Table of Contents

4. Water Purification Works .................................................................................................. 3

4-1 The Purpose of Water Purification ............................................................................................ 3
4-2 Methods of Water Purification ................................................................................................. 3
4-2-1 Plain sedimentation ......................................................................................................... 3
4-2-2 Coagulation ................................................................................................................... 4
4-2-3 Filtration ....................................................................................................................... 4
4-2-4 Disinfection .................................................................................................................... 4
5. Sedimentation .................................................................................................................... 7
5-1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 7
5-2 Settling Velocity of Particles ................................................................................................... 8
5-3 Sedimentation Behavior ......................................................................................................... 9
5-3-1 Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Basin................................................................................ 9
5-4 Factors Affecting Sedimentation ............................................................................................. 11
5-5 Methods Of Cleaning Settling Tanks ........................................................................................ 12
6. Coagulation and Flocculation ......................................................................................... 16
6-1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 16
6-2 Colloidal Behavior ............................................................................................................... 17
6-3 Mechanism of Coagulation .................................................................................................... 19
6-4 Coagulants 19
6-4-1 Aluminum Sulphate (Alum) ............................................................................................... 20
6-4-2 Others ......................................................................................................................... 20
6-4-3 Chemical Dosing Plant ..................................................................................................... 22
6-5 Mixing and Flocculation ........................................................................................................ 22
6-5-1 Mixing ......................................................................................................................... 23
6-5-2 Flocculation .................................................................................................................. 24
6-6 Clariflocculator ................................................................................................................... 25
7. Filtration ............................................................................................................................ 27
7-1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 27
7-2 Theory of Filtration .............................................................................................................. 27
7-3 Factors Affecting Filtration .................................................................................................... 29
7-4 Slow Sand Filters (S.S.F.) ...................................................................................................... 29
7-4-1 The Advantages of S.S.F. ................................................................................................. 30
7-4-2 The Disadvantages of S.S.F. as Compared with R.S.F ............................................................... 30
7-4-3 Operation of S.S.F ........................................................................................................... 30
7-4-4 Quality of Filtered Water from S.S.F ................................................................................... 32
7-5 Rapid Sand Filters Gravity Type (R.S.F) ................................................................................ 32
7-5-1 Operation of RS.F ........................................................................................................... 32
7-5-2 Washing of R.S.F ............................................................................................................ 32
7-5-3 Quality of Filtered Water .................................................................................................. 33
8. Water Disinfection ............................................................................................................ 35
8-1 The Purpose of Water Disinfection .......................................................................................... 35
8-2 Chlorination ....................................................................................................................... 35
8-2-1 Chlorine Gas.................................................................................................................. 36
8-2-2 Bleaching Powder ........................................................................................................... 37
8-2-3 Hypochiorites (M.T.H.) ..................................................................................................... 37
8-3 Ozonization ........................................................................................................................ 38
8-4 Ultra-Violet Rays:................................................................................................................ 38
8-5 Other Sterilizing Agents ........................................................................................................ 39


4. Water Purification Works

t is obvious that none of the natural waters so available are absolutely fit for
potable use. It is therefore necessary to subject any type of water to certain
suitable processes of purification rendering it safe for human consumption,
pleasing to the senses and suitable for ordinary domestic and industrial uses.

4-1 The Purpose of Water Purification
a- To improve the physical characteristics of water by removing turbidity, color,
odor and taste in order to render it more appealing and potable.
b- To destroy any contained bacteria, especially pathogenic bacteria to make the
water safe for use from the hygienic point of view.
c- Occasionally the chemical composition of water has to be changed such as:
- Removal of hardness.
- Removal of iron and manganese salts.
- Removal of excessive amounts of gases or salts soluble in water.

4-2 Methods of Water Purification
The method of purification necessary depends on the quality of water and the
purpose for which the supply is to be used. Relationship between particle size,
classification of impurities in natural waters and treatment unit processes are
presented in Figs. (4-1 and 4-2). In general there are nine well-known processes
for water purification.
4-2-1 Plain sedimentation
Or presetting when raw water is loaded by high suspended matter content.
Chapter
4
I


4-2-2 Coagulation
To remove suspended particles and colloidal color. Some other components are
also removed via their adsorption on coagulant products or via chemical reaction,
e.g. removal of phosphate.
4-2-3 Filtration
a- Through sand beds to remove suspended matter, bacteria which escaped the
previous steps.
b- Through carbon beds to remove refractory organics, which escape the preceding
steps, via adsorption mechanisms.
4-2-4 Disinfection
To destroy remaining bacteria and viruses and to give safeguard against probable
contamination introduced along distribution systems.




F
i
g
.

(
4
-
1
)

f
l
o
w

d
i
a
g
r
a
m

i
n

s
l
o
w

s
a
n
d

f
i
l
t
e
r

t
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t

p
l
a
n
t

f
o
r

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

w
a
t
e
r





F
i
g
.

(
4
-
2
)

f
l
o
w

d
i
a
g
r
a
m

i
n

s
l
o
w

s
a
n
d

f
i
l
t
e
r

t
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t

p
l
a
n
t

f
o
r

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

w
a
t
e
r






5. Sedimentation

5-1 Introduction
edimentation is a physical treatment process where by suspended particles of a
density greater than that of a liquid medium are removed. This process may be
described simply in allowing the suspended particles to settle by their own
weight. The possibility of such settlement assumes that these particles are of
higher specific gravity than that of liquid containing them and only need time
enough to settle. A certain quantity is of less specific gravity than liquid, this rises
to the surface and can therefore also be separated from the liquid. Some
suspended matter is of precisely the same specific gravity as liquid, in which case
it will incline neither to sink nor to rise according to the conditions of
sedimentation.
For a quiescent condition a particle of greater density will move vertically
downward because of gravity. It will accelerate until the frictional resistance of
the fluid equal the gravity force, and therefore the vertical velocity will remain
constant. The final velocity is known as the settling velocity which is a function
of size and shape of the particle, the drag coefficient, the density and viscosity of
liquid, and specific gravity of the particle. The specific gravity of suspended
particles is one of the most important factors affecting settling velocity. Particles
that have a high specific gravity will settle out more quickly than those
approaching values of water and also the viscosity of water a factor influencing
settling velocity. Since viscosity depends on temperature, warm water is less
viscous than cold water. As a result, particles causing turbidity will settle out
much more quickly in summer months than in winter.
Chapter
5
S


5-2 Settling Velocity of Particles
When a granular particle is left alone in a liquid at rest, it is subjected to a motion
force (W), and to a resistant force (R), the fluid drag which is the resultant of the
viscous and inertial forces as shown in fig. (5-1).

Fig. (5-1) Settling Velocity of Particles
Now to find value of (R) there are two ways:
a- (R) must be equal to the weight in liquid of particle, because particle accelerate
until resistance equals its weight in liquid, and then the motion becomes uni form.
Accordingly:
3
6
1
) ( d g f f R
s
= t
(8-1)
b- The resistance to the motion of the particle or the drag (a) is a function of the
diameter of the particle, its settling velocity, the density and the viscosity of the
fluid.
resistance of t coeficcien KN ) N (
. no s ' ynold Re N
Vdf
but
Vdf
f d V R
: analysis l dimensiona By
f) V, (d, R
2 - n
r r
r
2 2
= = |
= =

|
|
.
|

\
|

| =
| =

Where n = state of flow factor


2 n
2 2
Vdf
K f d V R

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
(8-2)
Equating (1) and (2)
2 n
s
2
Vdf
K
f
) f (f

V
d
g
6
1

|
|
.
|

\
|

t
Solving for:
( ) 2
1
) (
K
g

6
1

3

=

n
n
f f
d V
s n n
t
(8-3)
Which gives the general equation of velocity of a settling particle in a fluid.
5-3 Sedimentation Behavior
Sedimentation behavior performed in settling basins is accomplished in variety
two techniques as follows:
5-3-1 Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Basin
Where water is kept standing for few hours, then drawn out the tank is then
cleaned refilled. This type is not in use any more due to its intermittent supply,
and being neither economical nor efficient.
It is assumed that the sediment is uniformly dispersed in the water at the
beginning of the settling period and that each particle settles individually
maintaining its shape and size without interference. Continuous Flow Type
Sedimentation Basin
To develop the theory of what is termed an Ideal Rectangular Basin more
assumptions are to be added to the previous ones:
The direction of flow is horizontal and the velocity is the same in all parts of the
basin.
- The concentration of particles of each size is the same in the vertical plane
perpendicular to the direction of flow at the basin inlet.
- A particle is removed from the settling zone when it strikes the bottom.


The settling path of a particle is determined by the vector sum of its settling
velocity and the velocity of the liquid. Hence, in an ideal basin (Fig. 5-2), particles
having settling velocities equal to or greater than V
o
will settle out. In other words
t
o
being equal to or less than t, the removal ratio =V/L equals unity (values more
than unity have no meaning).

Fig. (5-2)
Continuous-flow type, in which water flows through the tank continuously at a
low velocity. This type is in general use now and may be circular or rectangular in
plan and mechanically cleaned.
AreaDepth Relation of Settling Basin
If A = Surface area of settling basin it m
2

C = Capacity of settling basin in m
3

Q = Rate of flow in m
3
/h
V = Settling velocity of particle in m/h
D = Depth of settling basin in m
In actual practice, the particles in most of the suspensions dealt with in water
treatment plants flocculate during settling. Thus the assumption of individual
particles, settling interference is not valid, and accordingly the removal of
suspension is not completely independent of the depth and is influenced by both
overflow rate and retention period. Also in actual rectangular basin the velocity is
not uniform over the cross-section. Because of the drag on the walls and floor, the
velocity at these boundaries is zero and is greater than average at some points
away from the boundaries. Moreover, the velocity distribution over the cross-
section of most settling basins is not stable, owing to the disturbing influences of
water of varying density due to differences in temperature and in concentration of


settleable solids throughout the body of liquid. This results in vertical movement
of water masses, dead zones and reversals in the direction of flow. The average
time of passage of a volume of water through the basin will be less than retention
period, thus reducing the efficiency of settling, in. the basin. This behavior is
termed short-circuiting, which is mainly caused by high velocities in the inlets and
baffing arrangements that may creats dead spaces and enable the flow to go
through faster anticipated. If there are dead spaces in a tank, in which the liquid
plays little or no part in the displacement through the tank, then the effective tank
volume would be less than the true volume. Consequently, the effective retention
period will be less than the true retention period.
The following should be followed during the design and construction of these
tanks:
a- The walls and floor should be completely impermeable.
b- The side walls should be vertical and not sloping.
c- Inlet and outlet arrangements should be made to minimize the disturbance of
solids already settled and to prevent short circuits.
d- A special arrangement should be made for cleaning the tank. When the time of
cleaning is due, it is emptied and the sludge either pumped or manually removed
by workmen. The walls should be cleaned before the tank is reused.
e- Depth of tank is never less than 2.5 ms usually 3 - 5 ms.
f- Number of units should be such that 1 or 2 tanks are cleaned or repaired without
reducing the capacity of the water filtration plant.
5-4 Factors Affecting Sedimentation
a- Retention period: The removal ratio in a sedimentation tank in creases in a
diminishing rate as retention period increases. In practice retention periods of 3 - 5
hours are in common use.
b- Velocity of flow through tank: The velocity of flow should not exceed three times
the settling velocity of the smallest particles to be removed. In any case, the
velocity should not exceed 0.3 ms per minute.
c- The flow in the tank should be laminar avoiding any turbulance, short circuiting


or dead zones.
d- Size of settling particles: The velocity of settling increases as the size of the
particle increases.
e- Specific weight of the particles of turbidity, increasing specific weight, the
removal ratio is increased.
f- Specific weight of liquid medium, since as specific weight decreased, the removal
ratio is increased.
g- Viscosity of liquid medium which affected directly by temperature and it has the
same effect as the specific weight of liquid.
h- Shape of the particles of turbidity.
i- Concentration of the particles of turbidity, this factor is determined according to
the nature of suspended particles and the charge on it.
j- The surface area of the settling basin and the ratio of the wide to the length of the
tank.
It was proved by Hazen theoretically that the efficiency of sedimentation depends
on surface area, settling velocity of particles:
Q
V L B
E =
(8-9)
Where:
E is the efficiency of sedimentation tank
B is the breadth of the basin
L is the length of the basin
V is the settling velocity of the particles of turbidity
Q is the discharge flowing through the basin.
5-5 Methods Of Cleaning Settling Tanks
Settling tanks are either cleaned mechanically or manually. Mechanically cleaned
primary settling tanks as a rule, designed for a detention period ranging from two
to four hours. Manually cleaned tanks may require longer detention period.


Sludge removal by hand, requires tanks with a gently sloping bottom in the tank
until a layer of sludge has been accumulated. In a period of time varying from few
weeks to several months the tank must be cut out of services, the liquid drawn,
and the sludge pushed to pumps. This type of tank is becoming obsolete since
they have the following disadvantages:
- Each successive day the capacity of the basin decreases, due to the accumulated
sludge, thus cutting down its detention period and hence its efficiency.
- Periodic shut down reduces the time of operation.
- Cleaning process are messy.
- The presence of sludge in the tank for a long period of time may produce odor and
taste in the water.
Sludge removal from tanks with one or a series of hopper bottoms is
accomplished by hydrostatic pressure while in operation. These tanks may be
squared, or round (for radial flow) or rectangular (for horizontal flow).
Modern settling tanks have scrapers or ploughs for transporting sludge along the
bottom in sump. The scrapers and ploughs are attached to rotating arms, traveling
bridges or endless chains. The tanks may be circular, square or rectangular in
plan. Wide rectangular tanks with sludge hoppers at the inlet of the tanks are
provided with cross collectors to push the sludge into sumps, as shown in fig. (5-
3).
Sedimentation may be plain without using chemical coagulants in case of large
suspended particles requiring a reasonable detention time for its settling, also if
the concentration of particles is high enough to allow flocculation of particles to
the suitable size, or sedimentation proceeded by chemical coagulation where the
suspended particles are finely divided or in the colloidal from and its
concentration is low requiring chemical process to achieve the agglomeration of
particles together in order to form flocks of suitable size for sedimentation.




Fig. (5-3) Rectangular sedimentation tank






Fig. (5-4) Rectangular Sedimentation Tank





6. Coagulation and Flocculation

6-1 Introduction
he suspended solids in water range in size from coarse material, which settle
readily, to very fine material, which will not settle unless the particles coalesce
naturally and precipitate or un less a coagulant is used. The precipitatory solids
formed by coagulation are finely divided unless they are agglomerated into larger
solids or well-developed flock by agitation of the water to cause the fine solids to
contact and adhere to one another and form progressively larger particles. These
larger particles of flocK will then settle in sedimentation basins or will be
removed by filtration. Flocculation, therefore, follows treatment of water by
coagulants and is essential for the preparation of the water for sedimentation and
filtration at economically high rates of flow through rapid sand filters. The
addition of a coagulant may serve also to aid in the removal of color, odor, and
taste from water. The chemicals ordinarily used as coagulants, when properly
applied, are harmless to the consumer of the water. To understanding of the
coagulation and flocculation processes requires a distinction between successive
steps in the process. First a coagulating chemical is applied to the water. In order
that the chemical may react uniformly it must be distributed promptly through out
the body of water. This requires rapid agitation or mixing of the water at the point
where the coagulant is added. Second, complex chemical and physicochemical
reactions and changes occur, leading to coagulation and the formation of
microscopic particles. Third, much more gentle agitation of the water causes the
agglomeration of the particles, in other words, the fine particles are flocculated
into settliable flock. The coagulation process are influenced by the character and
quality of the water, the type and dose of coagulant, the water temperature, the
period of time and the degree of agitation. Those factors which are of chief
Chapter
6
T


importance and which are subject to control and supervision by an operator need
to be clearly understood to secure effective results. Most of coagulants are salts of
iron or aluminum and on mixing with water they act by a process of double
decomposition involving the mutual interchange of groups, the end product being
hydroxides in the form of gelatinous precipitates (the floc). In soft waters where
there is insufficient alkalinity to react with the coagulants it has to be added either
as lime or soda-ash. This serves to neutralize the sulphuric acid which forms,
together with hydroxide, when sulphates hydrolyse. If left in the water the acid
which would recombine with the hydroxide and revert to sulphate. Hydroxide is
the desired end product. It is insoluble, flock-forming and heavier than water, and
it carries the positive electric charge necessary to neutralize the negative charge of
the colloidal particles. By producing a heavier, faster-settling flock, this allows
smaller basins to be used, and smaller doses of the main coagulants may also be
possible. The choice of the best coagulant for any particles water is determined by
experiment.
6-2 Colloidal Behavior
The effective application of coagulation requires an under standing of the
properties and behavior of colloids. The term (Colloid) is used to describe a
system in which particles of relatively small size (the disperse phase) are
dispersed in a homogenous medium (the disperse medium).
Colloidal particles are larger than atoms and small molecules but are small enough
to pass through the pores of ordinary filters. Arbitrarily, those particles ranging in
size from 1 mm (10
-6
mm) to 1 u (10
-3
mm) are classified as colloidal. However,
particles of even larger size do exhibit certain colloidal properties.
Several different types of colloid systems are possible. The following table lists
known types with examples of each. Sols, emulsions, and aerosols are of
particular interest to sanitary engineers. Although the following discussion deals
specifically with the properties of solids dispersed in liquids (sols), some of the
properties discussed apply to emulsions and aerosols as well:




Table (6-1) Types of ColloidDisperse Systems
Disperse medium Disperse phase Name Example
Liquid Solid Sol Clay turbidity in water
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Oil in water
Liquid Gas Foam Whipped cream
Gas Solid Aerosol Dust, smoke
Gas Liquid Aerosol Fog
Solid Solid ------ Colored glass

Colloids present in waste water can be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The
hydrophobic colloids (clay, etc) possess no affinity for the liquid medium and lack
stability in the presence of electrolytes. They are readily susceptible to
coagulation. Hydrophilic colloids, such as proteins, exhibit a marked affinity for
water. The absorbed water retards flocculation and frequently requires special
treatment to achieve effective coagulation.
The affinity that hydrophilic particles posses for water results from the presence
of certain polar groups such as -OH, COCH, and NH
2
on the surfaces of the
particles. These groups are water soluble and, as such, attract and hold a sheath of
water firmly around the particle, The water envelope surrounding a hydrophilic
particle is referred to as the water of hydration, or bound water, a term reflecting
the magnitude of the bond between the water and the polar groups. The following
fig. is a schematic sketch of a protein particle of colloidal size showing the
particle encased in bound water. Such a particle moves as a unit, the translation
behavior of the particle bound water complex being the same as that of a discrete,
homogeneous particle.
Hydrophobic colloid particles do not have an affinity for water; thus, they are not
encased in bond water. In general, organic colloids are hydrophilic, whereas
inorganic colloids are hydrophobic.




6-3 Mechanism of Coagulation
A colloid system is said to be stable if the colloid condition is more or less
permanent. Since the interest in water and waste treatment centers about the
separation of the disperse phase from the disperse medium, colloid stability is of
considerable importance to the sanitary engineer.
The repulsion forces in a hydrophobic system are furnished by the zeta potential.
The stability of hydrophilic depends not only upon the zeta potential, but also
upon the bound water that envelops the colloid particle. Bound water behaves as
an elastic barrier to keep the particles from coming together.
The objective in a separation process is the reduction of the repulsion forces to the
extent that the attraction forces prevail and the particles coalesce to form larger
ones that are more easily separated from the system by gravity.
The zeta potential of colloid particles can be reduced by adjusting the pH of the
system toward the isoelectric point. At the isoelectric point, the primary charge is
zero and no double layer exists to produce a zeta potential.
The zeta potential can also be reduced by adding ions or colloids of opposite
charge to the colloid system. Precipitation with colloid commonly referred to as
mutual coagulation, appears to be a reaction similar to the formation of insoluble
precipitates through a combination of solution ions. The addition of counterions
serves to increase the concentration of counterions in both the fixed and diffuse
layers. As a result, the zeta potential is reduced.
6-4 Coagulants
Coagulants may be defined as those substances which are capable of removing
colloidal impurities from water. The commonest coagulants and coagulants aids
used are aluminum sulphate (alum), ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, ferric-
sulphate, lime and Nalco (non-ionic polymer), chlorinated copperas, sodium
aluminates, ammonia alum. These compounds are harmless to the consumer
since they do not remain in the water. As seen by the following equations, the
chemical reaction results in a precipitate of insoluble compounds which can be
removed by settling and filtration.



6-4-1 Aluminum Sulphate (Alum)
The material is an acid salt and hence corrosive to most metals. It is readily
soluble in water and is easily applied as a solution or as dry material. Reactions
between alum arid the natural constituents of various waters are influenced by
many factors, so it is impossible to determine accurately the amount of alum that
will react with a given amount of natural alkalinity or of lime or soda ash added to
the water. The addition of these materials are required with alum for the formation
of aluminum hydroxide floc where the alkalinity of the treated water is not
changed, that is, water treated with 1.0 p.p.m. alum arid either 0.35 p.p.m.
hydrated lime or 0.48 p.p.m soda ash will have approximately the same alkalinity
as the raw water. If no alkali is added, then the acidity of 1.0 p.p.m. alum will
lower the natural alkalinity of the raw water by about
0.45 p.p.m. The alkali required for corrosion prevention would be added to the
filtered water. Many waters have bicarbonate alkalinity naturally in them, in
which case. The chemical reaction is as follows:

Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
.18H
2
O + 3Ca(HCO
3
)
2
2 Al (OH)
3
+ 3CaSO
4
+ 18H
2
O + 6CO
2
(9-1)

The aluminum hydroxide is the floc AL (OH)
3
. It should be rioted that all the
temporary or carbonate hardness caused by calcium bicarbonate is reduced, the
permanent or non carbonate hard ness caused by calcium sulfate is increased.
Some waters have insufficient natural alkalinity to react with alum. In these cases
lime is generally added. The lime Ca unites with water to form calcium
hydroxide, Ca (OH) which reacts with the alum as follows:
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
.18H
2
O + 3 Ca(OH)
2
2 AL (OH)
3
+ 3 CaSO
4
+ 8H
2
O (9-2)

6-4-2 Others
Ferrous Sulphate
Ferrous sulfate is a frequently used coagulant in water purification. It has an
advantage over alum in that it may be less expensive and the floc is heavier and
sinks more rapidly. An out standing disadvantage is the need for using lime with


it. More complete chemical control is required, and there are greater dangers from
after precipitation in the distribution system due to the re action between surplus
lime and bicarbonate alkalinity. Ferrous sulphate is unsuitable for the treatment of
soft, colored waters because they are best coagulated at a pH below 7.0. The color
appears to become set by the addition of alkali to colored waters and hence the
use of ferrous sulphate is limited to those waters in which alkalinity will not
interfere with color removal. It is best suited to use in turbid waters of high natural
alkalinity. There is usually insufficient alkalinity in natural waters to react with
ferrous sulphate, so that lime must usually be added to produce a floe and in order
to avoid soluble compounds of iron remaining in the treated water. The chemical
reactions that occur when ferrous sulphate and lime are used in coagulation
depend, in part, on the order in which the chemicals are added to the water:

FeSO
4
+ Ca(OH)
2
Fe(OH)
2
+ CaSO
4
(9-3)
4Fe(OH)
2
+ 2H
2
O + O
2
4Fe(OH)
3
(9-4)

The ferrous hydroxide, Fe (OH)
2
, forms a desirable, heavy gelatinous precipitate.
Ferric Chloride
Ferric chloride, FeCl
3
ferric sulphate, Fe(SO
4
)
3
and a mixture of the two, known
as chlorinated copperas , have been successfully used in a number of water
treatment plants. Among the advantages claimed for the USC of ferric coagulants
in water purification may be included
I. Coagulation is effective over a wider range of pH than with alum.
II. he time required for floe formation, conditioning, and settling is, in many cases,
considerably shorter than that required for alum
III. Manganese is successfully removed at pH values above 9.0.
IV. Hydrogen sulphide is removed, and taste and odors are reduced.
V. Under some cc the ferric coagulants are more economical than aluminum dioxide.
When ferric chloride is added to water, the following reaction occurs:
FeCl
3
+ 3H
2
O Fe(OH)
3
+ 3H
+
+ 3 Cl
-



The ferric hydroxide is precipitated, forming a desirable coagulant, which is
heavier than aluminum hydroxide and requires a shorter retention period and less
careful adjustment of pH. Acidities that are encountered with some soft, highly
colored waters make their coagulation with alum impossible, but they may be
successfully coagulated with ferric compounds.
Chlorinated Coppers
Chlorinated copperas is a mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulphate prepared
by adding chlorine to a solution of ferrous sulphate in the ratio of 1 part of
chlorine to 7.8 parts of copperas. Among the advantages claimed for the use of
chlorinated copperas as a coagulant are:
I. A desirable floc formation with tough particles of floc resistant to breaking up.
II. Floc formation usually settles well with only a small residual going to the filters.
III. The coagulating effect has a wide range of optimum pH from 8 or 9 to 6.
IV. A compact floc of hydrated ferric oxide, which does not dissolve in alkaline waters, is
formed at all pH values above 3.5, and,
V. The coagulant is particularly effective in color removal com pared with the relative
ineffectiveness of ferric and ferrous hydroxide on colloids having an isoelectric point
below 7.0. Chlorinated copperas has not been widely used in practice so that
experience with it is restricted.
6-4-3 Chemical Dosing Plant
Coagulants can be added to the water either as a solution, which is much the
commonest way - solution feed - or in powder form - dry feed.
6-5 Mixing and Flocculation
When coagulants are added to water and thoroughly mixed, the reaction is almost
instantaneous. As soon as f] forms, a further gentle stirring is advantageous in
order that the floe particles may coalesce and grow bigger. There is a similarity
between the two actions in so far as the water is stirred. However, the first action,
preceding floc formation, must be violent, the second, following floe for motion,
should be gentle. Both these actions occur naturally to some extent in any basin. If
coagulants are fed into an inlet pipe or channel, some mixing is bound to take


place due to turbulence. When the dosed water carrying floc finally passes into the
settling basin through inlet parts a certain rolling motion is inevitable, which can
be accentuated by baffles in a horizontal-flow basin. There are two methods of
approach, the mixing and flocculation can be carried out either by mechanical
means in specially built chambers, or in a suitably baffled channel or
interconnected chambers. The latter method requires no mechanical equipment
but lacks flexibility be cause the system can be designed for maximum efficiency
only at one rate of flow at one temperature, whereas the speed of mechanical
paddles can be adjusted to suit the variations of flow, temperature and silt
conditions. However, the cost and added complexity of mechanical equipment
introduce additional complications, to be avoided in a developing country, and in
practice a sinuous inlet channel preceded by violent mixing generally provides a
reasonably effective solution.
6-5-1 Mixing
Rapid mixing to distribute the coagulant throughout the water being created is
frequently called flash mixing. This rapid agitation may be provided in special
basins as shown in Fig. (6-1) with capacities equivalent to about 20 - 60 seconds
of flow, in which small propellers are driven by electric motors. Sometimes the
hydraulic jump, or standing wave, is used for flash mixing, being provided by a
channel with sloping and widening sections. The coagulant is added just before
the water flows down the channel at high velocity - velocity >1m/sec - to enter a
level portion of the channel, where the energy of rapid flow is suddenly
transformed into static head of deeper water, turbulence being produced at the
wave front of the deeper water. In other instances, turbulence is provided by
aerators, weirs, or spiral flow tanks, but flow in channels used to conduct the
co3gulant treated water to flocculation basins is not sufficiently turbulent for flash
mixing unless obstructions are placed in the channels below the point where t
chemical is applied. Efficient low lift centrifugal pumps do not provide turbulent
flow and thus do not serve as flash mixers. If the mixing chambers are used,
benefit can be obtained by having more than one and making the water pass
through them all. Where this is done, inadequate mixing and short circuiting will
be eliminated.



Fig. (6-1) Flash mixer
6-5-2 Flocculation
Flocculation basins are of various types:
The first type is the baffled mixing basins, which also there in two types the first
is the basins were fitted with a series of baffles around the end of which the
flowing water was reversed in direction, thus causing more gentle turbulence in
the channels formed between the baffles, but more violent agitation at each point
of reversed flow. This type shown in Fig. (6-2).




Fig. (6-2) Horizontal baffle basin
6-6 Clariflocculator
After the flash mixing and flocculation processes the water passes to the basin
which called clarifier where the flocs settle to the bottom of the basin.
The clarifiers no differ from plain sedimentation basins the factors affecting in
sedimentation and the method of design no differ from plain sedimentation basins.
There are many types of clarifiers which has the same main basic for design and
differ only in some details. The clariflocculator basin consists of two tanks one
within the other as shown in Fig (6-3). The raw water enters the inner tank which
acts as a flocculated chamber. In this chamber there is a rotating paddle for
flocculation. Then the water flows radially to the outlet weir and the flocs settle to
the bottom of the outer tank which acts as a sedimentation chamber.













Fig. (6-3) Clariflocculator

7. Filtration

7-1 Introduction
n the very earliest filter installation a mass of sand was used as the filtering
material, and this was done by copying nature where infiltering water is purified
by passing through the ground. It was soon found that sand was, indeed the most
suitable medium for the filtration of water.
Screening and sedimentation-with or without coagulant-removes a large
proportion of suspended solids and colloidal matter while fine flocs particles,
bacteria and other colloidal may still be present in settled water. Filtration must be
used to remove these undesirable impurities from water. Basically, filtration
involves passing of water through a porous such as sand, which in effect, strains
out most of the suspended particles found in it.
7-2 Theory of Filtration
The substances suspended in water and which are there either naturally or as a
result of previous flocculation treatment, are most frequently of a gelatinous or
sticky nature.
If an attempt were made to eliminate these substances by filtration through a bed
of very slight porosity the filter would be found to clog very quickly and would no
longer allow the water to pass because of the formation of impermeable layer on
the bed surface caused by the accumulation of the impurities retained. Fig. (7-1).

Fig. (7-1) Formation the dirty skin film
Chapter
7
I


On the other hand, when filtering is effected through a mass of sand, the
impurities penetrate the bed to a greater or lesser extent. Fig. (7-2).

Fig (7-2) The Impurities Penetrate The Sand Bed
At the start, when the filter is clean, these impurities are naturally retained by the
layers which first come into contact with the water to be filtered but as soon as
these layers begin to clog the bed, the resulting head loss causes these impurities
to penetrate through the minute channels formed by the interstices between the
grains of sand, and they lodge, in practice, in spaces formed between the surfaces
of the grains. Fig. (7-3).

Fig. (7-3) Clogging The Sand Bed
It has been found by experience that by passing water through sand, suspended
and colloidal matter are partially removed, the chemical characteristics of the
water are changed, and the quantity of bacteria is materially reduced. These
phenomena are explained on the basis of the following actions:
a- Mechanical Straining which removes the particles of suspended matter that are
too large to pass through the pores of sand grains.
b- Sedimentation Action account for the removal of colloids, small particles of


suspended matter and bacteria. The interstices between the sand grains act as
minute sedimentation basins in which the suspended particles settle upon the sides
of sand grains.
c- Adsorption Action These particles form a gelatinous coating on the sand grains.
This gelatinous mass attracts other particles and settles down more effectively.
d- Electrolytic Action a certain amount of suspended and dissolved matter in water is
ionized. Some of the particles of sand are also ionized in the filter and posses
electric charges of opposite polarity. When these are neutralized, the character of
water is changed. This action shares in the removal of some dissolved solids in
water like as iron and manganese.
e- Biological Action as a result of the gelatenous or stiky nature of impurities and the
aggumerelated flocs, sand grains are coated with zooglind film which contains
living organisms. These organisms feed on the organic impurities and dissolved
salts in water and change them to stable state easy to be removed by washing.
This action accounts for the removal of iron and manganese also color, odor and
taste are removed by this action.
7-3 Factors Affecting Filtration
Filtration is some what complex, technique which involves a certain number of
factors each of which may have an effect on the others:
- Depth of the filter media.
- The grain size of the sand.
- The speed of filtration.
- Depth of water over the filter media.
- The maximum permissible head loss of the filter.
- The process used to wash the sand.
- The preparation of the water to be filtered.
- Filtering material.
7-4 Slow Sand Filters (S.S.F.)
These were the first type developed for water purification dating back to 1829 as


shown in Fig. (7-4). They still exist nowadays in cities where installations were
made before the rapid sand filter was developed. They are not preferred nowadays
and rapid sand filters are replacing them but still they are economical and more
suited to warm climate where covers on the filter are not required to protect the
filters from freezing.
Slow filtration ensures the purification of surface waters without prior coagulation
or sedimentation. The colloidal matter is coagulated by the enzymes secreted by
algae and micro-organisms which are retained on the sand surface (dirty skin).
7-4-1 The Advantages of S.S.F.
- There is no need for coagulation facilities.
- Equipment is simple and need not be imported.
- Suitable sand is readily secured.
- Supervision is simple.
- The effluent is less corrosive and more uniform in quality than chemically treated
water.
- They give effective bacterial removal
- Amount of head consumed is little.
7-4-2 The Disadvantages of S.S.F. as Compared with R.S.F
- A large area is required, with correspondingly large structure and volume of sand
and higher structural costs.
- They have less flexibility to change in load.
- They are less effective in removing color.
- They give poor results with waters of high turbidities. or high algal content unless
pretreatment is practiced.
7-4-3 Operation of S.S.F
In the operation of a new slow sand filter, it is filled with water to a depth of 1-1.5
ms above the surface of the sand. Water is filtered through the sand at a rate of 3-8
meter cube per square meter of filter surface per day. This rate is continued until
the loss of head of water in filtering media is slightly less than the depth of water


above the sand. Then the filter is thrown out of service and 3-5 cm of sand is
scraped from the top of the sand bed, and the bed is put back into service. After
cleaning the filtered w is first carried to w3stc until the schmutzdecke (dirty skin)
is formed. A normal period of operation between cleanings is 2-3 months or
longer. The cleaning of slow sand filter takes the filter out of service for 2-3
weeks.


Fig. (7-4) Slow Sand Filter
If the water supplied to slow sand filters contains relatively large amount of fine
suspended solids, or if these filters are operated at excessive rates of filtration,


subsurface clogging may result. This should be avoided in every way possible
because such clogging necessitates the removal of most, if not all, of the sand for
cleaning, in order to restore normal operation conditions.
7-4-4 Quality of Filtered Water from S.S.F
- Bacteria removal efficiency 99%
- Turbidity Limitation The raw water from lake or rivers has turbidity up to 100
p.p.m. The slow sand filter cannot handle this load and even 50 p.p.m. turbidity
gives unsatisfactory results. The pre-sedimentation is the solution of the problem.
- Color Limitation The raw colored water over 30 p.p.m. cannot be treated
satisfactorily.
7-5 Rapid Sand Filters Gravity Type (R.S.F)
Filters designed to operate at much higher rate than slow sand fi1ters are called
rapid sand filters or mechanical filters. The first rapid sand filter was
constructed at Somerville, N.J., in 1884. Since then the construction of rapid sand
filters has almost supplanted slow sand filter construction.
- A detailed drawing for the rapid sand filter is shown in Fig. (7-5).
7-5-1 Operation of RS.F
During filtration, the influent and effluent valves are open and all other valves are
closed. The pre-coagulated and settled water is allowed to flow into the filter. This
water percolates through various layers of graded sand and gravel and through
under- drains. It is collected in one main pipe and then out through the effluent
valve to the clear water reservoir. The water level over the sand bed is controlled
by regulating the rate of inflow or by the use of float valve at the influent, while
the rate of outflow is automatically regulated with the help of rate controllers in
spite of the gradual increase in the loss of head. The rate of filtration in rapid sand
filters is from 100 -125 meter cube per meter square of filter surface per day.
7-5-2 Washing of R.S.F
Filters should be washed when the loss of head reaches (2.4-3.0 in). Longer filter
runs may be obtained when washing is delayed until the rate of filtration begins to
decrease and the rate controller is fully open. There are several systems for


washing rapid sand filters like as:
a- Mechanically revolved rakes system.
b- Air-wash system
c- High velocity wash system
Only the air wash system is discussed here. Referring to Fig. (10-9),
- Close the influent and effluent valves V
1
, V
3
.
- Open valve V
2
and V
6
to allow the water to drain down to about 15 cm above the
sand. Then close valves V and V.
- Open valve V
4
(compressed air valve) for 2-5 minutes so that to agitate the sand
grains and then close valve V
4
.
- Open valve V
5
(wash water under pressure) gradually and also valve V
6
for 10
minutes to allow the wash water to flow through the filter and out through the
wash-water gutters to drain. Then close valves V
4
and V
6
The purpose of this step
is to clear the agitated sand grains.
- Open valves V
1
and V
2
for 20 minutes to allow some of the water to drain to
waste. The purpose of this step is to form the gelatinous film again on the sand
grains.
- Then close valve V
2
and open valve V
3
The filter is back into service.
Total period of washing is about 30 minutes and time between washings is from
12-24 hrs according to the quality of settled water. Washing procedure can be
done manually or automatically.
7-5-3 Quality of Filtered Water
- Bacteria removal efficiency 90 -99%
- Turbidity removal The rapid sand filter is very efficient in handling a high turbid
water.
- Color Limitation It is quite efficient in color removal also.




Fig. (7-5) Details of Rapid Sand Filter
8. Water Disinfection

8-1 The Purpose of Water Disinfection
Water is disinfected to kill bacteria and thus prevent water-bourn diseases.
Chlorination, ozonization, ultra-violet ray method, excess line process and
application of silver or iodine and bromine method are the principal methods used
for disinfection of water. Sterilization by heating is suitable only for household
use.
8-2 Chlorination
The use of chlorine has become universal in the disinfection of water supplies.
Although chlorine is used principally for the killing of bacteria, it may be applied
to water also to aid the removal of iron and manganese, for the cleaning of sand
filter, for the sterilization of water mains, and for other purposes.
Chlorine may be applied to water in the form of a gas or in one of its compounds,
the dry gas under pressure is liquefied and stored in steel cylinders. Care must be
taken to prevent the escape of chlorine, because of its highly toxic nature, except
in high dilution.
Chlorine gas may be fed directly to the water supply, or preferably the gas may be
first dissolved in a small flow of water and the solution fed to the point of
application.
The amount of chlorine used depends on several factors:
a- Turbidity of the water which protects the bacteria from the action of chlorine.
b- The temperature of the water.
c- Amount of dissolved oxidisable organic matter in water.
d- Amount of iron and saline ammonia in water, both retard action of chlorine.
Chapter
8


e- Contact time.
f- Adequate mixing.
g- The purpose for which water is used, and its quality.
h- The concentration of chlorine added.
It is necessary to leave a residual chlorine in the water to guard against future
contamination. Usually 0.1 ppm is left except in epidemics when larger residual
amounts are left.
In Cairo 0.5 to 1.0 ppm is added to the water. The residual chlorine should be
between 0.1. to 0.3 ppm.
The following are the most important methods of chlorine application:
- Chlorine gas
- Bleaching powder
- Hypochlorites
- Cchloraminc.
8-2-1 Chlorine Gas
Chlorine gas has been formed to have more economical effect in its application
than chlorine compounds.
Chlorine gas is supplied to water purification works in cylinders under so high
pressure that it is liquefied and it is applied to the water by means of a special
apparatus called chlorinator. In this chlorinator, chlorine gas is dissolved in
certain quantity of water so as to form a strong solution, then the solution is added
to the filtered water as it enters the filtered water storage tank.
The use of liquid chlorine has the following advantages over using chlorine compounds:
- No salt is added to the water, nor a residue is formed.
- Once the chlorinator is adjusted, it works automatically giving the required dosage
day and night.
However, the chlorinator needs continuous supervision for fear of leakage of
chlorine gas or going out of order.


8-2-2 Bleaching Powder
In the early days of chlorination of public water supplies chloride of lime or so
called bleaching powder is used as the chlorinating agent. It is a product made by
passing chlorine gas over dry slaked lime. It is usually contains 33-35 per cent
available chlorine. When using bleaching powder, the amount required is
calculated on the percentage of available chlorine in the powder. The powder is
then rendered in a paste which is gradually thinned by adding water to form an
emulsion 1:100 or 1:1000.
The emulsion is left to stand for one hour, then stand and added to the filtered
water by means of a dripping apparatus. It is now rarely used in public water
supplies.
8-2-3 Hypochiorites (M.T.H.)
Modern manufacturing processes have made it possible to prepare soluble
powdered chlorine compounds which have an available chlorine of 65-70 per
cent. A solution of these compounds usually applied to the water being treated
through special equipment called hypo-chiorinators.
8-2-3-1 Amount of Chlorine Dose
It is frequently impossible to predict accurately how much chlorine must be added
to accomplish satisfactory sterilization as some waters will absorb much more
chlorine than others. A residual chlorine of 0.1-0.2 ppm after U contact Period of
30 mm. represents a factor of safety and indicates that water had absorbed all its
needs.
The presence of organic matter, sulphides, iron manganese will increase the
absorbing power of water to chlorine. The amount of chlorine absorbed is called
chlorine-demand.
8-2-3-1 How Chlorine Kills Bacteria
The effect of chlorine on organisms in water has been a subject of considerable
controversy. However, there are three different main assumptions:
I. It is believed that nascent oxygen produced by the reaction of chlorine with water
accomplished the destruction of bacteria. Chlorine will react with water to form


hydrochiorous acid which being unstable breaks up into nascent oxygen and
hydrochloric acid.
H
2
O + Cl
2
HCl +HO Cl
HO Cl HCl + O
II. It is believed that chlorine units at least in part with the cell structure of the organism
to form chloroproducts which act as toxic poisons to these organisms.
III. In fact the bodies of some bacteria completely disappear after chlorination, a fact that
may lead to the assumption that it has been converted to soluble compounds.

8-3 Ozonization
A molecule of ozone contains three atoms of oxygen. It is an unstable gas which
is very active in oxidizing the organic matter and in killing bacteria present in
water exposed to it. Advantages claimed for the use of ozone include:
a- No disinfecting chemical remains in the water.
b- Odor, taste and color are removed.
c- The process is not expensive.
However
a- The cost is greater than for chlorination.
b- The apparatus required is complicated, and needs skillful control.
c- The absence of residual chemical provides no safeguard against subsequent
contamination.

8-4 Ultra-Violet Rays:
The ultra-violet rays offer an effective method for sterilization of clear water. The
ultra-violet ray machine consists of a mercury-vapor lamp enclosed in a quarts
globe, in front of which water passes.
This method is characterized by:
a- The water should flow in a thin film close to the rays.


b- The water should be well agitated, and the exposure to the ray should he
continuous.
c- The effective penetration of the ray in clear and colorless water is about 30 cm..
It is known that the various parts of the spectrum have different sterilization
powers. Thus, the infra red rays are devoid of any germicidal effect, while the
ultra-violet rays (3000 angstrom or less) have the highest effect. These rays kill
harmful bacteria more rapidly than the harmless ones. No taste, no odor is
imparted to the treated water. This method is used in hotels, swimming pools,
ships etc.
But the treatment is expensive, only applicable where electricity is cheap. Its
penetrating power is weak and obstructed by the suspended matter in water.
Furthermore, it needs skillful control.
8-5 Other Sterilizing Agents
Permanganate
It is used for small volumes of water, by Pinking for an hour.
Acid Sodium Sulphate:
This gives sulphuric acid to the water given in dose of O.2Z for 15 minutes.
I odine
In the form of weak tincture, or as tablets of potassium iodide and iodate which
give iodine by action of tartaric acid. The taste is removed by thiosulphate.