B14 Inheritance

Variation
Members of species are not identical. They have differences even though they are similar. This is called variation. The immense variation of life we see today results from inherited characteristics and acquired characteristics. Some characteristics are inherited from our parents, i.e. hair color, such characteristics are controlled by chromosomes, whilst some characteristics are influenced by the environment, i.e. a scar, and such characteristics cannot be passed on. Continuous variation refers to a feature of characteristics that range from two extreme, i.e. height shows continuous variation. These are generally the variations which can be influenced by the environment. Discontinuous variation refers to a feature of characteristics that has no intermediate forms that is there is no in between state you either have it or you dont, i.e. you can only belong to one blood group: A, B, AB, or O. These are generally the variations which cannot be influenced by the environment.

Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA

Chromosomes are found within the nucleus, they have small parts called genes all the way through it which are made of a chemical called DNA. These genes control the development of inherited characteristics; they do this because they contain instructions for making proteins out of amino acids. Since proteins, particularly enzymes control all the chemical processes of life as well as the structure and functions of cells. Therefore, by controlling which proteins a cell makes, genes control the development, and the structure and function of a whole organism. It is the sequence of the bases A, T, C, and G along a DNA molecule which tells a cell which amino acids to use. A gene contains the sequence of bases for one complete protein molecule. Gametes, a haploid, contain half the normal number of chromosomes which contains one gene for each particular characteristic, as a result of meiosis a special form of cell division whereby each daughter cell has half the amount of chromosomes from the parent cell . Upon fertilization a male and female gamete join, restoring the normal number of chromosomes, whilst offering variation and creating a zygote which forms a new organism. Dominant genes The gene which dominates other genes and determines the final characteristic Recessive genes The gene which is dominated and will only appear when paired with another recessive gene Phenotype The characteristic which is shown Genotype All the different versions of a gene within an individual Allele The version of an individuals chromosomes Homozygous The genotype where both alleles are the same Heterozygous The genotype where the alleles are different Mutation A change in a gene, DNA, or number of chromosomes in a cell which leads to genetic variation.

Punnet Square
Female Gametes Male Gametes X Y XX XY XX XY

X X

This Punnet Square represents the possibility of the crossing on the gender of an organism. All men have an X and a Y chromosome: XY, whilst all women have two X chromosomes: XX.

Through this, we can discover the ratio of the possible phenotypes occurring in the offspring, in this case its 1:1.

Sickle Cell Anaemia

Sickle cell Anaemia is a disorder caused by recessive alleles, it causes red blood cells to be shaped like sickles instead of its normal round shape. This causes the red blood cells to be more prone to damage, so many are destroyed in the circulation. This deprives the body of oxygen and leads to Anaemia. In addition to this, it is a painful disorder and sufferers are at risk of dying at an early age. However, ironically in African countries it acts as a survival advantage because it causes more resistance to malaria, therefore its very common in some African countries.

Mutation
Mutations refer to changes in a gene, DNA, or number of chromosomes in a cell which leads to genetic variation, e.g. Downs syndrome an extra chromosome in pair 21. Mutations can occur naturally but the chances of mutation can be increased by various methods: Nuclear radiation as a result of the ionizing radiation, because it creates ions as it passes through substances which damages or destroys cells, cause cancer, and damages DNA Certain chemicals known as mutagens.

Mutations are often harmless in a body cell unless it leads to uncontrolled division of the cell (cancer) as only the selected cells are affected, however a mutation in a gamete forming cell may be passed on to offspring as only the gametes can pass on genes, causing all the cells in the offspring to have the mutation. This can cause the young to develop abnormally or die at an early stage of their development. However, mutation may not necessarily be a bad thing as it supports genetic variation and may have a survival advantage, i.e. as seen in bacteria where they constantly develop resistance.

Cloning
Cloning allows humans to produce organisms with identical genes. This can be done using techniques such as tissue culture. Cloning can often be advantageous as they can copy useful characteristics. This can lead to many benefits to agriculture. For example, in farming there is often a huge difference in yields between the average herd and best. Clones could be produced for the most productive crops or animals in only one generation; therefore they could provide organisms with the most valuable features. This can greatly increase yields and even solve world food problems in a shorter amount of time than normal. Advantages Conserving endangered wildlife Medical Benefits Farming yields Disadvantages Ethical issues Reduction of gene pool Lack of hybrid vigor

Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering refers to the altering of the inherited characteristics of an organism by inserting genes from another organism into its DNA. For example, genes from fish can be added to crops to make them frost-resistant and fresh longer or the removal of a gene for

insulin from a human pancreas cell into bacteria which allows mass production. However such benefits do not come without a price. Disadvantages Possibility of genetic pollution Moral/Ethical issues Introduction of genetically modified genes can have irreversible and severe consequences Newly introduced genetically modified organisms may destroy food chains and damage food webs. Unsafe for consumption