American agriculture is marked by several trends. The first is the continuing decline of small family farms.

Since 1979, 300,000 small farms have disappeared in the United States, and since 1946 the number of people employed in agriculture has been cut in half. Increasingly, large companies such as ArcherDaniels Midland (ADM) have come to dominate American agriculture. In 2000, ADM had worldwide sales of $12.9 billion. In the beef industry, 4 firms control 80 percent of the U.S. market. Almost 91 percent of U.S. farms are considered to be small (less than 1,000 acres). Large farms (more than 1,000 acres) made up just 9 percent of farms but received 51 percent of total agricultural revenues in 2000. The second trend is the increasing productivity of the sector. Agricultural production in the United States has increased by an average of 5 percent each year since 1990. In addition, the output of each agricultural worker has grown by an average of 0.84 percent each year. On average, one American farmer produces enough food for 96 people. This improvement is partially as a result of the consolidation of farms and partially a result of new technologies and farming methods. The third trend is the growth in both exports and imports. In 1998 total agricultural exports were $60.5 billion. That same year, total imports were $48.9 billion. The fourth and final trend is the loss of agricultural subsidies . Some of these subsidies are in the form of outright payments in exchange for farmers not growing certain crops and are provided to keep the price of crops high. Since the early 1990s, Congress has gradually reduced these subsidies. However, support and aid for certain types of farmers, including tobacco farmers, continues. After declining to a low point of $9 billion in 1997, government spending on agriculture increased to $23 billion in 1999 and $38.4 billion in 2000. The increases mainly came from emergency aid to farmers because of natural disasters during these 2 years. About 40 percent of the land in the United States is used for agriculture of some form, including livestock grazing. This includes 431.1 million acres of cropland, 396.9 million acres of pasture, and 71.5 million acres of forests. In 1998, the total crop output of the United States was 489,976,030 metric tons with a value of $102.14 billion. The largest single crop was corn, which accounted for more than half of the nation's crop output with 247,882,000 metric tons. The second largest

crop was soybeans with 74,598,000 metric tons. Wheat is third with 69,327,000 metric tons. Other major crops include sugar cane, sugar beets, potatoes, bananas, and coffee. Tobacco also provides substantial cash returns, although yields are small when compared with many other crops. Total animal output in 1998 was $94.19 billion while forestry products, including timber, totaled $24.68 billion. Of the total American livestock, there were 101.2 million head of cattle, 56.2 million pigs, 8.3 million sheep, 6.15 million horses and 1.5 billion chicken. The remaining livestock includes a variety of species such as bison, turkeys, and geese. Commercial fishing has declined significantly in the United States over the past 30 years. The majority of U.S. fish cultivation is used domestically, and about half is for human consumption. There is a wide variety of species caught, including cod, haddock, pollock, tuna, and salmon. Various shellfish such as lobster, shrimp, or crab account for about 20 percent of the annual harvest, but provide about one-half of the total revenues. Commercial fish farms are increasingly common and used for species such as salmon, catfish, and shrimp. Total fish harvests amounted to $3.7 billion in 1998, of which shellfish totals were $1.6 billion. There have been dramatic improvements in agricultural technology in the United States. Improvements include increased use of computers, scientific soil and crop analysis, and more sophisticated machinery. Genetic engineering of seeds has also increased crop yields but created controversy over the safety of genetically altered products. There has subsequently been a decrease in soil erosion caused by over-farming and an overall decline in the use of pesticides and fertilizers. However, the pesticides used are much more powerful and lethal than earlier chemicals. About two-thirds of the states have had deep reductions in agriculture. Agriculture has declined most significantly in the New England states and New Jersey. In the West and southern plains, some states have had minor declines, while others have had small increases. The only regions of the nation that have seen major expansion of agriculture have been the middle-Atlantic area and the

Pacific Northwest. The states with the largest increases in output were Arkansas, Washington, Delaware, Florida, and Georgia. Progress in technology and crop yields has made the United States among the most productive agricultural producers in the world. The United States produces about half of the world's corn and 10 percent of its wheat. It also accounts for 20 percent of the globe's beef, pork, and lamb. With such progress in increasing output and the efficiency of agriculture, food prices for American consumers have had little increase over the past 20 years. Americans spend less on food, as a proportion of their income, than any other nation in the world. U.S. consumers spent 10.9 percent of their income on food. In comparison, the average British consumer spent 11.2 percent, the French 14.8 percent, the Japanese 17.6 percent, and Indians spent 51.3 percent. The United States is the world's largest producer of timber. About 70 percent of the nation's forests are privately owned, but there is also limited logging allowed in federally-owned or managed forests. Almost 80 percent of timber harvested is soft woods such as pine or Douglas Fir. Hardwoods such as oak account for the remaining 20 percent.

Major Crops Grown in the United States

In round numbers, U.S. farmers produce about $100 billion worth of crops and about $100 billion worth of livestock each year. Production data from the year 2000 for major agricultural crops grown in this country are highlighted in the following table: Major agricultural crops produced in the United States in 2000 (excluding root crops, citrus, vegetable, etc). Crop Corn (grain) Soybeans Hay Wheat Harvested Area (million acres) 72.7 72.7 59.9 53.0 Cash Receipts from Sales ($ billion) 15.1 12.5 3.4 5.5

Cotton Sorghum (grain) Rice

13.1 7.7 3.0

4.6 0.82 1.2

Corn: The United States is, by far, the largest producer of corn in the world. Corn is grown on over 400,000 U.S. farms. In 2000, the U.S. produced almost ten billionbushels of the worlds total 23 billion bushel crop. Corn grown for grain accounts for almost one quarter of the harvested crop acres in this country. Corn grown for silageaccounts for about two percent of the total harvested cropland or about 6 million acres. The amount of land dedicated to corn silage production varies based on growing conditions. In years that produce weather unfavorable to high corn grain yields, corn can be salvaged by harvesting the entire plant as silage. According to the National Corn Growers Association, about eighty percent of all corn grown in the U.S. is consumed by domestic and overseas livestock, poultry, and fish production. The crop is fed as ground grain, silage, high-moisture, and high-oil corn. About 12% of the U.S. corn crop ends up in foods that are either consumed directly (e.g. corn chips) or indirectly (e.g. high fructose corn syrup). It also has a wide array of industrial uses including ethanol, a popular oxygenate in cleaner burning auto fuels. Soybeans: Approximately 2.8 billion bushels of soybeans were harvested from almost 73 million acres of cropland in the U.S. in 2000. This acreage is roughly equivalent to that of corn grown for grain. Over 350,000 farms in the United States produce soybeans, accounting for over 50% of the worlds soybean production and $6.66 billion in soybean and product exports in 2000. Soybeans represented 56 percent of world oilseed production in 2000. Soybeans are used to create a variety of products, the most basic of which are soybean oil, meal, and hulls. According to the United Soybean Board, soybean oil, used in both food manufacturing and frying and sauting, represents approximately 79 percent of all edible oil consumed in the United States. Soybean oil also makes its way into products ranging from anti-corrosion agents to Soy Diesel fuel to waterproof cement. Over 30 million tons of soybean meal are consumed as livestock feed in a year. Even the hulls are used as a component of cattle feed rations. Hay: Hay production in the United States exceeds 150 million tons per year. Alfalfa is the primary hay crop grown in this country. U.S. hay is produced mainly for domestic consumption although there is a growing export market. According to the National Hay Association, the most common exports are timothy, some alfalfa, sudangrass, and bermudagrass hay. Hay can be packaged in bales or made into cubes or pellets. Hay crops also produce seeds that can be used for planting or as specialized grains.

Wheat: Over 240,000 farms in the United States produce wheat. The U.S. produces about 13% of the worlds wheat and supplies about 25% of the worlds wheat export market. About two-thirds of total U.S. wheat production comes from the Great Plains (from Texas to Montana). Wheat is classified by time of year planted, hardness, and color (e.g. Hard Red Winter (HRW)). The characteristics of each class of wheat affect milling and baking when used in food products. Of the wheat consumed in the United States, over 70% is used for food products, about 22% is used for animal feed and residuals, and the remainder is used for seed. Cotton: Fewer than 32,000 farms in the United States produce cotton. Cotton is grown from coast-to-coast, but in only 17 southern states. Farms in those states produce over 20% of the worlds cotton with annual exports of more than $3 billion. The nations cotton farmers harvest about 17 million bales or 7.2 billion pounds of cotton each year. Cotton is used in a number of consumer and industrial products and is also a feed and food ingredient. Over 60% of the annual cotton crop goes into apparel, 28 percent into home furnishings, and 8 percent into industrial products each year. Cottonseed and cottonseed meal are used in feed for livestock, dairy cattle, and poultry. Cottonseed oil is also used for food products such as margarine and salad dressing. Grain sorghum: In the United States, grain sorghum is used primarily as an animal feed, but is also used in food products and as an industrial feedstock. Industrial products that utilize sorghum include wallboard and biodegradable packaging materials. Worldwide, over half of the sorghum grown is for human consumption. Some farmers grow sorghum as a hedge against drought. This water-efficient crop is more drought tolerant and requires fewer inputs than corn. Kansas, Texas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Missouri produce most of the grain sorghum grown in this country. The U.S. exports almost half of the sorghum it produces and controls 70% to 80% of world sorghum exports. As much as 12% of domestic sorghum production goes to produce ethanol and its various coproducts. With demand for renewable fuel sources increasing, demand for co-products like sorghum-DDG (dry distillers grain) will increase as well due the sorghum's favorable nutrition profile. Rice: Just over 9,000 farms produce rice in the United States. Those farms are concentrated in six states: Arkansas, California, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Texas. U.S. rice production accounts for just over 1% of the worlds total, but this country is the second leading rice exporter with 18% of the world market.

About 60% of the rice consumed in the U.S. is for direct food use; another 20% goes into processed foods, and most of the rest into beer.

The United States is blessed with more arable land than any other nation on earth. Still, only about one-fifth of our land area (382 million acres) is used for crop production. Grazing land for livestock accounts for about one-fourth of the privately held land in the U.S. (525 million acres). In spite of a growing population and increased demand for agricultural products, the land area under cultivation in this country has not increased. While advanced farming techniques, including irrigation and genetic manipulation of crops, has permitted an expansion of crop production in some areas of the country, there has been a decrease in other areas. In fact, some 3,000 acres of productive farmland are lost to development each day in this country. There was a 4% decline in the number of acres in farms that over the last decade. In 1990, there were almost 987 million acres in farms in the U.S., that number had been reduced to just under 943 million acres by 2000. Development pressure on farmland at the rural-urban interface is posing long-term challenges for production agriculture and for the country as a whole. This is especially significant since about two-thirds of the total value of U.S. agricultural production takes place in, or adjacent to, metropolitan counties (NRCS). About 1/3 of all U.S. farms are actually within metropolitan areas, representing 18% of the total farmland in this country. Two significant trends occurring in the agricultural sector during the past century involved the increased use of machines and government price supports. These factors combined to allow operators to increase the size of their farms and gain efficiencies.

Crop Production Systems

Of the seven crops listed, six are annual crops that must be replanted each year (only hay crops would be left in place from year to year). The process of cultivating crops typically begins with tillage of the soil. Although tillage can serve a number of functions within a crop production system, the most fundamental function is to create conditions Corn (grain) Soybeans Crop Major agricultural crops produced in the United States in 2000. Harvested Area (million acres) 72.7 72.7 59.9 53.0 13.1 7.7 3.0 Cash Receipts from Sales ($ billion) 15.1 12.5 3.4 5.5 4.6 0.82 1.2

Hay that will ensure good contact between seed and soil Wheat at the time of seed planting and the ready Cotton availability of water to the seed during germination. The degree to which the soil is disturbed by tillage prior to seed planting provides Sorghum (grain) Rice

a means of categorizing crop production within a range of tillage systems. These systems range from no-tillage in which there is not soil disturbance in a field except during the process of planting a crop to conventional tillage in which multiple tillage operations can extend over many months and take place before, during, and after planting. Crop production systems that involve pre-plant tillage but maintain residues from a previous crop on the soil surface are referred to as conservation tillage practices. For the major row crops produced in the United States, farmers use a range of production practices. Conventional tillage (also known as intensive tillage) usually involves a series of field operations that result in a residue-free soil surface at the time a crop is planted. Conventional tillage systems developed in this country to take advantages of the following benefits:

Creation of a seedbed or root bed Control of weeds or the removal of unwanted crop plants Incorporation of plant residues into the soil profile Incorporation of fertilizers and/or soil-applied pesticides Establishment of specific soil surface configurations for planting, irrigating, drainage, and/or harvesting operations

The major disadvantage of conventional tillage is the susceptibility of "unprotected" soil to erosion by water or by wind. Tillage is also energy-intensive, requiring large inputs of machine work and numerous trips across a field during a single growing season. Conventional tillage was "standard operating procedure" in the era before effective chemical weed and pest control strategies were available to farmers.

Concerns about soil erosion led to the development of crop production strategies that retained crop residues on the soil surface. Conservation tillage requires more sophisticated implements that are capable of producing a seedbed while leaving a portion of surface residues undisturbed. Reduced tillage usually leaves 15% to 30% residue coverage on the soil surface. True conservation tillage is any tillage method that leaves at least 30% residue coverage on the soil after a crop has been planted. It can be accomplished through no-till, strip-till, ridgetill, or mulch till practices. Organic Farming Organic farming is a small, but growing, segment of U.S. agriculture. USDA estimates the value of retail sales of organic foods at $6 billion in 1999 with about 12,200 organic farmers nationwide, most with small-scale operations. Organic farming encompasses both crop and animal production and is defined as "ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity."'Organic' is a labeling term that denotes products produced under the authority of the U.S. Organic Foods Production Act. "The principal guidelines are to use materials and practices that enhance the ecological balance of natural systems. Organic agriculture practices do not ensure that products are completely free of residues; however, methods must be used to minimize contamination." Organic food handlers, processors and retailers must adhere to standards that maintain the integrity of organic agricultural products. This includes practices such as minimizing or eliminating the use of herbicides in crop production and antibiotics in animal production.

Corn, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, and sunflower seeds constitute some of the major holdovers from the agricultural endowment of the Americas. European agricultural practices greatly affected the New England landscape, leaving behind many physical foot prints. Colonists brought livestock over from Europe which caused many changes to the land. Grazing animals required a lot of land and food to sustain them and due to grazing, native grasses were destroyed and European species began to replace them. New species of weeds were introduced and began to thrive as they were capable of withstanding the grazing of animals, whereas native species could not.[2] The practices associated with keeping livestock also contributed to the deterioration of the forests and fields. Colonists would cut down the trees and then allow their cattle and livestock to graze freely in the forest and never plant more trees. The animals trampled and tore up the ground so much as to cause long-term destruction and damage.[2] Soil exhaustion was a huge problem in New England agriculture. Farming with oxen did allow the colonist to farm more land but it increased erosion and decreased soil fertility. This was due to deeper plow cuts in the soil that allowed the soil more contact with oxygen causing nutrient depletion. In grazing fields, the large number of cattle in the New England, the soil was being compacted by the cattle and this didnt give the soil enough oxygen to sustain life. [2]

In the U.S., farms spread from the colonies westward along with the settlers. In cooler regions, wheat was often the crop of choice when lands were newly settled, leading to a "wheat frontier" that moved westward over the course of years. Also very common in the antebellum Midwestwas farming corn while raising hogs, complementing each other especially since it was difficult to get grain to market before the canals and railroads. After the "wheat frontier" had passed through an area, more diversified farms including dairy cattle generally took its place. Warmer regions saw plantings of cotton and herds of beef cattle. In the early colonial south, raising tobacco and cotton was common, especially through the use of slave labor until the Civil War. In the northeast, slaves were used in agriculture until the early 19th century. [citation needed] In the Midwest, slavery was prohibited by the Freedom Ordinance of 1787. The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the mid nineteenth century has made a large improvement in the USA's economic growth. This development was facilitated by the Morrill Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 which established in each state a land-grant university (with a mission to teach and study agriculture) and a federally funded system of agricultural experiment stations and cooperative extension networks which place extension agents in each state. Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the 1950s, when soybeans began to replace oats and wheat. Significant areas of farmland were abandoned during the Great Depression and incorporated into nascent national forests. Later, "Sodbuster" and "Swampbuster" restrictions written into federal farm programs starting in the 1970s reversed a decades-long trend of habitat destruction that began in 1942 when farmers were encouraged to plant all possible land in support of the war effort. In the United States, federal programs administered through local Soil and Water Conservation Districts provide technical assistance and partial funding to farmers who wish to implement management practices to conserve soil and limit erosion. [edit]Major

agricultural products

Satellite image of circular crop fields characteristic ofcenter pivot irrigation in Kansas (June 2001). Healthy, growing crops are green. Corn would be growing into leafy stalks by late June. Sorghum, which resembles corn, grows more slowly and would be much smaller and therefore, possibly paler. Wheat is a brilliant gold as harvest occurs in June. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed under or lie fallow for the year.

The top twenty agricultural products of the United States by value as reported by the FAO in 2003 (ranked in order of value with volume in metric tons)[3]:[verification needed] 1. Corn 2. Cattle meat 3. Cow's milk, whole, fresh 4. Chicken meat 5. Soybeans 6. Pig meat 7. Wheat 8. Cotton lint 9. Hen eggs 10. Turkey meat 11. Tomatoes 12. Potatoes 13. Grapes 14. Oranges 15. Rice, paddy 16. Apples 17. Sorghum 18. Lettuce 19. Cottonseed 20. Sugar beets 256,900,000 11,736,000 78,155,000 15,006,000 65,800,000 8,574,000 63,590,000 3,968,000 5,141,000 2,584,000 12,275,000 20,820,000 6,126,000 10,473,000 9,034,000 4,242,000 10,446,000 4,490,000 6,073,000 27,760,000

The only other crops to ever appear in the top 20 in the last 40 years were, commonly, tobacco, barley, and oats, and, rarely, peanuts, almonds, and sunflower seeds (in all, only 26 of the 188 crops the FAO tracks worldwide). Alfalfa and hay would both be in the top ten in 2003 if they were tracked by FAO. [edit]Crops [edit]Value of production

Rice paddy, California

Major Crops in the U.S.A. - 1997 (in US$ billions)

Corn

$24.4

Soybeans

$17.7

Wheat

$8.6

Alfalfa

$8.3

Cotton

$6.1

Hay, other than alfalfa

$5.1

Tobacco

$3.0

Rice

$1.7

Sorghum

$1.4

Barley

$.9

Source: 1997 USDA-NASS reports, [1] Note alfalfa and hay are not tracked by the FAO and the production of tobacco in the U.S. has fallen 60% between 1997 and 2003. [edit]Yield U.S. agriculture has a high yield relative to other countries. The yield was (in 2004):[2]

Corn for grain, average of 160.4 bushels harvested per acre (10.07 t/ha) Soybean for beans, average of 42.5 bushels harvested per acre (2.86 t/ha) Wheat, average of 43.2 bushels harvested per acre (2.91 t/ha, was 44.2 bu/ac or 2.97 t/ha in 2003)

[edit]Livestock The major livestock industries in the United States are: Dairy cattle Beef cattle Swine (also called hogs or pigs) Poultry Sheep

US Livestock and Poultry Inventory[4][5]

Type

1997

2002

2007

Cattle and calves

99,907,017

95,497,994

96,347,858

Hogs and pigs

61,188,149

60,405,103

67,786,318

Sheep and lambs

8,083,457

6,341,799

5,819,162

Broilers & other meat chickens 1,214,446,356 1,389,279,047 1,602,574,592

Laying hens

314,144,304

334,435,155

349,772,558

Goats, horses, turkeys and bees are also raised, though in lesser quantities. Inventory data is not as readily available as for the major industries. For the three major goat-producing states (AZ, NM, and TX) there were 1,200,000 goats at the end of 2002. There were 5,300,000 horses in the United States at the end of 1998. There were 2,500,000 colonies of bees at the end of 2002. [edit]Farm

type or majority enterprise type

Farm type is based on which commodities are the majority crops grown on a farm. Nine common types include:

Cash grains includes corn, soybeans and other grains (wheat, oats, barley, sorghum), dry edible beans and peas, and rice. Tobacco Cotton Other field crops includes peanuts, potatoes, sunflowers, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, broomcorn, popcorn, sugar beets, mint, hops, seed crops, hay, silage, forage, etc. Tobacco and cotton can be included here if not in their own separate category. High value crops includes fruits, vegetables, melons, tree nuts, greenhouse and nursery crops, and horticultural specialties. Cattle Hogs Dairy Poultry and Eggs

[3] [4] [5] [edit]Governance

Agriculture subsidy, from aCongressional Budget Office report. Note: chart does not show sugar subsidies.

Main articles: Agricultural policy in the United States and Agricultural subsidy Agriculture in the United States is primarily governed by periodically renewed U.S. farm bills. Governance is both a federal and a local responsibility with the United States Department of Agriculture being the federal department responsible. Government aid includes research into crop types and regional suitability as well as many kinds of subsidies, some price supports and loan programs. U.S. farmers are not subject to production quotas and some laws are different for farms compared to other workplaces. Labor laws prohibiting children in other workplaces provide some exemptions for children working on farms with complete exemptions for children working on their family's farm. Children can also gain permits from vocational training schools or the 4-H club which allow them to do jobs they would otherwise not be permitted to do.

A large part of the U.S. farm workforce is made up of migrant and seasonal workers, many of them recent immigrants from Latin America or aliens working under work permits. Additional laws apply to these workers and their housing which is often provided by the farmer. [edit]Employment In 1870, 70-80 percent of the US population was employed in agriculture. [citation needed] As of 2008, approximately 2-3 percent of the population is directly employed in agriculture. [6] In 2010, there were 1,202,500 farmers, ranchers and other agricultural managers and an estimated 757,900 agricultural workers were employed in the US. Animal breeders accounted for 11,500 of those workers with the rest categorized as miscellaneous agricultural workers. The median pay was $9.12 per hour or $18,970 per year.[6] [edit]Agriculture

safety and health

Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous industries.[7] Farmers are at high risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries, work-related lung diseases, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, chemical-related illnesses, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun exposure.[8] In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (19922005). Every day, about 243 agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in permanent impairment.[9] Tractor overturns are the leading cause of agriculture-related fatal injuries, and account for over 90 deaths every year. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health recommends the use of roll over protection structureson tractors to reduce the risk of overturn-related fatal injuries.[9] Farming is one of the few industries in which families (who often share the work and live on the premises) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Agriculture is the most dangerous industry for young workers, accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in the U.S. between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture were under age 15.[10] For young agricultural workers aged 1517, the risk of fatal injury is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces[11] Agricultural work exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around livestock. The most common causes of fatal farm-related youth injuries involve machinery, motor vehicles, or drowning. Together these three causes comprise more than half of all fatal injuries to youth on U.S. farms. [12] An estimated 1.26 million children and adolescents under 20 years of age resided on farms in 2004, with about 699,000 of these youth performing work on the farms. In addition to the youth who live on farms, an additional 337,000 children and adolescents were hired to work on U.S. farms in 2004. On average, 103 children are killed annually on farms (19901996). Approximately 40 percent of these deaths were work-related. In 2004, an estimated 27,600 children and adolescents were injured on farms; 8,100 of these injuries were due to farm work. [9] To reduce the number of farm-related youth injuries, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health and the Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation have issued a set of guidelines known as the North American Guidelines for Children's Agricultural Tasks (NAGCAT) based on child development principles that matched children's abilities with the requirements of specific farm

work. These guidelines have proven effective at reducing work-related injury rates among youth living on farms in the United States.[12] [edit]Research

centers

Some US research centers are focused on the topic of health and safety in agricultural practices. These centers not only conduct research on the subject of occupational disease and injury prevention, but also promote agricultural health and safety through educational outreach programs. Most of these groups are funded by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, the US Department of Agriculture, or other state agencies. [13] Centers include: Northeast Center for Agricultural and Occupational Health, New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health, Cooperstown, NY[14] Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health, Iowa State University, Ames, IA The High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY Southwest Center for Agricultural Health, Injury Prevention and Education, University of Texas, Tyler, TX Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, University of California, Davis, CA Pacific Northwest Agricultural Safety and Health Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA National Children's Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety, Marshfield Medical Center, Marshfield, WI[15]

n ultimele deceniii, mecanizarea a revoluionat sistemele agricole n aa fel nct actualmente dect 1,5% din populaia Statelor Unite mai lucreaz n agricultur. Organizarea spaial a agriculturii Statelor Unite a urmrit ndeaproape modelul de regionare von Thunen, aprut iniial n Europa. Modelul este o reprezentare ideal a realitii care demonstreaz cele mai importante proprieti pe care un sistem agricol trebuie s le aib n vedere, n special cele de localizare a activitilor productive n Fermele agricole europene. Von Thunen a postulat necesitatea unui teren independent (de unde i izolarea), avnd o singur pia central, cu un teren plat i nentrerupt, care s nu prezinte impedimente n desfurarea activitilor de cutivare i transport. n aceast situaie, costurile de transport vor fi direct proporionale cu distana. Modelul Von Thunen sau Teoria locaiei revel patru zone sau inele de pmnt cultivabil, ncercuind piaa central. Inelul intern si direct adiacent pieii reprezint o zon a agriculturii intensive i a produciei de lapte, din care se obin produsele cele mai perisabile i cu preul cel mai ridicat. Urmtoarea band este ocupat de o pdure folosit pentru obinerea cherestelei i a lemnului de foc (considerat o prioritate n concepia lui Von Thunen n prima jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea). A treia band repezint un ansamblu de cmpuri de cultivare a cerealelor (gru), sau a diferitelor legume (cartofi). Ultimul inel coninea puni i fnee, n jurul crora se ntindeau vaste areale slbatice, de unde costurile de transport spre piaa de desfacere deveneau prohibitive.

Precum n Europa, la nceputul secolului al XIX-lea, modelul original al oraului i hinterlandului su era acela de expansiune n afara limitelor adminsitrative, condus fiind de mbuntirile constante ale tehnologiei transportului, de la un stat/ora local izolat, la ncorporarea unui ntreg continent la nceputul secolului XX. Ideea de Supercity, ancornd acest sistem regional macro-Thunian, a reprezentat sursa apariiei Megalopolisului nord-estic al S.U.A., devenit i rmnnd piaa de desfacere i transport dominant in ntreaga federaie. Dei indelele circulare nu sunt vizibile la aceast scar n hart, se pot observa multe regulariti spaiale. Cel mai semnificativ apare secvena regiunilor fermiere la o distan de la majorrile pieei naionale, n special nspre vest din Megalopolis, spre California (cea mai vizat pia de penetrare n domeniul agriculturii din Statele Unite). Centurile agricole sunt principalele entiti funcionale din domeniul agriculturii practicate n Statele Unite. Centura Atlantic a Fructelor i Legumelor, Centura lactatelor, Brul Porumbului, Centura Grului i Regiunea Punatului sunt ntradevr fidele structurii logice a modelului, fiecare zon fiind plasat succesiv din ce n ce mai departe n itneriorul continentului, de-a lungul principalelor ci agricole transcontinentele. Regiuni agricole: 1. Interiorul continentului se extinde n jurul Marilor Lacuri i se continu i n Canada. Agricultura confer caracteristici aparte teritoriului. Deoarece partea estic a regiunii se suprapune climatului temperat umed i datorit proximitii cu reeaua naional de pia (pe litoralul nord-estic), terenurile ocupate de agricultur mixt de cultivare a cerealelor i de cretere a animalelor ctig net n faa acelor ocupate de gru de primvar de mai mic productivitate, care este relocalizat n zonele fertile, dar semiaride din partea central-vestic a Marilor Cmpii, de-a lungul prii mai uscate de la 100 grade long. V. Distribuia culturilor de porumb i de gru este ilustrat n harta... i marginile acestei zone celei mai productive coincid cu o serie de linii de grani ale statelor. Corn Beltul se ntinde pe teritoriul statelor Iowa, Illinois-ul de Nord, n timp ce Wheat Belt-ul este concentrat pe teritoriile statelor North Dakota i Kansas. Subregiunea sudic deine o parte majoritar a Centurii de Porumb, n est, i ntreaga centur a Grului de Var, n vest. Cel din urm ar trebui renumit Corn-Soybean Belt, deoarece el produce i recolte de soya, care cresc deseori n rotaie cu porumbul. Numele acestuia deriv din practica de a planta gru la nceputul primverii i de a-l recolta la sfr itul sezonului. Avantajul acestui ciclu de cretere este c recolta este strns nainte ca vara torid i uscat s pun stnire pe Marile Cmpii situate ntr-un mediu semiarid. Pe tot cuprinsul interiorului rii, activitatea econonic este orientat spre activitatea agricol. Metropolele conductoare - Kansas City, Minneapolis St. Paul, Winnipeg, Omaha, i chiar i Denver sunt puncte importante de procesare i vnzare a crnii de porc i vit, morrit, prelucrarea de soya, a seminelor de floarea-soarelui, obinerea uleiului de canola (majoritar destinat exportului). Dei ferma de familie, de dimensiuni mici, nc domin peisajul agricol, incursiunea agresiv a fermelor

privatizate mari amenin acum modul tradiional de via al fermierilor tipici americani. 2. Regiunea Sud aceasta ocup colul de sud-est al Statelor Unite, extinzndu-se din Bazinul Bluegrass al nordului statului Kentuky, pn spre mlatinile statului Louisiana de pe coasta din dreptul trecerii Curentului Golfului i dinspre Dealurile Virginiei de Vest spre insulele nisipoase ale Floridei de Sud. Din cele nou regiuni, niciuna nu a trecut prin att de multe schimri n ultima jumtate de secol. Timp de mai mult de 100 de ani de la ncheierea Rzboiului Civil care a ruinat ntregul Sud, a existat o perioad de stagnare economic, pn n 1970. Propulsate de fora care crease fenomenul Sunbelt, activitile din centrele urbane din Sud s-au intensificat. Conurbaiile s-au format rapid n sud-estul Floridei, n Piemontul Carolina i pe Coasta statelor Texas-Louisiana. Totui, regiunea din Sud rmne una asaltat de numeroase probleme economice, din cauza reliefului su nu foarte favorabil practicrii agriculturii i a amplasrii n calea uraganelor. Dei unele orae mari au avut de ctigat de pe urma prelucrrii unor produse agricole, iar n alte orae mici s-au juxtapus activitile agricole cu cele de servicii, decalajul dintre lumea bogat i cea srac se menine i acum n sudul Statelor Unite. 3. Regiunea Sud-Vest se suprapune statelor Texas, New Mexico i Arizona. Aceasta nu este foarte avansat n practici agricole, deoarece s-a dezvoltat mai mult pe baza centrelor de cercetare (Sillicon Valley) i a industriilor IT i productare de maini i electricitate, iar producia agricol, chiar dac s-ar fi dorit o optimizare a ei, ar fi rmas n urm, din cauza climatului arid din aceast parte a rii, care nu favorizeaz dezvoltarea agriculturii. Aceast regiune este una dintre cele mai competitive productoare post-industrial, bazndu-se pe afaceri, informatic, manufactur de vrf i tehnologie. 4. Frontiera Vestic corespunde platourilor din Munii Stncoi i lanul Sierra Nevada Mii Cascadelor, ntinzndu-se din nordul Arizonei (partea nordic a Marelui Canion) pn la pdurea temperat-rece canadian. Statele cuprinse sunt: Utah, nevada, idaho, vestul statului Colorado. ablonul spaial al regiunii este concentrat asupra arealelor urbane dense, care fomreaz o a doua frontier a regiunii. Multe probleme privesc efectele intruziunii urbanului n zonele rurale, ai cror locuitori sunt nevoii s nvee c activitile tradiionale de minerit i de agricultur extensiv sunt de mult perimate n aceast regiune. 5. Frontiera Nordic coincide cu statul Alaska i cel mai mult se extinde pe teritoriul Canadei, ocupnd aprx. 90% din aceasta. Activitile de baz aici sunt cele de extracie a diferitelor resurse minerale. 6. Pivotul Pacificului - se alungete paralel cu linia rmului pacific i poate fi caracterizat drept o fie din teritoriul Statelor Unite, situat la sud de paralela de 50 de grade lat. N i la nord de lanul Sierra Nevada M i Cascadelor, n care umiditatea moderat permite dezvoltarea unei intense activiti agricole. San Francisco este polul urban al regiunii. Numele de hinge = pivot, balama desemneaz faptul c regiunea formeaz o interfa ntre Nordul Americii i

cordonul litoral al Pacificului, n plin expansiune economic, dar nc n dezvoltare. http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/glossary.html http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0862.pdf http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/United-States-of-AmericaAGRICULTURE.html http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/cropsystems.html http://diva-gis.org/datadown http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/cropmajor.html Muller, P.O., 2004, Concepts and Regions in Geography, Media Integration. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/agriculture.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States Ward, P., 1976, Woeld Regional Geography: A question of place, JOHN Wiley and Sons
http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/casa/latest/software/the-von-thunen-model