9204 8739 8349 8021 7746 7515 7320
Year 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
yield 1363 1337 1315 1297 1281 1268 1257 1248 1240 1234
R n+ l
7157 7020 6905 6808 6727 6658 6601 6553 6512 6478
Theseresultsindicate that inthelong runtheyieldsapproach again theannual input of 'Reichtum' intothesystem, however atanappreciably lowerlevel of 'Reichtum'. Exercise84 Inaddition tothedatagiven intheexercise, the 'Reichtum'atequilibrium for thecases presented hastobegiven. This hasbeencalculated usingthe following equations: R0 = rr - Ir
X*
('Reichtum'atstartof cycle)
T
Y0 =
z (1 + e"k + e"2k + e"3k)
+ Irfor four successive harvests and ' f years of recovery
Y0 =
^ * + Ir forthreesuccessiveharvests and ' f years of k 2k (1 + e* + e* ) recovery = In(l-Tc)
Tc Ir f
= O.OSorO.^yr 1 = 120kgyr ! = 10or 15years
(the 'Tatigkeit') (thenatural input in'Reichtum') (numberof fallow years)

x
427
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en en
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m
o o o o o o o o
> <
o o o o o o o o
>
O O O O O O O ^
03
>
O ^ O N O ^ O O m oooot>oovovovovo
2
n Q ^f
^ VD C S O Tf O Tf* CO CO
IS
*>
73
I I I I
4-*
*o
m
Oovoo*-<o\r^ro /-><NOO\r^ôov>
*>
*
X
co *
OO O
f O ^fr I i - I I
c o
T3
<L> <D
CO
> *co
#
(A
to
o o
CO
73
CO
3 cr 4>
CO
S Z3
4>
-a
-
C 2
bQ
II
PC

1)
U.
^
CO
2
>
(A
CO
Tj" '*$ '*$ T^ C"j c o prj pr>
U H
ooOOor>00
b0 bfl.5
oovooovooovooovo
^5 "** ^5 ^^ ^D ^^ ^D^** O O O O O O O O
o o
J en

428
If, as is the case here, systems are in equilibrium, there will be no change in the average 'Reichtum\ meaning that in the n cropping years as much 'Reichtum' is extractedasisaddedduringthewholecycle: n E Yi= p Ir i=l (p = f + n)
During the 15years recovery/3 years cropping regime the average yield is highest andconsequentlythesowingseedratiolowest. Exercise85 L(Hhw)=Lw/2+((H c -H w /2)/H c ) Lc=0.75+0.375=1.125 L(Hhc)=Lc/2+((Hw- Hc/2)/Hw) Lw=0.75+0.6667=1.4167 Gw/Gc= L w / L c . e ( - k ^ ( L ( H - ) - L ( H - ) ) ) = l x e (-0.65x(1.125-1.4167)) = 1 2 1
Gw+ G c = l
henceGw=0.55 Gc=0.45
Exercise86
Seefigure83 Numberofweedings 'sugar-beet-like* 0 ' 293 1 3120 2 9346 'wheat-like* 6965 11800
kg/ha ,grain y i e l d 5000-
4000-
3000-
2000-
1000 -150
T 1
"i
area of crop land 5 10 15 ha
Figure 82. Grain yield required to obtain a production target of 2500 kg wheat from varying areas at crop land. The dotted line represents the amount of sowing seed (150 kg ha -1 ) that was to be preserved. 429
Dry-matterproductioninacompletelyweed-freecropishighersincetheweedstemporarilypresentwillinterceptapartoftheradiation,moreovereveninaregularyweeded cropsomeweedswillremainandcompetewiththecrop. Exercise87 AsisshowninTable74,thereisaclosenegativerelationbetweentheestimatedrelative endofthenecessaryweed-freeperiodandtherelativeyieldwithoutweedcontrol.Both numbers are an expression of the competitive ability of the crops mentioned in the table. This competitive ability depends on two major factors: the amount of leaf material after emergence and the ability to develop a closed canopy with sufficient height. The crops on top of the list have in common their ability to form a closed canopyinarelatively shorttimebecauseof thesizeof theirseedsandtheheightthey will reach. Thecrops at thebottom of thelist eitherhaveverysmall seeds or forma verylimitedcanopyintime. Exercise88 ThervaluesarecalculatedusingEquation 108; withthervaluesthegrowthrateofthe epidemiccanbecalculatedwithEquation107. Period(d)
40- 70 70- 90 90-110 110-125 125-135 Exercise89 See figure 84
r(d"2)
0.10 0.161 0.139 0.061 0.092
dP/dtCkgha-'d"1) l.OOxlO"6 3.22X10"5 6.93xlO"4 4.49X10"3 1.47xlO"2
Exercise90 Where sophisticated pest and disease management is practiced, it may bepossible to detect epidemics that occur only once in acouple of yearsandtreat themwiththe appropriate chemicals,_omitting treatment in years when the epidemic does not develop!Hence,insophisticated management-systems themeanyieldincreaseover theyearisnolongerthecriterion,buttheprospectivetoreclaimexpectedlosseseach growing season, based on keen observations and adapted choices of chemicals for eachspecificsituation. Exercise91 Cropswitharootingdepthofabout 10cmabovegroundwaterlevelarenotaffectedby the groundwater. From Table 71 it appears that rice, groundnut, mung bean,potato, onion, tobacco, chillieandkenafarenotaffected ifthegroundwaterlevelis 1 mbelowsoilsurface. Crops with the deepest rooting system are best adapted to climates with irregular rainfallintheabsenceofirrigation,i.e.sorghumandsugar-cane.
430
number of weedings
p
s
y
'
/ /
x sugarbeet-like wheat-like
\\/
X
'
/
/ / /
/ / / / /
/
0lx-
dry matter production
1
5000
1
10000
15000 k g / h a - 1
"
Figure 83. The relation between total dry-matter production and number of weedings for two crop types.
Exercise92 As a result of a reduced seed/straw ratio, straw contains relatively more nitrogen, so theratiobetween seedyield and nitrogen uptake will decrease. From Equation 78it follows that the grain to nitrogen uptake ratio decreases with a reduction in the grain/strawratio. The average reduction in gross assimilation rateis determined by the average soilmoisture content (Table 80). The maximum yield isdetermined by the balancebetweengrossassimilation rateandmaintenance respiration rate(Equation 6)during seed filling. When, for example, themaximum yield underwater stressis half that atoptimum moisturesupply, withidentical vegetativegrowth, thestraw/seed ratio isdoubled. Theratiobetweenyield andnitrogenuptakeresults from 1/(N concentration in seed + straw/seed N concentration in straw). Taking wheat asexample, the ratio betweenyield andnitrogen uptake will be 1/(0.01 + 1.25x0.004) = 67 at optimal water supply, and 1/(0.01 4- 2.5x0.004) = 50at suboptimal water supply. Exercise93 Tm = 2.5mmd- , ;SM 0 = 0.439cm3cm"3;y = 0.0312 SM100 = 0.439xe-O03,2x(In,0O>2 = 0.2265cm3cm"3 SM16000= 0.439xe- 03,2x(Inl6000)2 = 0.0236cm3cm"3 Criticalsoil-moisturecontent:
431
SMcr = (1 - p) (SM100 - SMI6000) + SM1600o Withp = 0.80: SMcr = 0.2x(0.2265 - 0.0236) + 0.0236 = 0.064cm3cm"3 In 10dayperiod35,soil-moisturecontentwas0.12cm3cm"3. Amount of water,availableforunrestrictedcropgrowth: Wa = RD (SM*-SMcr) = 75 X (0.12-0.064) = 4.2cm Thenumber of dayswithunrestricted assimilation rateatamaximum transpiration rateTmof2.5mmd"1,i.e.0.25cmd"1: Wa/Tm = 4.2/0.25 = 17days Exercise94 In 10dayperiod36,SM t = 0.09cm3cm' 3 . ThisislowerthanSMIOo,buthigherthanSMcr.Grossassimilation isequaltothatof irrigatedgroundnut. In 10dayperiod 2, SM t = 0.04 cm3cm"3.Thisisbelow SMcrandaboveSM1600o,so thereductioningrossassimilationrateiscalculatedwith (SMt-SM1600o)/(SMcr-SM16000) = (0.04-0.0236)/(0.064 -0.0236) = 0.4 Gross assimilation in the absence of irrigation is 0.4 times gross assimilation in irrigatedplots. In 10dayperiod4, SM* = 0.035cm3cm"3.ThisisbelowSMcrandaboveSM160oo,so thereductioningrossassimilationrateiscalculatedas (0.035-0.0236)/(0.064 -0.0236) = 0.282 Exercise95 Amountof wateravailableforunrestrictedcropgrowth: Wa = RD (SM*SMcr) Criticalsoilmoisturecontent: SMcr = (1-p) (SM.oo-SM160oo) + SMI600o SMI00 = 0.2265cm3cm"3 SMI60oo = 0.0236cm3cm"3 Maximumtranspirationrate: Tm = 0.25cmd"1 NumberofdayswithunrestrictedassimilationisWa/T, 432
m*
Crop Sorghum Wheat Onion
RD (cm) 150 125 40
P 0.885 0.85 0.50
SMcr (cm3cm -3 ) 0.047 0.054 0.126
wa
(cm) 10.95 8.25 0.0
Numberofdays withunrestricted assimilation 44 33 0
Sorghumwillshowthebestperformance. Exercise96 Theactivitiesrequiredtoupgrade: fromReclamationLevelItoII
clearance A, road construction A, erosion control or bund construction (only forricecultivation),floodcontrol. fromReclamationLevelIItoIII clearance B, road construction B, drainagefacilities, levelling/terracing. fromReclamationLevelIIItoIV irrigationfacilities.
Upgrading from Reclamationlevel I toII earthmovement (n^ha-1) manuallabour (hha"1) 3.3 300 64 235 309 mechanicallabour (hha"1) 0.07 7 1.4 5.0 6.6
RoadconstructionA ClearanceA Erosioncontrol50or Bundconstruction^ Numberof bunds:22 Numberof bunds:29
10 192 704 928
Floodprotection
notrequiredintheuplands
Totallabourrequirement(hha"l) witherosioncontrol withbunds,22bundsha"l withbunds,29bundsha""1

a
367 538 612
8.5 12.1 13.7
Numberofridgesha -1 = 6 heightofridges = 0.8m earthmovement = 0.5 x 0.8 x 0.8 x 100 x 6 = 192m Numberofbunds earthmovement
= H/hr (1.5or2) = (slope a)/0.8 x (1.5or2) = 11.5/0.8 x (1.5or2) = 22or29. = 0.5 x 0.8 x 0.8 x 100 x (22 or 29) = 704 or 928m ha - i
433
UpgradingfromReclamationlevelIItoIII earthmovement manuallabour (n^ha-1) (hha"1) RoadconstructionB ClearanceB Drainagefacilitiesc) 30 800 10 600 533 1394 2537 mechanicallabour (hha"1) 0.2 20 14.5(excavator) 30.8(dragline) 17.1 51.8or68.1
Levelling/terracingd) 2049 Totallabourrequirement (hha"*)

c
Numberofterraces = 7 ditchlengthfordrainage = (100 + 100/7) x 7 = 800mha"1 earthmovement = 800m3ha"1 Numberofterraces = 7 p = H/(2 XNt) = 11.5/(2 x 7) = 0.82m q = a/(2 x Nt) = 100/14 = 7.14m earthmovement = 0.5 x p x q x w x Nt = 0.5 x 0.82 x 7.14 x 100 x 7 2049m3ha"' averagemovingdistance = 2/3 x a/N, = 2/3 x 100/7 = 9.5 m AccordingtoTable86,productivityequalsapproximately(sandysoil) 1.47m3h"'(manualtotal); 120m 3 h- 1(bulldozer).
UpgradingfromReclamationlevelIIIto IV earthmovement manuallabour (n^ha"1) (hha"1) Irrigationfacilities 800 533 533 mechanicallabour (hha"1) 14.5(excavator) 30.8(dragline) 14.5or30.8
Totallabourrequirement(hha"1)
11. LISTOFSYMBOLS
Symbol
a af aA au
Description
Texture-specific empirical constant Field length Empirical constant in Angstrom formula Empirical constant in equation for hu Transmission zone conductivity Rate of application of nutrient x Amount of assimilation products available for increase in dry weight
Units
cm 2 4 d
l
Equation Acronym No.
31 8 13 34 79
m unitless Jm^d" 1
oC-l
A Ax ASAG
cmd"1 kgha"1
b bA bt bu BD Cm Cs
Widthof baseof ridge Empirical constant in Angstrom formula Constant inequation for crop development rate Empirical constant in equation forhu Bulk densityof soil material Carboncontent of thesoil Canopyconductance for water vapour Cation exchange capacity Rateof capillary rise Concentration of C0 2 inthe external air Concentration of C0 2 inthe substomatal cavity Surface roughness
kgCH 2 0 ha^d-1 m
unitless
-1 o#--l
8 94
sm f gem"3
^M) jWy
13 89 93 23 24
65 65 41 435
Jnr2d-'
o C -i
C.E.C. CR (C02)ext (C02)int d
me(100 g)"' cmd '

kgm - 3 kgm cm
3
Symbol dMr
Description
Units
Equation Acronym No. 72 DMR 28 116 115 DS 117 115 72 24 59
Amountof moistureaddedto soilplant-system byroot growth Difference intotal hydraulic dHn headbetweentwopoints Fractionof diseaseinlower d, half of thecanopy Maximumrelativedeathrate ds of leavesduetosenescence Fractionof diseaseinupper du half of thecanopy Maximumrelativedeathrate dw of leavesduetowaterstress Rateof changeof soil dWr moistureinrootzone Rateof naturaldrainage D Artificial drainagerate Dmax Fertilizernitrogen DN requirement Thicknessof non-rootedpart Dnr of thepotential rootingzone Rootingdepth Dr Potential rootingdepth Nutrient requirement for DA nutrientx DD Draindepth DS Rateof declineinsurface storage DVS Development stage DWLV Deathrateof leafblades DWLVC Deathrateof leavesof crop DWLVW Deathrateof leavesof weed Actualvapourpressureofthe e, airatstandardscreenheight Saturatedvapourpressureat airtemperature Saturatedvapourpressure e Saturatedvapourpressureat ew wetbulbtemperature Evaporation ratefromwater surface 436
mmd"1 cm unitless d"1 unitless d"1 mmd"1 cmd"1 cmd"1 kgha mm mm mm kgha""1 cm cmd"1 unitless kgha-'d- 1 kgha-'d-' kgha-'d" 1
-i
73 75 72 80 61 25 77
.
DWLV DWLVC DWLVW
mbar mbar mbar mbar kgH 2 0 m^d" 1 22 15 84

11
Symbol
Description
Units cmd -1 unitless unitless kgkg -1 unitless kgkg"1 cmd -1 unitless cmd -1 mScm"1 cmd"1 unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless cmd"1
i ^-i kgha -* d
Ef Eg
'in
'm
E0 ECC ET 0
f. f,
fr fs
F Fcl
Actualevaporationratefrom soilsurface Fieldapplication efficiency factor Fieldcanalefficiency factor Conversionefficiency of carbohydrateintodrymatter Conveyanceefficiency factor Initialslopeofyield-uptake curve Maximumsoilevaporation rate Overallefficiency factorof irrigationapplication Potentialevaporationrate Electricalconductivityof saturatedsoilpaste Potential evapotranspiration rate Fractionofdry-weight incrementallocatedtograin Fractionlightinterceptedby canopy Fractionofdry-weight incrementallocatedtoleaf blades Fractionofdaywithovercast sky Fractionofdry-weight incrementallocatedtoroots Fractionofdry-weight incrementallocatedtostems Flowrateofwater Potentialgrossassimilation rateofaclosedcanopyon cleardaysexpressedinC0 2 Ratiobetweenrelativedeath rateofdiseasedandhealthy leaves Maximumgrossassimilation rateofasingleleafexpressed inC0 2
Equation No. 25 36 36 6 36 78 37 35 37
Acronym
49 FG 5 RA FL 4 FR FS 32
unitless
112
l u-i kg ha -'h
437
Symbol
gc
Description Potentialgrossassimilation rateofclosedcanopy expressedin C0 2 Totalseasonalgross assimilationof canopy expressedin C0 2 Potential grossassimilation rateof aclosed canopy expressedinCH 2 0 Maximumnetassimilation rateof asingleleaf expressed inC0 2 Totalseasonalgross assimilationof canopy expressedinCH 2 0 Flowrateofwaterinsoil Potentialgrossassimilation rateof aclosedcanopyon overcastdaysexpressedin
Units
.i-i kgha""1id
get
kgha
-l
gs
^-i kgha - l d
GRA
-Ih u-l kgha"
gst
n
ov
kgha l cmd"1
28
co2
g
on
- i d A-\ kgha"
G,
'w
Ge GASS
Proportionality factor for diseaseseverity Dryweightof grain Gravityhead Growthrateof crop Totalgrowthrateof crop plusweeds Growthrateof weeds 'Gattung',i.e. manure coefficient Grainequivalentsof manure
etc.
unitless 115 -1 kgha 78 cm 29 kgha"'d"' 100 kgha"'d"' 100 kgha"'d _l 100 unitless kgha - i kgha" ! d m md - i md m
! l
FDS
GC
GW
99
JS
MC
'IW
hr
Actualgrosscanopy assimilation rateexpressedin CH 2 0 Heightofbund Rateof increaseinheight of crop Rateof increaseinheight of weeds Heightof ridge
438
Symbol
'u
Description
Units
Equation No.
Acronym
Sensibleheattransfer coefficient Sensibleheatloss Measuredtotalglobal radiation Heightofcrop Totalglobalradiationona clearday Halftheheightofthecrop Halftheheightoftheweeds Totalhydraulichead Hydraulicheadatlowerroot zoneboundary Heightofweeds Concentrationofwater vapourinsidethestomatal cavity Concentrationofwater vapourintheatmosphere Radiationintensitybelowleaf areaindexLt Effective irrigationrate Rateofirrigationwater releaseatprojectheadworks Radiationintensityabovethe canopy Increaseinrichness Netrateofinfluxofmoisture intorootzone Maximuminfiltrationrate Rateofincreaseindry-weight ofgrain Rateofincreaseindry-weight ofleafblades Rateofincreaseinrootdryweight Rateofincreaseindry-weight ofstems Extinctioncoefficient for visiblelight
Jnr2d-'
oC-l
H H, H H
z
Jm- d-' Jm-'d-' m Jm-'d" 1 m m cm cm m kgm - 3 kgm - 3 Jm- 2 d-' cmd"1 cmd - i Jm^d" 1 kgha"1 cmd"1 cmd"1 kgha"1d"1 kgha"1d"1 kglur'd""1 kgha^d - 1 unitless
12 11 4 103 4 104 103 29 103 66 66 102 25 35 102 97

24 34
HW HC
H he H hw Hn H RD
L
(H 2 0) i m
(H 2 0) ext I I.
h
I. I, IM IM IWGR IWLV IWRT IWST
439
Symbol
k0
Description Saturatedhydraulic conductivity Hydraulicconductivityin rootzone Vapourtransfer coefficient Hydraulicconductivityat matrichead^ Intermediatevariableusedin populationgrowth Latentheatofvaporization ofwater Leafareaindexofcrop Drainspacing Distancebetweentwopoints Leafareaindexofweeds LeafareaindexaboveHhc LeafareaindexaboveHhw Leafareaindexofvegetation Distanceof flow
Hydraulic head midway between drains attime t Maintenance respiration rate expressed in C H 2 0 Actual duration of bright sunshine Duration of bright sunshine on cloudless day Number of days from emergence to anthesis Number of days from anthesis to maturity Number of bunds per ha Length of phenological period Number of days from heading to maturity Number of ridges per hectare Number of seedlings per hectare Number of terraces per hectare
Units cmd"1 cmd"1 kgm~2d~ i mbar"1 cmd"1 unitless Jkg"1 mm cm cm m2m - 2 m2m 2 m2m - 2 m 2 m -2 cm
cm kgha"- id^ - i
Equation No. 28 68 14 30
Acronym
K K
K^
K L Lc Ld L
Lw
no
11 100 58 28 100 104 103 5 28 59 LC
L(Hhc) L(Hhw) LAI LL

m, MRES n N N ac N am Nb Nd N hm
LW LHHC LHHW LT
8 h d d ha"1 d d ha"1 ha"1 ha"1 101 94 8
Ns
440
Symbol NA N(P_Y)
Description
Units
Om
P P gc
m n
Po PGASS
PROPD q
Qd
r rd RA
Actualnitrogen concentrationinplanttissue unitless Minimumnitrogen concentrationincrop residues unitless Minimumnitrogen concentrationinmarketable product unitless Organic-mattercontentof the soil gg Soil-waterdepletionfraction forcropgroupsatmaximum transpirationrate unitless Actualprecipitationrate cmd"1 Actualassimilationrateof canopyexpressedinC0 2 kgha"1d"1 Maximumpopulationlevel unitless Netassimilationrateof leaves,expressedinC0 2 kgm - 2 - l Populationlevelattimet unitless Initialpopulationlevel unitless Potentialgrosscanopy assimilationrateexpressedin CH20 kgha"1d"1 Diseaseseverity unitless Excavationwidth m Relativedeathrateofleaves ofdisease-infected cropdue -i toageing Relativedeathrateofdisease -i infectedleaves Overallrelativedeathrateof leaves a-' kg ha Quantityattimet kg ha - i Quantityattimet + At d"' Relativegrowthrate unitless Albedoof asurface cm Drainradius Theoreticalamountof radiationreceivedinthe absenceof anatmosphere (Angot'svalue) Jm"2-d2 ^ - 1
92
52 25
107
107 107
112 112 112 7 7
101 10 59
8 441
Symbol RB R, ^co2
Description Netoutgoinglongwave radiation ResistancetoC0 2 diffusion Reductionfactorfordry matteraccumulation Darkrespirationrateof a singleleafexpressedinC0 2 Resistancetowatervapour diffusion Totalglobalradiation Relativemaintenance respirationrate 'Reichtum',i.e.richnessor fertilityin yearn Netincomingradiation Rateofchangeofquantity Q duringintervalAt Extensionrateof the roots Rateofdevelopment Recoveryfractionofelement X Rootingdepth Relativedeathrateofleaves duetowatershortage Rateofchangeinmoisture content of the root zone Dry weight ofstraw Actual sorptivity Matric head in root zone Standard sorptivity Specific densityofsoil material Specific leaf area Moisture content ofair-dry soil Critical soil-moisture content Soil moisture content at field capacity Soil moisture content in root zone
Units Jm^d" 1 sm - 1 unitless

l u-i kgha -i h
Equation Acronym No. 9 65 116
RH 2 0 R. Rn RN
RQ
sm"1 Jm- 2 d" 1 kgkg^d"1 kgha"1 Jm^d" 1
67 8 6 95 10
Rr
Rv
Rx
kgha^d" 1 7 mmd"1 73 1 d" 94 kgkg cm

-i -i
RD RDR RSM s S
79 24 78 24 33 67 33 90 70 52 70 67 SMR RDR
sr
So SD SLA SM a SMcr SM fc SM r
cm 3 cm 3 d"1 kg ha" 1 and" 0 - 5 cm and" 0 - 5 gem" 3 m 2 kg _ 1 cm 3 cm" 3 cm 3 cm" 3 cm 3 cm" 3 cm 3 cm" 3
SMCR
442
Symbol SMW SM # SM,, SM 0 SM 10 SM l6000 SR SS max
Description Soil moisture content at permanent wilting point Soil moisture content at matric head yp Soil moisture content at timet Total pore space Soil moisture content at matric head\[/ = 10cm Soil moisture content at matric head of 16000 cm Rate of surface runoff Surface storage capacity Actual surface storage at timet Time Actual transpiration rate of crop Mean daily airtemperature at standard screen height Tatigkeit', i.e. activity Dewpointof the air Absolute air temperature Maximum transpiration rate of the crop Threshold temperature for crop development Temperature of evaporating surface Wet bulb temperature Potential transpiration rate of the crop Total above-ground dry weight Transpiration-assimilation ratio
Units
Equation Acronym No. 71 27 57 27 54 52 25 40 25 24 12 95 18 9 48
cm3 cm" 3 cm3 cm" 3 cm3 cm" 3 cm3 cm" 3 cm 3 cm" 3 cm3 cm" 3
cmd"1 cm cm
ss t
t T T
*a
a
cmd"' C unitless C K cmd"1 C C C cmd - 1 kgha - 1 kgkg"1 (C0 2 fixed) kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 12 84 49
Tc Td Tk T
*m
T
*o
T
*s
Tw To TADW TAR
TDW TDWC TDWD TDWL TDWW
Totaldryweightof crop Totaldryweightofcrop Totaldryweightof deadcrop material Total dryweightof livecrop material Totaldryweightof weeds
443
Symbol TRC
Description Transpiration coefficient
Units
KgKg
Equation No.
Acronym
TU u uo,x uo,n um,n um,x UH VcoH20
v,
Vs
vt
w W W0
w, wnr
wr
wt ww
WGOC WGOW WGR
444
Temperature sum meanwind speed Uptakeof nutrientx from non-fertilized plot Uptake of nitrogen from nonfertilized plot Uptakeof nitrogen from fertilized plot Uptake of nutrient x from fertilized plot wind speed measured at height H Rateof C 0 2 diffusion into plant Rateof diffusion of water vapour into the atmosphere Volumeof soilair Volume of soil-moisture Volume of solid soil materials Soil sample volume Field width Total dry-weight of living partof crop Average weight of seedling Quantity of ultimately available water Total amount of moisture in non rooted part of the potential rooting zone Total amount of moisture in theroot zone Weight of drysoil sample Absolute humidity of theair Dryweight of otherorgans of crop Dryweight of other organs of weeds Dryweight of grain
(dry matter) dC ms"

1 1
13
kgha"
79
kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha" ms - i

1
79 85 65 66 87 87 87 87
kgm - 2 - l
kgm" 2 s cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 m kgha" 1 kg cm
6 101 51
mm mm
72
WNR
kgm - 3 kgha
-i
74 89 82
kgha l kgha" 1
Symbol WLV WLVC WLVW WR WRT WST Y, ' Y0 Yc Yd Ye Ym Yn Y, Y, YAX
Description Dryweight of leaf blades Dryweight of leaf blades of crop Dryweight of leaf blades of weed Total amount of moisture in theroot zone Dryweight of root system Dryweight of stems Weight of infected leaves Yieldinyear0, orattime 0 Yield of control plot in fertilizer experiment Death rateof infected leaves Yieldat equilibrium Weight of living leaves Yield inyearn Yield attimet Weight of diseased leaves Yield of plot fertilized with A kgof nutrient x Roughness length of the surface Groundwater depth attimet Texture-specific empirical constant Texture-specific geometry factor Psychrometer constant Slope of the saturation vapour pressurecurve betweentheaverageair temperature and dewpoint Duration of time interval Rateof increase in dry-weight of the canopy Changeinamount of moisture intheroot zone Rateof changein groundwater depth
Units kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 mm kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha-'d" 1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha"1 kgha cm cm cm - i
2 cm -mba^C" 1
-i
Equation No.
Acronym
111 101
111
YD
111 95 101 111
85 46
30
7 A
27 16
At AW AW, Az
mba^C" 1 d kgha - Id mmd - i cmd - i

A-\
18 7
DMI 74 57
445
Symbol e (f> \p ^CT \^max o a
Description Initial light-use efficiency of assimilation of single leaves Slope angleofthe land Soil suction or matric head Critical matric head Texture-specific suctionlimit Clodorfurrowangle StefanBoltzmanconstant
Units Units kgC0 2J" degree cm cm cm degree Jm- 2 d-' K-4
Equation Acronym Equation No.

1
41 14 27 31 40 9
446
12. INDEX
albedo 69 Angot's value 64, 65 Angstrom formula 64 base saturation 231 basic food requirements 264 Bowen's ratio 71 Brunt formula 67 bulk density 214, 216, 218 capillary rise 78, 97, 98-104, 351 cation exchange capacity C3, C4 photosynthetic pathway 14-17, 235-236 clearance 320, 322 clod/furrow angle 92, 348, 357 C/N ratio 173, 226 C0 2 assimilation canopy actual 47 canopy potential 19, 20, 43 initial light-use efficiency (leaf) 16 maximum rate (leaf) 16, 235 reduction due to waterstress 109, 119, 134-136, 310 C0 2 compensation point 236 C0 2 concentration external 118 internal 17, 118, 243 conversion efficiency 23, 204, 237, 349 crop activity labour requirements 253-258 technology level 254 crop activity calendar 259, 261, 262 crop mix 274 cropping pattern crops cassava 37, 169, 170, 171,312 C3-C4 species 16, 235 flax 28, 292 legumes maize 17, 28, 29, 34, 119-121, 126, 166, 167, 168, 172, 312 peas 28, 29, 292
permanent pasture 175 rice 27, 29, 58, 157, 161, 163, 164, 172, 312 sorghum 17, 29, 172, 312 wheat 29, 59, 130, 175, 176, 312 crops species selection 259 crop start requirements 253, 259 data requirements at first production situation 204 at second production situation 205 at third production situation 206 denitrification 173, 174, 176, 190, 513 development rate 29, 31, 35, 40, 237, 239 development stage 29, 46 diffusion of C0 2 into plant 76, 118 diffusion of water vapour into atmosphere 118 distribution of dry matter 27, 33, 35, 37-39, 48, 143, 240-242 drain depth 115, 205 radius 113, 114, 205 spacing 113, 114, 205 drainage artificial 112, 113, 359 natural.112 dry-matter distribution 27, 33, 35, 37-39, 48, 143, 240-242 dry-matter production 24-26, 44-45,
120, 133-136, 204,237
equilibrium yield 266-271 evaporation rate actual from soil surface 89, 91, 129, 139 maximum from soil surface 90, 91, 139 potential from soil surface 89, 351 from water surface 95, 358
447
evapotranspiration rate 74, 75, 106,211, 259, 273, 274, 351 experimental data from Argentine 169, 170, 171 Brazil 166 Burma 273 France 168 F.R.G. 175, 266 India 161, 163, 164 Indonesia 39, 161, 169, 170, 171 Israel 21, 125, 131, 151 Madagascar 38, 171 Malaysia 169, 170, 171 Mali 163, 167, 176 Netherlands 25, 175, 176 Nigeria 163, 166, 167, 172, 175 Peru 161 Philippines 20, 156, 157, 161 Puerto Rico 169 Senegal 164 Suriname 58, 241 Thailand 161, 167, 169, 172, 186, 191, 259 U.S.A. 4, 119, 120, 128, 161, 166, 167, 168, 172, 175 extinction of radiation in canopy 167, 168, 349 extractant of amount available phosphorus 226, 228 available potassium 226 fertilizer application rate - uptake relation 157, 161, 163, 164, 166, 180, 313 field capacity 107, 130, 253, 314 field work 7, 251, 255-258, 275, 276 flow rate in soil 82 geographical classification 319 . global radiation 15, 22, 64, 204,-208 grain-straw ratio 158, 160-162, 165, 186, 189, 190, 312 gravity head 82, 96 groundwater depth 96, 104, 112-114, 223 groundwater-table fluctuations 223, 359 growth rate 24, 26, 47, 142 growth respiration 23, 24, 47, 142, 237 448
harvest index 158, 162 heat loss sensible 69, 70 evaporative 69, 74 high yielding rice varieties 43, 184, 189, 190, 194 hydraulic conductivity actual 83, 84, 85, 97, 105, 137 saturated 82, 83, 84, 113, 114,205, 314, 348 hydraulic head 82, 85, 96, 105, 114, 115 immobilization by soil microbes 160, 187 infiltration rate actual 78, 85, 358 maximum 85, 87, 94, 95, 115, 358 interaction between nutrients 180, 181 ion adsorption in soil 214, 216, 229-231 iron mottling 222, 223 irrigation efficiency factor conveyance 88, 89, 205 distribution 89 field application 88, 89, 205 field canal 88, 89, 205 overall 88 irrigation rate effective 78, 88, 94, 95 at project headworks 88, 89, 205 land quality level 6, 7, 8, 203 leaching of nitrate 173, 174, 185, 187, 190 leaf area index 17, 18, 21, 45, 49, 90, 136, 138 life span of leaves 349 light interception by crop 18, 21, 46, 90, 138, 204 low input farming 9, 263-276 maintenance respiration 23, 24, 44, 135, 204, 236 material inputs 7 matric head 96 mineralization of soil organic matter 173, 184, 226 minor elements 229
models crop disease 293-300 potential crop production 41-57 water-limited crop production 130-151 weed crop competition 277-292 nitrification 176, 177 nitrogen application 155-157, 161, 166, 169, 172, 175, 176, 184, 206 available 159, 173, 174, 226 content of N fertilizers 195 deficiency 198 minimum concentration in crop 157, 162, 181, 184, 206, 245, 349 uptake 157, 160, 161, 165, 166, 169, 172, 181 uptake at zero fertilizer application 159, 173-176, 181, 184 nutrients available 184, 185, 267 deficiency 182 requirement 193, 194, 206, 245 organic matter in soil 173, 178, 184, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 313 particle-size distribution 80, 214, 216, 220 partitioning of assimilates 32, 33, 37-39, 48, 143, 241-242 Penman equation 74, 106, 123, 132,211 percolation rate 104, 105 permanent cropping 272 pests and diseases control 10, 303, 305 dynamics of population growth 293-300 effect of weather 302 interaction with water supply 302 interaction with nutrient status 300 monocyclic 293 polycyclic 293 pH 159, 177, 178, 184, 214, 216, 226, 227, 231, 232 phenology 27-40, 46, 138, 204, 237-239
phosphorus application 163, 167, 170, 172 available 214, 216, 226, 227, 228 content of P fertilizers 195 deficiency 199, 227, 232 immobilization in soil 199, 232 minimum concentration in crop 162, 165, 181, 197, 245, 349 uptake 163, 167, 170, 172, 197, 228 uptake at zero fertilizer application 178 photosynthesis 13-19, 118, 235, 236 physical inputs bund construction 320, 322, 323 clearance 320, 322, 323 erosion control 322, 323 leveling/terracing 322, 323 road construction 320 water management 320, 322 placement of urea fertilizer 161, 177, 190 P/N ratio 181, 190, 197, 229 potassium application 164, 168, 171 available 214, 216, 226 deficiency 232 fixation 179, 180, 229 minimum concentration in crop 165, 245 uptake 164, 168, 171 uptake at zero fertilizer application 179 precipitation rate 78, 87, 94, 95, 210, 273, 274 production situation first 8, 184, 204, 305, 343 second 9, 182, 184, 193, 197, 198, 205, 305, 343 third 9, 182, 193, 206, 305, 343 fourth 9, 263, 305, 343, 347 psychrometer constant 71,210 radiation incoming shortwave 15, 17, 204, 208 net incoming 69 net outgoing longwave 67 rainfall 87, 129, 210, 259, 272, 273, 314, 351 449
rainfall pattern 129,311 reclamation earth movement 320-325 labour requirement 320-325 physical inputs 318-325 reclamation level 8, 309-311 agricultural use effects 271, 272 infrastructure 8 need for fertilizer 187 water control 8 recovery fraction of N fertilizer 159, 160, 161, 166, 169, 172, 175, 176, 177, 187, 188, 193, 313 P fertilizer 163, 167, 170, 172, 178, 196, 198 K fertilizer 164, 168, 171, 179 relative death rate of leaves due to ageing 54, 296, 349 due to water stress 147, 349 relative maintenance respiration 23, 25, 47, 204, 349 respiration 13, 21, 23, 47 respiration rate in dark 16 rice brown 243 white 243 rooting depth 77, 105, 107, 133-135, 140, 205, 224, 312, 348 saturation vapour pressure 71, 72, 73, 118, 209 shifting cultivation 269-272 shoot/root balance 142 slope angle 92, 93, 205, 348, 357 soil air content 107, 310, 315 chemical data 182, 196, 214, 216, 224-234 fertility decline 266, 270 fertility recovery 268, 270 homogeneization 222 moisture content actual 109, 110, 112, . 134, 316, 317, 358 moisture content air dry 90, 91 moisture content at field capacity 107, 130, 214, 216, 222, 310, 314, 358 450
moisture content at permanent wilting point 107, 130, 214, 216, 222, 310, 357 moisture content critical 107, 108, 109, 310 moisture quantity in non-rooted zone 135, 141 moisture quantity in root zone 134, 142 morphological indicators 222 physical data 79, 81, 83, 84, 86, 98-104, 205, 212-224, 314 profile description 212-216 suction 76, 78, 79-81, 83, 84, 97, 98-104, 132, 134, 205 water balance 76-116, 133-137 water depletion factor 108, 205, 351 workability 9, 252-253, 311 soils gravelly and stony 221, 233 saline 231-232 swelling 220 with high content of sesquioxides 220 sorptivity actual 85, 86 standard 86, 205, 349 specific density 218, 219 specific leaf area 46, 137, 204, 246, 349 split application of fertilizer 161, 177, 190-191 stomata 17, 74, 76, 108, 117-118, 121-122, 243-244 stomatal regulation 121-122, 243-244 subsistence farming 9, 263-264, 273-274 sunshine duration actual 43, 64, 208 maximum 64, 66 surface roughness 92, 205, 348 surface runoff 93, 94-96, 358 surface storage actual 93, 94-96, 115, 116 maximum 91, 92, 94-96 technology levels 8, 253, 322-324 temperature at dewpoint of air 72, 209 at water surface 69, 70
of air 28, 32, 36, 43, 131,204, 209, 351 temperature sum 28, 31, 35, 44, 133, 204, 238 texture class 80,345 texture-specific suction limit 84,205, 348 threshold temperature 29, 238 total pore space 78, 81,86, 130,205, 218, 314,348 toxicities 231-232 acidity 232 alkalinity 232 aluminum 232 ferrous iron 232-233 manganese 232-233 salinity 232 traditional rice varieties 161, 186, 190, 199 transmission zone 85 transmission-zone permeability 86, 87, 205, 348, 358 transpiration assimilation ratio 119, 122 transpiration coefficient 119, 129, 152 transpiration rate actual 76, 109-110 maximum 106-107, 134,358 potential 75, 106, 118, 123, 134,211, 358
vapour pressure at saturation 70-71, 210 of air 70, 72, 209 volatilization of ammoniacal nitrogen 173, 176-177, 187 water control 8, 174,309 weed-free period 287, 292 weeds competition 175,277 control 175 growth rate 279 wetting front 85 yield-increasing materials 7-8 yield-nitrogen uptake relation cassava 169 maize 166, 172, 175 rice 157, 161, 172, 175 yield-phosphorus uptake relation cassava 170 maize 167 rice 164 yield-potassium uptake relation cassava 171 maize 168 rice 164 yield-protecting materials 7-8 yield-uptake relation initial slope 160-170 plateau level 159, 170-173
451
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462
Appendix A. Listing of the model
Pro Iortran Compiler -Version 22 1.2 Compilation of: b.-NWNDOM.hUK Options:

1
L
UlMtNblUNM(1L0;lL(4iJ)lU(4ti) UPLNCj.'LLlMtHN.UMD UPLN(4,'bUlLUWm.Um'J U'LN Cb,'KUlbMW.Um' J UPbN(/.'bUlLDMlM.KUM', RLLCOb0) UPLN (b.'KUlbMW.KUM', kLCL=4ti) UPLN(10,'LLIMLMN.KUM', kbLL*4&) W 101=1,1b0 KLMU(4l1000#tNU*21)M WKllb(/,1000,kbL-l)N UU301=1,1b0 KLRD(U,1000,LNU=31)L Ufl<llL(3,1000,kbL=l)C UU401=1,1b0 KbMU(3,1000,LNU=41)U WWllb(10.1000,kbL=l)U LUNI1NUL PUKMWT(1b0U1) blUP LNU
2 3 4 b b
7 b
y 10 11 12 13 14 lb 1U 1/ 1U 13 20
10 21 30 31 40 41 1000
^foFortranCompiler -Version 221.2 Compilation of:b:kUNUOMP.I-OK Options: C

UlMbNblUNUC100) UPbN(b,'PLMNIUWT.UUI'; UPbN (bVPLMNIUWl .kUM',.kbLL-100) UU201-1,900 KbUUCb,1000,LNU=21)b WHHL(tJ, 1000, NEC ^l)b HJKMUTU20M1) STUP LNU
1 2 3 4 b U 20 / 1000 b 21 3
Hro
Fortran Compiler -Version 221.2
Compilation of:U:WUrUUTN.UK Options: 1 C ^ C 3C

4 b
L MU1NPKUUKUMLLN1KLbUKWUKLU \ UUDblUUlLb MiCkUVLKblUNCP/M PKUbPbkUrUKIRUNUU INCCUUb 'WUJObl.CMN' UWIM UCUCKUPUWlHUMbb 1MPCIC11 KbULCR-H,J-Z),lNlbbbNCl) CUMHON /PCWNl/CVC,CVO,CVK,CVb,LXC CUMMON /PLUNl/PbkDL,PLKKl,PLKbl,U10,RU COMMON /PLUNl/kML,KMO,kMK,KMb,KK
^ C
/ ti b
463
10 11 12 1 ' J 14 1b 1U
COMMON / PLUNI / SLU1 U (30 ) , SHU, SbM LOMMON / PLUNT / T DUbL, IDUJ, LKOHT, DVRL1 , LJLO, DLL, DVRC2, UbL LOMMON /PLUM/rLlb(30),rRim30),rOTB(30),lblB(O0),bUJUPIU(30)
LOMMON /PLUNI/UVRtIB(30),1SPUN,nperso,npervc,pper so,pperve LOMMON /PLUNI/RlRDUL,uptb(30) LOMMON LOMMON LOMMON COMMON COMMON LOMMON / bO IL / LLI, CLOUUN,W, URU, DbP /bOIL/UbF,PLLh,K0,MHMUX,RDM,b0 /bOlL/bUL,bM0,bOPb,bURRO,ZlMI,ZIMU /bOlL/lSLI, lbL2, IbU ,ZI,lbXlLL /b01L/bM,bM>L,bMPLF,bMW,bM10,bbMUX,RlJ1LM(0,10) /b01L/URUlNb,nbase,pbas?,nrec,prec
ib iy 20 21 22 23 24 2b 20 2/ 20 2y 30 31
'J2 'J3 34 3b 36 37
r/
LOMMON /LLMWlEMPIlJ(30),kUlNIB(12),Ll0lB(30),b0lB(30),Pbb4lU(30) LOMMON /LLMI/PGb3IB(30),IBiRN(30),ILL4(30),ILL3I(30),ILL3M(30) LOMMON /LLMI/btOP,raind(12) common /div/manf1,manf2,twlv,twst,twso,tvbasl,stbasl, sobasl, 1 lvbas2, stbas2,sobas2,nmax,pmax,gdur,Ivopt ,stopt,soopt,neo,new, 2 wusew,wuseotsr L00ILMLM1 LRPNUM,LLMNUM LOMMON /NWMtb/CRPNUM(30),LLMNUM(30) dimension conv(40),hvl(40),idisr(40),tab1(30),tab2(30),ihp(40) dimension output(10),climt(b),soilty(b),surrot(b),salt(b) dimension ztmit(b),ztmat(b),tustxt(b,b) data climt/1.,2.,3.,b.,0/ data soitty/b.,6.,3. # 10.,11./ data surrot/2.,2.,2.,2.,2./ data salt/1.5,1.b,1.b,1.S,1.b/ data ztmit/bx0./ data ztmat/b00.,400.,300.,200.,100./ data lustxt/.3S,.b2,0.,0.,0.,.b,.0b,.7,0.,0.,.2b..43,.2,.bb,0. 1 0.,0.,0.,.1,.2b,.0,.0,.1,.2b,.7G/ data conv/1.1b,bxl.4,2x.2ti,.7b,1.,1 1b,.4,.70,1.12,.70,4.bb, 1 1.14,.44,1.14,3.13,7.14,.b3,4.3b,1bxl./ data h v t / 7 x . 0 7 , 2 x 0 . , . 2 , . 0 , . 0 7 , . 1 , . 1 , 3 x . 0 b , . 1 , . 2 , . 0 7 , 4 x . 1 , 1 U X 0 . / data i d i s r / 1 4 x i l 2 , 2 , 4 x l , 2 # 2 l i , 2 , i u x l / data t a b 1 / . 3 , . 1 b , . 7 , . 4 , 2 0 x 0 . / data t a b 2 / . 3 , . 3 , . / , , 4 b , 2 b x 0 . / data i h p / 7 x j , 2 x 2 , 3 , 2 , 3 x 3 , 1 , 3 , 2 , 7 x 3 , 1 U x 3 /
30 30 40 41 42 43 44 4b 4U 4/ 46 43 b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 bb bb b/ bO bb
L L
OPbN OPEN OPEN OPEN OPtN open L 1 1002 (3,'WOhObMN') (7,'bOILUUlU.RUM' (0,'PLUNIUUI.RUM' (0,'R1J1LMU.RDM' (10,'LLIMLUN.RUM' (1b,'result.daf ) RtLL*1O0) RbLL-100) PELL*-40) RLLL=40)
U1 B2 03 b4 bb bb b7 b6 bb /0 /1 /2 /J /4 7b /b
//
RLUU(3,1002,LNU*bbb)lunit,LhUP,blURIU HKMU1(2P2.0, 4.0) icrop-crop ilunitsiunit climsclimtCilunit) surro=surrot(ilunit) sal^salt(iluni t) ztmisztmit(ilunit) ztma=ztmat(ilunit) iopt-0 do 10 i10^1,b if(lustxt(ilunit,i10).eq.0.)goto 10 textcl-soilty(i10) it(iopt.gt.0)goto b LULL bOILR
/0 /3 00
L L
LULL LRUUT
464
6J1
LULLJO-UNIK(CK'UM) L L LULLLLIM1NCLL1M)
ou
b/ bb bb bid yi 32
02 03 04 Ob
IPb*1
lUWY-bTWKIU
NbMbh^33.
Nh'tL=.2 IW_,L=b.
33
bA bb
L L
LULL UPH.L U U U Y , 0 , i r b ) iopt1 LULL bUILK LULL HLUNIN(Lf\*0P) HJUY*bTUKlU LULL UFPLt U U U Y . I . U ' b )
3b 3/
bb
D3 100 101 102 103 104 10b 10U 10/ 100 103 110 111 112 113 114 11b 11b 117 1113 113 120 121 122 123 124 12b 12b 127 120 12b 130 131 132 133 134 13b 13b 13/ 130 13b 140 141 142 143 144 14b 14b 14/ 140 14b 1b0 1S1
call nutri(ips) outputCI)*lvopt output(2)-stopt output(3)-soopt output(4)=twlv output(b)-twst output(U)-twso output(/)=lvbas1 output(0)*stbas1 output(b)-sobasl output(10)=lvbas2 output(11)=stbas2
output(12)-sobas2
223 222 L 20 30 40
M
do222 i1-1,12,3 i11*i1-1 do223 i2=1,3 13=12-1 output(i1*i3)-output(i1*i3)M(1.-hvl(icrop))*1.1b i111*ihp(icrop)*i11 output(1111)=output(i111)/1.1b*conv(icrop) ichoicsihp(icrop) goto (20,30,40),ichoic neoc*(output(1)-output(/J)/neo newc*(output(4)-output(10))/neo gotob0 neoc=(output(2)-output(0))/neo newc*(output(b)-output(11))/neo gotob0 neoc =(output(3)-output(b))/neo newc*(output(b)-output(12))/neo do224 i4^13,1b ib=i4-b ib=i4-12 it(idisr(icrop).eq.1) distac-afgen(tabl,output(ib)/(output(ib)*1.)) if(idisr(icrop).eq.2) disfac = afgen(tab2,output(ib)/(outputCib)1.)) output(i4)ôutput(ib)K(l.-disfac)
do 2 2 b i 4 i 1 b , 1 i i
224
22b L '2222
ib=i4-b iU=14-1b it(idisr(icrop).eq.1) disf ac=afgen(tab1,output (ib)/(output(iti)*1.)) it(idisr(icrop).eq.2) disfac=atgen(tab2,output(ib)/(output(ib)*1.)) output(i4)w0utput(ib)x(1.-distac) write(1b.2222)lunit,ILXILL,lustxt(ilunit,i10),LKUH,biMKIU, wuseo.wusew,tsr,neoc,newc,gdur,output format(2f4.0.tS.2,2tb.0,bt/.2,/22x,bfO.0./22x,bfO.0,/22x,bfO.0)
465
1b2 c 1b3 L 1b4 10 LONIlNUb 1bb OOIO1 1bb 333 LLObL(3) 1b7 close(1b) 1b8 blOP 133 L 1U0 bNU 101 LLXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX* 102 DLOLKUH1H 103 LLXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX* 1B4 1NLLODL'WOHObl.LHN' 1bb L DW7WBLOCKOPDMTWbWbt 1bb IHPL1L1IKtWL(W-H,J-Z) ,lNILbtKU) 1b7 LOHHON/PLPNi/LVL,LVO,LVR,LVb,fcXL 160 LOMMON /PLUN7 /PtKDL, PtKK'7 ,f'LK57 ,U10,KD 103 LOHHON /PLWW/KHL^HU.KHK.K'Hb.KK
170 LCIMMCJN /PLMNI7SLmb(30),bPH,bbM
171 172 173 174 17b L 17b

177 1/fl 173 160
LOHHON /PLMN1/IDW3L,(DW,LKOPI,DVKL1,DLO,DLL,UVKL2,DbL LUHHON /PLUN7 /f-Llb(30) ,hKIB(30),\ O7B(30) ,\ bf U(30) ,bWUP7B(30) LUHHON /PLWN7/DVKLID(30),lbPMN,nperso,nperve,pperso,pperve LUHHON /PLWN7/MlKDUL,uptb(30) LUHHON/301L/LEh,LL0DWN,DD,Dh'H,DbP
LUHHON LOHHON LOHHON LOHHON /S01L/f-WtP,f Lth ,K0,HHHX,KDH,b0 /bOlL/bQL,bH0,bOPb,bORRO,ZlHl,ZTHM / b O l L / T S L 1 , 7 3 L 2 , l b b f - , Z T , IbXTLL /b01L/bH,bHf-L,3Hf-L> ,bHW,bH10,bbHWX,RlJ7bH(8, 10)
181 162 L
183 164
LOHHON /b01L/DRMlNb,nbase,pbase,nrec,prec
LOHHON /LLH77 l b H P I D ( 3 0 ) , R 1 N I B C 1 2 ) , t I 0 1 B ( 3 0 ) , L 0 1 B ( 3 0 ) , P b b 4 I B ( 3 0 ) LOHHON /LLHI/Pbb31B(30) ,7B1RR(30) , 7 L L 4 ( 3 0 ) , ILL37 ( 3 0 ) , I L L 3 M 3 0 )
16b 16b L 167 166 163 130 L 131 132 133 L 134
13b 130 137 138
LOHHON/LLHl/bbOP,raind(12) common /div/manf1,manf2,twlv,twst, twso,tvbasl,stbasl,sobasl, 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2,nmax,pmax,gdur,tvopt,stopt,soopt.neo.new, 2 wusew,wuseo,tsr L001LPLK1LKPNPH,LLHNWH LOHHON /NMHfcb/LKPNMH(30),LLHNWH(30) DMN LEF-,LLODMN,DD,DRH,D5P/.Ob,30.,100.,10.,20./
DM7M h R t > , f - L b P , K 0 , H H M P X , R D H , 3 0 / . 7 , . 7 , 1 4 . 3 , 1 3 0 . , 1 2 . , 1 3 . 0 b / UM(M b M L , S H 0 , 3 O P L , b U R N O , Z I H l , Z 7 H / 1 . b , . 4 b b , 8 . 6 8 , 2 . , 0 . , 3 0 0 . / DWTM l b L 1 , T 3 L 2 , T b b f , Z I , l E X l L L / 2 2 . b , . 0 4 3 , . 0 1 3 3 , 1 3 0 . , 7 . / UmM IbPMN/b0/
133
200 201 202 203 204 L
DM7HM1RDUL /0./,DRMlNb/0./
DM7W H W N M / 1 . / , H M N P 2 / 1 . / DUTM 7 L L 4 / 0 . , 0 . , 6 . , 0 . , 1 3 . , 1 . , 3 3 . , 1 . , 4 b . , 0 . , 2 0 * 0 . / UH1H T C L 3 H / 0 . , 0 . , 3 . , 0 . , 8 . , 1 . , 2 b . , 1 . , 3 b . , 0 . , 2 0 x 0 . / DM1M 7 L L 3 7 / 0 . , 0 . , 6 . , 0 . , 1 3 . , 1 . , 3 0 . , 1 . , 4 0 . , 0 . , 2 0 X 0 . /
20b datauptb/.0,0.,40.,0.,b0.,.2b,00.,.40,70.,.bb,60.,.37,30., 20b 1.77,100.,.6b,120.,1.,160.,1.3,240.,1.3b,300.,1.6,300.,2.,4X0./ 207 LNU 208 LLXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX* 203 f-ONLUONMf-btN(IMbLt,X) 210 LLXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXKXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXt 211 UlHbNblON IUbLE(30) 212 IKX.Lt.lMBLb(D) OOIO00 213 DO101=1,30,2 214 11=1 21b IKIUDLL(l).bb.X)OOIOb0 21b 1KI.LU.1)OOIO10 217 I f (7MBLt(l).LI.7RDLb(l-2)) bOTO40 216 10 LONIlNOt
213 0070 4b
220 40
1*11-2
1 K 1 . 0 I . 3 0 ) l=-29 RfbtN=IMBLb(l+1)
466
221 222
4b
223 224 22b 226 22/ 228 22a 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 23/ 236 233 240 241 242 243 244 24b 24C 24/ 246 243 2b0 251 252 2b3 2b4 25b 2bb 2b7 256 253 260 2b1 262 263 264 265 266 26/ 266 263 270 271 2/2 273 2/4 2/5 276 277 2/6 273 260 261 262 263 204 26b 266 267 266 263 230 231 232 233
50 55 60 100
6U7U 100 bLUPL=0. lKlRBLL(l-2)-IRBLE(I).bU.0.)bUTO bb bLUPb^CIRBLL(l-1)-IRBLbCl+1))/(lRBLL(l-2)-mBLt(l)) BLlR*mBLLCl + 1)-bLUPLKIRBLt(l) Rf-GLN^bLUPLKX + BEIR bUTO 100 M-GLN*"IMBLb(2) Kb I URN LNU SUBROUTINE S01LR
CLXXMXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXMMXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
L INLLUDE 'WUfObl.LMN' DM1H BLOCK Of DRTRBRSE 1MPLIL11 KEMLCR-H.J-ZJ.lNIEbEKCI) LOMMON /h'LRNI /CK/L,LVU,LVR,LVb , tXL LOMMON /PLWNI/PEKBL,PEKKI,PEKSI,U10,KD LUMHON /PLMNl/RML,RMU,RMK,RMb,KK LUMHUN / PLRNTbLHT I B( 30 ) , SHU, SbM LUMHON / PLRN1 /1BM5L, " I BW, CROP! , OVRL1BLO, , BLL, DVRL2, BbL LUMMON /PLRNT/FL1B(30),hKIB(30),hOIBC30),*S)B(30),bWDPIB(30) LOMMON /PLRNT/DVRETBC30),lbPRN,nperso,nperve,pperso,pperve LOMMON /PLRNI/WlRDUL l uptb(30) LUMMON /501L/LEH,LLOURN , BU,BKM,BSP LOMMON /SU1LMREF,hLEf-,K0,MHMRXIRBM,30 LOMMON /5U1L/bRL,bM0,50PL,SURKU,ZI Ml,ZIMR LUMMON /SUIL/15L1,IbL2,Ibbh,ZI,ibXILL LOMMON /bUlL/bM,bMfLlbMf-LhlSMU/,bM10lbbMRX<RUIbMC6,10) LOMMON /bUlL/URRlNb,nbase,pbase,nrec#prec L LOMMON /LLMl/lEMPlB(30)lRRlNlB(12),Ll0IB(30),E0TBC30),P6b4IB(30) LOMMON /LLMl/PbS31B(30),TBlKRC30),lLL4(30),ICL3l(30),TLL3M(30J LOMMON /LLMT/bEUP,raind(12) C common /div/manf1,manf2,twlv,twst, twso,Ivbasl,stbasl , sobasl, 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2,nmax,pmax#gdur,Ivopt,stopt,soopt,neo,new, 2 wusew,wuseo,tsr C LU61LRL*1 LRPNRM , LLMNMM LOMMON /NRMLb/LH^ 'NRM(30),LLMNMM C 30) L lRLLÎEXTLL RtRUC 7,1000 , ERR=333, KbC= IK'LL )K0 , MHMRX, bOPL, I bL1,1 b L 2 ,I bbhSML , , 1bUKRU,LLUBRN,Zl,b0,SM0 1000 hURMRIdbh10.4) RDM=1b0 KblORN 333 WHll EC 1/2000)1KEL 2000 f-ORMRTC LMNNUT RERB bUILURTRf~OR1EX1UKE LLRSS ',14) 51 UP LNB
CLXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXMXXMXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXMXXXXMKMXXXXXX>
bUBKUUlINL PLMN1K(LRUP)
LLXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXMXKXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXMXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXKXXXXXXXXXXX>
L INLLUBL 'WOHObl.LMN' URIR BLULK Uf-BRIRBRbb 1MPL1LII NLRLCR-H,J-Z),INTbbLRC1) LOMMUN /PLRNI/LVL,LVO,LVR,LVS,LXL LUMMON /PLRNT/PERBL.PLRRI ,PERbl ,U10,RU LUMMON /PLRN1/RML(RMO,RMR,RMb,RK LUMMON /PLRN1/5LR1B(30),5PH,bbR LUMMON /PLRNT/1BRbL,IBW,LRUPT,BVRL1,BLU,BLL,DVRL2,BbL LUMMON /PLRNl/HLlBC30),hKlBC30)lhU1B(30),hblBC30),SWBPIB(30) LUMMON /PLRNT/DVRLTBC30),1SPRN,nperso,nperve,pperso,pperve LOMMON /PLRNl/RIRBUL,uptb(30) LUMMON /bUlL/LEF,LLUBMN,BB,URR,BbP LUMMON /bU1L/H REh , f CLf-, K0, MHMRX, RBM, b0 LUMMON /SU1L/bRL,bM0,bUPb,bURRU,ZIMI,ZTMR
467
294 2bb 296 29/ L

298 299 300 301
LOMMON /SOIL/ISL1,lbL2,IbbF ,Z1,1EXILL LOMMON/SOIL/bM,5MPL,bM-LH,bMUJ,bM10,SbMHX,RlJlbM(8,10) LUHHON/b01L/URMlNb,nbase,pbase,nrec,prec

LUMHON / L L M T / T b M P I B ( 3 0 ) , R R l N l b ( 1 2 ) , b ! 0 1 b ( 3 0 ) , b 0 ) b ( 3 0 ) , P b b 4 l b ( 3 0 ) LUHMON /LLMT/PGb31b(30) ,l b I R R ( 3 0 ) ,1LC4(30) , ICC3I ( 3 0 ) , ICC3MO0) COMMON / C L M 1 / b L 0 P , r a i n d ( 1 2 )
302 303 304 30b L 30b 30/ 308 L 303 C 310 311 312 1000 313 314 31b 31b 31*/ 318 313 320 321 322 323 324 32b 32b 32/ 2000 328 32b 999 330 3000 331 332 334
335
common/div/manf1,manf2,twlv,twst,twso,Ivbasl,stbasl,sobasl, 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2,nmax,pmax,gdur,Ivopt,stopt,soopt,neo,new( 2 wusew,wuseo,tsr L0G1LWL*1LKPNRM.LLMNMM COMMON/NRMEb/LRPNRM(30),CLMNRM(30) IREC*1*24*(1F1X(LR0P)-1) RbRU(8,1000,bRR=999,RbL=lRLL)LRPNMM HJRMHTC/2M) RbMU(8/2000,bRR=999)LROPr,RlRDUL,O10,LXL,Lv^,LVO,LvKLv'b,bPRN, 1RML ISPMN*SPRN RLRD(8,2000,bRR*999)RMO,RMR,RMSlRR,PbRUL,PLRRl.PbRbl,bPR#bbM, 1 nperso RfcRU(8l2000#bRR=bb3)UbL,RUllUlUVRL1lULUlULL,UVRL2,nperve# 1 pperso,pperve RbHU(8,2000,bRR:-999)F-Rlb RbMD(B,2000,bRR=999)'-LTU RLRD(8,2000,bRR=999)hb1b RLRD(8,2000,bRR=993)f-O7b RbRU(8,2000,ERR=999)bLRIb RbRU(8,2000,LRR*999)Uv-RbTb RbRU(8l2000,bRR*999)(bWUPIb(l),l=1l20) bORMRT(10M0.4) RblURN WRITb(1,3000)LROP KORMRIC LMNNOTRbMU'PLWNl UW1RFORLROP',K3.0) STOP bNU SUBROUUNbLRURT
CL**********************************************************************
33b 337 C 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 34b 34b 34/ C
348 343 3b0 3b1 3b2
INCLUUb'UW>Ob7.LMN' UMTMbLOLKUHDR7MBRSL IMPLICM RLML(R-H,J-Z),lNltbbR(I) LOMMON /PLMNT /LVL.LVC^CVK.LVb.LXL LOMMON/PLMNI/PLRDL,PbRRl,PbRbl,Q10,RU LOMMON/PLMNI/RML,RMO,RMR,RMb,RR LOMMON/PLMNI/bLRTbC30),SPR,bSM LOMMON /PLMNI /7bMbb, I UU/.LROP1 ,UVRL1,DLU,ULL,UVRL2, LJSL LOMMON /PLMN7 /f-Llb(30) ,-Rlb(30) ,POTb(30) ,\ blB(30) ,bWDPIb(30) LOMMON/PLMN7/DVRbTB(30),lbPUN,nperso,nperve,pperso,pperve LOMMON/PLRNI/RIRDOL,uptb(30)
LOMMON LOMMON LOMMON COMMON LOMMON /bOlL/Lbh,LLOUWN,DD,URM,USP /bOlL/fRbh,HLbl-,K0 l MHMRX l RlJM # b0 /SOIL/bML,bM0,SOPL,bORRO l 21Ml,ZTMM /bOIL/7SL1,lbC2,lb6l-,Z7,TbXICL /b01L/bM,bMPL,bMf LP,bMW l bM10 < bbMRX l RUIbM(8 # 10)
353 354 L 355 3bb 3b7 358 C 3b3 360 3b1 302 L 363 364
LOMMON/b01L/URMINS,nbase,pbase,nrec,prec COMMON/LLMT/lbMPlb(30),RMIN7D(12),bl01DC30)#b0lb(30),Pbb4IDC30) LOMMON/LLMI/PGb3Tb(30),1blRR(30),TLL4C30),fCC31(30),TLL3MC30) COMMON/LLMT/bEOP,raind(12) common/div/manf1,mant2,twlv,twst,twso,Ivbasl,stbasl,sobasl, 1 lvbas2, stbas2, sobas2,nmax,pmax,gdur,Ivopt,stopt,soopt,neo,ncw, 2 wusew,wuseo,tsr L0G1LML*1LRPNRM,LLMNMM LOMMON/NMMbb/LKPNMM(30),LLMNMM(30)
468
3bb 3bb 36/ 368 36b 370 371 372

373 3/4 37b
37b
L 1KEL = 1*10KC1F1XCIEX"ILL)-1) U C J11 = 1,10 RERDCb,1000,EKK=bbb,REL=lREL)(RlJTEM(lK,I),lK=1,G) IKEL=IKEL*1 l-URMWU&l-b.1) RETURN WKllh(1,2000)lEXlLL

hURMMlC' LRNNU1 RLRU KIJ1EMM"b DRTR hUR IEXIURE CLRbS ' , h 3 . 0 ) blUP LND
1 1000 bUb
2000
LLMMMXXKKKKMKMMKKKKMMMMMMKKKMKXKXKMMKHKXKXMXKMKKXMKMKKKXMKKKXXMMXKMXXKXM
37/ SUBRUUT1NLLLIMIN(LLM) 378 CLXXMMXXXXMMXXXXMXMXXXMXMXMXXXXMXXXXXXXMXXXXXXXMXXXXMXXXXXMXMXXXXXMXKXXX 37b 1NLLUDE 'UOUbl.LMN' 380 L DNTM BLULK UP UMlRBRbE 381 1MPLIL11 RERL(R-H,J-Z),lNIEbLRU) 382 LUMMUN /PLRN1/CVL,LVU,LVR,LVb,tXC 383 LUMMON /PLMNI /PERUL.PERR1 .PERbl ,010,RU 384 LUMMON /PLRN1/RML,RMU,RMR,KMb,RR 38b LUMMON /PLMNI/bLRIb(30),SPM,bbM 386 LUMMON /PLRNI/TBMbE,1UW,LRUPI,DVRL1,ULU,DLL,DVRL2,UbL 387 LUMMON /PLMNI /I-L1BC30) ,l-RlbC30) ,FU1B(30) ,t bl b(30) ,bWUPlb(30) 388 LUMMON /PLMNI/DVRE1b(30),lbPRN,nperso,nperve,pperso,pperve 38b LUMMON /PLMNI/MlRUUL,uptb(30) 330 L 331 LOMMON /bUIL/LEh,LLUUMN,UU,URM,UbP 3b2 LUMMON /bUlL/hMLP,PLL*,K0,MHMMX,RDM,b0 3b3 LUMMUN /bOIL/bML,bM0,bUPE,bURRU,Z1M1,Z1MM 394 LUMMON /bOlL/I5L1,lbC2,ISGP,Z1,IEX1LL
3bb LUMMON /SUlL/bM,bMhL,bMI-LP,bMyj,bM10,bbMMX,RlJIEMC8,10)
33b 3b/ 3b8 3bb 400 401 402 403 404 40b 406 407 408 40b 410 411 412 413 414 41b 41C 417 418 41b 420 421 422 423 424 42b 426 42/ 428 42b 430 431 432 433 434 43b
LUMMON /bUIL/URMlNb,nbase,pbase,nrec,prec C LUMMON /LLM1/TEMPIb(30),RMINIb(12),EI01B(30),E0TDC30),Pbb41b(30) LUMMUN /LLMI/PGb3lb(30),TUlRRC30),TLL4(30),ILL3I(30),1LL3MC30) LUMMON /LLMI/bEUP,raind(12) L common /div/manf1,manf2,twlv,twst,twso,Ivbasl,stbasl,sobasl, 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2,nmax,pmax,gdur,Ivopt,stopt,soopt,neo,new, 2 wusew,wuseo,tsr L LUG1CRLK1 LRPNMM,LLMNMM LUMMON / NWMEb / LK'PNMM (30 ) , LLMNWM (30 ) DIMENSION UMYNUMC30) L UH1M DMYNUM/1.,0.,1b.,0.,4b.,0.,74.,0.,10b.,0.,13b.,0.,1bb.,0., 11bb.,0.,22/.,0.,2b8.,0.,288.,0.,31b.,0.,34b.,0.,3bb.,0.,2x0./ L ihelp=clm-1. lREL=1*13*lhelp KLRUC10,1000,ERR=bbb,REL=lREL)LLMNRM,bEUP PORMRT(30M1,Fb.1) UO 10 110-1,30 rEMPTB(l10)=DMYNUMCl10) tl0lBCI10)=DMYNUM(I10) E01BC110)=UMYNUM(110) Pbb41B(l10)=DMYNUM(l10) Pbb3l"b(I10):-DMYNUMCl10) TD1RRCI10)=DMYNUMC110) LONT1NUE
1000 L L
UO20 120=4,20,2 ii20=Ci20-2)/2 RLRU(10,4000,END=2b)lLMP1b(l20),RRlNlb(H20),E10lb(l20), 1E0lB(l20),Pbb4TB(l20),Pbb3lb(I20),1BlRR(I20),raind(ii20) 4000 P0RMRl(8fb.2) E01BC120)=E0TB(I20)*30 ET0TBC120)=E10TBC120)*30 20 CUNTINUE
10 L 1b
469
436 25 437 436 433 440 441 442 443 444

445 44b* 447 448 L 443 450 993 451 3000
ILHriBC2)*.ClLHPlBC4)*TLHP7BC26))/2. 7bHP7BC26)=lEHP7B(2) E10TB(2)=(b7 01B(4)*b10TBC26))/2. L107BC28).bf0IBC2) E0TBC2)*(b0IB(4)*b07BC2b))/2. b0TB(28)*b07BC2) PbS4TBC2);.(P&647BC4)*Pb547B(2b))/2. Pb547B(28)H>64IBC2) Pb537BC2)*U'b537BC4)*PG53TB(2b))/2.
Pb537BC26)PbS3TBC2) IBlKRC2)*(IBlKNC4)*IBIRKC26))/2. 7BIRRC26)*1B1KK(2) kETURN WNllbn,3000)LLM hURHHK' LMNNU1 READ LL1MP1L DWIO FUH LL1HMIL , h 3 . 0 )
452 57 OP 453 LND 454 LLXXXXXXKKXXXXXXXXXXXXXKXXXXXXXXXXXKXKXXXXXXXXXXKXXXXXXXKXXXXKXXXXXXXX*' 455 SUBROUTINEWPPLEC iday, 1WB, 15P) 45b CLxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx;
457 C x***xxxxxxxxxx DW7WBM6E lNlLRf-MLL xxxxxxxxxx
458 L 459 460 C 461 462 463 464 466 466 467 468 469 470 L 471 472
473 474 47b 47b
1NCLUUL 'WUhUbl .LHN' DW1MBLUCKUHUMTMBQSb 1HPL1LI1RLP4L(W-H,J-Z),lN1EbfcR(l) LUHHON /PLMN7/LVL,LVO,LVR,LV6,LXL LUHHON /PLMN7/PbRUL,PLRRT,PbR5l,U10,RU LUHHON /PLPN7/RHL,RHO,RHR,RHb,RR LOHHON /PLPN1/5LW7BC30).SPR.55M LUHHUN /H.RN7/7BMSE,lUW.CRUPT.DVRLI,DLU,ULL,DVRL2,D5L LUHHON /PLMNI /PL7BC30) ,f-RTB(30) ,hUlB(30) ,f-61BC30) ,5WDPTB(30) LOHHON /PLRNf/DVRElB(30),15PMN,nperso,nperve,pperso,pperve LUHHON /PLRNI/RIRUUC,uptb(30) CUMHON /5U1L/Lbf ,LLUDRN,DU,DRW,U5P LUHHON /6UlL/F-Rfcl-,f-LEh ,K0,HHHQX,RUH,50
LUHHON LDHHOM LUHHON LUHHON
/6UlL/6tC/^10#5UJE,5LKKUl21Ml#i:7m / 5 U I L / 7 5 L 1 , 7 5 L 2 , I b b F ,ZI,7EX7LL /5OIL/5H l 5MI-L l 6MhLF- l 5MW,5H10,65mX l KlJlLM(8 # 10) /6UIL/URMIN5,nbase # pbase,nrec,prec
477 C 47b 479 460 461 C 482 463

484
LUHHON /LLH1/IEHP7BC30).RRINIB(12),L107B(30),E0IB(30),Pb547BC30> LUHHON /LLH1/P653IBC30),TB1RRC30),7LL4(30),ILL3I(30),ILL3HC30) LUHHON /LLHT/bLUP,raindC12) common /div/manf1,mant2,twlv,twst,twso,Ivbasl,stbasl,sobasl, 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2,nmax,pmax,gdur,Ivopt,stopt,soopt,neo.new,

2 wusew,WUSGO,tsr
470
485 466 467 488 463 430 431 452 453 434 495 496 497 498 493 500 601 502 503 504 605 506
L LUblCULxlLRPNMH,LLHNMH LOHHON /NMHE6/CRPNMHC30),LLHNUH(30) C L LI1MEN6IUNLV(1/0).LU(1?0) L L L C xxxxxx 1NIUMLI5MT1UN xxxxxx dz = 0. tsr=0. wuse=0. gdur0=0. 5H10i5H0-0.1 5HFLF= 5H0.xLXP(-1.x75G^ xULUbC100.)xx^) 5HW=5H0xbXP(-1.xlbUxMLUUC 1b000. )xx^) 5H-5Hf-LI CLUDMR=CLODMNx0.01/444 5WLR^6RLx0.01/4444 55HMX^0.5x6URRUx(blNCLLUDMR-5WLR)x*2/51N(LLUDMR) lx(LU5(CLUDR*5aLR)/blNCLLUDUR*bRLR)*LU5(LLUUWR-bULR)/
b07
b0O b0U b10 b11 b12 b13 b14 bib bib bV/ 51b bib b20 b21 b22 b23 b24 b2b b2b !/<?'/ b2b b2b b30 b31 b32 Ui'J ^'34 i3b b36 ^'37 i>'3ti '^>3b i>40 b41 *^2 l *J43 b44 b4b ^7 b4tt ^5J bS0 '^1
2SINCCL0UMR-bnLR))/2/CUb(CL0DWR)/LUbCSLR))
UtLl=1 IL=1 IU=0 UU b l b O , 1 7 0 LMClb)=0 LVUb).0. bWRI0. bWLV*y. bW51*0. bWSU=0.
L
5 L
URRU0. UKLV*0. URST*0. URSU=0. L UWRl*y. LWLV*0. LWb1*0. LWbO-0. L IbUHWrO. lbUMR=0. L UVS^0. bb=0. R1UMB. C rR*MhC>iNCrRlb,UVS) L*UFbbNCf-LlB,UVb) hb*Wf-bbNCrblb,DVb) rLMtf bLN(r01b,UVb) C WKI-f-KMllWI IHUU/=C1.-rR)KllJW WLV*|-L*mUW WbT*Kb*lMLW SLW^WhbtNlbLmD,iJVb) C LMUSLW*ttfLV*SS&*^l*bW*WbU L W*nbClSf\1001)lbXILL,IUMY,LRHNW,LLHNm
^2
!JS3 ^4 !>Sb b5b b57 ^ tjbb J** r*^ bb2 Ui3 ^ 4 ^>b ,**^ ^? 7 USb b7y ^ 1 b72 ^3 J* r p'ti b//
b
WkIfL(ISP,1000)lUWY,WRl ,WLV,Wbl,U/bU,LNl,Zl ,bM,DVb

1B01 H j R M m C / / / b X , ' l e x t u r e c l a s s ' , K d . 0 , 2 4 X , ' S t a r t day ' , 1 3 , # 1/' Lrop \30W1,' Llimate ,30H1, 1 / / ' UMY WR1 WLV U/bl WbU LW1 v Zl tjM UVb'/) XKKXtftf UYNWMIL LMLLULRUUNb ******
C L L 1 C (. C
l h ( U V b . b . 2 . ) bUlU 100 gdur0sgdur0*delt 1NTMKE. Uf- LL1MM1L UM1M L W L L LLimi(lUWY,ltHP,RMlN,K>Mbb,bl0,b0,Xlb) c a l l daylen(iday,geop,dl) I lNI(1.-LXl'C-1.bXLLm)> l K l W B . b O . 0 ) bUlU 1b4 ** WMTbR BMLWLb ******
L
Q
C L
SrFL^bHiwtXPC-I.MlbW *MLUbC2l * 1 . ) * * 2 ) rH*bXH(b(XT(-1.*WLOb(bH/bH0)/lbbHn KMH^K0*bxrc-i.*ibC2*MH) 1MMH.G1.MHMQX) KMH-1SL1*MH*K(-1.4) f
471
b78 b7b b80 581 b82 b83 b84 b8b b86 687 588 b83 bb0 b31 b32 bbJ b'J4 bbb bb6 bb7 bb8 b39 600 601 602 603 604 60b b0b 607 b08 603 610 b11 612 61'J 614 61b 616 617 618 61CJ 620
c
L L C
LMLLULW1IUNOFXIMMPX b-b0*(1.-bM/bM0)/bURI(UbLI) XIMMUX=b*bOPE LWLLULW1IUNO f -1MbHL11M. LVUP0RMT1UNb b=mX1(0.lb0MbXHC-0.4LMl)K(bM-bMU;/3)/CbM0-bMW/3J) if(iwb.eq.0)b=WMMX1(0.,b0*bXP(-0.4*LMl)) L-MMIN1(b,b0XbXP(-0.4XLMl)) bL=0. H(bb.bl.0.) bL=L lKbS.61.0.)L*0.
L C L C
INPlL'IKMIlUN bb*bb*CRmN*Xlb-bL)XDbLl bbK^bb/DbLT

XIMM^XsXlMMPXK^bLNCbPLTb.bWDKpf-bbNCfx'N'Ib.KPlIN)) XlM*MMIN1(XlMMHX 4 bbK) SR=MMRX1(0.,bbK-bbMHX/LlbLI-XlM) tsr-tsr*sr CMLLULMI1UN OF "IHb W WILK *LUU> 1HKUUGH lHb LUWLR RUU1 ZUNb liUUNUW -NY ZTMRU^ZI-KD I f ( Z T M K U . L b . 0 . ) 6UIU b5 HRD*MH-(Z1MKD) U (HRU.bl . 0 ) bUlU 60 1P(HRU.L1.0) bOTU 70 LRMD*0. &U1U 80 CWLL KIJIMMCKIJTbM.Mfl.ZTMKU^KMU^KMH) LRMD=MMlN1(LRMU,(bMfL-bM)xRLJ/LJbL"l ) 6U10 80
C L C
bb 60 70 80 C
LRMU=MMHX1(-1.XKMM,-1.X(bM-bMhL)XRU)/DbL I LUNIINUL
CULLULM11UN Of- 1Mb ML1UWL IRMNbl'lRHT1UN l0=bT0-0.1*L0 1M=MMMX1(0.0001,(1.-LXPC-1.xbXLKLMl))*I0)
c
L L
621 622 623 624 62b 626 627 628 62b 630 631 632 633 634 63b 636 637 638 63b 640 641 642 643 644 64b 646 647 648
130 140 1b0 160 162 C L L L C L
if(iwb.eq.0)goto 130 bWUbP*MPbLN(bWDPID, 10) bMLR=(1.-bWUP)X(bMI-LP-bMU/)+bMU/ lP(bM.bb.(bM0-0.0b).UR.bMW.b1.bM)bUlU 1b0 lP((bM0-0.0b).bl.bM.RND.bM.bb.bM10)bUlU 140 lP(bM10.bl.bM.MNLJ.bM.bb.bMLR)bUTU 130 *U(bM-bMW)/(bMLK-bMU/)xlM bUlU 160 1=1M 6U10 160 U H M 1 N K 1 .,UbM0-0.0S)-bM)/((bM0-0.0b)-bM10))*lM bUlU 160 T-0 LUN11NUL 1KM1NDUL.LU.0.)6UI0 162 U(bM.bb.bM10) U I M LUNIINUb LMLLULW1IUN UP 1Mb RWIL UP LHMNbE INU/MILRLUNILNI UP 1MbRUUILU ZUNb RtJM=(XIM*LRMD-l-L)/RU if(iwb.eq.0) rsm=0. LMLLULMI1UN UP UKMlNMbL M1=2.X(UU-Z1) UMOXÛHWX1(0.,K0x3.14XMI/(3.14xMI+UbPxMLUb(UbP/(3.14XURW)))) If(DRWlNb.bU.0.) DMMX^0.
472
649 L 6b0 L bb1 L bb2 bb'J 664 bbb Ubb L 697 L 6b8 L bb9 L 660 L bb1 L 662 L bb'3 C 664 C bbb 1bb
b6G 667 668 669
U4LLULMTIUN UH 1Mb LHMNbb IN bKGUNU WWILK ULHTH if(iwb.eq.0) goto 1b5 UZ^MHMXI (-1. XZ1,2. X(UMMX+LKMU) /(bM0-bM) ) 1KZ1MND.LL.0.) UZ=WMWX1(-1.XZI,(L+I-X1M)/CbM0-bM* )) 1KZ1MNU.LL.0.) KbM^-1.X(bM0-bMh)XUZ/(ZI +1.)
DLVbLUPMbNl blMGt LJVRbU=1.

H CUVb.LT.1.) UVKbU^WMWXI(0. .HMIN1( 1 . , ( U L - U L U / C U L U - U L U ) ) DVKbl=MI-GbNCDVKblb,lEMP) I K U V b . L I . 1 . . W N U . U b L . b Q . 1 . ) DVKLT=1 . DVROUVRL1
b7 J 680 C
670 b71 b72 b'73 L 674 L 67b L b/6 b77 670 c

681 C
IKDVb.bf.1.) UVKL=DVKL2 DVR*DVRLxUVKbUxUVRb*l bLW=.WhbbN(SLRlb,DVb) PQRTllIUNlNb hRLlOKb KK=MhbbN(fKlb,DVS) hL=Mf-bbN(l-LID,DVb) K-b=WFbbNCPblB,UVS)

FU=WFbbNU U1B,DVb)
UMILY URYMHTIEK INLKLMbL

bWbb^PbWbbxHlNlxl /1M KMKLb=KMRxWRlRMLXU_V+KMbxWb'|KMCJXWbU lbFP=U10xx(0.lxibMP-2.b) HRbb=WMIN1(bWbb,KMKbbXlLI-P) LVF=(CVLX>L*LVbxFb+LVUxFU)xC1.-hR)+LVKx)K MbKL=NMMX1(0.,bWbS-MKbb) UMl=LVhKWbRL
682 L 603 684 b85 686 b87 b88 68b 630 C
6b1 C
692 C 693 694
bRUWlH NMTE RUUIb

bRKT=f-KxlJMl URRU0.
695 696 697 C 698 L

699 L 700 701 C 702 L 703 L 704
lh(DVb.bl.1.6)DRKI ^PbKNl XWK1 GWRT = bRKT-DKRT GROWTH RMTEb UP IHb M1KIML PRKfb
WUMUUMl-bKKT GKUU/1H RHTb LbPVLS 6RLV=hL*MUMl
70b 70G 7H7 708 C 709 710 711 190 712 713 714 71b
716
USLV1(1.-T/TM)xPbKULXiyLV UbLV2=WLVxMH0X1(0.,1.-7./MMRX1(0.01,LMI)) UbLV=MMMX1CUbLV1,U5LV2) LV(lL)^LV(IL)-DbLV 1KLVCIL)) 190,210,210 lKIL^-lL-1 UU 200 1K^1,IK1L I1K^1KIL-1K*1 if(iik.eq.0) goto 200 LVC1IK)=LVC1IK)4LVC1IK*1)
LVC1IK+1)^0.
717
718 200 713 210
IKLVCI1K)) 200,210,210
LUNTINUb IL=1L*1
473
720 721 722 723 724 72b 726 727 720 /23 730 731 732 733 734 73b /3b* 737 730 733 740 741 742 743 744 745 74U 747 746 743 7b0 751 /b2 7b3 /54 75b 7b6 /57 7b0
/i,3
220 230
240 C L L L
IKlL.bT.lSPUN)lL=lbf'N LM.V*LV(IbPMN) I f CIL.fcU.1)bUlU 230 I K J2201IK*.2,1L 1K=IL-1IK*2 LPC1KKLPUK-1) LV(1K)*LVC1K-1) LV(1) *bKLVKUtLl LWC1)CHLV*bLW*UtU If U L . t U . 2 ) LVK1)*LVC1)*WLV 1 K 1 L . L U . 2 ) LUC1)*.LUC1)*WLVxbLH LMbUH=0. U ) 240 1*1,1L l K L V ( I ) . L b . 0 . ) L(l)>-0. LP5UM:.LMbUM*LU(l) UKLV=DbLV*DMLV bWLV-bRLV-DKLV bROUJIII KMIE bTtHb bRbT*lbxMUHl UKbl=0. l K U V b . b T . l . b ) DKbl-HLRbT*Wbl bWbl*bKST-DKSI
L L L C L C
bktwnn KP1L blUh'UGL UNGUNb bM/bU*-0*RDMl INTL&RULb U IHt LRUP
DV5 UVbWR* DfcLI UIKl-Wx'l*bWKIKDfcLl U^V-WLVbWLV*!JtLI Wbl-WbTbWblKUtLI WbO=WbU*bW5U*U_Ll C 1WWyslW.V**#bT*"#bU

IUWS'IMDW^WRI
7C0 C 7b1 7b2 763 764 7bb C

/fcifci
lM*l=DWRl*DkKl*DLLI UWLV=LWW_V*DktVMLft_LI UWbI-DWblUK51 *UELI UWbUzDWS0*DK5U*UtLT

IWKT-WKUUWK1
7b7 766 763 770 771 //2 /73 774 77b 77b 777 778 7/3 760 761 702 703 704 70b 706 707 /60 703 730
IUILV*'#LV*UWLV IW51 -vybT^twybl 1WbU=WbOUWbO L C C C lMLGRRLb O I H t UIW1E.N UW.WNLL 5M=NMQX1(bMW/3. ,WH1N1 (bM*KbMxUfcl_l ,bH0-0.001)) I K Z l M R U . L t . 0 . ) blJIU 777 b ^ -bM LUNIINUE bb*bb-bf<*UtLT-XIM*DtLI ZWWUZ ZT*MMIN1(Z1,Z1MM) ZI*MMMX1(ZT,ZIM1) it(rd.ge.rdm) rr-0. 1 K Z 1 M N D . L E . 0 . ) bUlU 000 ZTf *.Z1 LUNIINLfc I I CMIKDUC.LQ.1.) bUlU 2b0 i t ( r d . g e . ( z t - 1 0 . ) ) rr^0. 1KZTMNU.LE.0.) KK*0.lK(ZTMKU)/Ui:LI l K h K . L b . 0 . ) KN=0. l K K l D F . C L . b . a n d . i w b . e q . D bUlU 24b
777
680
474
731 732 733 734 24b 70C 3221 73b /37 C /36 2b0 790
500
1KKD.LT.10.) R1UH=K1Uf-*1. lKKD.bfc.10.) KfDf= 0. bOlO 250 WKME(Ibr,3221) MJKMP1C Crop failuredue towaterlogging!') KLTOk'N CHl=LUSOrUbbnxWbUbHWxU!bO KU-KU*KKxUtLl
wuse^wuse+t
601 C 602 L 60'J L 604 C 60b L 60U 60/ 606

603
xxxxx IbMPORttNY OOll'OI xxxxx 1U=1U*1 ifCwlv.le.1.and.dvs.gt.0.b)goto 100 lr(htOD(IU,10).LU.0)lW<l7b(lbH,1000)lUUY,tW<l,WLV#Wblf WbO LW1
izi.bM.bvb
610 1000 |OKMMT(1X,l3,4r3.0,2ry.3,2f-7.3) 611 IUWY*IUUY41 612 lKlDWY.0T.36b) lUWY*lDMY-3bb 613 L 614 0010 1 81b C
610 61/ 616 613 620 100 CONUNOb UIKIlL(lbr\1000)lUUY,U/Kl .UJLV.Wbl .WbO.LUI,2T.bM.UVb ifCiwb.eq.1)goto 101 Ivoptt-twlv stopUtwst
621
622 623 624 62b 62U 62/ 626 623 630 101 L L
soopt*twso
gdur>-gdur0 wuseo-wuse continue wusew-wuse xxxxx UMlfibPSL OOIKJI
xxxxx
RblOKN LNU LLKXXXXKXKKKKKXXXKKKXKXKKXXXXXXKXXXXXKKXXXXXXXKXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXKXXXXX
631 SUBKUUIlNt CL1HWT11, IbMH.NMlN.PbMbb.bl0,b0,Xlb) 632 CCxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 633 iNCLOUb 'WO-Obi.CMN' 634 C UMIM BLOCK Uh DMlUBMbb 63b 1MPC1CI1 kLML(U-H,J-2),lNlLbtrUl) 63b COMMON /H.UNT/CVL,LVO,CVN,CVb.bXC 63/ COMMON /I'LUNI /PbRDL.KLKNl.PLKbT.O10.KU 636 COMMON /H.mi/RML # rmO.K?!K.KMb,KK 633 COMMON /^WNl/SLWlb(30),bPM,bbW 640 COMMON /PLMNT / T BWbb, IW, LKUP I , UVRL1. DLO, ULL, UVKL'2, UbL
641 642 643 644 64b 64B 64/ 646 643 ?* M 601 6S2 6b3 8b4 6bb j* 2 ^ u^ b8 0 b 1 6t3 6b 0 COMMON / r ^ U N I / r ^ T b ( 3 0 ) , h K l B ( 3 0 ) . r O T b ( 3 0 ) . r S T B ( 3 0 ) . b W U F I b ( 3 0 ) COMMON /PLMNT/bVKtlb(30),Ibf , WN,nperso # nperve,pperso,pperve COMMON /H.WNI/PlRUUC,uptb(30) C COMMON COMMON COMMON COMMON COMMON COMMON c LOMMON / C L M I / 1 E M n b ( 3 0 ) , ^ ^ ^ ( 1 2 ) ^ 1 0 ^ ( 3 0 ) ^ 0 ^ 1 3 0 ) ^ ^ ^ 4 ^ ( 3 0 ) COMMON / C L M 1 1 \ * b b 3 1 b ( 3 0 ) , I B 1 R K ( 3 0 ) , 1 L L 4 ( 3 0 ) , I L L 3 1 ( 3 0 ) , I L C 3 H ( 3 0 ) COMMON /CLMT/bbUP,raind(12) C corTwnon /div/manf 1 .manf 2,twlv, twst. twso. Ivbasl, stbasl, sobasl, 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2.nmax,pmax,gdur,Ivopt.stopt.soopt.neo.new, CKPNMM.CCMMWM ^ COblCWCxI wusew.wuseo,tsr c /bOlL/LCr^CLOUWN.mj.URM.bbr' / b O I L / r t r , r L E f ,K0.rtWWX,KUM,b0 /bOIL/bL,bH0,bUfb,bOKKO,ZlMl.ZIMW / b O l L / I S L 1 . l b C 2 . ISbf-,ZI , IbXlCL /^lL/bM # brtL,bHFC- < bPW,bM10,bbHMX l KIJlbr1l6,10) /bOlL/UKMlNb.nbase.pbase.nrec.prec
COMMCM / NWMfcb / CKPNMM(30), CLHNW1 (30 )
475
632 663 864 66b 666

66/ 8G8 66a
fc0
K140S1 ILMPrWhbENC IEMKIB,R140) call raindaCraintb,raind,i,rain) L70Wr6bN(bT01B,K140)/30. = MtbtN(h0IB,h*140)/30.

]H(LRLri.hO.1.)M3Pbb*Mf-bbN(Hbb4lb,K]40)MP#bLN(lLL4,lbMH)M.btt2 lf-(L^ÛPI.LO.2.)HbWbb=MH>fcN(Pbb3lB,HI40)MWbfcN(lLL3M ( lLMH)x.btt2 ]h(LROPl.bt.3.)HbMbb*MfbLN(Pbb3IB l KI40)MMhbhNCILL3l l lLMP)M.b62
670
XlfctRFbfcNO BIKK.K140 )/30.
671
672 674 676 6/7 676 6/3 660 661 662 663 664 66b 66b 667 666 689 830 831 632 693 634 835 836 637 638 833 300
301
KtTUKN
tND subroutine raindaCrtb,rda,idag,rn) dimension rtb(12),rda(12),irand(30),idgn(12) data irand//,b,13,3,6,21,2b,12,23,1,4,26,1b,20,23,1/,27,3,1b, 1 2,11,16,2b,b,1b,14,26,30,22,10/ data idgn/0,31,33,30,120,131,161,212,243,274,304,33b/ do 10i*1,12 it(idag.le.idgnCi))goto11 continue i13 icd*idag-idgn(i-1) icm=i-1 a-0. f1. f ac t 0.0136U* rdaC icm)0.b/2 irada=rda(icm) do 100 ik*1,irada a = a*f f.fxfact r=rtb(icm)/a do200 i=1,irada if (irandCi ).eq. icd)goto 1b0 goto200 rn-r*factK(i-1) goto300 continue
m*-1d.
10 11 L
100
1b0 200
302 300 303 30b

30/ 308 303 310 311 312 313 314 31b
return end bUBRUUIINt KIJim(h\KMH,lJ,L,KMH)

RfcML KMH UlMfcNblUN K ( 6 , 1 0 ) , L M H ( 1 0 ) , L L R ( 8 ) , M M H ( 8 ) LJMIO L M H / 2 0 . , 5 0 . , 1 0 0 . , 2 b 0 . , 3 0 0 . , 1 0 0 0 . , 2 0 0 0 . , 3 0 0 0 . , 1 0 0 0 0 . , 1 6 0 0 0 - ' DWIM L L R / . b , . 4 , . 3 , . 2 , . 1 b , . 1 , . 0 b , . 0 2 / l K K M H . L l . 2 0 . ) GUIU 130 1 K K M H . E U . 2 0 . ) bUlU 60 U ( K M H . b t . 1 6 0 0 0 . ) 6 U I 0 bb W 20 120=2,10 K20=120
316 317 316 20 313 30 320 321 50 322
J20*120-1 lr(KMH.Lb.CMH(120))bUTU30 LUNlINUt LCI b0 lb0 = 18 bLOtt = (R(150,J20)-KClb0,K20))/(Lm(J20)-LMH(K20)) Vm(Ib0)=bLUPfc*RMH*R(lb0,K20)-bLUHxLm(K20) bUTU 70
323 60
324 32b 326 327 328 323 330 331 332 61 bb 66 70
UU61161-1,8
VMHC161)=KC161,1) bUlU70 L I U 66 166 = 1,6 VMHC166)=RC166,10) I t CU.L'I.VMH(I)) 6U1U 140 I f CU.bl.VMH(8))bOlU 120 UU 100 1100=2,6 K100=I100 J100=1100-1
476
933 334 335 3'JU 33/ 336 333 340 341 342 343 344 34b 34/ 346 343 330 331 332 353 354 3bb 356 357 356 353 360 361 362 363 364 36b
100 110 120 130 140
1KU.LL.VMHCI100)) bUTO 110 LUNUNUb SLWh*CLLK(J100)-LLK(K100))/(VMH(J100)-VmCK100)) L*SLOHbxU*LLR(K100)-bLuVbxUHH(K100) RblURN L*0. KblUKN L=KMH*CRMH/U-1.) KL1URN L*0.b KbTUKN tND subroutine daylenCi ,gp,daglen)
L L LXXXXKXKXKXXXXXXKXXKKXKXXXXXXXKKKKKXXKXXXX*XKXXXXXXKXKKXXXK^HX*XXX*XKXX DbCL:--23.4xLUb(0.01/20b5xU*10)) LUbLD=LUb(DbLLx0.0174444)XLUbtgpX0.0174444) blNLD^bINCUbCLX0.0174444)XblN(gpX0.01/4444) UMGLbN=3.62166x(3.14*2.xWblN(sinld/cosld)) return LNU function asin(x) asinhp*1./6.xxxxj asin=x*asinhp do 10 i=3,101,3 asinhp-asinhpxixx2xxxx2/((i*1)x(i42)) asin=asin*asinhp if(abs(asin-asino).lt.1.b-6)goto 20 10 asinoâsin 20 return end
366 LXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
367 L ^36 363 L
370
subroutine nutri (ips)
LxxKKXtfXXKxxKKKKMKMKKKKxxKKXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
371 ^72 373 374 37b 376 377 376 373 360 ^fl1 362 363 364 365 366 367 366 9 &y 330 331 392 333 394 Jj9^ 9y 3
L L i n c l u d e 'wofost.cmn' UW1N bLULK Ul- DMlMBMbt 1MPL1L1I R b W L ( - H , J - 2 ) , l N l b b b R ( l ) LUMHON /H_PNI/LVL,LVU,CVR,LVb,bXL LUMMON /PLMNl/PLKUL^tKRl #PLKb1,U10,KU LUMHON /K.WNT/KMLlKHU,RMKlRHb#KK LUMMON /HLMN1/ 5 L M I b ( 3 0 ) ,5PQ,bbU LUMMON /K.MNl/T^lbbJUW,LKUH1,UVKL1 # U.U,lA.C,DVKL2 # UbL LDHMON / H . M N I / h L T b ( 3 0 ) ,r R l b ( 3 0 ) , b U l B ( 3 0 ) , r b l ti(30) ,bWDF'T3(30) LUMMON / P L M N I / U V R b l B ( 3 0 ) , l b K 4 N i n p e r s o , n p e r v e , p p e r s o , p p e r v e LUMMON /PLUN1/MlRUUC,uptb(30) LUMMON LUMMON LUMMON LOHHON LUMMON LUMMON
L
L /bUIL/LLh.LLUDNN.UD.DRM.UbP /bUIL/hWbf ,hLLh,K0,MHMWX,KDM,b0 /bUlL/bUL.bM0,bOPL,bURKU,ZTMl,ZlMM /bUlL/lbL1,lbL2,Ibbh,21.lbXILL /bUIL/bM,b^L,bM-Lb,bMW,bM10,bbMQX,RlJlbMC6 # 10) /bUlL/DRMINb.nbase.pbase.nrecprec
LUMMON / L L M m L M P I b ( 3 0 ) , R H l N l b ( 1 2 ) , b l 0 T b ( 3 0 ) , b 0 l b ( 3 0 ) . P b b 4 l b ( 3 0 ) LUMMON / L L M I / H b b 3 i e ( 3 0 ) , l b l R R ( 3 0 ) , l L L 4 ( 3 0 ) , I L L 3 I ( 3 0 ) , 1 L L 3 M ( 3 0 ) LUMMON / L L M l / L U P , r a i n d ( 1 2 ) c conroon /div/manf1,mant2,twlv,twst,twso,Ivbasl,stbasl,sobasl 1 lvbas2,stbas2,sobas2lnmaxlpmax,gdur,Ivopt,stopt,soopt,neo,new#
~
336 L tJ n^ 1000 1001 L
2 wusew.wuseo,tsr
LU61LMLX1 LKHNWM,LLMNWM LUMMUN /NHMfcb/LRf*NMM(30),LLMNWM(30)
\^f 0% ^
pbas*pbasexatgen(uptb,gdur)xmant2 nbas*nbaseXafgen(uptb.gdur)Xmant2
477
1004 100b L 1000 L 100/ L 100U 1003 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 101b 101b 101/ 101U 101b 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 102b L 1026 L 102/ L 10243 L 102b 10 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 103/ 1038 1033 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 L 104b 60 104U 104/ 1048 1043 1050 10b1 8764 10b2 10b3 10b4 10bb 10b6 1057 1058 10bb 1000 1061 1062 1063 1064 100b I0b6 106/
it(cropt.eq.4)goto10 non-leguminous crops recsnrec*manf1 nopt*nperve*(Ivoptstopt)*nperso*soopt nwab=nperve*( twlv* twst)+nperso*twso nmaxo*WMPX1(0.,(nopt-nbas)/rec) nmaxw=MMJ~IX1 (0. , (nwab-nbas)/rec) frbaso*amin1(1. ,nbas/nopt) lvbas1=-t rbaso*lvopt stbas1*f rbasotfstopt sobas1*trbasoxsoopt Ivbas2samin1(Ivbasl,twlv) stbas2*amin1lstbas1,twst) sobas2*amin1(sobas1,twso) neo=(nopt-nbas)/rec news(nwab-nbas)/rec goto 60 leguminous crops rec*prec*manf1 popt*pperve*(Ivopt+stopt)*ppersoKsoopt pwab*pperve*(twlv*twst)*pperso*twso pmaxo=amax1(0.,(popt-pbas)/rec) pmaxw=amax1(0.,(pwab-pbas)/rec) t rbaso-aminld ., pbas/popt) lvbas1=frbasoXlvopt stbas1*f rbaso*stopt sobas1=frbasoKsoopt Ivbas2-amin1(Ivbasl# twlv) stbas2=amin1(stbas1,twst) sobas2samin1(sobas1,twso) neo*(popt-pbas)/rec new-(pwab-pbas)/rec continue write(ips,8/b4)nmaxo,pmaxo,nmaxw,pmaxw,nbase,pbase,nrec, prec,ztmi,ztma,neo,new,wuseo,wusew,tsr, LVlF^LVBHO^blUP^blBMbl, bUUPl,6UBM51, IUJLV,1.^61452;IWb'l , b l b W 2 , IU/bU,bUBM52 ,t4.0,/ format(//20x 'nmaxo* ',f4.0,' pmaxos 20x nmaxw*; ,M.0,/ pmaxw= t4.0 20 x pbasnbas - ' ,t4.0,/ f4.0 ' 20x nrec =' precfb.2,/ tb.2 ' 20x ztmi =' ' ztma ,t4.0,/ t4.0 20x npeo' npew ,M.0,/ f4.0 20x wuseos ' t4.1 ' wusews ,t4.1,/ 31 x M.I,// tsr 18x LVUP1* ' t6.0 bx.'LVUMbl ,16.0, bx,/ 18x blUPU ' t6.0 bx,'5IBb1= ,tb.0,bx,/ 18x bUQPT*' t6.0 bx,'bUBM51,f6.0,bx,// 18x 1WLV * t6.0 bx,'LVB52 r ,t6.0,bx,/ ' 18x t6.0 bx,'b!BMb2 * ,t6.0,bx,/ lUJbl -- ' 1Bx t6.0 bx,'bUUMS2 = ,t6.0,bx,/'1'/) TWbO *' return end
1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3
478
BooksalreadypublishedinSimulation Monographs
C.T. de Wit and H. van Keulen. Simulation of transport processes in soils (2nd ed., revised). 1975. 109pp.90-220-0591-7. PriceDfl. 15.00 J. Beck and M.J. Frissel. Simulation of nitrogen behaviour in soils. 1973. 76 pp. ISBN 90-220-0440-6.(outofprint) H.G. Fransz.The functional response topreydensity inanacarinesystem. 1974. 149pp.ISBN 90-220-0509-7. (outofprint) M.J. Frissel and P. Reiniger. Simulation of accumulation and leaching insoils. 1974. 124pp. ISBN90-220-0530-5.(outof print) H.vanKeulen.Simulationofwateruseandherbagegrowthinaridregions. 1975.184pp.ISBN 90-220-0557-7. PriceDfl. 30.00 G.F. Makkink and H.D.J, van Heemst. Simulation of the water balance of arable land and pastures. 1975.87pp.ISBN90-220-0566-6.(outofprint) G.W. Arnold and C.T. de Wit (Eds). Critical evaluation of systems analysis in ecosystems researchandmanagement. 1976.114pp. ISBN90-220-0593-3.(outofprint) J. van den Bos and R. Rabbinge. Simulation of the fluctuations of the grey larch bud moth. 1976.91pp.ISBN90-220-0589-5.(outofprint) R. Rabbinge. Biological control of fruit-tree redspidermite. 1976.234pp.ISBN90-220-0590-8. (outof print) J.Goudriaan. Cropmicrometeorology:asimulation study. 1977.257pp.ISBN90-220-0614-X. PriceDfl.41.00 E. van Elderen. Heuristic strategy for scheduling farm operations. 1977. 233 pp. ISBN 90-220-0612-3.(outofprint) P. Kampmeijer and J.C. Zadoks. EPIMUL, asimulator of foci and epidemics in mixtures of resistant and susceptible plants, mosaics and multilines. 1977. 56 pp. ISBN 90-220-0636-0. (outofprint) T.Kozai,J.GoudriaanandM.Kimura. Lighttransmissionandphotosynthesisingreenhouses. 1978. 105pp.ISBN90-220-0646-8. PriceDfl. 17.00 K.R. Christian et al. Simulation of grazing systems. 1978. 121pp. ISBN 90-220-0645-X. Price Dfl. 19.00 C.T.deWitandJ. Goudriaan.Simulation of ecological processes.(2nded. revisedandextended). 1978. 183pp.ISBN90-220-0652-2.PriceDfl. 23.00 C.T.deWit et al. Simulation of assimilation, respiration and transpiration of crops. 1978.148 PP.ISBN90-220-0601-8.PriceDfl. 23.00 R.A. Feddes, P.J. Kowalik and H. Zaradny.Simulation of field wateruseandcropyield. 1978. 195pp.ISBN90-220-0676-X. PriceDfl. 35.00 S..M.Welchand B.A.Croft. Thedesignof biological monitoringsystemsforpest management. 1979.84pp.ISBN90-220-0687-5. PriceDfl. 26.00 N-D. Barlow and A.F.G. Dixon. Simulation of limeaphid population dynamics. 1980. 171pp. ISBN90-220-0706-5. PriceDfl. 39.00 N- Carter, A.F.G. Dixon and R. Rabbinge. Cereal aphid population biology, simulation and Prediction. 1982.91pp.ISBN90-220-0804-5. PriceDfl. 27.00 F-W.T.Penning de Vriesand H.H. van Laar.Simulation of plant growth andcrop production. 1982.320pp. ISBN90-220-0809-6.PriceDfl. 70.00 D -A. Haith, L.J. Tubbs and N.B. Pickering. Simulation of pollution by soil erosion and soil nutrientloss. 1984.77pp.ISBN90-220-0842-8. PriceDfl.25.00 E -Ng and R.S. Loomis.Simulation of g r o % %thandyield of thepotatocrop. 1984. 147pp.ISBN 90-220-0843-6. PriceDfl. 34.00 S -J.Troester,F.A. Ress,A.S.FelsolandW.G.Ruesink.Modellingof thepersistenceof pesticides appliedtothesoil. 1984. 149pp. ISBN90-220-0844-4. PriceDfl.43.00 M- vanKeulenandJ.Wolf(Eds).Modellingofagriculturalproduction:weathersoilsandcrops. 1986.464pp. ISBN90-220-0858-4. PriceDO. 110.00
479
Thistextbook givesasystems-analytical approach toagricultural production. Four hierarchically ordered production situations aretreated quantitatively. Exerciset are provided, and answers are given elsewhere. The book can beused for coursesindevelopingcountries.Themodelscanbe ,;handled by a pocket calculator.
udocWageningen
ISBN9022008584

Modelling of Agricultural Production

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Modelling of Agricultural Production

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ngo agriculturalproduction: weather,sosandcroos vanKeuenandJ.

Modelling o agriculturalproduction: weather,soilsandcrops

3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3

9.1.5 List of acronyms 10 11 12 13 ANSWERS TOEXERCISES LISTOFSYMBOLS INDEX REFERENCES

Appendix A. Listing of the model

yield <k9 h a ' 1 > -78 ^ ^ hcf'yr -1w.-1 kg

grain yield (kg ha -1 ) 2000-

Africa * Asia(excluding China) South America

PHYSIOLOGICAL PLANT PROPERTIES

LAND QUALITY LEVEL

YIELD PRO- ^SUBSTI TECT- TUTION ING

Figure 3. Schematic representation of the hierarchical analysis procedure.

growth rate (kg h a ^ d " 1 ) 200

total dry weight ( kg ha" 1 ) 200 0 0 -

April individual plants

yiay June ' J u closed crop canopy leaves dying

May June I exponential linear g r o w t h growth . Apri

500 ' visible

1000 1500 I infra-red wavelength(nm)

assimilation (pi cm'V 1 ) assimilation (pi cm'V 1 )

0.1 0.2 03 0.U05 radiation

*' 0.1 02 03 0.4 0.5 radiation -2 (cal cm min"1)

50 100 radiation intensity %

Figure 8. Extinction of radiation in a crop canopy.

10 Fc, F * ov 20 Fc, F * ov 30 FcI F * ov 40 Fc, F x ov 50 F c, F A ov 60 Fc, F * ov 70 Fc, F x

gc = f0Fov + (1- f0) Fcl

Exercise2 RepeatExercise 1 assumingLAI= 1.5

00r>^vo*-<VO<SOOO C N n <N ~-ii

0 0 T t O < N r t O Q Q ONtOOOONOOfSOO 00 ONr-Tt^vo^vocs oo N (S (N ( S H ^

OOOOVOfOON^ONTfO w m ( s (S N ^ ^ VO<NOOOOVOOOVO<SVO n o v o N o o < n m < o v o ^ O N ^ ^ ^ O N t ^ " * ^ ^

o O N ^ o s rn oo so ^ h; O oddc4c4c4ao*v6nvd <Ncococococo<NfN<N<N O v o v o c N o o o o o o r a t S OsoohvoTtTfinONmt^

^OOVOOOOOOV Tfoorrcovovovor^ ON vo r s ONTf ON ^f O O O M M N <-<-H

c4 S O fi VaB < D ^ J-i CO-U

Cropgroup Root/tuber crops cereals protein-richseedcrops oil-richseedcrops

Rm 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.030

Eg 0.75 0J0 0.65 0.50

Table5.Efficiency ofconversion,Eg,ofsubstrate(sugars)intoplantconstituents(kg kg"1). Compound Carbohydrates Nitrogenouscompounds(normalmixofamino-acids, proteinsandnucleicacids)fromNO" fromNH+

Eg 0.826 0.404 0.616 1.104 0.465 0.330

Organicacids Lignin Lipids (Source:PenningdeVries,1975)

accumulated dry matter (kgha -1 )

AW 229 249 228 202

339 374 361 301

560 608 557 493

382 414 380 336

G r a i n Filling + R i p e n i n g Yield Formation (3) Ripening(4)

Establishment ( 0 ) ! Nuffy + F.Sid T r a n s p l a n t ,ng 10 days

Figure 10. Developmental phases of rice. (Source: Doorenbos &Kassam, 1979)

Figure 11.Theinfluence oftemperatureonthelengthofthepre-anthesisphaseforvarious fieldcrops.( ) rye;( o ) wheat;(A)flax;( ) maize;(x)peas.(Source:vanDobben, 1979)

fraction of total dry-matter increase t'Oi ,

fraction of shoot dry-matter increase 1.0

0.5 1.0 development stage

' l o w * r i n g (3) i t - 30 day*

Riparting Vi*id Formation (4)

30June 10 July 20 July

2800 4500 5700

800 2000 3800

fraction of total dry matter increase 1.0

fraction of shoot dry matter increase

stem and sheaths

0.5 1.0 development stage

dry weight (g p l a n t " 1 ) 3000r

1000 1200 U00 weight of whole plant (g)

weight of plant part (g) storage roots 2000

1500 shoot ^^stem

^nt--cscjonr-r^vo rsooO'-iTfoO'Hin'Ht^ <NTtvooot^rovo

o v o r - 0 ^ o o ^ c o o r ^ < s v 0 ' - ^ o | o ** o oomoomvoooooavr^v-><Mmrn I -H vo cs ^ ^ r j c N c o e o c o T f T f c o c o e o e o e n e o en Tt Tf co oo rO n ^ r- C J r ^ OS ' H 1H T f h OO

v o * - r> r^* o co -i r^ n ^ t i o ^ <o 00 o c s j i i ^ - r n v o r - o o o o r - , ^ f ' ^ t- o * t- -< r ~