GEO 4

FEM
Users guide version 3.0

FINE 2004

Users guide

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................4 1. APPLICATION OF THE PROGRAM GEO FEM .............................................................................5 1.1 BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT MODELING ..............................................................................................5 1.2 SOILS CONSTITUTIVE MODELS AND THEIR DATA ..............................................................................8 1.2.1 LINEAR MODEL (LM)............................................................................................................................9 1.2.2 MODIFIED LINEAR MODEL (MLM) .......................................................................................................9 1.2.3 MOHR-COULOMB MODEL (MC) .........................................................................................................11 1.2.4 DRUCKER-PRAGER MODEL (DP) ........................................................................................................12 1.2.5 MODIFIED MOHR-COULOMB (MCM).................................................................................................12 1.2.6 MODIFIED CAM-CLAY MODEL (MCC)................................................................................................14 1.2.7 K0 PROCEDURE, DETERMINATION OF INITIAL (GEOSTATIC) STRESSES................................................19 1.3 RIGID BODIES .......................................................................................................................................20 1.4 INPUT OF GEOMETRY ...........................................................................................................................20 1.4.1 INPUT OF INTERFACES MARGINS OF THE TOPOLOGICAL MODEL ......................................................20 1.4.2 ASSIGNING SOILS ................................................................................................................................21 1.4.3 FREE NODES ........................................................................................................................................22 1.4.4 FREE LINES .........................................................................................................................................23 1.4.5 CORRECTOR OF SPECIFIED GEOMETRY ...............................................................................................24 1.5 MESH GENERATOR ...............................................................................................................................25 1.6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ......................................................................................................................28 1.7 BEAMS ...................................................................................................................................................29 1.8 HEREDITY OF FEATURES (BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, BEAMS, SOILS) ................................................32 1.9 CONTACTS (INTERFACES)....................................................................................................................32 1.10 ANCHORS ............................................................................................................................................36 1.11 PROPS ..................................................................................................................................................39 1.12 GEO-REINFORCEMENTS.....................................................................................................................40 1.13 SURCHARGE ........................................................................................................................................42 1.14 WATER ................................................................................................................................................44 1.15 REMOVING SOIL (ACTIVITY) AND ASSIGNING SOILS TO REGIONS (REGIONS) ...............................44 1.16 ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................46 1.17 ANALYSIS SETTING.............................................................................................................................49 1.17.1 SOLUTION METHOD ..........................................................................................................................49 1.17.2 UPDATE OF THE STIFFNESS MATRIX .................................................................................................50 1.17.3 INITIAL LOAD STEP ...........................................................................................................................51 1.17.4 MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITERATIONS PER A SINGLE LOAD STEP ........................................................51 1.17.5 CONVERGENCE CRITERION ...............................................................................................................51 1.17.6 SETTING THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD......................................................................................52 1.17.7 SETTING THE ARC-LENGTH METHOD................................................................................................53 1.17.8 SETTING A VERSION OF THE ARC-LENGTH METHOD ........................................................................53 1.17.9 SETTING ARC-LENGTH ......................................................................................................................54 1.17.10 AUTOMATIC ARC LENGTH CONTROL ..............................................................................................54 1.17.11 LINE SEARCH METHOD....................................................................................................................55 1.17.12 PLASTICITY .....................................................................................................................................56 1.17.13 SETTING THE BASIC PARAMETERS DRIVING THE SAFETY FACTOR ANALYSIS.................................57 1.17.14 SETTING DRIVING PARAMETERS FOR RELAXATION OF THE REDUCTION FACTOR...........................58 1.17.15 COURSE OF ANALYSIS .....................................................................................................................59 1.18 RESULTS..............................................................................................................................................63 1.19 STABILITY ...........................................................................................................................................69 2. EXAMPLE 1 TERRAIN SETTLEMENT FILE EXAMPLE1.GMK.........................................71 3. EXAMPLE 2 ANALYSIS OF COLLECTOR LINING FILE EXAMPLE2.GMK..................77 4. EXAMPLE NO. 3 SHEETING STRUCTURE FILE EXAMPLE3.GMK ................................91 5. EXAMPLE 4 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES FILE EXAMPLE4.GMK ...................106
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Introduction
The user manual consists of two chapters. Chapter 1 this chapter provides the basic information about the program GEO FEM. The user is strongly recommended to read this chapter carefully. Chapter 2 tutorial part, contains several examples of individual types of problems and provides comparison of the results found from the finite element method and analytical solutions: - Example 1 terrain settlement - Example 2 analysis of collector lining - Example 3 retaining wall analysis - Example 4 slope stability analysis. Individual solutions are accompanied by the results provided by other programs for the verification purposes. The theoretical grounds of the finite element method including the description of the specific approaches for the solution of various geotechnical problems are summarized in the Theoretical guide.

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1. Application of the program GEO FEM

The program GEO FEM is intended for the modeling of various geotechnical tasks such as: Terrain settlement Retaining wall structures Slope stability Beams on elastic foundation Analysis of underground excavations including linings, etc. In number of cases the results can be also derived using analytical solutions available from a group of programs GEO. However, the program GEO FEM allows the user to obtain a more complex view on a given task and compare the results. Moreover, in case of more complex tasks, for which the analytical solutions are not available, the numerical analysis using the finite element method (FEM) is usually the only option. On the other hand, care must be taken when using FEM for the analysis of complex engineering tasks. To obtain reliable results with FEM a certain experience of the user is generally required. The results may be strongly affected not only by the selection of input parameters, but also by the selected finite element mesh, boundary conditions, solution technique, etc. All in all however, the correct selection of input parameters is the basis of the success of computation. The most difficult part is that most constitutive models require parameters that can be obtain only from laboratory measurements of soils. To ease this task, the manual also offers approximate values of input parameters. However, it is the user responsibility to select such parameters that most closely correspond to the actual soil or rock material. At all events this task deserves a special attention. 1.1 Basic information about modeling There are two basic steps to follow when using the program Topology of the structure input and mesh generation Step by step definition of individual construction stages including analysis and subsequent post-processing of results

The first step is to create a structure in the topology regime (input information about soils, specify interfaces between soils, beams, linings, boundary conditions, etc.) followed by generation of the finite element mesh, Fig. 1.

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mode Topology

Fig. 1 Topology input

Individual calculation stages (stages of construction) are defined subsequently. The stages of construction serve to activate or deactivate parts of a structure, to replace the soil material in a selected region, to add and remove anchors, to either define or modify loads applied to the structure, to change parameters of the selected beams, etc. The actual calculation including the stability analysis and post-processing of results for a given stage is also carried out within this step.

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modeStage modeTopology

add new stage remove last stage view current stage

Fig. 2 Working with calculation stages

The calculation stage does not allow for the option to change predefined mesh, to add boundary conditions, contact and beam elements these objects must be all defined already in the topology regime objects not required in the current calculation stage can be then deactivated. To that end, the build in automatic corrector of topology can substantially simplify the input of more stages at the same time (e.g., step by step tunnel excavation). See also Section 1.4. The first calculation stage always serves to determine initial (geostatic) stress state. The actual stages of the analyzed engineering task are specified next. It is necessary to realize that the modeling process proceeds from one stage to the other results from the previous stage form the basis for calculations carried out in the subsequent stage. It thus becomes clear that each topological change within a calculation stage calls for a new finite element mesh, which inevitably results in a loss of all calculations performed so far the geometrical data already specified for individual stages, however, will remain unchanged. It is therefore necessary only to reanalyze all calculation stages.

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1.2 Soils constitutive models and their data The current version of the program GEO FEM assumes fully drained (steady state) conditions after redistribution of pore pressure at the end of consolidation process (long term conditions the loads were applied for sufficiently long time for the soil to become fully consolidated, the pressure and displacements reached their constant values and the loads are taken by the skeleton grains only). The determination of the pore pressure distribution can be therefore performed independently of the analysis of the skeleton deformation. The program further assumes incompressibility of grains and works exclusively with the effective soil parameters ef, cef. The skeleton deformation thus solely depends on the predefined distribution of pore pressure, applied loads and constitutive (material) models of the soils. The material model attempts to describe the soil (or rock) behavior as close to reality as possible clearly, it is necessary to specify for each soil the most reliable material model.

Fig. 3 Input of basic material parameters of soils

Detail information about actual input of soils (for a new user) is described in the tutorial manual GEO4, Chapter 2.2.3 Soils and rocks. Here we present only the most relevant information regarding individual material models implemented in GEO FEM. Material models in program GEO FEM can be subdivided into two main groups: linear and nonlinear models. Linear models give relatively fast, but not very accurate estimate of the true material response. These models can be used in cases, where only the stress or deformation states of a soil mass are of interest. They provide no information about locations and possible mechanisms of failure. They can be used to model soil behavior in regions, where only the local failure with no effect on the evolution of global failure occurs, but which may cause premature loss of convergence. Providing the main interest is in a reliable description of the soil behavior it necessary to employ nonlinear models. Individual models will be now described in more details.

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1.2.1 Linear model (LM) The linear model is the basic material model that assumes linear relationship between stress and strain given by Hooks law. The following data are required: - Self weight of soil [kN/m3] - Poissons ratio [-] - Elastic modulus E [MPa] In a one dimensional problem Hooks law describes the linear dependence of stress on strain via the Young modulus E (modulus of elasticity), Fig. 4. Within this framework the linear model provides a linear variation of displacements as a function of applied loads.

Fig.4 Stress-strain diagram for LM

1.2.2 Modified linear model (MLM) It is clear that for soils the linear behavior is acceptable only for relatively low magnitudes of applied loads. This becomes evident upon unloading that usually shows a rather small amount of elastic deformation compare to the overall deformation. The modified linear model attempts at least to some extent to take this into account by considering different modulus for loading and unloading as plotted in Fig. 5. A drop in the material stiffness along a given loading path attributed to the plastic yielding is reflected through a certain secant modulus Esec. An elastic response is assumed upon unloading. To increase clarity of model formulation the elastic modulus for the unloading branch is replaced by the unloading-reloading modulus Eur that governs the response of a soil upon unloading and subsequent reloading up to the level of stress found in the material point prior to the unloading. With reference to Fig. 5 these modules are given by: Secant modulus Esec [MPa]: Unloading/reloading modulus Eur [MPa]:

Esec = tan = /

Eur = tan = / el

During primary loading the response of a soil is therefore governed by the secant modulus while upon unloading it follows the path set by the unloading-reloading modulus. An approximate value of this modulus is 3*secant modulus. In any case, both parameters should be provided by reliable experimental measurements.

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(a)

(b)

Obr.5 (a) True stress-strain curve, (b) Stress-strain diagram for LMM

Nonlinear models Two groups of nonlinear models can be again specified. The first class of problems originates from a classical Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In particular, the Drucker-Prager, MohrCoulomb and Modified Mohr-Coulomb models fall within this category. A common feature of these models is a possibility of evolution of unbounded elastic strains along hydrostatic axis. This is evident from Fig. 6 that shows projections of the yield surface into deviatoric and meridian planes, respectively

(a)

(b)

Fig.6 Projection of yield surfaces into (a) deviatoric, (b) meridian plane

Employing nonlinear models allows us to capture the typical nonlinear response of soils, Figs. 5a and 7, in much better way compare to the MLM model. These models describe evolution of permanent (plastic) deformation of a soil material. The onset of plastic deformation is controlled by so-called yield surface. The yield surface can be either constant (elastic-rigid plastic material),

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or depend on the current state of stress (material with hardening/softening). The current versions of models assume constant yield surface with no material hardening/softening.

Fig.7 Stress-strain diagram for nonlinear models

The input parameters include all parameters of the linear model. In addition the models require the following parameters: - Angle of internal friction - Cohesion of soil - Angle of dilation c [] [kPa] []

Angle of internal friction determines the onset of plastic deformation. The user should obtain these values from reliable experimental measurements. The angle of dilation controls an amount of plastic volume strain developed during plastic shearing and is assumed constant during plastic yielding. The value = 0 corresponds to the volume preserving deformation while in shear. Clays, regardless of overconsolidated layers, are characterized by a very low amount of dilation ( 0). As for sands, the angle of dilation depends on the angle of internal friction. A value of orientation for non-cohesive soils (sand, gravel) with the angle of internal friction >30 is given by =-30. A negative value of dilation angle is acceptable only for rather loose sands. The default value of = 0 is assumed. Unlike the MLM the nonlinear models require to specify only the elastic modulus E. A drop in material stiffness is a result of evolution of plastic strains and corresponding redistribution of stresses. This consequently yields an instantaneous tangent material stiffness as a function of the current state of stress represented in Fig. 7 by an instantaneous tangent modulus ET.
1.2.3 Mohr-Coulomb model (MC) The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface can be defined in terms of three limit functions that plot as a non-uniform hexagonal cone in the principal stress space. Projections of the MC yield surface into deviatioric and meridian planes appear in Fig. 6. As evident from Fig. 6a the MC yield function has corners, which may cause certain complications in the implementation of this model into the finite element method. The advantage on the other hand is the fact that the traditional

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soil mechanics and partially also the rock mechanics are based on this model. Details can be found in the Theoretical guide.
1.2.4 Drucker-Prager model (DP) The Drucker-Prager model (sometimes also known as the extended von Mises model) modifies the Mohr-Coulomb yield function to avoid singularities associated with corners. Unlike the Mohr-Coulomb model the Drucker-Prager yield surface is smooth and plots as a cylindrical cone in the principal stress space. Similarly to the MC model the DP yield surface depends on the effective mean stress m as shown in Fig. 6a. The current version of the DP model implemented in GEO MKP builds upon the assumption of triaxial extension. In other words, the yield surface projection into deviatoric plane touches the inner corners of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagon ( = 300), where is the Lode angle. As displayed in Fig. 8 the DP yield function unlike the MC model does not depend on this parameter. Details can be found in the Theoretical guide.

Fig. 8 -DP and MC yield surfaces in the deviatoric plane

1.2.5 Modified Mohr-Coulomb (MCM) Similarly to the DP model the Modified Mohr-Coulomb model smoothes out the corners of the MC yield surface. As suggested in Fig. 9 the projection of the MCM yield surface into deviatoric plane passes through all corners of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagon and as the MC yield function the MCM yield function depends on the effective mean stress m and the Lode angle . With reference to Figs. 6 and 9 one can expect a slightly stiffer response of the material when using the MCM plasticity model compare to the MC and DP models, see the Theoretical guide.

Fig. 9 -MCM and MC yield surfaces in the deviatoric plane

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To illustrate an effect of the used model on structural response we present an example of shallow foundation loaded by distributed loading q, Fig. 10a. A certain simplification of this task is an assumption of an infinitely stiff foundation loaded by prescribed displacements, Fig. 10b. The geometrical model and finite element mesh for individual tasks appear in Fig. 11. Influence of soil and foundation self-weight on the response is neglected. The results are plotted in Fig. 12.

Fig. 10 Task assignment: foundation strip

Fig. 11 Geometrical model and finite element mesh

Fig. 12 Analysis results

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Fig. 12 shows a significantly stiffer response of the soil to external loading when using the MCM model compare to the DP and MC models, which in the present example show similar behavior. Owing to the fact that one of the objectives of this task was to determine a limit load it was necessary to employ the Arc-length method in the analysis. In similar problems with load control conditions the use of the Newton-Raphson iteration scheme may lead to a loss of convergence and premature termination of the analysis. This phenomenon is demonstrated by the green curve in Fig. 12. In order to increase stability of the solution process it is possible to switch to displacement control conditions as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The resulting response is represented by the black curve in Fig. 12. In this case we plot the variation of prescribed displacements and the resultant of corresponding reaction forces developed in supports with prescribed displacements. 1.2.6 Modified Cam-clay model (MCC) The MCC model was originally developed for triaxial loading conditions. Experimental measurements on soft clays provided the background for the development of the constitutive model plotted in Fig. 13a that shows the variation of void ratio e as a function of the logarithm of effective mean stress meff. The graph consists of a normal consolidation line (NCL) and a set of swelling lines. On first loading the virgin soil moves down along the NCL. Next, suppose that the soil was consolidated to a certain level of stress, which is termed the preconsolidation pressure, and subsequently unloaded up the current swelling line. Then, upon reloading the soil initially moves down along the swelling line until reaching the stress state given by the parameter pc, which existed prior to the unloading. At this point the soil begins to move again down the normal consolidation line (primary loading compression line).

The MCC model further introduces distinction between plastic yielding and ultimate collapse using the concept of critical state line, which assumes that the soil is found at the critical state when during continuous loading there is no change in void ratio (zero increment of volumetric plastic strain) and effective mean stress. This state is represented by point 3 in Fig. 13b.

(a) (b) Fig. 13 (a) constitutive model (b) projection of the yield surface into the meridian plane

Clearly, see Fig. 13b, the yield surface is smooth without the possibility of evolution of tensile stresses. The MCC model allows unlike the first group of models a direct modeling of strain
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hardening or softening for normally consolidated or overconsolidated soils, nonlinear dependence of volumetric strain on effective mean stress and limit conditions of ideal plasticity. When using the MCC model the soil loaded in shear can be plastically deformed without collapse (points 1,2 for hardening, point 2 for softening) until reaching the critical state (points 3 and 2 for hardening and softening, respectively). The soil deforms further in shear under the assumption of ideal plasticity without change of e and meff. The MCC model requires, apart from the self-weight and Poisson ratio, an input of the following parameters: - Bulk modulus K [MPa] - Slope of swelling line [-] - Slope of NCL [-] - Initial void ratio e [-] - Slope of the critical state line M [-] - Preconsolidation pressure pc [kPa] - Coefficient OCR (overconsolidation ratio) OCR [-]

Fig. 14 Determining parameter pc From the above parameters the main attention deserves the determination of the initial value of preconsolidation pressures pc, which controls the onset of plasticity under hydrostatic loading conditions, Fig. 13. The program offers two options. The first approach exploits the K0 procedure, Section 1.2.7, assuming that the soil is normally consolidated. In such a case the value of pc follows from, Fig. 14 1 0 pc = (1 + 2 K 0 ) c , 3

c = OCR z (= h ) ,
K 0 = 1 sin .

This approach ensures that the material point is found at or below the yield surface prior to subsequent loading. If the value of pc0 is specified by the user the program takes the larger of the two for the analysis. The instantaneous value of bulk modulus K at a certain time is given by K
t

(1 + e )( ) 1 sin =
t eff m t

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The instantaneous shear modulus also required in the analysis is provided by 3(1 2 ) t Gt = K . 2(1 ) Therefore, when using the K0 procedure, the value of K specified on input is not relevant for the actual analysis. On the other hand, when employing the standard procedure this material parameter must be input. It can be derived from the elastic shear modulus G0 as 2(1 + ) 0 K0 = G , 3(1 2 ) where is the Poisson ration. Parameters and can be estimated from the expressions C (1 ) C , = c , = 1.3 (1 + ) s 2 .3 where Cc is the coefficient of one-dimensional compression and Cs is the corresponding coefficient for one-dimensional swelling. These parameters follow from a simple oedometric test. It thus remains to specify an approximate expression for parameter M. Provided that the triaxial extension experiment is carried out (assumption consistent with the implemented version of the DP model) the value of M is provided by 6 sin cv M = , 3 + sin cv and under the assumption of triaxial compression we get 6 sin cv , M = 3 sin cv where cv is the value of frictional angle at constant volume (the soil is found at critical state). This variable is given by sin sin , sin cv = 1 sin sin It is clear that for clayey soils, for which the dilation angle equals approximately to zero, the cv equals approximately to frictional angle . The following study illustrates the model behavior depending on the selection of parameter pc. We consider a very simple problem of a settlement of flexible foundation. This problem is described in details in the Example 1 of this tutorial. In all cases the parameter OCR = 1 was considered. The distribution of the equivalent plastic deformation displayed in Fig. 15 was derived with the help of K0 procedure and setting pc=1kPa in the input dialog window (minimum allowable value). The maximum equivalent plastic strain was found around 7%. However, when setting pc=100kPa we arrive at quite different distribution of equivalent plastic strain, see Fig. 16. In this case we simply assume that up to a certain depth (m<100kPa) the soil was already consolidated to a stress level that is larger that the one corresponding to geostatic stress (overconsolidated soil). At a greater depth we settle for the assumption of normally consolidated (virgin) soil with pc equal to geostatic stress. Note that in this example the plastic deformation was rather negligible equal to 0.04%. For additional comparison we also present the case in which we run the standard procedure already in the first stage with pc=100kPa for the entire soil body. This, however, is a rather unrealistic example since the value of m determined from geostatic stress exceeded the value of pc. Recall that pc corresponds to the largest stress the soil has witnessed ever before. The minimum value should therefore equal at least the value of
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geostatic stress. Results are shown in Fig. 16. Thus, if it is necessary to run the standard procedure in the first stage it is reasonable to specify several layers for inputting pc as suggested in Fig. 18. The corresponding results are plotted in Fig. 19. In this example we set in the first layer (up to depth of 2m) pc=25kPa (=20kN/m3). The maximum equivalent plastic strain did not exceed 2.7%.

Fig. 15 K0 procedure, pc = 1kPa, 2nd stage

Fig. 16 K0 procedure, pc = 100kPa, 2nd stage

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Fig. 17 Standard analysis, pc = 100kPa, 1st stage

Fig. 18 Standard analysis in the 1st stage, subdivision of soil mass into layers to input pc

Fig. 19 Standard analysis in the 1st stage, pc = 25-305kPa (different for each layer), 2nd stage
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1.2.7 K0 procedure, determination of initial (geostatic) stresses Apart from other soil parameters describing the material model the program makes possible to enter the coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest K0. This coefficient can be used to generate the initial stress state in the 1st calculation stage when selecting the option K0-procedure Fig. 20. In such a case the stress x is found from the expression K0.z, where K0 is specified by the user. If K0 is not specified it is determined from the expression K0=/(1-). The K0-procedure should be used only in problems with horizontal surfaces without surcharge, water or anchors.

When using the standard analysis it is also possible in the 1st stage of construction to use the Poisson number different from the one used in other stages of construction. If the option K0 for computation of geostatic stress (Fig. 20) in the material data set is checked, then the Poisson ratio for the 1st calculation stage is given by the expression = K0 /(1+ K0). This enables us to determine an arbitrary value of the lateral earth pressure in the 1st stage of construction.

Fig. 20 Input of the coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest K0

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Fig. 21 1st stage of construction selection of the procedure for the determination of initial stresses

1.3 Rigid bodies

The program makes possible to specify so called rigid bodies within the geometrical model characterized only by their self-weight. The material is assumed to be infinitely stiff. Such bodies serve to model massive concrete structures and walls in both standard and stability analysis.

.
Fig. 22 Input of rigid bodies

1.4 Input of geometry 1.4.1 Input of interfaces margins of the topological model One of the first and most important input data is the selection of the margins of the geometrical model.

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Fig. 23 Input of margins of the geometrical model

The width of the geometrical model can be usually estimated without much of a trouble (care must be take in the stability analysis to provide for sufficiently large space surrounding the critical region). The depth of a mesh however is quite important. The lowest point of a mesh can be imagined as incompressible subsoil. If there is no such layer of the soil or rock material in the geological profile it is possible to assume that at a certain depth from the ground the internal forces will vanish so that there will be no deformation. This will be the lowest point of the geometrical model. If you are not certain about the margins of the geometrical model it is useful to proceed as follows: - First enter larger margins, use coarser mesh and compute changes in the stress distributions within a soil body. - In the next step modify the initial margins (regions with no apparent deformation or changes in stresses can be cut off), generate new and finer mesh and carry out a new and more accurate analysis. After selecting the margins the model creation proceeds by defining geological profile via interfaces. The procedure is described in details in the Tutorial guide GEO4, Chapter 3.2.1 Input of interfaces. Interfaces can be also imported from other modules of the software package GEO using clipboard.
1.4.2 Assigning soils The procedure of assigning soils into geological profile is described in details in the manual GEO4 Tutorial guide, Chapter 2.2.4 Assign. The only difference compared to other programs appears in calculation stages. Here, the soils are not assigned to individual interfaces
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but rather to regions that are automatically created after geometry correction is completed, see Chapter 1.4.5. When a soil is assigned in the topology regime, this action automatically carries over to all regions that are found in a given geological layer.
1.4.3 Free nodes Program enables an input of arbitrary number of free nodes at any point inside or outside the structure, Fig. 24.

Fig. 24 Free nodes

Free nodes have several main functions - Nodes to define structure (tunnel opening, lining, sheeting, beams) - Auxiliary points for the mesh refinement - Points to define a boundary condition, to input forces, etc. If a free node is found inside or on the boundary of the structure, it becomes automatically a part of the finite element mesh. This option allows an adjustment of the finite element mesh or makes possible to create own mesh.

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Fig. 25 Mesh with no free nodes

Fig. 26 Mesh with free nodes

1.4.4 Free lines An important tool for creating a geometrical model is definition of free lines. The lines are defined between individual points (segments, arcs, circles) or about individual points (circles). The lines may intersect each other and may have an arbitrary number of contact points.

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Fig. 27 Various types of free lines

1.4.5 Corrector of specified geometry The program contains a build in automatic corrector of the specified geometry. This means that prior to the mesh generation the program automatically locates all points of intersection of lines, locates all closed regions and creates a corresponding model. Such regions can be then deactivated or they can be assigned a new soil. The main advantage of this system becomes evident when creating geometrical model for tunnels (step by step excavation) or for sheeted structures. Creating even a very complicated model thus becomes rather simple and can be performed very efficiently.

Fig. 28 Regions after running the geometry corrector

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1.5 Mesh generator

Correctly generated finite element mesh is the major step in achieving accurate and reliable results. The program GEO FEM has an automatic mesh generator that may substantially simplify this task. Nevertheless, certain rules should be followed when creating a finite element mesh: The basic mesh density can be specified in the dialog window Mesh generator. The finer the mesh the better the results computation as well as post-processing, however, may slow down substantially. The goal thus becomes to find an optimum mesh density this mainly depends on the user experiences. Meshes generated in example problems may serve as a certain initial hint. The finite element mesh should be sufficiently fine in locations in which large stress gradients are expected to occur (point supports, corners, openings, etc.). To that end, it is possible to specify the mesh refinement in the neighborhood of these locations. The mesh refinement can be specified around individual points or lines. The spread of refinement should be at least 3-5 times the desired refinement in the center of the refinement. Also, both values (density and spread of refinement) should be reasonable in view of the prescribed mesh density that applies to the surrounding region. This assures a smooth transition between regions with different mesh densities. Singular lines should be tackled in the same way. For more complicated problems it is useful to first carry out the analysis with a rather coarse mesh and then after examining the results to refine the mesh accordingly

Fig. 29 Mesh without local refinement

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,,
Fig. 30 Input of local refinement

,
Fig. 31 New mesh after refining a region around a point placed in the center of an opening

As a default setting for the mesh generation the program assumes 6-node triangular elements with mesh smoothing. The accuracy of the results more or less corresponds to twice as fine mesh composed of 3-node triangular elements. For research and testing purposes the program allows for the option to use constant strain (3-node) triangular elements (to select this option select the Extended option). The stability analysis, however, can be performed with 6-node triangular elements only. In case of nonlinear analysis, these elements should be used exclusively. In the Warning structure critical locations dialog window the user is prompted for possible locations on the structure that may cause problems during automatic mesh generation. When positioning the cursor on individual warnings the corresponding critical region on a structure is highlighted with a red color. The following items are checked: - Whether the distance of the two points is greater than one tenth of the required element edge length
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Whether the distance of a point from a line is greater than one tenth of the element edge length Whether the area of a region is greater than twice the element edge length Whether points and/or lines are found within a structure (in the soil).

These warnings suggest locations, in which the mesh generator experience problems. The following possibilities may occur: - The mesh is not generated => this calls for a new input of a geometrical data - The mesh is generated => in this case it is up to the user to decide whether the mesh is reasonable; in any case, the warning can be further ignored and the analysis can be carried out. -

,
Fig. 32 Warning suggesting critical regions in the FE mesh

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Fig.33 Zoom into the critical region the two points are to close to each other

1.6 Boundary conditions

The program automatically generates standard boundary conditions. Therefore, in routine problems the user does not have to enter the step of specifying supports. The standard boundary conditions are: Smooth pin in nodes on the bottom edge of the geometrical model Sliding pin along the vertical edges

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Fig. 34 Standard boundary conditions

Furthermore, the user has an option to specify support conditions in free nodes of the mesh (smooth or sliding pin, spring support, prescribed displacements). These supports become active from the 2nd calculation stage they are not accounted for in the 1st stage when generating initial stresses.
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Fig. 35 Assigning boundary conditions along a line

Fig. 36 Line boundary conditions active in the analysis 1.7 Beams

The beam elements serve to model beams, linings, sheeting walls, etc. The internal forces such as moment, normal and shear forces developed along a beam can be displayed. The beam elements must be defined when creating the geometrical model in the topology regime. They can be assigned to already defined lines. The corresponding line then represents the beam axis. In the 1st calculation stage the beam elements are excluded by default from the analysis to be included in the subsequent stages they must be first activated. The beam elements are formulated on the basis of Mindlin theory with three degrees of freedom in each node. The theory assumes that the plane cross-section normal to the beam axis before deformation remains plane after deformation but not necessarily normal to the deformed beam axis. At present, the internal forces are evaluated at the element nodes.
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Fig. 37 Input of beam parameters

Contact (interface) elements can be assigned to both sides of a beam. A correct definition of contacts is quite important especially when modeling sheeting walls more details are provided in Section 1.8 Contacts. The program automatically includes the beam self-weight into the analysis. This feature, however, can be turned off.

Fig.38 Plotting beam elements

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In the 1st calculation stage the beam elements are excluded from the analysis by default the user, however, has the option to activate them. The beam activity can be set in the Edit beam element dialog window. This window also serves to make changes of the selected beam parameters (e.g., change of lining thickness). Activity or information about changes made to the beam parameters in the current calculation stage are displayed in the table. The inputted beam can be split into several beam elements as a result of geometry correction in such cases it is useful to take advantage of edit mode that allows editing of more then one beam element at the same time (group edit mode) - to that end, select the required beams and edit all selected beams the same way at the same time by clicking the Edit selected button.

Fig. 39 Editing beam elements in stages

Fig. 40 Activating beam elements

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1.8 Heredity of features (boundary conditions, beams, soils)

Typical engineering tasks involve analysis of more construction stages. Providing you make a change in topology of a structure after defining several stages e.g., change of beam parameters, inserting a new support, assigning a new soil in place of the existing one the program, after accounting for the required changes in a given stage (or in topology regime), automatically carries over those changes to all subsequent stages of construction. If one of the successive calculation stages already experienced the change of parameters (function Change parameters), the program asks for a next step the new parameters can be assigned to either all-subsequent stages or only to those that have not experienced the change of parameters yet.

Fig. 41 Dialog window to select a way of assigning changed parameters to subsequent stages

1.9 Contacts (interfaces)

The contact elements are used in applications that require studying an interaction of a structure and a soil. They can be further used to model joints or interfaces of two distinct materials (soil rock interface). The typical example of using contact elements is the modeling of sheeting structures, retaining walls or tunnel lining. In such applications the contact elements are used to model a relatively thin layer of a soil or rock loaded primarily in shear.

Fig. 42 Location of contact elemenets when modeling retaining walls

Formulation and numerical implementation of the contact element are described in details in the Theoretical guide of this manual. Here we just recall that the formulation assums a contact element with zero thickness (Fig. 43) that relates the contact stresses and jumps in the displacement field developed along the interface.

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Fig. 43 Construction of a sheeting wall represented by beam an contact elements

Parameters of the contact element adjacent to a beam element are specified directly in the Edit beam element dialog window option Contact left or Contact right, respectively.

Fig. 44 Input of contact element parameters

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Specification of the contact element location (left or right) depends on the beam element orientation (element numbering) the most simple check of the correct input is to select one option of the two options and view the graphical representation the contact is represented by a dashed line displayed next to the beam.

Obr. 45 Contact visualization

Contacts (interfaces) can be further specified independantely along soil interfaces or on free lines using the New contact dialog window.

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Fig. 46 Input of contact element parameters

Two options of the contact element material model are available. In particular, one may select either the elastic model with the possibility of plotting contact stresses while assuming the elastic behavior along the interface or the plastic model. The plastic model is based on the classical Mohr-Coulomb model extended by including the tesion cut-off. This model is therefore well suited when modeling tensile separation. When modeling, e.g., sheeting structures. this model should be used exclusively. The basic model parameters are the cohesion c, coefficient of friction , and angle of dilation . The parameters c and can be specified also indirectly by reduction of parameters c and tan()
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of a soil along the contact. If the contact is assumed between two soils then the one used for the reduction is the one having smaller values of c and of the two. The contact parameters are then defined as c = c c soil ,

= tan( soil ) .
If no better information regarding the reduction parameters is available one may use the following values. For steel structures in sandy soils one may set the reduction parameters equal to 2/3 while for clays use the value of 1/3. These parameters usualy attain higher values when concrete structures are used. In general, the reduction parameters should be less than 1. The dilation angle plays the same role as in case of standard soil models. Just recall that by setting = 0 we apriory assume elastic behavior in tension/compression. The plastic deformation is thus limitted to shear. Additional parameters of the contact material model are the elastic stiffnesses in the normal and tangential directions kn and ks, respectively. They can be imagined as spring stiffnesses along a given inteface, see Fig. 47. A reliable selection of the values of these parameters is not an easy task and is usually problem dependent. To shed a light on this subject one may relate these stiffnesses to the material paramaters of a soil along the contact. The following relations then apply E G kn = , ks = , t t where t is the assumed (fictitious) thickness of the interface layer G is the shear modulus of elasticity E is the elastic modulus In case of distinct materials (E1, E2, G1, G2) we take the lower value of ks a kn. Although in case of fully plastic behavior the selection of parameters kn and ks is not essential, the values assigned to these parameters are decisive for the success of the solution of a given nonlinear problem. Providing these values are two large (above 100000 kN/m3) the iteration process may ocillate. On the other hand, setting the values of ks and kn too low (below 10000 kN/m3) may result in an unrealistic distribution of displacements. The default setting in the program is 10000 kN/m3.

Fig.47 Visualization of elastic stiffnesses

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1.10 Anchors

Anchors as stabilizing or reinforcing elements are represented by elastic tensile-compressive bar element with constant normal stiffness. The maximum allowable tensile force the element can sustain controls tensile failure of an anchor element. The bar element is anchored into the soil only at its staring and end points. No mutual interaction between the soil and anchor along the anchor length is considered. Anchor elements are defined by their starting and end points and by their stiffness. The anchor can be positioned anywhere within a structure, not necessarily connected to any existing geometry lines or finite element mesh nodes. The program automatically links the anchor degrees of freedom to the actual degrees of freedom of the predefined finite element mesh. To simplify its input, the anchor starting point can be either fixed on (projected to) the ground, individual interfaces, or beam elements, or it can be inputted numerically. The anchor stiffness is specified in terms of the elastic modulus and its area. The program makes also possible to enter the anchor diameter the area is then determined automatically. Other important parameters are the pre-stress force and tensile strength (the anchor breaks when the tensile strength is exceeded). For elements with no pre-stress the pre-stress force is set equal to zero. Sufficiently large value of the anchor tensile strength may be specified to avoid anchor failure. By default the anchor does not support a compressive force anchor elements loaded in compression during a certain stage of calculation are temporarily disabled. If tension occurs in subsequent analysis run, e.g., due to change in loading, geometry or material parameters of soil, the program automatically introduces these elements back into the analysis. The program makes also possible to include compressive response of an anchor. However, for elements loaded primarily in compression we recommend to specify these elements as props see Section 1.11 Props.

Fig. 48 Input of anchor

The anchor deforms during analysis. Such deformation together with deformation of a surrounding soil may cause the reduction of the specified pre-stress force in the anchor. Providing we wish to achieve a specific pres-stress force in the anchor, it is necessary to either
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post-stress the anchor to a given value in the next calculation stage or to use a sufficiently large magnitude of the pre-stress force right from the beginning to compensate for a possible drop (the resulting anchor force after completion of the calculation step is displayed at the anchor head below the prescribed pres-stress force). In subsequent stages the program allows only for the anchor post-stressing (change of the initial pre-stress force).

Fig. 49 Post-stressing of anchor

Introducing pre-stressed anchors into the soil may lead to plastic deformation of the soil in the vicinity of the anchor head or root, respectively the program then often fails to converge.

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Fig. 50 Plastic region in the vicinity of anchor head and root

In such a case we recommend to make the following changes in the input: To place a beam element under the anchor head (this results into a better transition of load into the soil). To place the anchor root into a sufficiently stiff soil (use the elastic or modified elastic material model for the soil layer around an anchor.

When performing the stability analysis the actual pre-stressed anchor is automatically replaced by loading due to a point forces acting at the anchor head.

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Fig. 51 Modeling anchor during stability analysis

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1.11 Props

Props are supporting elements represented by elastic bar element with constant normal stiffness. The props can sustain only compressive loading. When found in tension they are removed from the analysis. Similar to anchors, the props are linked to the finite element mesh in two points. If the prop is positioned into the soil then there is no interaction between the soil and prop along the prop length considered. Prop elements are defined by their starting and end points and by their stiffness. The program automatically links the prop degrees of freedom to the actual degrees of freedom of the predefined finite element mesh. To simplify its input, the prop starting point can be either fixed on (projected to) the ground, individual interfaces, or beam elements, or it can be inputted numerically. The prop stiffness is specified in terms of the elastic modulus and its area. The program makes also possible to enter the diameter of a circular prop the area is then determined automatically. In subsequent stages the prop cannot be edited it can be either removed or inputted again.

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Fig. 52 Input of prop

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Fig. 53 Example of using props

1.12 Geo-reinforcements

Geo-reinforcements are tensile reinforcing elements (geotextiles, geogrids) represented again by elastic bar elements and specified by their end points and axial stiffness. Unlike anchors or props, the geo-reinforcement is linked to an underlying finite element mesh along its entire length. However, similar to anchors the program introduces the geo-reinforcement end points into the finite element mesh automatically so the geo-reinforcement can be specified anywhere within the mesh. Owing to its geometrical characteristics, the geo-reinforcement calls for the input of the cross-sectional stiffness taken with respect to 1m of its width, Fig. 54. The user should contact the manufacturer for this information.

Fig. 54 Input of geo-reinforcement

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The program allows us to consider the geo-reinforcement also in compression by default however, the part of geo-reinforcement found in compression is disabled for the analysis. This state is simulated in Fig. 55 showing distribution of normal tensile forces over active parts of individual geo-reinforcements. The compressive part of the geo-reinforcement is excluded from the analysis. Similar to anchors, however, it can be automatically activated once loaded again in tension.

Fig. 55 Evolution of tensile forces in geo-reinforcements

When introducing the geo-reinforcement into a soil body it is necessary to keep in mind a sufficient anchorage of the reinforcement since the program does not check the georeinforcement against shear failure. A sudden increase of the normal force as shown in Fig. 56 suggests singularity in contact stresses and probable shear failure of the geo-reinforcement. From that point of view the results displayed in Fig. 56 is misleading and essentially unrealistic. In such a case, the reinforcement should be either removed from the analysis or ensure its sufficient anchorage as plotted in Fig. 57.

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Fig. 56 Insufficiently anchored geo-reinforcement

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Fig. 56 Sufficiently anchored geo-reinforcement

1.13 Surcharge

An arbitrary number of loads can be specified in individual stages. The surcharge may act either on the existing interface (including ground surface) or can be applied anywhere within a soil body.

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t
Fig. 58 Input of surcharge

In subsequent calculation stages the existing surcharge can be either removed or it is possible to change its magnitude.

Fig. 59 Change of surcharge magnitude

Note that applying a surcharge directly on the ground surface may lead to excessive plastic deformations in the vicinity of surcharge and the analysis may fail to converge. In such a case, one may either place a beam element under the applied surcharge, or choose an elastic or modified elastic material model for the soil under the surcharge.
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1.14 Water

There are three options in the program to introduce ground water: - The ground water table can be specified as a continuous interface below and above the ground surface. - The pore pressure values are inputted via isoline. The first isoline always coincides with the ground surface. The remaining isolines are introduced the same way as interfaces between individual soil layers. The pore pressure values are inserted into the table List of interfaces in the left bottom part of screen. The values between isolines follow from linear interpolation. - Values of the coefficient Ru are specified for individual isolines. The first isoline always coincides with the ground surface. The remaining isolines are introduced the same way as interfaces between individual soil layers. The values are inserted into the table List of interfaces in the left bottom part of screen. The values between isolines follow from linear interpolation. The simplest way to check the input of water is to plot the distribution of pore pressure as shown in Fig. 60.

Fig. 60 Plot of pore pressure distribution

1.15 Removing soil (Activity) and assigning soils to regions (Regions)

The program allows for removing soils from individual regions. As an example we consider an embankment analysis. In such a case, it must be accounted for already in the topology regime when creating the overall geometrical model. In the 1st calculation stage, however, it can be deactivated.

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Fig. 61 Modeling embankment 1st calculation stage

In the next stage it can be again reactivated.

Fig. 62 Modeling embankment activity of embankment body

Similar approach applies also to underground or open excavations (tunnels, sheeting structures). With regard to this option we should mention the case, in which the soil to be removed is found below the GWT. There are two cases to be considered. In the first case we assume that the soil subjected to excavation is completely enclosed by active beam elements. The beam is then considered to be impermeable and both the soil and water are removed (removing total stresses
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inactive region is free of water). Owing to impermeability of the beam elements, the pore pressure distribution remains unchanged, see Fig. 63.

Fig. 63 Pore pressure distribution after removing soil from region enclosed by active beams

In all other cases we assume that water in the excavated region is still active. This state is evident from the pore pressure distribution shown in Fig. 64. Its effect can be removed by changing the ground water table, Fig. 65.

Fig. 64 Pore pressure distribution after removing soil

Fig. 65 Pore pressure distribution after chaniging the ground water table In the regime Regions it is further possible to replace existing soils in a given region with a new one. This option can be also used to change the previously selected material model, e.g., from the elastic into plastic material model. This option, however, should be used with caution. 1.16 Analysis

The actual analysis is carried out after pressing the Analysis button.
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Fig. 66 Structure analysis

During analysis the program attempts to arrive at such a solution that satisfies for given loading and boundary conditions the global equilibrium. In most cases this step results into an iterative process. The process of iteration and convergence of the solution is displayed on the screen. The analysis can be stopped any time by pressing the STOP button. The results are then available for the last converged load increment.

Fig. 67 Process of iteration

When the analysis is completed the program displays the final results and provides information about the course of analysis.

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Fig. 68 Screen after completion of analysis

The correct results are obtained when 100% of the applied load is reached. Due to convergence failure the program may stop before reaching the desired load level (only a fraction of the total applied load is reached).

Fig. 69 Analysis failed to converge plot of equivalent plastic strain

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Such a result calls for certain modifications of the model the following steps can be followed: - Increase the stiffness of the structure. - Decrease the applied loads, split the soil excavation in more steps. - Improve material parameters of existing soils. - Add reinforcing members (beams, anchors). - Change parameters settings affecting the iteration process (increase number of iterations). An explanation of the failure of analysis can be provided by plots of plastic strains, Fig. 69.
1.17 Analysis setting

The default setting of parameters that drive the solution analysis is optimized to ensure sufficient accuracy and efficiency of the analysis. Nevertheless, an experienced user may require to change the default setting, or to examine the influence of parameters on the accuracy and course of the analysis. The parameters setting can be adjusted in the Analysis setting dialog window. The change of standard setting deserves, however, a word of caution. Prior to making any changes, the user should be well aware of possible consequences. In particular, improper setting may substantially slow down the computation process, may cause divergence and eventually lead to incorrect results. Details, regarding individual parameters and their optimal setting, can be found in the Theoretical guide. The default setting can be always recovered by pressing the Standard button.
1.17.1 Solution method

The program GEO FEM serves to analyze geotechnical problems characterized by nonlinear response of a soil or rock body. A successful analysis of most of such problems calls for an iterative solution of a given boundary value problem. Applying the finite element method (FEM) then leads to an incremental form of the equilibrium conditions written as
K T u = f ,

(1)

where KT is the instantaneous (tangent) stiffness matrix of a structure, u is the vector of nodal displacement increments and f corresponds to the vector of out-of-balance force increments. Eq. (1) can be solved only approximately using a suitable numerical method. The goal of the method is to arrive, during the process of iteration, at such a state of stress and strain that satisfies the condition f = 0, see also the theoretical guide of the program. The program GEO FEM offers two basic methods, Fig. 70: 1. The Newton-Raphson method NRM, 2. The Arc-length method ALM.

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Fig. 70 Analysis setting method selection 1.17.2 Update of the stiffness matrix Both methods are described in details in the theoretical guide of the program. Recall that the full Newton-Raphson method assumes that an instantaneous tangent stiffness matrix is formed each new iteration. Forming a new tangent stiffness matrix only at the beginning of a new load increment leads to so-called modified Newton-Raphson method. If the stiffness matrix is formed only once at the beginning of the solution analysis we obtain so called initial stress method. Individual methods can be selected from the Analysis settings dialog window section Stiffness update, Fig. 71. Individual options correspond to:

1. Keep elastic initial stress method, 2. Each iteration full Newton-Raphson method, 3. Each load step modified Newton-Raphson method.

Fig. 71 Newton-Raphson method stiffness update option

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The default setting assumes the full Newton-Raphson algorithm (stiffness update after each iteration). Recall that in GEO FEM formulation of the stiffness matrix is consistent with the stress update algorithm; see the theoretical guide for more details. Such a formulation then ensures quadratic convergence of the full Newton-Raphson (NRM) unlike the modified NRM or the initial stress method that, in comparison with the full NRM, require considerably more interactions to attain equilibrium. On the other hand, it is fair to mention that the computational cost per iteration is mainly determined by the calculation and factorization of the tangent stiffness matrix. Assuming elastic response of a structure it is clearly meaningless to set up the structural stiffness matrix more then once (stiffness update keep elastic). On the contrary, increasing the degree of nonlinearity suggests more frequent stiffness reformations (stiffness update Each iteration). Details can be found in the theoretical guide.
1.17.3 Initial load step As already intimated in the introductory part of this chapter the actual analysis is carried out incrementally in several load steps until the overall prescribed load is reached. Note that the program requires setting the initial load step only. This can be done in the Analysis settings dialog window, Fig. 70. This parameter represents the ratio between the load applied in a given load step to overall prescribed load. Depending on the course of iteration this parameter is adaptively adjusted. The default setting assumes 25% of the total prescribed load. Similarly to what we have already mentioned it holds that increasing the solution complexity from the nonlinear response point of view requires reduction of this parameter. In case of elastic response, however, this parameter can be set to 1, which corresponds to the solution of a given problem in one load step. 1.17.4 Maximum number of iterations per a single load step This parameter represents the maximum number of iterations allowed for a single load step to reach the state of equilibrium. It can be set in the Analysis settings dialog window, Fig. 70. Exceeding this value prompts the program to automatically reduce the current value of the assumed load step and restarts the solution from the last load level that complies with the state of equilibrium. Similar action is taken when oscillation or divergence of the program is imminent. 1.17.5 Convergence criterion For the incremental solution strategy based on an iterative method to be effective, it is necessary to select suitable criteria (preset tolerances for reaching equilibrium) for the termination of the iteration process. Recall that loose convergence criteria may result in inaccurate results while too tight convergence tolerances may lead to unjustified increase of computational cost spent to arrive at results of superfluous accuracy. In GEO FEM the convergence is checked against the change of nodal displacement increments, the change of out-of-balanced forces and also the change of internal energy. The last criterion gives a certain idea about how both displacements and forces approach their equilibrium values. The above parameters, suitable for convergence test, are described in details in the theoretical guide. Convergence tolerances for individual parameters can be set in the Analysis settings dialog window, Fig. 70 The corresponding settings are:

1. Displacement error tolerance tolerance for the change of displacement increment norm. 2. Out-of-balanced forces tolerance tolerance for the change of out-of-balance force norm.
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3. Energy error tolerance - tolerance of the change of internal energy. The default setting is 0.01 for all convergence tolerances.
1.17.6 Setting the Newton-Raphson method In Section 1.15.4 we already pointed out the possibility of restarting the program in case of divergence. This state manifests itself either by very slow convergence, divergence or oscillation of the process of iteration. With the Newton-Raphson method the course of iteration can be driven by setting the parameters in theAnalysis settings section Newton Raphson, Fig. 72. The corresponding parameters are

1) Relaxation factor it represents the value of reduction of the current load step for the restart providing the solution fails to converge. A new value of the assumed load step is found from the expression:
new load step = old load step / relaxation factor.

2) Max. No. of relaxations for a single load step this parameter determines how many times it is possible to invoke the above action during the entire analysis. Exceeding this value prompts the program to terminate the analysis. The results are then available for the last successfully converged load level. 3) Min. No. of iterations for a single load step this parameter allows for possible acceleration of the analysis. In particular, providing the number of iterations to converge in the last load step is less than the minimum one set, the load step for a new load increment is increased as follows:
new load step = old load step * relaxation factor.

The default setting of the above parameters corresponds to values displayed in Fig. 72.

Fig. 72 Parameters driving the iteration process

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1.17.7 Setting the Arc-length method The Arc-length method is relatively robust method particularly suitable for the solution of problems that require the search for the collapse load of a structure. Stability analysis of earth structures (slopes, embankments) is an example of such a task. The principles of the method are summarized in the theoretical guide. Here we just remind the essential difference between the NRM and the Arc-length method (ALM). Unlike the NRM where the solution is driven purely by prescribing load increments, the ALM introduces an additional parameter representing a certain constraint on the value of load increment in a given load step. The value of load step thus depends on the course of iteration and is directly related to the selected arc length; see the Theoretical guide. The basis of the method is an assumption that the prescribed load varies proportionally during calculation. This means that a respective level of the applied load can be expressed as:
F = F ,

(2)

where F represents the current fraction of the total applied load, is the coefficient of proportionality and F corresponds to the overall prescribed load. Note that with ALM the load vector F represents only a certain reference load that is kept constant during the whole response calculation. The actual value of the load at the end of calculation is equal to the multiple of F; < 1 represents the state when the actual bearing capacity of a structure is less than prescribed reference load; if at the end of response calculation exceeds 1, the program automatically adjusts the arc length in order for the solution to converge to value = 1 within a selected tolerance equal to 0.01 (1% the maximum applied load). This value cannot be changed.
1.17.8 Setting a version of the Arc-length method The literature offers a number of ALM formulations. The program GEO FEM supports the method suggested by Crisfield and consistently linearized method proposed by Ramm. The latter one is considerably simple, at least from the formulation point of view, than the Crisfield method. On the other hand it is reportedly less robust. The default setting is the Crisfield method. The method can be set in theAnalysis settings section Arc-length, Fig. 73.

Fig. 73 - Arc-length setting a version of the method

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1.17.9 Setting arc-length The arc length is the basic parameter affecting the response calculation. An indicator for the selection of arc length can be a course of iteration in the previous solution stage. In any case, the program GEO FEM enables the following setting, Fig. 74:

1) Determine from load step the arc length is determined automatically from the initial load step. This parameter is discussed in details in Section 1.15.3. 2) Assign from the previous stage the value of arc length at the end of previous calculation stage is used as a starting value for a new stage. Clearly, this option becomes active in the second stage of construction. 3) Input the value of arc length can be directly prescribed. Providing the structure response cannot be determined a priory we recommend to use the first option. Depending on the course of calculation it is possible to adjust the value of arc length and repeat the calculation. At no event, however, it is possible to ensure convergence for an arbitrary value of arc length selected. Similarly to NRM, if the convergence problems occur the program allows for the reduction of the current arc length and restarts the calculation. Parameters Relaxation factor and Maximum No. of iteration affect the process of iterations the same way as the parameters described already in Section 1.15.6. The next parameter driving the iteration process is the Maximum No. of load steps, Fig. 74. The program always carries on the prescribed number of load steps providing:
parameter exceeds 1, or the maximum number of relaxations of arc length is exceeded.

Providing the analysis is terminated due to exceeding the maximum number of prescribed load steps and parameter is less than 1, it is necessary to increase the number of steps and restart the analysis.
1.17.10 Automatic arc length control Automatic arc length control strategy constitutes very important part of implementation of any numerical method. The program GEO FEM makes possible to adaptively adjust the current arc length for a new load step depending on the course of iteration in the previous step by activating option Optimize in theAnalysis settings section Arc-length. The program will then attempt to select a value of arc length that keeps the desired number of iterations in each load step needed for convergence option Optim. No. of iter. in a single load step, Fig. 75. As for default setting this option is disabled. Further details can be found in the theoretical guide. The next parameter driving the process of iteration is Ratio load/displacement. This parameter represents a scalar factor, which adjusts the scales of load given by parameter and displacement vector u. providing this parameter is sufficiently large the analysis is essentially driven by load increment. Setting this parameter equal to 0 (default setting) we obtain so-called cylindrical ALM and the analysis will be driven by displacement increment. This approach is more stable and recommended by the authors. Nevertheless, the program GEO FEM allows for optimization of this parameter by activating the option Optimize, Fig. 75. In such a case the current value of this parameter is set equal to the Bergan current stiffness parameter that provides a scalar measure of the degree of nonlinearity. With increasing the degree of nonlinearity this parameter is decreasing. In the vicinity of collapse load the value of this parameter approaches zero and the solution is driven by displacement increment. This strategy thus supports the use of
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cylindrical method having this parameter equal to zero. As for the default setting this option is turned off. Further details can be found again in the theoretical guide.

Fig. 74 - Arc-length arc length setting

Fig. 75 Arc-length automatic arc length control

1.17.11 Line search method The basic goal of the Line search method is to determine a scalar multiplier that is used to scale the current displacement increment obtained from Eq. (1) so that the equilibrium is

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satisfied in a given direction. The actual displacement vector at the end of the i-th iteration thus becomes
u i = u i 1 + u .

(3)

Consequently, the calculation process is either accelerated, >1, or damped, <1. Obviously, with the Line search performed each iteration, the expense of the iteration increases. On the other hand this drawback is compensated by less number of iterations needed for convergence and by the possibility of avoiding divergence or oscillation of the process of iteration. By default the use of the Line search is enabled, Fig. 70. Line search parameters are set in the Analysis settings section Line search. The parameters setting comes out from the theoretical basis of the method described in the theoretical guide. An inexperienced user is recommended to stick with the default setting shown in Fig. 76.

Fig. 76 Line search method setting

1.17.12 Plasticity The Analysis settings section Plasticity dialog window serves to set parameters driving the stress update procedure, see theoretical guide. The default setting is again recommended, Fig. 77. The parameter Return to yield surface tolerance suggests the tolerance for satisfying the selected yield condition. Assuming nonlinear hardening/softening as in the case of modified cam clay model the stress return mapping requires an iteration process. The maximum number of iterations allowed is then given by the parameter Max. No. of iterations for a single plastic step. When employing the Mohr-Coulomb, the Drucker-Prager or the modified Mohr-Coulomb model these parameters will not apply.

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Fig. 77 Parameters driving the stress return mapping

1.17.13 Setting the basic parameters driving the safety factor analysis The safety factor analysis with GEO FEM is based on the assumption that the forces attributed to the soil body self-weight are the only source of the load and are applied in a single load step. The actual safety factor analysis then draws on the method of reduction of strength parameters c, . In the framework of this method the safety factor is defined as a scalar multiplier that reduces the original parameters c, to arrive at the state of failure. The following definition of the safety factor then arises

tan orig , F= tan failure

(4)

where orig represents the original (real) value of the angle of internal friction and failure is the value of the angle of internal friction at failure. Searching for the critical value of the safety factor requires a systematic modification (reduction) of strength parameters c, that leads to failure. In the framework of the NRM the state of failure is determined as a state for which the solution fails to converge. The analysis is driven by the following parametres, see Fig. 78: 1) Reduction reduction factor (scalar multiplier) to reduce parameters c, 2) Min. reduction factor limit value, below which the value of reduction factor should not fall during the searching process. This parameter ensures that the computation will not continue for needless low values of the reduction factor. It is one of the parameters to terminate the searching process. 3) Reduction of soil parameters this parameter allows us to define which of the parameters c, should be reduced. The default setting assumes that both parameters are reduced at the same time.

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Fig. 78 Basic parameters driving the safety factor analysis

1.17.14 Setting driving parameters for relaxation of the reduction factor As in the standard analysis it is possible to adaptively adjust the value of reduction factor. Providing the solution fails to converge for a given set of parameters c, the reduction factor is relaxed and the analysis is restarted. This approach is driven by the parameters set in the Analysis settings section Newton Raphson, Fig. 79. These parameters are essentially the same as the parameters described in Section 1.15.6. In this particular case, however, the Relaxation factor in Fig. 79 serves to relax the current value of the Reduction factor. The default setting corresponds to the values displayed in Fig. 79. Analysis is terminated once the value of reduction factor drops below the minimum one set or the maximum number of allowable reductions is exceeded. When selecting the NRM the program allows us to determine the parameters c, which bring a soil body to a stable state in cases, where the solution with the original parameters c, was not found. The program then precedes in the opposite way so that parameters c, are systematically increased until the stable solution is found.

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Fig. 79 Parameters driving the process of reduction of strength parameters c,

1.17.15 Course of analysis The course of analysis can be viewed in the FEM Analysis dialog window, Figs. 80-83. The meaning of individual parameters has been already explained in the previous sections. The parameter Percent of the applied load gives percentage of the overall load (excepted value) at the end of the current load step assuming successful convergence for the current load step. Step size provides the current scaling factor for the determination of load increment in the current load step. The parameter Safety factor corresponds to the expected value of the safety factor assuming successful convergence for given parameters c, . The course of iteration within a given load step is characterized by the change of convergence parameters: lambda parameter in Arc-length method, Eq. (2), eta parameter in the Line search method, Eq. (3), PNORM - change of the displacement increment norm, NSNORM - change of the out-of-balance force norm, ENORM change of internal energy.

Finally, the STOP button serves to terminate the calculation process. The results are then available for the last load level that complies with the state of equilibrium.

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Fig. 80 Info about the course of standard analysis using the NRM

Fig. 81 Info about the course of standard analysis using the ALM

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Fig. 82 Info about the course of safety factor analysis when using the NRM

Fig. 83 Info about the course of safety factor analysis when using the ALM

When the analysis is completed it is possible to recover information about the solution process using the In details button located in the right bottom part of the desktop. Information about the course of analysis is displayed in Figs. 84-85.

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Fig. 84 - Info about the course of calculation when using the NRM

Fig. 85 - Info about the course of calculation when using the ALM

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1.18 Results

The basic form of the result presentation is graphical representation of individual variables (isolines, isosurfaces, color transition). The variable to be displayed is selected from the combo box on the upper control panel.

Fig. 86 Graphical representation results

The overall list of variables that can be viewed is given in the following table: Variable Notation Description dz Def Z Displacement in the Z-direction dx Def X Displacement in the X-direction Sigma Z Total normal stress along the Z-axis z.tot Sigma Z Eff Effective normal stress along the Z-axis z.eff PorePress Sigma X Tau XZ EpsEq EpsEq Plast Eps XZ Eps Z Eps X Eps V Pore pressure Total normal stress along the X-axis Shear stress Equivalent strain Equivalent plastic strain Engineering shear strain Normal strain along the Z-axis Normal strain along the X-axis Volumetric strain x.tot x.eff xz eq eq,pl xz z x V

Units mm mm kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa -

Sigma X Eff Effective normal stress along the X-axis

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Sigma M SigmaEq Sigma 1 Sigma 2 Alfa

Mean stress Equivalent deviatoric stress (Mises stress) Principal stress in the 1-direction Principal stress in the 2-direction Orientation of principal axis

m
J

kPa kPa kPa kPa degree

1 2

First ten variables are selected as basic they are always available. The other variables will appear when choosing the option Enhanced in the Variable selection combo box located in the left bottom part of the Graphical output setup dialog window.

Fig. 87 Graphical output settings

The Graphical output setup dialog window serves for complex selection of individual variables required for graphical representation. The most frequently used control elements are also placed in the upper control panel.

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When selecting isosurfaces for the graphical representation the following options for displaying the results are available: - total e.g., Sigma Z is the overall vertical stress developed in a soil body up to the current stage of construction. - Stage increment - Sigma Z represents an increment of the overall vertical stress developed in the current stage. - Exclude 1st stage Sigma Z represents the difference between the overall vertical stress developed up to the current stage and the one found in the first stage (initial stress). The meaning of individual options is evident from the following figure.

Fig. 88 Stress change in a soil body due to embankment construction

The program therefore provides not only the overall values of individual variables in a given phase, but also changes (increments) of variables between stages. An important option for plotting the results is the possibility of representing structure either in the deformed or undeformed state. Plotting the results in the deformed mode further requires specifying magnification of deformations.

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Fig. 89 Undeformed structure

Fig. 90 Deformed structure displacements magnified 40 times

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Fig. 91 Deformed structure displacements magnified 100 times

Several other modes of graphical representation can be further specified in the Graphical output setup dialog window: Plotting vectors of displacements and their values Plotting distributions of internal forces on beams (Warning: internal forces on beam and contact elements can be viewed only on the undeformed mesh) Writing up anchor forces Plotting reactions, etc. Plotting tensors of principal stresses Plotting normal tensile forces in geo-reinforcements (force per unit meter of the georeinforcement width)

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Fig. 92 Vectors of displacements

Fig. 93 Tensors of principal stresses

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1.19 Stability

Each stage of construction allows for the safety factor analysis. These calculations are completely independent and have no relation to calculations carried out in the previous stages. As already mentioned, during the stability analysis the program reduces the strength parameters of a soil (angle of internal friction and cohesion) until failure occurs. The analysis then results into a factor of safety that corresponds to the classical methods of limit equilibrium. The safety factor analysis requires the use of six-node triangular elements. Since plastic slip is the main failure mechanism we also require that the Mohr-Coulomb, the modified MohrCoulomb or the Drucker-Prager plasticity model be used for all soils. The effect of pre-stressed anchors is internally represented as a set of two concentrated forces acting at the anchor starting and end points. In the stability analysis mode the only variables available for graphical representation are displacements and equivalent total and plastic strains. The deformation of a soil body corresponds to the state of failure attained for reduced soil parameters c, . Therefore, it has nothing to do with real deformation of the soil body, but rather provides a good insight about the entire slope response or earth structure in general at the onset of failure. A suitable way of presenting the stability analysis results are vectors of displacements plotted together with the equivalent plastic strain. The localized plastic deformation provides visible evidence about the possible location of the critical slip surface.

Fig. 94 Slope stability analysis

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Fig. 95 Plot of equivalent plastic strain slip surface

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2. Example 1 terrain settlement file Example1.gmk

As a first example we consider a relatively simple task of a flat ground loaded by a uniform strip loading spread over 4m and having the magnitude of 250 kPa. The goal is to determine the ground settlement both at the end of loading step and after unloading.

Fig. 96 Input of soil parameters

The Mohr-Coulomb material model with no hardening/softening is selected to model the soil response (comparison of results derived for other material models is presented at the end of this example). The required material parameters to be specified are shown in Fig. 97.

Fig. 97 Input of soil parameters

In the next step we specify margins of the geometrical model and the soil profile using the mode Interface. Margins are specified such as to have the vertical boundaries of the geometrical model sufficiently far from the applied load. The selected depth is 15m it is thus assumed that
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the soil found below this level is incompressible. Finally we assign the specified soil to selected interface (to region bounded by ground interface and boundaries of the geometrical model).

Fig. 98 Input of ground profile

In this example, the topology input is completed by generating the FE mesh. The mesh density is selected to be 1.5m. The mesh is generated by pressing the Generate mesh button.

Fig. 99 Mesh generation

We now proceed into the first stage of construction mode Analysis and after pressing the Analyze button we determine the initial stress state (geostatic stress).

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Fig. 100 Analysis of the 1st calculation stage - initial stress state

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To continue we add a new calculation stage (a new stage of construction) and specify the desired load (mode Surcharge).

Fig. 101 Input of surcharge

When the analysis of the second stage is completed the program immediately displays the deformed mesh and the distribution of total vertical normal stress Sigma Z.

Fig. 102 Results of the 2nd stage

To view a distribution of vertical displacement you switch in the Variable combo box located on the upper control panel to Def Z. The result appears in Fig. 103.

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Fig. 103 Vertical displacements due to loading (2nd stage)

As evident from the color scale the maximum vertical displacement is 102,9 mm. To view the same results after unloading we add a new (third) stage and remove the previously assigned load. Inspecting the final results shows the maximum displacement after unloading equal to 21,9 mm.

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Fig. 104 Vertical displacements after unloading (3rd stage)

To prove the presence of plastic strains upon unloading one would need to switch to, e.g., EpsEq Plast in the Variable combo box. The above example thus clearly shows that the FE analysis can be largely affected by the selected material model, selected elastic modulus, element type and mesh density. The following table stores the results derived for various material models implemented in GEO FEM
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and different FE meshes. The results provided by other codes such as GEO 4 settlement and ATENA are presented for comparison.
Resulting maximum settlement in mm Example 1:
Model/program Elastic Elastic Elastic Elastic DP DP DP DP MC MC MC MC MCM MCM MCM Atena DP Geo 4 Settlement Mesh 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* Stage 2 84,80 81,80 79,30 85,90 123,7, 117,2, 114,6, 113,9 109,4 102,9 99,5 99.8 93.7 93.5 88.9, 113,2, 74,1 Stage 3 0 0 0 0 * - 3-nde element 39,9 35,1 34,9 27,5 * - 3-node element 26,0 21,5 20,0 13.6 * - 3-node element 12.6 12.1 9.1 27,3 * - 3-node element Elastic subspace Comment

Several important remarks can be drawn from the above table: - The Drucker-Prager model appears to be more compliant (in the present example) than the Mohr-Coulomb and the Modified Mohr-Coulomb material models (see Section 1.2 and the theoretical guide). - As expected, a finer mesh leads to more accurate results including evolution and spread of plastic strains. - The results derived with 6-node elements correspond to the results found for 3-node elements with twice as finer mesh as used for 6-node elements. This result, however, cannot be generalized. The Modified elastic model that attempts to substitute nonlinear models by introducing different modules for primary loading (Esec) and unloading/reloading (Eur) branch was not included in the table the resulting settlement merely depends on the magnitude of the secant modulus (Esec).

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3. Example 2 analysis of collector lining file Example2.gmk

The goal of this example is to analyze a response of the collector lining to loads exerted by the surrounding soil. A homogeneous soil with the following material parameters is assumed:
Soil parameters: Type phi [dg.] Class F5 21.00 c [kPa] 12.00 gamma [kN/m3] 20.00 Edef [MPa] 4.00 Eur [MPa] 12.00 ny 0.40

The collector geometry is depicted in the following figure. The button is found at a depth of 12m. The lining is made from a steel-reinforced-concrete with a thickness of 10cm.

Fig. 105 Scheme of collector

We first create a geometrical model following the same rules as in the previous example. Margins (world coordinates) are again set to -15m and +15m. An incompressible soil is found at a depth of 20m.

Fig. 106 Input of world coordinates

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Fig. 107 Input of ground profile

In the next step we specify the collector geometry. We start from the collector vertex points. The points are specified in the mode Points. The best way is to use the New free point text dialog window.

Fig. 108 Input of free point

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Fig. 109 Desktop view after introducing free points

In the next step we may introduce the geometrical lines connecting individual points using the mode Lines. To that end, press the Add button on the horizontal control panel and connect individual points using mouse.

Fig. 110 Input of lines

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To specify the collector upper arc it is necessary to change the input mode on the control panel, see Fig. 111.

Fig. 111 Switch to arc type of line

Next, by clicking on the arc end points we specify the arc vertical rise.

Fig. 112 Input of arch

The inserted arc can be further adjusted in the Edit line dialog window in our particular case we change the value of the center point coordinate from 10.53m to 10.5m (the desired one).

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Fig. 113 Adjusting arch in the dialog window

Fig. 114 Desktop view after introducing lines

The collector lining can be specified next. In the mode Beams select the Add button on the horizontal control panel and using mouse select a line for placing a beam element. The New beam element dialog window appears. The beam parameters can be then inputted.

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Fig. 115 Input of beam element

Fig. 116 Input of beam dimensions in the dialog window

The remaining beam elements are introduced the same way. The program automatically offers the last specified beam parameters so that it is sufficient just to confirm the suggested input in the dialog window.

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Fig. 117 Desktop view after introducing lining

When all the geometrical lines and beam elements representing the collector lining are introduced into the geometrical model we may proceed to generate the FE mesh in the mode Generate mesh. To begin, we select the mesh density equal to 2m.

Fig. 118 Generated mesh

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It is clear from Fig. 118 that the mesh in the collector vicinity is rather coarse and calls for refinement. The mesh can be refined either around lines or points. In the present example the following procedure is recommended:
Specify a free point somewhere in the center of excavation. Refine the mesh around this point.

Fig. 119 Input of mesh refinement around a point

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Fig. 120 View of selected mesh refinement

The new mesh is displayed in Fig. 121. Evidently, this mesh is much more suitable for the actual numerical analysis.

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Fig. 121 Generated mesh with local refinement

Prior to running the analysis we must yet specify the material parameters of the selected soil. Since no plastic strains are expected to occur the elastic modified model is employed.

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Fig. 122 Input of soil parameters

After that we proceed into the first calculation stage and generate the initial stress state.

Fig. 123 Results of the 1st stage initial stresses

The excavation step is performed in the next stage this is achieved by deactivating the desired region.

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Fig. 124 Excavation step input of inactive region

To complete the input phase we select already specified beam elements representing the lining and introduce them into a given calculation stage (check box Beam active in the analysis).

Fig. 125 Selection of all beam elements that represent lining

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Fig. 126 Introducing beam elements into the analysis

We may now proceed with the analysis.

Fig. 127 Analysis of the 2nd stage

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The distribution of bending moments on the collector lining can be viewed by activating the check box Bending moment in the Graphical output setup dialog window, Fig. 128.

Fig. 128 Graphic output setup dialog window

Recall that distributions of internal forces can be displayed only on the undeformed mesh.

Fig. 129 Distribution of bending moment along the lining

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The resulting distributions of internal forces are available also in the text mode.

Beam number: 1
Point Node number 1 563 2 723 3 763 4 766 5 767 Coord. X [m] -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 Coord. X [m] -1.00 -0.71 0.00 0.71 1.00 Coord. X [m] 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Coord. X [m] -1.00 -0.55 -0.12 0.28 0.60 1.00 Z [m] -10.50 -10.86 -11.25 -11.59 -12.00 Z [m] -10.50 -9.79 -9.50 -9.79 -10.50 Z [m] -12.00 -11.47 -11.18 -10.84 -10.50 Z [m] -12.00 -12.00 -12.00 -12.00 -12.00 -12.00 Moment [kNm] 9.30 22.21 16.60 -7.31 -65.11 Moment [kNm] 9.30 -18.06 -22.33 -18.07 9.31 Moment [kNm] 65.17 -3.89 -19.30 -22.05 -9.31 Moment [kNm] 65.11 -6.28 -33.19 -27.36 -0.95 65.17 Shear force [kN] -51.66 -4.08 50.99 114.35 168.42 Shear force [kN] 5.05 44.96 56.12 76.57 -5.02 Shear force [kN] -164.51 -69.27 -23.41 22.04 52.00 Shear force [kN] -195.41 -89.72 -8.79 61.54 131.96 197.76

Beam number: 2
Point Node number 1 475 2 474 3 446 4 436 5 357 Point Node number 1 465 2 464 3 456 4 412 5 246 Point Node number 1 753 2 751 3 707 4 699 5 619 6 603

Beam number: 3

Beam number: 4

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4. Example No. 3 Sheeting structure file Example3.gmk

The main objective in this example is to estimate internal forces and deformation pattern of an anchored steel-reinforced concrete wall supporting an excavation. The wall thickness is set to 50 cm. The structure charts corresponding to individual stages of construction (two steps of excavation) are displayed in Figs. 130-131.

Fig. 130 1st stage of construction excavation up to depth of 3.5m

Fig. 131 2nd stage of construction introduction of an anchor and excavation up to depth of 5.5m

Soil parameters Notation Class S4 Class F6, consistency stiff

phi [deg.] 29.00 19.00

c [kPa] 4.00 10.00

gamma [kN/m3] 18.00 21.00

E [MPa] 10.00 4.50

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Similar to previously discussed examples the first step requires to create a geometry model using the World coordinates dialog window. For a 10m deep wall the margins are set to 20m on each side, Fig. 132.

Fig.132 Dimesnions of geometry model

We then proceed by specifying individual interfaces. The interfaces may either separate layers of distingt soils or layers of soils to be excavated in individual stages of construction. In this example the terrain and the desired horizontal interfaces are found at depths of 0.00m, -3.00m, 3.50m and 5.50m. A free point of coordinates [0.00,0.00] is introduced to denote an upper end point of the sheeting wall. The resulting geometry model is displayed in Fig. 133.

Fig.133 Input of ground profile

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Individual soils together with material models are selected next. Choosing a plastic material model representing the soil response is essential to correctly capture the distribution of earth pressures in this example, both soils are assumed to follow the Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model.

Fig.134a Input of soil parameters

Fig.134b Input of soil parameters

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Fig. 135 shows the topology phase after assigning soils to individual interfaces.

Fig.135 Assigning soils into profile

The lower end point of the wall having coordinates [0.00-10.00] together with a free line representing the sheeting wall are introduced next, see Fig. 136.

Fig.136 Inpput of sheeting wall

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The sheeting wall is modeled as a beam, Fig. 137, assigned to the free line.

Fig.137 Input of beam

Providing the beam elements serve to model a sheeting wall it is necessary to specify a contact with plastic material model (Mohr-Coulomb) to properly address the soil-beam ineteraction. Options Contact left and Contact right allow for contact specification, Fig. 138. The check box Beam active must be switched on. The model parameters are defined through the reduction option the present example assumes the contact material parameters that correspond to about 30% of the material parameters of surrounding soil (c=0.3, =0.3). Standard setting is considered for the elastic stiffnesses kn and ks.

Fig.138 Input of contact parameters

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For the mesh generation it is advisible to introduce a local refinement in the close vicinty of the wall structure. Following the rules already set in Section 1.5 we chose the refinement diameter equal to 5m and the step length equal to 0.5m and generate the mesh, Figs. 139-140.

Fig.139 Input of local refinement

Fig.140 Generated mesh

Once the FE mesh is generated we jump into the 1st calculation stage, specify the ground water table, Fig. 141, and run the analysis to derive distribution of initial stresses. The results appear in Fig. 142.

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Fig.141 Input of GWT in the 1st stage of construction

Fig.142 Initial stress state

The excavation is carried out in two steps. In the 2nd contruction stage we first select the mode Activity and deactivate (remove) the 1st layer of soil it is clear from the Desktop view that the automatic topology corrector split the soil interaface crossed by the free line into individual closed regions.

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Fig.143 Soil excavation in the 2nd stage of construction

It is also necessary to adjust the GWT that changed due to soil excavation, Fig. 144.

Fig.144 Input of GWT in the 2nd stage of construction

The last step prior to running the analysis in the 2nd construction stage is to activate beam elements (note that all beam elements are deactivated for the initial calculation stage by default). In the mode Beams we first select by pressing star all beam elements, Fig. 145 (note that topology corrector split the specified beam into individual sections). After pressing the Edit
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selected button and switching the Beam active check box on we introduce the beam into the analysis, Fig. 146.

Fig.145 Selecting beam elements

Fig.146 Introducing beams into the analysis

The 2nd stage of construction can be now analyzed. The results appear in Figs. 147-148.

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Fig.147 Results of the 2nd stage stress z

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Fig.148 Results of the 2nd stage deformed mesh

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Fig. 149 Results of the 2nd stage bending moment diagram

Fig. 150 Results of the 2nd stage plot of equivalent plastic strain and vectors of displacements

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As a next step we add the 3rd construction stage and again in the mode Activity remove the 2nd layer of soil, Fig. 151.

Fig. 151 Activity of regions in the 3rd construction stage

In keeping up with our assignment we now introduce a pre-stressed anchor (F=185 kN). Since the anchor cannot be easily projected on to a vertical interface we enter the anchor head coordinates manually [0.00m, -2.90m], see Fig. 152.

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Fig. 152 Input of anchor parameters

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To continune we adjust the ground water table and proceed with the analysis of the 3rd calculation stage, Figs. 153-154.

Fig.153 Change of GWT in the 3rd stage

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Fig.154 Results of the 3rd stage stress z
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Fig.155 Results of the 3rd stage structure deformation

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Fig.156 Results of the 3rd stage Bending moment diagram

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Fig.157 Results of the 3rd stage equivalent plastic strain

The following table compares the values of bending moment derived using both the FEM and program module GEO4 Sheeting verification.
The maximum bending moment on sheeting structure Sheeting Location FEM - MC verification 2nd stage 21,7 34,3 3rd stage anchor 108,3 76,6 3rd stage field 30,2 58,3

FEM - DP 25,4 107,2 30,2

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5. Example 4 stability analysis of slopes file Example4.gmk

The goal of this example is to determine a safety factor of a slope.

Fig.158 Slope profile

Terrain coordinates Point Coord. X Depth No. [m] [m] 1 0.00 -9.00 2 11.00 -9.00 3 21.00 -2.50 4 29.50 -2.50 5 32.25 -4.00 6 40.00 -4.00

Interfaces of layers Point Coord. X Depth No. [m] [m] 1 0.00 -11.50 2 14.00 -11.00 3 21.00 -9.25 4 40.00 -9.00

Soils parameters: Type phi [dg.] Sandy silt 22.70 Rock R4 38.00

c [kPa] 9.00 120.00

gamma [kN/m3] 18.00 20.00

E [MPa] 7.00 300.00

ny 0.30 0.20

The analysis will be carried out in three steps. In the first step we consider a slope loaded by its self-weight only. In the next step we examine the effect of external surcharge applied on the ground surface and finally we shall study stabilizing effects due to application of anchors.
Surcharge Stage 2 Mag.1 Mag.2 [kN/m2] [kN/m2] 35.00 35.00 Surcharge Stage 3 Mag.1 MAg.2 [kN/m2] [kN/m2] 35.00 35.00 72.00

x1 [m] 22.00

x2 [m] 29.00

x1 [m] 22.00 15.28

x2 [m] 29.00

z1 [m] -6.22

alpha [dg.] 287.0

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An anchor is introduced into the stability analysis always as a surcharge due to concentrated force. Thus an infinite length of the anchor is assumed care must be taken to fix the actual anchor behind the slip surface. As in the former examples we start from the definition of geometrical model and specification of material parameters. Note that the safety factor analysis requires selection of plastic models to represent the material response (Modified Mohr-Coulomb, Drucker-Prager). In this example we select the Drucker-Prager material model. Comparison of results obtained for individual material models is summarized in the table at the end of this example.

Fig.159 Input of soil parameters

A special attention should be paid to the mesh generation. The mesh density in particular has a significant impact on the resulting factor of safety. The used mesh should be always sufficiently fine. To demonstrate this effect we carried out the analysis for several mesh densities assuming an average element edge length equal to 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 m. In this example the element edge length equal to 1.5m is selected.

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Obr.160 Generated mesh

The effect of material self-weight is examined in the 1st calculation stage. The analysis starts by pressing the Analyze button in the calculation mode Stability. The course of analysis can be viewed in the dialog window.

Fig.161 Course of slope stability analysis

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When the analysis is completed the program displays the resulting safety factor on the desktop.

Fig.162 1st stage alculated factor of safety

Location of the potential slip surface can be estimated by plotting the distribution of equivalent plastic strain EpsEq Plast.

Fig.163 1st stage plot of equivalent plastic strain

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The effect of additional surcharge is studied in the 2nd stage of construction. We add a new stage. To be able to activate this stage, however, a standard analysis of the initial stage must be carried out first (mode Analysis). In the 2nd stage we add the desired surcharge and run the stability analysis following the same steps as before.

Fig.164 Input of surcharge

,
Fig.165 Results of the 2nd stage distribution of equivalent plastic strain and factor of safety
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Finally, in the 3rd stage we introduce an anchor and run the stability analysis. As before, a standard analysis of the 2nd stage must be performed first.

,
Fig.166 Input of anchor

Fig.167 Results of the 3rd stage

A back check of the shape of the resulting slip surface may prove to be quite important in some examples as a local failure may occur in other locations than we expect. The next plot shows
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evolution of plastic strains around the anchor head when relatively fine mesh is used (element edge length = 1m). If this occurs some action must be taken for example: coarsen the mesh locally
improve the soil material parameters in the vicinity of anchor head introduce beam elements at the anchor head.

Fig.168 Plot of plastic region developed in the vicinity of anchor head

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The following table provides results of the above example for individual plasticity models implemented in GEO FEM and several mesh densities. The analytical results provided by the Bishop and Sarma methods are added for comparison.
Model/program Biskop Sarma DP DP DP DP DP MC MC MC MC MC MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM Mesh Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Comment 1,50 1,32 1,50 1,58 1,38 1,66 1,0 1,62 1,39 1,30* * - local failure 1,3 1,67 1,41 1,65 1,5 1,67 1,42 1,71 2,0 1,71 1,48 1,74 3,0 1,78 1,52 1,78 1,0 1,50 1,30 1,17* * - local failure 1,3 1,54 1,32 1,52 1,5 1,56 1,33 1,52 2,0 1,60 1,39 1,60 3,0 1,69 1,44 1,69 1,0 1,3 1,5 2,0 3,0 1,76 1,78 1,78 1,85 1,93 1,50 1,37* 1,52 1,81 1,54 1,83 1,60 1,88 1,65 1,95 * - local failure

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