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Wastewater

treatment in Sweden

Brief history of wastewater disposal


From latrine to water closet. In Swedens larger towns and cities, installation of an entirely novel system of wastewater and sewage disposal began in the late 19th century. Pipes were laid underground to conduct wastewater from kitchens and sewage from water closets (WCs) to the nearest lakes or coastal waters. This disposal system successively replaced the previous method, latrine management, whereby household waste was collected in pits and barrels for subsequent use as fertiliser by the local farmers and, where fertiliser use was not possible, latrines were dug into the ground. The main motive for introducing WCs was to improve sanitary conditions in urban areas. From the 1920s, waterborne systems predominated, first in major cities and in time also in small towns and villages.
Growing pollution problems

Initially, urban and industrial wastewater was discharged in altogether untreated form. Over time, however, problems of polluted lakes, watercourses and coastal areas in Sweden became increasingly severe. Discharged nutrients and oxygen-demanding substances caused hypoxia, fish death and, in some cases, waterborne epidemics. Until the 1940s, water pollution was regarded entirely as a municipal concern and the scope of remedial action was small. Construction of municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWTPs) was slow: in 1940 there were only 15 plants in the country, and by 1955 the number had still only doubled.
1960s a turning point

In the 1960s, eutrophication in the aquatic environment attracted a great deal of attention in Sweden. Many lakes and watercourses around major urban areas had, by then, suffered for decades from the wastewater discharged into them. Lakes became overgrown and algae floated in towards beaches that had previously been ideal for bathing.

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The water was eutrophic; and in some lakes and watercourses heavy metals and other chemicals were also found to be deposited in the sediments, often the legacy of previous industrial activity. Environmental warning bells rang frequently, soon prompting greater state efforts to combat water pollution. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was formed in 1967, new government grants for municipal wastewater treatment were introduced in 1968 and an entirely new piece of legislation, the Environmental Protection Act, came into force in 1969.
Extension of wastewater treatment in 1960s and 70s

Between 1971 and 1979, the Swedish state invested some SEK 1.5 billion (corresponding to approximately SEK 11 billion, i.e. EUR 1 billion, in present-day monetary value) in MWTP construction. In the early 1970s certain industries also received government grants for their environmental conservation measures. These grants were largely used to improve wastewater treatment. Since then, industrial companies with their own wastewater disposal have taken major steps to reduce their effluents. Discharges from properties with on-site wastewater disposal, on the other hand, have shown no corresponding decrease. The extensive measures taken in the 1970s, in particular, made lakes and watercourses noticeably cleaner within just a few years. Bathing beaches reopened and the fish returned.
Treatment of urban wastewater, 19402006

The figure shows technological development at Swedish wastewater treatment works from the 1940s to the present day. Source: Swedish EPA.

Current situation

% 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Sludge removal Tertiary biochemical treatment No treatment

Today, virtually all households in urban areas are connected to municipal sewer networks, and roughly 95% of urban wastewater undergoes both biological and chemical treatment. Major industrial facilities, mines, airports etc carry out their own wastewater treatment.

Chemical treatment
Secondary chemical treatment

Supplementary treatment
Tertiary filtration treatment

Primary treatment

Secondary biological treatment

Special nitrogen removal


Tertiary treatment

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Legislation in Sweden and the EU


In the Water Act of the early 1940s, Sweden introduced regulations on wastewater discharge and made permits obligatory for certain industries. In 1956 a special Act on supervision of lakes and other water areas was passed and a new agency known as the Swedish Water Inspectorate was formed. With the 1969 Environmental Protection Act and the 1999 Swedish Environmental Code, a collection of rules concerning all forms of disturbance and degradation of the outdoor environment came into being. After Sweden joined the European Union in 1995, EU water laws were successively incorporated into Swedish legislation. At the time, there were various directives in the EU covering different categories of water and application areas. In 2000, the decision was taken to adopt a Water Framework Directive that, in the long term, will replace a range of other water-related directives. During 2008, a corresponding directive for the marine environment was adopted. The key water directives are those on bathing waters (76/160/EEC and 2006/7/EC) drinking water (98/83/EC) urban waste water (91/271/EEC) nitrates (91/676/EEC) IPPC (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, 96/61/EC) and also the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC).
The Urban Waste Water Directive

The purpose of the EU Urban Waste Water Directive is to combat damage to the environment caused by wastewater discharges from urban areas and certain industrial processes. The requirements imposed by the Directive include the following: All built-up areas (with reference to their size and location) must have collection systems for wastewater by year-end 1998, 2000 or 2005. The water piped into collection systems must undergo at least secondary treatment. In general, this entails biological treatment or some other process whereby set quality standards can be met. Treated wastewater must meet certain minimum water-quality standards. Wastewater discharges in sensitive areas (waters vulnerable to the effects of nutrient inputs) are subject to stringent requirements concerning effective treatment.

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Sweden has incorporated the Urban Waste Water Directive into Swedish legislation, both in the Environmental Code and in the Swedish EPAs Regulation on treatment of wastewater from urban areas (SNFS 1994:7). There are now, for example, general limit values for concentrations of nitrogen and oxygen-consuming substances in wastewater outflows, and rules on inspection and sampling. Limit values for oxygen-demanding substances apply nationwide, while nitrogen controls apply only to discharges that reach marine and coastal waters between the Norwegian border to the west and Norrtlje (on the Baltic Sea coast NE of Stockholm) to the east. Supplementary inspection rules are contained in the Swedish EPAs Regulation on inspection of discharges to recipient water and land areas from installations for treating wastewater from urban areas (SNFS 1990:14).
Industrial on-site treatment facilities

Discharges from industrial installations with on-site treatment facilities are regulated by means of conditions in permit decisions pursuant to the Environmental Code. In the EU the IPPC Directive requires, for environmental permitting purposes, coordinated assessment of the impact of emissions to air and water from certain major activities in industry, waste management and agriculture. The norms imposed to date are less stringent than those applied in Sweden. When it comes to emissions of certain particularly hazardous substances, there are special limitations in regulations issued by the Swedish EPA (SNFS 1995:7).
Costs of municipal water supply and sanitation

In 2005, costs of running Swedens facilities for water supply and sanitation totalled EUR 1.4 billion, including VAT at 25%. Costs of sewerage, including collection and treatment, make up a somewhat higher share than that represented by drinking-water production and distribution costs. The replacement value of all facilities is an estimated EUR 45 billion, of which infrastructure, i.e. sewerage, accounts for EUR 27 billion (70%). Source: Swedish Water & Wastewater Association, 2008

The 16 Swedish environmental quality objectives


1. Reduced Climate Impact 2. Clean Air 3. Natural Acidification Only 4. A Non-Toxic Environment 5. A Protective Ozone Layer 6. A Safe Radiation Environment 7. Zero Eutrophication 8. Flourishing Lakes and Streams 9. Good-Quality Groundwater 10. A Balanced Marine Environment, Flourishing Coastal Areas and Archipelagos 11. Thriving Wetlands 12. Sustainable Forests 13. A Varied Agricultural Landscape 14. A Magnificent Mountain Landscape 15. A Good Built Environment 16. A Rich Diversity of Plant and Animal Life www.miljomal.se/Environmental-Objectives-Portal

The national environmental quality objectives describe the quality of the environment that characterises a sustainable society. Fifteen of the objectives were adopted by Swedens Parliament (the Riksdag) in 1999 and the last (on biodiversity) was added in 2005. Each environmental quality objective is specified in one or more interim targets, which reveal whether Sweden is heading in the right direction. The Riksdag adopted interim targets and action strategies in November 2001 (Govt. Bill 2000/01:130). Several of the environmental quality objectives are connected with wastewater treatment. The following five are particularly important.

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4. A Non-Toxic Environment The environment must be free from man-made or extracted compounds and metals that represent a threat to human health or biological diversity.

7. Zero Eutrophication Nutrient levels in soil and water must not be such that they adversely affect human health, the conditions for biological diversity or the possibility of varied use of land and water. The Riksdag has laid down the following two interim targets for emissions to water. 2 By 2010 Swedish waterborne anthropogenic emissions of phosphorus compounds into lakes, streams and coastal waters will have decreased by at least 20% from 1995 levels. The largest reductions will be achieved in the most sensitive areas. 2 By 2010 Swedish waterborne anthropogenic emissions of nitrogen compounds into sea areas south of the land Sea will have been reduced by at least 30% compared with 1995 levels.

8. Flourishing Lakes and Streams Lakes and watercourses must be ecologically sustainable and that their highly variable habitats must be preserved.

10. A Balanced Marine Environment, Flourishing Coastal Areas and Archipelagos The seas around Sweden must have a sustainable productive capacity and their biological diversity must be preserved.

15. A Good Built Environment Cities, towns and other built-up areas must provide a good, healthy living environment and contribute to a good regional and global environment. Natural and cultural assets must be protected and developed. Buildings and amenities must be located and designed in accordance with sound environmental principles and in such a way as to promote sustainable management of land, water and other resources. This environmental objective is supported by a range of interim targets, including the following on phosphorus in wastewater: 2 By 2015 at least 60% of phosphorus compounds present in wastewater will be recovered for use on productive land. At least half of this amount should be returned to arable land.

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Discharges from municipal treatment plants


Nutrient discharges in Sweden increased sharply up to the 1960s owing to the extension of municipal sewer networks. The late 1960s and 70s therefore saw the construction of a system of modern treatment plants for removal of phosphorus and organic substances. A major fall in such discharges then ensued. Since the mid-1980s, the plants have been supplemented with new removal methods involving nitrogen reduction as well. These maps show discharges of the substances from MWTPs, per sea basin, in 2006. The largest quantities of nitrogen and organic substances are discharged in the Baltic Proper basin, while phosphorus discharges are roughly equal in the Kattegat and the Baltic Proper. Quantities entering the Skagerrak, being small, hardly show on the figure. The removal rate for phosphorus and the biological oxygen demand (BOD) load has been around 95% for the past decade. For nitrogen, the removal rate is considerably lower but has improved during this period for the larger treatment plants with recipients vulnerable to nitrogen. On average, for the whole of Sweden, this rate was just under 60% in 2006.

Nitrogen (Ntot) tonnes 30 000 25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5 000 0 1940 50 60 70 80 90 95 00 05 10
4 673 4 673 4 673 338 338 338 Skagerrak Skagerrak Skagerrak Kattegat Kattegat 992 992 Kattegat 992 resund resund resund 7 684 7 684 7 684

Nitrogen in 2006, tonnes Nitrogen in 2006, tonnes Nitrogen in 2006, tonnes


3 544 3 544 3 544 1 166 1 166 1 166 Bothnian Bay Bay Bothnian Bothnian Bay Bothnian Sea Sea Bothnian Bothnian Sea

BalticBaltic Proper Proper Baltic Proper

Phosphorus (Ptot) tonnes 8 000 7 000 6 000 5 000 4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0 1940 50 60 70 80 90 95 00 05 10
9 9 Skagerrak Skagerrak Skagerrak 38 38 Kattegat 38Kattegat Kattegat resund resund resund 9 113 113 113 125 125 125

Phosphorus in 2006, tonnes Phosphorus in 2006, tonnes Phosphorus in 2006, tonnes


53 53 53

16

16 16

Bothnian Sea Sea Bothnian Bothnian Sea

Bothnian Bay Bay Bothnian Bothnian Bay

BalticBaltic Proper Proper Baltic Proper

Organic substances (BOD7) tonnes 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0 1940

BODBOD tonnes 2006, tonnes 7 in 2006, 7 in BOD 7 in 2006, tonnes


2 719 2 719 2 719 2 533 2 533 2 533 158 158 158 Skagerrak Skagerrak Skagerrak 661 661 Kattegatt Kattegatt 661 Kattegatt resund resund resund 1 577 1 577 1 577 651 651 651 Bothnian Bay Bay Bothnian Bothnian Bay

Bothnian Sea Sea Bothnian Bothnian Sea

50

60

70

80

90 95 00 05 10

BalticBaltic Proper Proper Baltic Proper

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Treatment plants as emission sources


Swedish wastewater treatment plants currently achieve a good and steadily rising removal rate of nutrients. However, discharges from wastewater disposal systems are still a substantial source of eutrophying substances (phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter) in Swedish waters. Discharges of these substances have decreased considerably over the past few decades. The diagrams below, summarising anthropogenic nitrogen and phosphorus emissions in 2006, show that agriculture is the largest source while the share derived from treatment plants is just under 25% for both nitrogen and phosphorus. Municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWTPs) receive mainly wastewater from urban areas, while permanent or holiday homes in rural areas often have their own stand-alone (local or on-site) installations for wastewater disposal. In Sweden some 750,000 properties are not connected to MWTPs. Disposal standards in these areas are highly variable and only some 60% of installations are estimated as meeting standards complying with the Environmental Codes requirements. Today, the amount of phosphorus released from local wastewater disposal is more than half that of the total amount discharged by MWTPs. To deal with these discharges, the Swedish EPA has drawn up general recommendations concerning small-scale local installations for wastewater disposal. Many municipalities are currently engaged in systematic work to bring about improvements and devise action strategies.
Metals and other contaminants

Many chemicals in use today end up in sewers and are found in wastewater and sewage sludge (see page 14). Metals mostly remain in sludge, and quantities of metals in water outflows are therefore relatively small. The total amount of cadmium discharged to water from treatment plants annually is some 100 kg; the corresponding figure for mercury is 60 kg. The heaviest discharges of mercury are those previously emitted to air and accumulated in forest land. The heaviest cadmium discharges come from atmospheric deposition and fertilisers in farmland. MWTPs also receive minor quantities of solvents and small amounts of more or less persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as nonylphenol, brominated flame retardants, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobenzene and dioxins. Several POPs are used in industry or found in household products. Nonylphenol, for example, is banned in the EU but reaches us in imported textiles. Drugs flushed into sewers cause several types of problem; many are not readily degraded and,

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despite their low levels, affect aquatic organisms. This problem is discussed in the Swedish EPAs Report 5794 (Wastewater Treatment Plants Capacity to Dispose of Pharmaceutical Residues and Other Hazardous Substances, in Swedish, Avloppsreningsverkens frmga att ta hand om lkemedelsrester och andra farliga mnen, with a summary in English). At the Pharmaceutical Specialities in Sweden (FASS) drug portal www.fass.se, a tentative environmental pharmaceutical classification is available for patients, doctors and interested members of the public.

Nitrogen discharges (tonnes/year) in 2006

On-site wastewater disposal 2 % Forestry 4 % Industry 6 %

Storm water from urban areas 1 %

Athmospheric deposition 19 %

Agriculture 44 %

Phosphorus discharges (tonnes/year) in 2006

Municipal wastewater treatment plants 24 %


Total: 85,800 tonnes/year

Storm water from urban areas 5 % On-site wastewater disposal 12 %

Forestry 4%

Industry 17 %

Agriculture 45 %

Municipal wastewater treatment plants 20 %


Source: Swedish EPA Report 5815. Total: 2,080 tonnes/year

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Discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants with loads exceeding 10,000 population equivalents (pe) in 2006.
Compliant: meets Urban Waste Water Directive (91/271/EEC) requirements. Non-compliant: does not meet Urban Waste Water Directive (91/271/EEC) requirements.

Organic matter (BOD7)

Phosphorus (Ptot)

Greater Gothenburg

Greater Stockholm

Greater Gothenburg

Greater Stockholm

Greater Malm

Quantity of BOD7 discharged, tonnes, 2006


1 10 100 1,000

Greater Malm

Quantity of phosphorus discharged, tonnes, 2006


0.01 1

100

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Compliant: affects sensitive marine areas (nitrogen) and meets Urban Waste Water Directive (91/271/EEC) requirements. Non-compliant: affects sensitive marine areas (nitrogen) and does not meet Urban Waste Water Directive (91/271/EEC) requirements. Not relevant: does not affect sensitive marine areas. These are: (a) treatment plants that drain into the Bothnian Bay or Bothnian Sea, and (b) other, small inland plants where, because of retention, the quantity of nitrogen reaching a sensitive marine area does not exceed 20 tonnes.

Nitrogen (Ntot)

Nitrogen limits for discharges into sensitive marine areas The maximum allowable concentrations of nitrogen (Ntot) in effluents are: 210 mg/l for wastewater treat- ment plants with loads exceeding 100,000 pe 215 mg/l for wastewater treatment plants with loads of 10,000100,000 pe. Alternatively, a removal rate of at least 70% is required for nitrogen. In exceptional cases the requirements are applied collectively to a few geographically close plants.

Greater Gothenburg

Greater Stockholm

Greater Malm

Quantity of nitrogen discharged, tonnes, 2006


10 100 1,000

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Number of plants, amounts (tonnes) and concentrations

Number of plants, amounts (tonnes) and concentrations (mg/l) of BOD7, phosphorus and nitrogen and in outflow from municipal waste ater treatment plants designed for more than 2000 persons. Data from 2006, distributed by plant size, treatment method, position and catchment area.

No of treatment plants 2,000 10,000 100,000 10,000 100,000 Treatment method Biological 3 2 0 Chemical 39 9 0 Biochemical 215 101 6 Supplementary 14 11 1 Nitrogen removal 13 49 12 Inland 217 113 8 Bothnian Bay 12 3 0 Bothnian Sea 57 16 1 Baltic Proper 75 49 5 resund 5 5 1 Kattegat 66 40 1 Skagerrak 2 0 0 Coast 67 59 11 Bothnian Bay 6 5 0 Bothnian Sea 20 13 1 Baltic Proper 21 24 5 resund 1 3 2 Kattegat 4 8 3 Skagerrak 15 6 0 Total 2006 284 172 19 Total 2004 289 170 20 Total 2002 289 170 20 Total 2000 289 169 20

Organic substances (BOD7) Quantity Conc Quantity Conc Quantity Conc (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) Treatment method Biological 24 17.9 38 7.6 Chemical 482 28.4 392 12.4 Biochemical 899 7.4 2,043 7.5 612 7 Supplementary 51 8.2 72 4.3 60 2.4 Nitrogen removal 56 7 710 3.8 2,861 6.2 Inland Bothnian Bay Bothnian Sea Baltic Proper resund Kattegat Skagerrak Coast Bothnian Bay Bothnian Sea Baltic Proper resund Kattegat Skagerrak Total,2006, Total,2004, Total,2002 Total,2000, 1,196 10.3 173 31.1 482 16.8 285 7.3 7 2.9 243 6.2 5 4.1 316 8.4 57 27.6 85 7.9 76 6 2 3 27 8.9 69 8.2 1,512 9.8 1,480 10.0 1,784 11.3 1,674 9.5 2,004 6.4 136 12.4 410 11.9 687 4.9 43 2.5 728 6.5 1,251 285 412 355 53 62 84 3,254 3,127 3,128 4,605 6.3 1.3 8.2 5.1 3.4 2.7 5.1 6.4 7.0 6.4 8.3 521 36 391 19 76 4.8 4.7 4.9 3.8 4.6

3,011 6.5 152 11.6 740 3.1 536 8.4 1 583 10.4 3,533 3,081 3,247 3,505 6.1 5.4 5.6 5.6

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Phosphorus (Ptot) Nitrogen (Ntot) 2,00010,000 10,001100,000 100,001 2,00010,000 10,001100,000 100,001 Quantity Conc Quantity Conc Quantity Conc Quantity Conc Quantity Conc Quantity Conc (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) (tonnes) (mg/l) Treatment method Biological 0.3 0.2 2.4 0.5 26 20 63 12.8 Chemical 5.2 0.3 7.2 0.2 395 23.3 732 23.1 Biochemical 35.3 0.3 85.4 0.3 23.6 0.3 2,178 17.9 5,511 20.2 1,930 22 Supplementary 2.5 0.4 3.2 0.2 17 0.7 155 24.8 343 20.7 201 8.2 Nitrogen removal 2.6 0.3 45.1 0.2 132.1 0.3 102 12.8 2,295 12.4 4,466 9.7 Inland (total) 34.5 0.3 75.5 0.2 21.6 0.2 2,189 18.8 5,684 18.1 1,847 Bothnian Bay 2 0.4 4.1 0.4 123 22 236 21.5 . Bothnian Sea 9.9 0.3 10.3 0.3 2.4 0.3 604 21 928 27 199 Baltic Proper 11.9 0.3 26.2 0.2 15.1 0.2 736 18.8 2,340 16.8 1,355 resund 0.4 0.1 3 0.2 0.4 0.1 49 19.3 181 10.3 59 Kattegat 10.1 0.3 32 0.3 3.8 0.2 660 16.8 1,999 17.9 233 Skagerrak 0.3 0.2 17 13.5 Coast (total) 11.4 0.3 67.8 0.3 151.1 0.3 667 17.8 3,260 16.5 4,751 Bothnian Bay 0.6 0.3 9.1 0.4 62 29.6 747 34.2 Bothnian Sea 2.6 0.2 21.5 0.4 6.4 0.5 165 15.2 1,097 21.8 551 Baltic Proper 2.7 0.2 19.9 0.3 49.2 0.2 232 18.6 909 12.9 2,110 resund 0.2 0.3 4.7 0.3 29.2 0.5 6 7.8 118 7.5 579 Kattegat 1.3 0.4 7.8 0.3 66.3 0.4 60 20.1 211 9.2 1,511 Skagerrak 4 0.5 4.8 0.3 142 17 178 10.9 Total 2006 46 0.3 143.3 0.3 172.7 0.3 2,855 18.5 8,944 17.5 6,598 Total 2004 45 0.3 126 0.3 147 0.3 2,794 18.9 8,521 18.1 6,464 Total 2002 47 0.3 141 0.3 163 0.3 2,711 17.1 8,595 17.5 6,730 Total,2000 57 0.3 178 0.3 188 0.3 2,796 15.9 9,283 16.6 6,898 17 . 26 17 11.9 14. 10.2 41.9 8.9 9.1 9.9 11.5 11.4 11.6 11.0

Biological = secondary biological treatment Chemical = secondary chemical treatment Biological-chemical = tertiary treatment

Supplementary = tertiary filtration treatment Nitrogen removal = tertiary nitrogen-removal treatment

Treatment methods

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Treatment methods
Wastewater treatment plants in Sweden usually combine various means of mechanical, biological and chemical treatment. The process invariably begins with some form of mechanical removal of solids. Thereafter, the most frequent combinations in treatment plants are: biological treatment chemical treatment biological-chemical treatment (conventional three-stage treatment) biological-chemical treatment with a special nitrogen removal stage biological-chemical treatment with supplementary treatment (e.g. filtering).
Mechanical treatment

In this stage of treatment, large solids are removed: grit (stones, sand and gravel), pieces of wood, paper, hair, textiles and plastic. This takes place by means of screening, the use of sand catchers and presedimentation: The screens catch rags and other coarse debris that would otherwise clog up pumps or cause problems in the rest of the treatment process. A sand catcher consists of a basin-like chamber with a pocket to collect grit and other particles that, owing to their weight, easily sink to the bottom. The particles that settle on the bottom are extracted with pumps and the solids from the sand catcher are transported to a landfill. In presedimentation, particles that have not been caught in the screen or sand catcher and need removing before the subsequent biochemical treatment are extracted. The heavier particles sink to the bottom, where scrapers collect them and push them into a sludge pocket, from where the sludge is pumped for sludge treatment.
Chemical treatment

The chemical stage mainly involves removing phosphorus from the wastewater. This is done by adding precipitating chemicals based on aluminium or iron that cause the dissolved phosphorus to precipitate. After flocculation (see below) the sludge is separated by means, for example, of sedimentation. Some 90% of the phosphorus is thus removed.

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Biological treatment

Biological treatment makes use of microorganisms, mainly bacteria, which feed on the organic matter left in the wastewater after the mechanical treatment. Some 90% of this organic matter, which is largely dissolved in the wastewater, is removed from the water. Approximately 20% of the nitrogen is consumed by the microorganisms, which undergo flocculation, i.e. form clumps or flocs, which are then separated in sedimentation basins (the activated sludge process).
Nitrogen removal

In certain wastewater treatment plants nitrogen, too, can be removed in the biological stage. Nitrogen removal is a relatively complicated process and is therefore more common in large wastewater treatment plants (>10,000 pe) discharging into sensitive recipients. Transporting the water between different basins, some with oxygen and others without, generates favourable environments for various kinds of microorganisms. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrate if oxygen is present. Thereafter, in anoxic conditions, denitrifying bacteria can convert nitrate into nitrogen gas. Normally, the whole process of nitrogen removal is expected to involve removing some 5075% of the nitrogen.
Filtration

Filtration, a final stage of treatment, is carried out to boost the degree of purification in wastewater treatment plants with particularly stringent treatment requirements. It involves the removal of sludge and particles that have not previously sunk to the bottom in the sedimentation basins.

Screens Wastewater

Sandcatcher

Presedimentation

Stirring and aeration

Sedimentation

agents

Mechanical treatment

Biological treatment

Chemical treatment
Flocculation Sedimentation Treated water

Removal of large solids

Sand

Sludge

Sludge

Precipitating

Sludge

Sludge

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Restoring wastewater nutrients to the soil


In a sustainable society, the nutrients contained in wastewater should be reused. Presentday agriculture is not self-supporting when it comes to plant nutrients and, accordingly, has a large annual requirement of raw phosphate and other substances in commercial fertiliser. If the plant nutrients found in wastewater can be returned to farmland, they can form part of a natural cycle, enabling money to be saved and the environment spared. If nutrients end up in the wrong place, one risk is substantial eutrophication. In wastewater treatment plants the phosphorus in sewage sludge, in particular, is collected and can be used to fertilise fields or other land in need of fertilisation. For sewage sludge to be restored to the land, it must not contain such substances as heavy metals or organic contaminants in excess. Swedens wastewater treatment plants are built to remove plant nutrients from the water phase and bind them in sludge, but the removal methods are not intended to dispose of hazardous substances. The latter generally pass through the system and reach lakes and seas; there they may affect the benthic fauna and fish, for example. Sometimes, toxic substances also kill the organisms contained in the basins at wastewater treatment plants causing problems in the removal. Some substances may also remain in the sludge and thus be spread on farmland.
poluttants in sewage sludge

Undesired substances may also reach wastewater treatment plants via storm water. Much of the heavy metals that enter these plants comes from road transport tyres, brakes and carwash facilities, for example. Work is therefore under way to separate storm water from other wastewater or purify it before it is allowed to enter the flow. Researchers consider that the risks entailed by undesired substances in sludge are small for human beings, animals and plants. Nevertheless, there is concern about the effects that more or less unknown substances may have. Perfluorooctane sulphonates (PFOS), which belong to the category of substances that are resistant to biodegradation, are an example of substances alien to nature that have been detected in the environment relatively recently. The figures show that the quality of sewage sludge in Sweden has improved in the past few decades. Nonetheless, a great deal of work remains to be done before the sludge is free from undesired substances. Silver and triclosan are substances increasingly used

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for antibacterial purposes, and this means that high levels in sludge pose risks. Alongside the continued improvement in sludge quality, there is scope for restoring nutrients by separating urine and WC water from solid matter, and also for recovering the nutrients in and extracting contaminants from sludge. Since pathogens may occur in various fractions of sewage, there is a need for hygienisation to take place before sludge is used on land.

Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium, nickel, zinc and copper) in sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants, 19872006. Median values for plants dimensioned for 20,001100,000 pe. Limit values for heavy metal content in sludge are indicated by dotted lines.

mg/kg dry matter 3,0

mg/kg dry matter 100

mg/kg dry matter

800 700

2,5

80

600
Zinc

2,0 Mercury 1,5 Cadmium 1,0


20 Chromium Nickel 40 60 Lead

500 400 300


Copper

200 100 0 87

0,5 0,0 87 90 92 95 98 00 02

06

0 87 90 92

95

98 00 02

06

90 92

95

98 00 02

06

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Monitoring environmental status


Discharges from MWTPs and industrial facilities affect the environment on varying scales, from the local watercourse to the whole Baltic or North Sea. To determine where a load originates, all discharges affecting a particular body of water (the recipient) can be quantified. Pollution in small lakes, sea inlets or bays can commonly be linked to specific sources, but the larger the recipient, the harder it is to specify the sources. Winds, currents and atmospheric deposition have a major bearing on the distribution of various substances in the marine environment.
Recipient monitoring

All activities with permits under the Swedish Environmental Code, including treatment plants, carry out operator self-monitoring. This usually involves inspecting the facilities themselves; their handling of chemicals and management of waste; and their emissions to water and air. In some cases, it also involves carrying out measurements in the recipient. All these data are reported in annual environmental reports, such as those available at www.stockholmvatten.se (in Swedish). Stockholm Vatten, a municipal limited company (which produces Stockholms drinking water, treats wastewater and operates sewer networks), is the principal for several treatment plants in the Stockholm area. Since the early 1980s, jointly with other municipalities with discharges into the Stockholm archipelago, it has run a recipient monitoring programme. In many cases, monitoring of major watercourses, lakes and coastal areas is conducted through the agency of local water conservation associations. These associations members are usually municipalities, industrial companies and trade organisations. The Lake Vnern water quality association is an example of one engaged in coordinated operator self-monitoring; see www.vanern.se (in Swedish).
Environmental monitoring

In Sweden, state-funded environmental monitoring is in progress to document the overall state of, and changes in, the environment. Results show whether the environmental protection measures implemented are bringing about the desired improvements, and whether Sweden is attaining its set environmental quality objectives. The Swedish EPA is responsible for nationwide environmental monitoring, which is divided into various programme areas, Freshwater being one and Seas and Coastal Areas another; see www. naturvardsverket.se/en/In-English/Menu/State-of-the-environment/Environmentalmonitoring/. The EPA is also in charge of coordinating the regional environmental monitoring that is otherwise organised by the county administrative boards. Regional

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monitoring of surface water has been partly changed: since 2007, monitoring of water status has been at the water-district level, pursuant to the Water Framework Directive and the Swedish Ordinance on Water Quality Management.
EPA screening programme

Many of the chemical substances found in society at large end up in sewers and treatment plants. The amounts of heavy metals discharged, at least, are regularly monitored within the obligatory inspection programmes. The numerous organic contaminants, on the other hand, are not analysed regularly because doing so would be both difficult and costly. In addition, new chemical substances are appearing all the time. The Swedish EPA therefore has a special programme with campaign-type sampling and analysis of new environmental pollutants and pharmaceutical residues, in particular. This screening programme makes it possible to carry out spot checks to see how far these substances occur in the environment, what their sources are and whether human beings are at risk of exposure to them. Sludge, sediments and wastewater from industry and MWTPs are usually sampled, since they collect pollutants from many sources.
Bathing water

Discharges can affect bathing-water quality. For the treatment plants, it may be a matter of overflows, when untreated water is released in conjunction with heavy inflows. Under the Bathing Water Directive, Sweden is obliged to monitor all the major bathing waters nationwide. The Swedish EPA bears overall responsibility for this monitoring, and since 2001 the Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control has, on the EPAs behalf, provided advice and information for sampling agencies, municipalities, the public and the media, and supervised the reporting of results. For more information (in Swedish) about water quality in Swedens bathing waters, see the Institutes portal, http://badplatsen. smittskyddsinstitutet.se

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Eutrophication a key issue


Eutrophication is due to inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus that are excessive in relation to natural status. There are two primary causes of eutrophication of lakes and watercourses: leaching of phosphorus from arable land and discharges from wastewater treatment and industrial facilities. Storm water and rural on-site wastewater disposal also account for substantial shares of phosphorus emissions (see figure on page 8). Both phosphorus and nitrogen can affect the marine environment, depending on which substance is in relatively short supply for algal production.
Sensitive areas

Within the Urban Waste Water Directive Sweden has identified as sensitive those areas that are affected by, or at risk of, eutrophication in the absence of remedial action. Every water area in Sweden (including coastal areas) has been identified as vulnerable to the impact of phosphorus emissions; and the coastal areas from the municipality of Norrtlje to the Norwegian border, i.e. the Baltic Proper and the straits of resund, Kattegat and Skagerrak, have been assessed as vulnerable to the impact of nitrogen emissions. Throughout Sweden, particularly strict requirements concerning removal of phosphorus in treatment plants apply. Improved nitrogen removal is required in South Sweden, for MWTPs with coastal discharges corresponding to more than 10,000 person equivalents. For the purposes of environmental permitting or supervision of treatment plants, requirements concerning nitrogen removal at small MWTPs or in other recipients can be imposed pursuant to Chapter 2, Section 3 of the Environmental Code.
Marine environment

A great deal of attention has been paid to the environmental status of the seas surrounding Sweden in recent years. For the Baltic Sea, eutrophication is regarded as perhaps the biggest problem. Levels of both nitrogen and phosphorus in seawater are higher than they were 5060 years ago and the problem of anoxic sea bottoms in non-coastal Baltic areas has become not less but more severe, despite substantial measures to date. Attitudes concerning the implications of reducing nitrogen and phosphorus discharges have also changed. Some researchers have questioned the usefulness of nitrogen removal in the wastewater treatment plants along the Baltic coasts, since natural inputs due to nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere are massive. Nitrogen fixation is carried out by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), which are favoured by an ample supply of phosphorus in the water, a high temperature and a low water turnover. Where nitroISBN 978-91-620-8416-5. Print: CM Gruppen, Stockholm, 09-09. Production: Swedish EPA. Design and coverphoto: P. Hnig. Photo: Page 1, 2, 16 T. Kyrklund, p 5 U. Nyln/BLR-fotograferna, p 8 SYVAB, Himmerfjrdsverket, p 21 M. Nedinge, p 22 B. Ekberg/Megapix. Graphics: A. Orrgrd/SCB (p 6-7 T. Flygar and p 23 SMHI).

gen levels are low, cyanobacteria also have a competitive advantage in relation to non-nitrogen fixing algae. Reducing nitrogen in relation to phosphorus inputs could thus encourage cyanobacteria even more since, at worst, their nitrogen fixation may eliminate the benefits of reducing nitrogen emissions. The complex connection between algal blooms and emissions of eutrophying substances is analysed in various publications, including the Swedish EPAs Monitor 19 (Change Beneath the Surface An In-Depth Look at Swedens Marine Environment) and the 2005 report (in Swedish) on the environmental status of the Baltic Proper (Miljtillstndet i Egentliga stersjn 2005, including English summaries) from the Stockholm Marine Research Centre (www.smf.su.se). In 2005, the Swedish EPA commissioned a panel of foreign researchers to evaluate the current eutrophication status of the seas surrounding Sweden. This expert panel concluded in its report that the connections between the measures under way and changes in marine environmental status are complex. The panels main recommendation was to step up efforts to reduce phosphorus inputs to the Baltic Proper, given the conditions both out at sea and along the coast. However, the panel members disagreed on whether nitrogen removal was worthwhile. For the Skagerrak and Kattegat, their recommendation was to focus on reducing nitrogen inputs, given that cyanobacteria problems were less widespread in those areas. Regarding phosphorus emissions, the panel noted that Sweden had already taken major steps to reduce releases from point sources and that it is, in the long term, inputs from land use that must be reduced. The Swedish EPA has analysed the expert panels conclusions in a report of its own (No. 5587, Eutrophication of Swedens Coasts and Seas [vergdning av Sveriges kuster och hav, with a summary in English]).

Bothnian Bay

Bothnian Sea

Skagerrak

Kattegat Baltic Proper resund

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Wastewater disposal has metamorphosed from a solution to a local sanitary problem into an international environmental issue. This publication describes how treatment of wastewater from urban areas has evolved in Sweden. The report is issued pursuant to Article 16 of Council Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban wastewater treatment, often known as the Urban Waste Water Directive. This Directive covers all wastewater collected in sewer networks, but quantitative controls are imposed only on the treatment plants that serve more than 2,000 people. In Sweden, this corresponds to some 450 installations.

Swedish EPA SE-106 48 Stockholm. Visiting address: Stockholm - Valhallavgen 195, stersund - Forskarens vg 5 hus Ub, Kiruna - Kaserngatan 14. Tel: +46 8-698 10 00, fax: +46 8-20 29 25, e-mail: registrator@naturvardsverket.se Internet: www.naturvardsverket.se Orders Ordertel: +46 8-505 933 40, orderfax: +46 8-505 933 99, e-mail: natur@cm.se Address: CM Gruppen, Box 110 93, SE-161 11 Bromma. Internet: www.naturvardsverket.se/bokhandeln

ISBN 978-91-620-8416-5

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