MATH 211 Winter 2013

Lecture Notes
(Adapted by permission of K. Seyarth)
Sections 1.3 & 2.1
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 1/1
1.3 Homogeneous Equations
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 2/1
Homogeneous Equations
Example
Solve the system
x
1
+ x
2
x
3
+ 3x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 5x
3
2x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 6x
2
+ 3x
3
+ 4x
4
= 0
_
_
1 1 1 3 0
1 4 5 2 0
1 6 3 4 0
_
_

_
_
1 0
9
5
14
5
0
0 1
4
5
1
5
0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
The system has innitely many solutions, and the general solution in
parametric form is
x
1
=
9
5
s
14
5
t
x
2
=
4
5
s
1
5
t
x
3
= s
x
4
= t
or
_

_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_

_
=
_

_
9
5
s
14
5
t

4
5
s
1
5
t
s
t
_

_
, where s, t R.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 3/1
Denition
If X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
p
are columns with the same number of entries, and if
k
1
, k
2
, . . . k
r
R (are scalars) then k
1
X
1
+ k
2
X
2
+ + k
p
X
p
is a linear
combination of columns X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
p
.
Example (continued)
In the previous example,
_

_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_

_
=
_

_
9
5
s
14
5
t

4
5
s
1
5
t
s
t
_

_
=
_

_
9
5
s

4
5
s
s
0
_

_
+
_

14
5
t

1
5
t
0
t
_

_
= s
_

_
9
5

4
5
1
0
_

_
+ t
_

14
5

1
5
0
1
_

_
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 4/1
Example (continued)
This gives us
_

_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_

_
= s
_

_
9
5

4
5
1
0
_

_
+ t
_

14
5

1
5
0
1
_

_
= sX
1
+ tX
2
,
where X
1
=
_

_
9
5

4
5
1
0
_

_
and X
2
=
_

14
5

1
5
0
1
_

_
.
The columns X
1
and X
2
are called basic solutions to the original
homogeneous system.
The general solution to a homogeneous system can be expressed as a
linear combination of basic solutions.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 5/1
Example (continued)
Notice that
_

_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_

_
= s
_

_
9
5

4
5
1
0
_

_
+ t
_

14
5

1
5
0
1
_

_
=
s
5
_

_
9
4
5
0
_

_
+
t
5
_

_
14
1
0
5
_

_
= r
_

_
9
4
5
0
_

_
+ q
_

_
14
1
0
5
_

_
= r (5X
1
) + q(5X
2
)
where r , q R.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 6/1
Example (continued)
The columns 5X
1
=
_

_
9
4
5
0
_

_
and 5X
2
=
_

_
14
1
0
5
_

_
are also basic solutions
to the original homogeneous system.
In general, any nonzero multiple of a basic solution (to a homogeneous
system of linear equations) is also a basic solution.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 7/1
1.3, Exercise 2(c)
Find all values of a for which the system
x + y z = 0
ay z = 0
x + y + az = 0
has nontrivial solutions, and determine the solutions.
When a = 0,
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
= s
_
_
1
1
0
_
_
, s R, and when a = 1,
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
= s
_
_
2
1
1
_
_
, t R.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 8/1
2.1 Matrix Addition, Scalar Multiplication and
Transposition
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 9/1
Matrices - Basic Denitions and Notation
Denitions
Let m and n be positive integers.
An mn matrix is a rectangular array of numbers having m rows and
n columns. Such a matrix is said to have size m n.
A row matrix is a 1 n matrix, and a column matrix (or column) is
an m 1 matrix.
A square matrix is an m m matrix.
The (i , j )-entry of a matrix is the entry in row i and column j .
General notation for an m n matrix, A:
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
a
13
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
23
. . . a
2n
a
31
a
32
a
33
. . . a
3n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
m3
. . . a
mn
_

_
= [a
ij
]
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 10/1
Matrices - Properties and Operations
1
Equality: two matrices are equal if and only if they have the same
size and the corresponding entries are equal.
2
Addition: matrices must have the same size; add corresponding
entries.
3
Scalar Multiplication: multiply each entry of the matrix by the
scalar.
4
Zero Matrix: an m n matrix with all entries equal to zero.
5
Negative of a Matrix: for an m n matrix A, its negative is
denoted A and A = (1)A.
6
Subtraction: for m n matrices A and B, A B = A + (1)B.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 11/1
Matrix form for solutions to linear systems
Example
The reduced row-echlon form of the augmented matrix for the system
x
1
2x
2
x
3
+ 3x
4
= 1
2x
1
4x
2
+ x
3
= 5
x
1
2x
2
+ 2x
3
3x
4
= 4
is
_
_
1 2 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
leading to the solution
x
1
= 2 + 2s t
x
2
= s
x
3
= 1 + 2t
x
4
= t
_

_
s, t R.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 12/1
Matrix form for solutions to linear systems
Example (continued)
x
1
= 2 + 2s t
x
2
= s
x
3
= 1 + 2t
x
4
= t
can be expressed as
_

_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_

_
=
_

_
2 + 2s t
s
1 + 2t
t
_

_
. But
_

_
2 + 2s t
s
1 + 2t
t
_

_
=
_

_
2
0
1
0
_

_
+ s
_

_
2
1
0
0
_

_
+ t
_

_
1
0
2
1
_

_
Therefore,
_

_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_

_
=
_

_
2
0
1
0
_

_
+ s
_

_
2
1
0
0
_

_
+ t
_

_
1
0
2
1
_

_
, s, t R.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 13/1
Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
Theorem (2.1 Theorem 1)
Let A, B and C be m n matrices, and let k, p R.
1
A + B = B + A
2
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3
There is an m n matrix 0 such that A + 0 = A and 0 + A = A.
4
For each A there is an mn matrix A such that A + (A) = 0 and
(A) + A = 0.
5
k(A + B) = kA + kB
6
(k + p)A = kA + pA
7
(kp)A = k(pA)
8
1A = A
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 14/1
Matrix Transposition
Denition
If A is an m n matrix, then its transpose, denoted A
T
, is the n m
matrix whose i
th
row is the i
th
column of A, 1 i n.
Theorem (2.1 Theorem 2)
Let A and B be m n matrices, and let k R.
1
A
T
is an n m matrix.
2
(A
T
)
T
= A.
3
(kA)
T
= kA
T
.
4
(A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 15/1
Symmetric Matrices
Denition
Let A = [a
ij
] be an m n matrix. The entries a
11
, a
22
, a
33
, . . . are called
the main diagonal of A.
Denition
The matrix A is called symmetric if and only if A
T
= A. Note that this
immediately implies that A is a square matrix.
Examples
_
2 3
3 17
_
,
_
_
1 0 5
0 2 11
5 11 3
_
_
,
_

_
0 2 5 1
2 1 3 0
5 3 2 7
1 0 7 4
_

_
are symmetric matrices, and each is symmetric about its main diagonal.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 16/1
Example
Show that if A and B are symmetric matrices, then A
T
+2B is symmetric.
Proof.
(A
T
+ 2B)
T
= (A
T
)
T
+ (2B)
T
= A + 2B
T
= A
T
+ 2B, since A
T
= A and B
T
= B.
Since (A
T
+ 2B)
T
= A
T
+ 2B, A
T
+ 2B is symmetric.
Sections 1.3 & 2.1 Page 17/1