Chapter 2: Cells 1) A Generalized Cell a.

Plasma Membrane-Forms the cells flexible outer surface; it separates the cells internal environment from its external environment. Also plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells and their external environment b. Cytoplasm-All of the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus i. Cytosol-The fluid portion of cytoplasm, contains water, dissolves solutes, and suspended particles ii. Organelles-Has a characteristic shape and specific functions. Examples include ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria c. Nucleus-A large organelle that houses most of a cells DNA i. Chromosome-Within the nucleus where a single molecules of DNA associated with several proteins, contains thousands of hereditary units called genes that control most aspects of cellular structure and function 2) Structure of Plasma Membrane a. Flexible yet sturdy barrier b. The fluid mosaic model - the arrangement of molecules within the membrane resembles a sea of lipids containing many types of proteins c. The lipids act as a barrier to certain substances d. The proteins act as gatekeepers to certain molecules and ions 3) Structure of the Membrane a. Lipid Bilayer-Two back-to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules i. Phospholipids makes up 75% ii. Cholesterol makes up 20% iii. Glycolipids makes up 5% b. Integral proteins-Extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded in it i. Most integral proteins are transmembrane proteins, which means they span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid ii. Most integral membrane proteins are glycoproteins (proteins with carbohydrate groups attached to the ends that protrude into the extracellular fluid) c. Peripheral proteins-Are not as firmly embedded in the membrane and are attached to membrane lipids or integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane

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d. Glycocalyx-Sugary coat which acts like a molecular signature that enables cells to recognize one another (a white blood cells ability to detect a foreign glycoccalyx is one basis of the immune response). In addition, it enables cells to adhere to one another in some tissues and it protects cells from being digested by enzymes in the extracellular fluid i. The chemical properties of the glycocalyx attract a film of fluid to the surface of many cells (makes red blood cells slippery) Functions of Membrane Proteins a. Ion Channels-Pores or holes through which specific ions b. Carriers (transporters)-Selectively moving a polar substance or ion from one side of the membrane to the other c. Receptors-Serve as cellular recognition sites i. A specific molecule that binds to receptor is called a ligand d. Enzymes-Catalyze specific chemical reactions at the inside or outside surface of the cell e. Linkers-Proteins that anchor the plasma membranes of neighboring cells to one another or to protein filaments inside and outside the cell f. Cell-identity markers-Glycoproteins and glycolipids that enable a cell to recognize other cells of the same kind during tissue formation or recognize and respond to potentially dangerous foreign cells Membrane Permeability a. Permeable-oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids, water b. Impermeable-ions and molecule such as glucose c. Transmembrane proteins that act as channels and transporters increase the plasma membranes permeability to a variety of smalland medium-size charged substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer without help Transport Across the Plasma Membrane a. Intracellular fluid (ICF)-fluid within cells; also called the cytosol b. Extracellular fluid (ECF)-fluid outside body cells that is found in several locations: i. The ECF filling the microscopic spaces between the cells of tissues called interstitial fluid or intercellular fluid ii. The ECF in blood vessels is termed plasma; in lymphatic vessels it is called lymph Passive Processes-A substance moves down its concentration gradient or electrical gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy Active Processes-Cellular energy that is used to drive the substance uphill against its concentration or electrical gradient a. The cellular energy is usually in the form of ATP

9) Kinetic Energy Transport a. Simple Diffusion-Move from high to low concentration b. Filtration-through the kidneys c. Osmosis-The net movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration d. Facilitated Diffusion-aiding transport by binding to move a substance across a membrane 10) Active Transport-Transport from an area of lower concentration to a higher concentration a. Vesicle-A small, spherical, membranous sac formed by budding off from an existing membrane; transport substances from one structure to another b. Endocytosis-materials move in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane i. Receptor-mediated endocytosis-Highly selective form where cells take up specific ligands, which usually are large molecules or particles, by enveloping them within a sac of plasma membrane (how HIV enters the blood) ii. Phagocytosis-the cell engulfs large solid particles, such as worm-out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses 1. Begins when the particle binds to a plasma membrane receptor on the phagocyte causing it to extend pseudopods 2. Pinocytosis is cell drinking iii. Bulk-phase endocytosis-Carried out by most body cells in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken into the cell; no receptor proteins are involved and the plasma membrane folds inward and forms a vesicle containing a droplet of extracellular fluid (occurs mostly in absorptive cells in the intestines and kidneys) c. Exocytosis-releases materials from a cell i. Secretory cells that liberate digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, or other secretions ii. Nerve cells that release substances called neurotransmitters d. Transcytosis-Vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and then undergo exocytosis on the opposite side (occurs most often across the epithelial cells that line blood vessels) 11) Through phagocytosis forms pusa mixture of dead neutrophils, macrophages tissue cells, and fluid in an infected wound 12) Cytoplasm a. Cytosol the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles b. Organelles specialized structures with the cell have specific shape and functions

13) Cytoskeleton-a network of protein filaments that extend throughout the cytosol 14) Microfilament-the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton, are concentrated at the periphery; composed of actin and myosin a. Actin is a thin filament b. Intermediate filaments i. Anchor the organelles which keep them from colliding c. Microtubules consist of tubulin i. Large microtubules make up the centrosomes d. A centrosome is 2 centrioles that are made up of 9 arrangement of microtubules in a circle i. This arrangement is called a 9+0 array ii. 9 proteins in a circle with none in the middle e. Test questionmitotic spindle plus the centrioles make up the mitotic apparatus which make help in cell division 15) Cilia and Flagella a. Cilia-Numerous, short hairlike projections that extend from the surface of the cell i. Lines the trachea ii. Each cilium is anchored to a basal body iii. Smoking hinders the cilia

b. The flagella are longer than cilia and can move the entire cell i. The only known flagella is the sperm cell 16) Ribosomes-sites of protein synthesis a. Site of protein synthesis b. The rough is covered in dots c. Free ribosome is loose in the cytosol and is going to synthesize inside the cell d. Membrane bound cytosol is going to synthesize protein that is going to release the protein by exocytosis e. Flatten sacs are called cistern i. Studded with ribosomesthe ribosomes are embedded in the flatten sacs 17) Rough ER-continuous with the nuclear membrane and usually is folded into a series of flattened sacs; the outer surface of rough ER is studded with ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis; continuous with the nuclear envelope 18) Smooth ER-a network of membrane tubules; no ribosomes; fatty acids, steroids, and other certain drugs are synthesized a. In liver cells, enzymes of the smooth ER help release glucose into the bloodstream and inactivate or detoxify lipid-soluble drugs or potentially harmfully substances 19) Golgi complex-consists of 3-20 flattened membranous sacs called cisternae; structurally and functionally divided into entry (cis) face, medial cisternae, and exit (trans) face 20) Lysosomes-Vesicle formed from Golgi complex; they can contain as many as 60 kinds of powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down a wide variety of molecules a. Primary-intact but inactive (they are not really helping) b. Secondary-constantly breaking down 21) Clinical connectionTay-Sachs disease a. Affects Ashkenazi descent children and is an inherited condition characterized by the abscnece of a single lysosomal enzyme called Hex A. Excess ganglioside accumulates, the nerve cells function less efficiently which leads them to become gradually blind, demented, and uncoordinated and die before 5 years old b. Primarily in the Jewish community c. Nonexistent lysosomes; the child cannot digest intake 22) Peroxisomes-Similar in structure to lysosomes, but smaller. Also called microbodies, they contain oxidases (enzymes that can oxidize) various organic substances; peroxisomes also contain catalase which decomposes H2O2 a. Detoxifies substances such as alcohol (found in liver) 23) Proteasomes-The continuous destruction of unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins is the function; tiny barrel-shaped structures consisting of four stacked rings of proteins around a central core

24) Mitochondria-the powerhouses of the cell; a cell can have a few hundred to thousands depending on the activity of the cell (generate ATP) a. Find mitochondria where there is activity (muscles, liver) b. If we deplete the mitochondria we have saved up, then one does not have what is necessary to run the marathon (will increase in cellular demand) c. Cristae-The inner mitochondrial membrane that contains a series of folds d. Matrix-The central fluid-filled cavity of a mitochondrion, enclosed by the inner mitochondrial membrane e. Like peroxisomes, mitochondria self-replicate, a process that occurs during times of increased cellular energy demand or before cell division 25) Nucleus-a spherical or oval-shaped structure that usually is the most prominent feature of a cell a. Nuclear Envelope-A double membrane which separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm i. Both layers are lipid bilayers similar to the plasma membrane ii. The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with rough ER and resembles it in structure b. Nuclear Pores-Many openings that extend through the nuclear envelope and consists of a circular arrangement of proteins surrounding a large central opening that is about 10 times wider than the pore of a channel protein in the plasma membrane i. Controls the movement of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm c. Nucleolus (pl. nucleoli)-spherical body within a cell nucleus composed of protein, DNA, and RNA that is the site of the assembly of small and large ribosomal subunits i. If a cell does not have a nucleolus it cannot self-replicate or divide (Ex: red blood cells) d. Genes-the cells hereditary units which control cellular structure and direct cellular activities e. Chromosomes-structure which genes are organized on; bears the genetic material; composed of DNA and proteins (histones) that form a delicate chromatin thread during interphase; packed into compact rodlike structures 26) Clinical connection (page 45) a. Genome-The total genetic information carried through a cell b. Genomics-The study of the relationships between the genome and the biological functions of an organism c. There are approximately 30,000 genes in the human genome d. The geno-effect is what can lead to cloning. They cloned a sheep using this effect

27) Cell Diversity a. The sizes of cell are measured are called micrometers b. Cells may be round, oval, flat, cubed-shaped, column-shaped, elongated, star-shaped, cylindrical, or disc-shaped Hyperplasia-out of control cell division; cancer presents itself in the form of a tumor (begin or malignant) Ex: lung cancer cell