B10 Responding to Changes in the Environment

The human nervous system consists of the central nervous system, which is made of the brain and spinal cord, and the many nerves which carry messages from receptors or to effectors. Its job is to control and coordinate the parts of the body so that they work together, doing their jobs at the right time. It is capable of detecting external stimuli, something that incites a response, by receptors, such as the retina which is sensitive to change in light. These receptors are capable of converting the stimulus into an electrical impulse through a sensory neurone to a coordinator in the central nervous system which works out an appropriate response to the stimulus and sends impulses along a motor neurone to an effector organ for a response. Stimulus Receptor Sensory Neurone Coordinator Motor Neurone Effectors Response This ability to detect and react to external stimuli by organisms can result in responses which may increase the chances of an organisms survival. Stimuli may bring about a response by two sets of pathways, either a voluntary action or a reflex action. The difference between the two is that a voluntary response requires thought and has to be learned. A reflex response takes use of a simple arrangement of nerves called a reflex arc, which allows the responses to be extremely fast. This action is vital to an organism as it protects it from danger as well. Reflex response: Stimulus Receptor Sensory Neurone Relay Neurone Motor Neurone Effector organ Response

Neurones
Motor Neurone These carry electrical impulses from the central nervous system to effector organs, which provide a response.

Sensory Neurone These carry electrical impulses created by receptors when they detect stimuli to the CNS.

These

neurones are suited for its function in various ways: They have a long axon which allows them to cover the whole body and allows fast Many dendrites on cell body which receive impulses from multiple neurones. The myelin sheath acts as an insulator which speeds up transmissions along to axon. Synapses ensure the nerve impulses only travel in one direction.

The Eye
Vitreous humor Aqueous humor Conjunctiva Choroid

The cornea is a clear window which lets light into the eye The suspensory ligaments hold the lens in place Ciliary muscles change the shape of the lens during focusing. Sclera is a tough, white protective layer of the eye. The fovea or yellow spot is the most sensitive part of the retina and contains the most receptor. The front part of the eye is called the aqueous humor which helps cause of a lot of the bending of light. The back part of the eye is filled with a jelly called vitreous humor which also helps cause some of the bending of light. The choroid is a black layer that stops light being reflected around the inside of the eye. The retina is a layer of cells which are sensitive to light. The lens helps focus a picture on the retina. The blind spot is where blood vessels and nerves join the eyeballs. It has no light-sensitive cells, so it sends no messages to the brain. The iris is a muscle that controls the size of the pupil, determining the amount of light which enters the eye. The pupil is just a hole that lets light into the eye. Light is focused on to the retina onto the yellow spot in order to allow us to see clearly. Most of the bending of light occurs as light passes through the cornea and aqueous humor. The lens bends it a little more to make a perfectly clear picture on the retina. The ciliary muscles change the shape of the lens to bend light, this leads to the idea of accommodation the contractions and relaxations of ciliary muscles to alter the shape of the lens and focus a clear image on the retina. To see a near object, light must be bent more than light from a distant object because the light rays are diverging. Therefore, the ciliary muscles contract and the ligaments become slack, which allows the lens to become fatter in shape, thus refracting the light more. To see a distance object, lights do not need to be bent as much since the light rays arent as diverging. So the lens is stretched to make it thin. The ciliary muscles relax; pressure inside the eyeball stretches the lens into a thin shape which bends light just a little to make a clear picture on the retina of a distant object. There are two kinds of light-sensitive cells in the retina that act as receptors:

Rods
Rods work well in dim light; however they do not give as clear a picture as cones and are not as sensitive to color. They are spread out throughout the retina, asides from the yellow spot.

Cones

Cones work well in bright light and give a very clear picture, as well as being sensitive to color. They are found mainly in the yellow spot; however they are also spaced out through the rest of the retina.

Plants
Plants are also capable of sensing changes in the environment including light, gravity, and water, how they respond to these factors by growing are known as tropisms. For example, the shoot of a plant grows towards the light to ensure the plants get as much light as possible that is they are phototropic. This occurs as a result of the hormone, auxin, which is a growthpromoting chemical in plants. Light and gravity causes auxin to be redistributed in the stem and roots, resulting in unequal growth which is the response. For example, when light comes directly above the plant auxin spreads evenly down the stem. However, when light comes from one side, auxin spreads down the shaded side of the stem. Auxin makes these stem cells grow faster which causes the stem to bend towards the light.