FACTORS AFFECTING PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AMONGST NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN KENYA

BY Cornel Ragen

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction This study seeks to address the factors affecting project implementation in an organization with a focus on a non-governmental organisation. The process of project implementation, involving the successful development and introduction of projects in the organization, presents an ongoing challenge for managers. Miller (2002) notes that project implementation process is complex usually requiring simultaneous attention to a wide variety of human, budgetary, and technical variables. As a result, the organizational project manager is faced with a difficult job characterized by role overload, frenetic activity, fragmentation, and superficiality. The major influencing variables to be considered in the study are the resources management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the organisation. Arthur (2003) explains that resource management is the efficient and effective deployment for an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT). In the realm of project management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating resources have been developed. Resource management is a key element to activity resource estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a comprehensive plan implementation. Czarniawska (2003) states that resource management is a relatively new approach to managing people in any organisation. People are considered the key resource in this approach. It is concerned with the people dimension in management of an organisation. Since an organisation

is a body of people, their acquisition, development of skills, motivation for higher levels of attainments, as well as ensuring maintenance of their level of commitment are all significant activities. These activities fall in the domain of Human Reseource Management (HRM). A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service and it follows an agreed procedure of work flow. The selected plan is implemented by means of programs, budgets, and procedures which are organizations operational systems and way of handling things. Implementation practices involve organization resources and motivation of the staff to achieve objectives. The way in which the plan is implemented can have a significant impact on whether it will be successful or not. A project is temporary in that there is a defined start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the achievement of the goals and objectives). Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not projects. Projects usually include constraints and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome (Choudhury, 2007). It is noted that if the operational systems are not clear then the implementation process will have a rocky path and the project might fail to realize the intended goal or purpose. Various typologies have been suggested as useful means of describing differences in culture between organizations. Harrison (2007) suggests four main types of organizational culture: power; role; task/achievement; and person/support. Deal and Kennedy (2009) also proposed four generic culture types as determined exclusively by one aspect of organizational behavior the degree and speed of feedback on whether decisions or strategies are successful. Harrison (2007) further analyzed cultural differences in dealing with external population and suggested that culture has four dimensions that influence project or strategies implementation: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism/collectivism; and masculinity/femininity.

Project leadership is widely considered to be an important aspect of project control. While the theory of managerial control in projects is well developed, there remains the need to further develop understanding of the leadership style that complements the sophistication of contemporary control techniques and methods (Barber, 2004). Regardless of the availability of software tools, project implementation remains dependent on a leadership style that is outcome focused and not problem focused. Although problems will always arise and deviations from plan will occur, the need for control requires a shift away from reactive behaviours, the firefighter style, where the focus is on tackling immediate problems.

1.2 Background of the Study 1.2.1 Non-Governmental Organisations in Kenya The NGO Coordination Act (1990) defines an NGO as a private voluntary grouping of individuals or associations, not operated for profit or for other commercial purposes but which have organised themselves nationally or internationally for the benefit of the public at large and for the promotion of social welfare, development, charity or research in the areas inclusive of, but not restricted to, health, relief, agriculture, education, industry and the supply of amenities and services". An NGO cannot become a branch or affiliated with or connected with any organisation or group of a political nature established outside of Kenya. An NGO is required to benefit the public at large and promote social welfare, development charity, or research in areas including but not restricted to health, relief, agriculture, education, industry, and the supply of amenities and services (NGO Co-ordination Board, 2012). In a broad sense, NGOs, though relatively recently identified with an acronymic label and as a third sector are not new in Kenya (Salamon & Anheier 2002). Both local and international

organizations have a long history in the territory. Since 1963, the beginning of Kenya's history as an independent country, the government of Kenya has encouraged the development of indigenous notfor profit organizations, locally called harambee groups selfhelp societies or communitybased organizations (CBOs). Harambee, which literally means, lets pull together in Swahili, was the rally cry of Kenya's first President, Jomo Kenyatta, and it became the country's motto. Kanyinga (2009) states that in Kenya, local, community based selfhelp groups and foreign based otheroriented NGOs exist. Both are registered with the government. The former, now numbering more than 220,000 are registered with the Ministry of Culture and Social Services under the Societies Act, and are often called CBOs. The later, for the most part, have morphed into NGOs, and along with similar Kenyanbased organizations, are registered with the NGO Coordination Board. These NGOs are largely secular organizations, though they are sometimes registered in association with a church or other religious organization, making the strict characterization of NGOs as secular organizations inaccurate. While both CBOs and NGOs are interesting and important, this dissertation focuses on NGOs. Most NGOs in Kenya are involved in one or more of the following eight types of activities: agriculture, education, environment, general development, peace and governance, health, emergency or refugee relief, and programs directed at disadvantaged communities (specifically women, children, youth, the disabled and the elderly).

1.2.2 Overview of TechnoServe TechnoServe is a non-governmental organization that helps entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the developing world to build businesses that create income, opportunity

and economic growth for their families, their communities and their countries. The organization runs programs that focus on developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices worldwide. Its programs are designed to develop capacity for individuals and businesses, strengthen market systems and facilitate scalability for emerging industries (technoserve, 2012). TechnoServe was founded in 1968 by businessman and philanthropist Ed Bullard after a volunteering experience at a hospital in Ghana. He was inspired to start an organization helping rural people harness the power of private enterprise to lift themselves out of poverty (technoserve, 2012). The developing entrepreneurs activities involve business plan competitions where it helps aspiring entrepreneurs to turn business ideas into viable business plans through national business plan competitions. TechnoServes Young Women in Enterprise (YWE) program is helping several hundred young women to learn entrepreneurship and other important skills such as personal finance. Mentors and coaches help them develop business plans and start businesses. The participants also support each other in enterprise clubs and are given opportunities to network with community leaders that can help them reach their goals. On building businesses and industries activities involve agriculture and Agribusiness where the organization is helping revitalize Kenyas cashew-nut industry, working with entrepreneurs to establish processing plants in struggling rural areas. One plant has already opened, and four more are planned. These will create steady markets for some 30,000 farmers and generate thousands of new jobs. TechnoServe is working with other stakeholders on a pilot program to help 10,000 farmers organize themselves in business groups and produce more and better cashews, with the aim of doubling their incomes. Kenya's climate, geography and soil conditions help it to produce some

of the world's best coffee. But sub-optimal farming and processing practices limit the quality and quantity of coffee that smallholders produce, and poor market links limit their ability to sell it (technoserve, 2012). TechnoServe being a non-governmental organization go through challenges in realising some of its projects that targets the entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the developing world. The operational system as planned normally dont get realised considering some of the target groups and parts of the country are involve with other similar or related organisations which sometimes conflicts in ideas and manner in which operations are conducted (technoserve, 2012).

1.3 Statement of the Problem Project implementation in any given organisation involves a number of activities. At TechnoServe among the major activities are securing community participation for launching the project, co-ordination of activities, monitoring, and taking care of contingencies. These activities are usually the responsibility of a project manager/coordinator or a project management committee. David (2008) states that project implementation problem become more important when we realize that the efficiency of plan in an organization is faced with many impediments. If a project is considered as a process consisting of formulation, implementation and assessment steps, organizations face problems in each step. Aspects of the problems are revealed when we understand that organizations have failed in implementing over 70% of their plans and strategic initiatives (Miller, 2002).

It is however noted that there is little attention on the non-governmental sector considering most of them are normally accountable to the donor organization. Discussion on the problems and difficulties of a project has been highly fascinated by the strategic management discourse since the implementation of project plans and decisions have not been as successful as their designers expected. The study notes that there are many nongovernmental organizations that run similar programmes and this makes it difficult to realize the full intensions of a given project. The target populations are normally the same and given different organizational approaches some of the projects contradict at the implementation stages and as a result resources run into to waste while the target audiences dont get the intended assistance or help. Hence, it seems necessary to identify factors affecting project implementation in a non-organization.

1.4 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to address the factors affecting project implementation amongst non-governmental organizations in Kenya, with a focus on TechnoServe Kenya which is a non-governmental organisation that seeks to provide business solutions to poverty. The study will be tested using four variables (resources management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the organisation).

1.5 Research Objectives The study will be guided with the following specific objectives: i. To establish the effect of resources management on project implementation within a nongovernmental organization. ii. To determine how operational systems affect project implementation within a non-

governmental organization. iii. To find out if organizational culture affects project implementation within a nongovernmental organization. iv. To determine whether the organisation leadership affects project implementation within a non-governmental organization.

1.6 Research Questions The study seeks to answer the following research questions: i. Of what effect are resources management on project implementation within a nongovernmental organization? ii. How do the operational systems affect project implementation within a non-governmental organization? iii. Does the organizational culture affects project implementation within a non-governmental organization? iv. Does the organisation leadership affect the project implementation within a nongovernmental organization?

1.7 Significance of the Study The rationale of this study is to examine factors affecting project implementation in an organization. This study is expected to benefit the management as to the best ways to re-align the operations within the organisation to ensure full implementation of projects and strategies within the case organisation.

From this study other organizations ranging from small to large, public and private, service and even the manufacturing organizations will benefit by finding solutions to project implementation and even come up with better means and approaches in ensuring initiated projects are implemented. As a researcher this study will be a source of immense knowledge. It will aid in helping to shape the role of project planning and implementation in an organisation. In the process of researching, there will also be the benefit of exposure on how the research is conducted. 1.8 Scope of the Study The study will be carried out at TechnoServe which is a nongovernmental organization that helps entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the developing world to build businesses that create income, opportunity and economic growth for their families, their communities and their countries. The study will focus on the personnels who are charged with carrying out projects within the organisations. The project in consideration are on education, developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices worldwide. The study will focus on the personnel at the Kenya Nairobi offices.

1.9 Limitation of the Study The following limitations might be encountered when carrying out the study: The study for sees and expect suspicion by respondents. When carrying out the research at times one encounter respondents who are over suspicious of the exercise to the point that some are hesitant to give accurate details concerning questions that they are asked. They feel that the

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researcher is trying to find out their weaknesses which may be used against them by management. For the research work to be comprehensive and successful it needed funds for the computation of data, purchasing writing materials, typesetting, questionnaires, mailing and browsing the web, travelling and binding as well as other miscellaneous expenses. Respondents perception is considered to be a limiting factor as it is realized in school based research some of the respondents normally dont see the need for the research and thus hamper the smooth and easy collection of the much needed data. The research will be conducted with ethical standards and observations. The respondents names will not appear anywhere in the study and only the willing ones will be considered for the study.

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Assumption of the Study The study makes an assumption that there are certain forces of factors that affect the full

realization of projects within a nongovernmental organisation. It is assumed that the resources management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the organisation affect project implementation in an organization, hence it is the goal of this study to determine the level of effect on each independent variable.

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1.11 Conceptual Framework This section of the study illustrates and interprets the relationships that will be studied in this research to outline the possible course of action. Below is a representation of a conceptual framework reflecting the relationship between the various variables adopted for this study. Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework Independent Variables Resource Management Indicators Cost efficiency

Operational Systems

Dependent Variable Project Implementation

Organization resources

Organizational Culture

Experiences

Organisation Leadership

Management and Control

Source: Author (2012) Resource management is the efficient and effective deployment for an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT). In the realm of project management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating resources have been developed. Resource management is a key element to activity resource

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estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a comprehensive plan implementation. The selected plan is implemented by means of programs, budgets, and procedures which are organizations operating systems and way of handling things. Implementation practices involve organization resources and motivation of the staff to achieve objectives. The way in which the plan is implemented can have a significant impact on whether it will be successful or not. Organizational culture describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and cultural values) of an organization. It is the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. They are beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the appropriate kinds or standards of behavior organizational members should use to achieve these goals. Many administrators, supervisors, and even top executives execute their responsibilities successfully without being great leaders. But these positions afford opportunity for leadership. The ability to lead effectively will set the excellent managers apart from the average ones hence for a project to be implemented well there is need for proper leadership approach. Organizations projects succeed or fail not only because of how well they are led but also because of how well followers follow.

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge and methodology approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary source of data and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. This chapter enables the researcher to assess the present situation, previous and the expectations to come from the sources such as publications, reports, books, journals and the internet. The section facilitates the provision of intensive information, which makes the study reach a successful end. The chapter has been divided into three sections which are the theoretical review, the empirical review and the knowledge gap.

2.2 Theoretical Review This section of the study seeks to explain the theories in relation to project implementation in an organization. The discussed theories are organisation based and they entail Neoclassical Organization Theory, Expectancy Theory and Goal Theory. This section of the study determines the aims to review the critical points of knowledge including substantive findings.

2.2.1 Neoclassical Organization Theory The human relations movement evolved as a reaction to the tough, authoritarian structure of classical theory. It addressed many of the problems inherent in classical theory. The most serious objections to classical theory are that it created over conformity and rigidity, thus squelching creativity, individual growth, and motivation. Neoclassical theory displayed genuine

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concern for human needs. One of the first experiments that challenged the classical view was conducted by Mayo and Roethlisberger in the late 1920's at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois (Mayo, 1933). While manipulating conditions in the work environment like the intensity of lighting, they found that any change had a positive impact on productivity. The act of paying attention to employees in a friendly and nonthreatening way was sufficient by itself to increase output. Uris (1986) referred to this as the "wart" theory of productivity. Nearly any treatment can make a wart go away nearly anything will improve productivity. The implication is plain: intelligent action often delivers results (Uris, 1986). Barnard (1998) proposed one of the first modern theories of organization by defining organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities. He stressed in role of the executive in creating an atmosphere where there is coherence of values and purpose. Organizational success was linked to the ability of a leader to create a cohesive environment. He proposed that a manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the hierarchical power structure of the organization. Barnard's theory contains elements of both classical and neoclassical approaches. Since there is no consensus among scholars, it might be most appropriate to think of Barnard as a transition theorist. Simon (1995) made an important contribution to the study of organizations when he proposed a model of "limited rationality" to explain the Hawthorne experiments. The theory stated that workers could respond unpredictably to managerial attention. The most important aspect of Simon's work was the rigorous application of the scientific method. Reductionism, quantification, and deductive logic were legitimized as the methods of studying organizations.

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2.2.1:1 Application of Neoclassical Organization Theory The Neoclassical Organization Theory has been used effectively in highly dynamic and technological environments by project management organizational. The project manager becomes the focal point for information and activities related to a specific project. The goal of the theory is to provide effective integration of an organization s resources towards the completion of a specific project. Implementing a project management approach often involves dramatic changes in the relationships of authority and responsibility

2.2.2 Expectancy Theory According to Vroom (1964) in a general approach expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victors Vroom of the Yale School of Management. Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that the reward they are receiving is adequate to offset the amount of work being done. These predicted organizational rewards are valued by the employee in question. This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients. This theory is used to indicate an approach to empowering the employees. Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the

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individuals expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as valence. In this context a motivated employee feel empowered on work performance. Rao, (2000) states that in order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effortperformance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance. Rao further explains that Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom (1964) suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). E>P expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required performance level. P>O expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes (Vroom, 1964). Rao (2000) states that on Vrooms model is based on three concepts: Valence - Strength of an individuals preference for a particular outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person

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must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Instrumentality means of the first level outcome in obtaining the desired second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome.

The relevance of the theory is that, expectancy is the belief that one's effort will result in attainment of desired performance goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, selfconfidence and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self efficacy is the persons belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular project. Goal difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy perceptions. Control is ones perceived control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome in a project.

2.2.3 Goal Theory Goal theory holds that goals are important regulators of human behavior and posits a strong relationship between goal difficulty and performance, with harder goals resulting in a greater effort than easier goals (Manning, 1995). Goal theory is normally used to empower employee in a given task, its also used in motivating workers to performance and productivity improvements. The theory examines goal-setting activities from an individual perspective. Ivancevich, (1998) says that goal setting is designed to improve an individual's ability to set and achieve goals. Goals are the object of an action or what a person intends to accomplish.

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Goal setting theory was proposed initially by Locke (1998) and was based on the understanding of goal setting as a cognitive process of some practical utility. Locke's (1998) view is that an individual's conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior. The theory places specific emphasis on the importance of conscious goals in explaining motivated behavior. Tetlock and Kim, (1997) states that depending on the type of goal given, one can go about achieving it differently. A directional goal is one where individuals are motivated to arrive at a particular conclusion. Thinking can be narrowed to selecting beliefs. The lack of deliberation also tends to make one more optimistic about achieving the goal. An accuracy goal is one where people are motivated and empowered to arrive at the most accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being inaccurate is high. People invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large deviation may well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and stop thinking about it people tend to continue to search for improvements. Both methods work by influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-making rules (Tetlock and Kim, 1997). Cooper and Schilndler (2002) point out goals inform individuals to achieve particular level of performance, in order for them to direct and evaluate their actions, while performance feedback allows the individual to track how well he or she has been doing in relation the goal, so that, if necessary adjustments in effort direction or possibly task strategies can be made. Cooper and Schilndler (2002) notes that there are at least five ways to convince people that goal attainment is worthwhile: These include (a) eliciting a public commitment to goals, (b) communicating an inspiring vision, (c) using an empathy box analysis to understand and alter the

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perceived consequences of goal commitment, (d) providing financial incentives for goal attainment, and (e) expressing confidence that the goal will be achieved. Cooper and Schilndler (2002) investigated performance differences depending on whether difficult tasks are framed as a challenge providing an opportunity for self-growth, or as a threat regarding which effective strategies to deal with it are not readily available. As hypothesized, challenge appraisals yielded consistently better performance than threat appraisals. However, those who viewed the task as a threat performed better when they had learning goals rather than performance outcome goals. Finally, difficult performance goals induced high adaptation to change when the work context was perceived as challenging, but poor adaptation and performance when the work context was perceived as threatening. Goal theory is of relevance to the study in that it holds that goals are important regulators of human behavior and posits a strong relationship between goal difficulty and performance, nearly everything Human resources (HR) specialists do from recruiting to compensation has organizational ramifications and hence benefits from knowledge provided by organization theory; organizational development and change are particularly important elements of HR that demand deep knowledge of organizations and organizing, and organization theory can provide content for executive training programs. Communication specialists must understand the interpretive processes of organizational stakeholders and need to address the many ways in which different parts of the organization interact with each other and the environment, in order to design communication systems that are effective or to diagnose ways existing systems are misaligned with the organizations needs.

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Goal theory is concerned with how the internal organizational structure works to motivate participants and produce outcomes consistent with the goals of those who control the organization projects. It is also interested in how the world external to an organization effects what goes on inside of a particular organization. It is concerned with how the internal organization and the external world can effect organizational survival. There are three questions that all theories take up.

2.3 Empirical Review 2.3.1 Project Implementation Touwen (2001) Project implementation involves a number of activities. Among the major activities are securing community participation for launching the project, co-ordination of activities, monitoring, and taking care of contingencies. These activities are usually the responsibility of a project manager/coordinator or a project management committee. Morris (2003) states that in project implementation or project execution, one put it all together. Project planning is complete, as detailed as possible, yet providing enough flexibility for necessary changes. In a customer-contractor relationship, the contract is signed, based on the right decisions about the contract structures, and including clauses for change management and claim management. Nutt (2001) indicates that the process of project implementation, involving the successful development and introduction of projects in the organization, presents an ongoing challenge for managers. The project implementation process is complex, usually requiring simultaneous attention to a wide variety of human, budgetary, and technical variables. As a result, the organizational project manager is faced with a difficult job characterized by role overload,

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frenetic activity, fragmentation, and superficiality. Pinton (2011) indicates that often the typical project manager has responsibility for successful project outcomes without sufficient power, budget, or people to handle all of the elements essential for project success. In addition, projects are often initiated in the context of a turbulent, unpredictable, and dynamic environment. Consequently, the project manager would be well served by more information about those specific factors critical to project success. The project manager requires the necessary tools to help him or her focus attention on important areas and set differential priorities across different project elements. If it can be demonstrated that a set of factors under the project manager's control can have a significant impact on project implementation success, the project manager will be better able to effectively deal with the many demands created by his job, channeling his energy more efficiently in attempting to successfully implement the project under development (Cleland and Kerzner, 2005). Pinton (2011) notes that project implementation success has been defined many ways to include a large variety of criteria. However, in its simplest terms, project success can be thought of as incorporating four basic facets. A project is generally considered to be successfully implemented if it comes in on-schedule (time criterion), comes in on-budget (monetary criterion), achieves basically all the goals originally set for it (effectiveness criterion) and is accepted and used by the clients for whom the project is intended (client satisfaction criterion). Tuman (2008) explains that strategy and tactics are both essential for successful project implementation, but differently so at various stages in the project life cycle. Strategic issues are most important at the beginning of the project. Tactical issues become more important towards the end. This is not to say that there should not be a continuous interaction and testing between

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the strategic and tactical factors. Strategy is not static and often changes in the dynamic corporation, making continuous monitoring essential. Nevertheless, a successful project manager must be able to transition between strategic and tactical considerations as the project moves forward.

2.3.2 Resource Management Slevin (2000) states that the implementation management team requires expertise in planning for both financial and non-financial resource types, such as human resources, supplies, specialist knowledge and supporting teams. The Resource Management Strategy typically consists of the following elements: funding requirements (including budget), procurement approach, required assets (such as office space and equipment), technology and services and finally human resources (including Subject Matter Experts). Beck (2010) states poor resources selection and considerations lead to failures in project implementation stages. There should be a proper budgeting system in place which involves the allocation of administered and departmental funds against key project deliverables. This section sets the framework for dealing with the on budget part of the objective on time, on budget and to expectations. The principle underlying this section is cost control. This section will enable departments and agencies to effectively track expenditure over time and provide early warning of likely overspend /under spend or possible savings. In some cases, expenditure will be a critical indicator of progress. Beck (2010) further states that It is critical that the budget reflects whole of life costing for the measure concerned and clearly distinguish departmental and administered items as well as distinguishing capital and operating expenses. This section of the implementation plan will

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only be necessary for projects where there is substantial buy in of expertise or capital items. Projects that do not involve a high level of procurement expenditure should simply indicate that this requirement is not applicable. Adams and Barndt (2006) on a study on behavioral implications of the project life cycle, state that failure to document the following then projects are likely to fail: Policy deliverables to be procured by proposed agreement or contract, strategies for negotiating and managing agreements/contracts, If there is need for staged delivery and desirability of testing the deliverables and whether a purchase-provider arrangement is being considered and if so: timings for release of documentation to the public, tender and contract finalization, contract period; the procurement method (specific purpose payments, expressions of interest, request for price/quote, request for tender); the funding model (i.e. milestone payments); supplier selection processes such as tender evaluation and contract negotiation, and tender evaluation criteria; and arrangements for ongoing contract management including review and evaluation. Probity issues should be covered in the Quality Assurance section. Where appropriate, link also with risk management, resources, quality assurance and stakeholder engagement sections. Review the scope and work breakdown structure and identify the resources that are critical to the successful implementation of the measure. Critical resources are those which are vital to the success of the measure, and may include staff with the special skills, consultants, a co-located office venue, ICT equipment, transportation, data / information systems etc.

2.3.3 Operational System Unlike other functional areas within organizations, many people find it hard to clearly and easily understand what activities come under the field of Operations. Finance, for example,

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deals with the use (and sometimes abuse) of funds. Marketing is primarily responsible for positioning, pricing, selling and liaison with customers. However, when it comes to Operations, it is not so clear-cut. This is because the word operations is sometimes (wrongly) used interchangeably with operational, a word that is the opposite of strategic, and connotes detailed, localized, short term, day-to-day activities (Danny 2007). Ideally defined, operations within an organization are first and foremost an oversight function that ensures all internal operating groups are Integrated into the same business plan with well defined roles and responsibilities. Danny (2007) notes that most organizational projects involving external community fail as a result of the organizations departments not functioning together as one unit to ensure operational integrity relative to opportunity development, there is no proper risk management, resource management and allocation, and overall best practices are not covered within all functions of the organization. Effectively communicating between other functional departments, participating in the business planning and development strategy process are some of the indicators of an efficient operational system. Operating within the parameters of an integrated budget, and adhering to all financial practices while following other established policy, procedures and controls will see a success to project implementation.

2.3.4 Organisational Culture Organizations, just like individuals, have their own personalities more typically known as organizational cultures. Understanding how culture is created, communicated, and changed will help you to be a more effective manager. (Nelson and Pasternack, 2005)The concept of culture is complex and definitions of culture vary. The anthropologist Edward Tylor defined culture in the

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late 1800s as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities acquired by a man as a member of a society (Hill, 2005). Drucker (1999) culture is more generally as a system of values, norms, and practices that are shared among a group of people and that, when taken together, constitute a design for living. Values are ideas about what a group believes to be good, right and desirable. This is the deepest level of culture since values are often embedded in tacit preferences as well as they are difficult to articulate and change. Norms are derived from values and can be described as social rules and guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations. Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is leadership that affects culture rather than management and describe the difference to be an influence to change management in an organization. When one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to keep in consideration that this is a long term project. Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change. Cummings and Worley (2005) give the following six guidelines for cultural change management, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995): Formulate a clear strategic vision, Display Top-management commitment Model culture change at the highest level, Modify the organization to support organizational change and Develop ethical and legal sensitivity. Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings & Worley, 2005).

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Organizations culture is very important and inevitable. Culture innovations is bound to be because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in existing environment. Black (2003) states that cultural innovation is bound to be more difficult than cultural maintenance. Besides institutionalization, deification is another process that tends to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. The organization itself may come to be regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. Organizational members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns given by the organization, and they begin to identify with in. The organization turns into a sort of clan. Organization culture at any given organization is different to that of another organization and the impact levels are normally varied.

2.3.5 Organisation Leadership Argyris and Schon (1996) organizational leadership does not mean having a boss think of a command and then watch as it is filtered throughout the ranks. Organizational leadership, instead, is the ability of management to understand its employees and company goals enough to bring everyone together. Frequently, an organization with excellent leadership will have employees who feel that their opinions are valued and that their work is highly important to the shared success of the whole organization. There is no single technique to ensure that this happens. Every company is different, and positive leadership recognizes that and turns it into an advantage. Utilizing team-building exercises, instilling leadership development on all levels of organization and fostering positive communication are some techniques used to promote positive leadership. Many times, these exercises are used to fix organizations in trouble. An example

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would be an insurance company that is losing money, so it gives bottom-line financial responsibilities to individual employees instead of departments, in order to foster ownership of the company's mission (Argyris and Schon 1996). Cole (2004) recommends that those attempting to implement projects should study the history of the organization and its relationships with its various stakeholders, including those beyond its boundaries. Only in this way can project implementation advocate and understand the observable but misleading facts and uncover the real systems of meaning to which managers and employees subscribe. Brungardt (1996) management's leadership in the project effort seems to be the key determinant of whether that the project will succeed. It is not new to say that leadership is critical. What is new is the type of leadership being recommended one that does more than just create and articulate a new vision for the organization. Management needs to communicate openly with those affected by the change and once again, collaborate with those same individuals to obtain their input. Part of communication and collaboration involves wining the intended project to organizational outcomes. Brungardt (1996) states another key leadership feature involves role modelling of expected behaviors. For example, if top management expects lower level managers and employees to behave ethically, then top executives themselves must do the same.

2.4 Knowledge Gap This literature has reviewed organizations as people management systems that range from simple hierarchies along traditional lines to complex networks dependent on computer systems and telecommunications. The observed literature term organizational structure to how individual

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and team work within an organization. It states that agility is a critical structural element in achieving organizational and a project effectiveness and efficiency. It is also made clear that in reconfiguring an organization to enhance its performance, there is no one appropriate or ideal structure. Further, there is agreement that many organizations have hybrid structures in which a several different structures happily co-exist and as a result implementing projects might involve reviewing the organization structure. The key component of successful leadership now and in the next century is proactive and effective responsiveness to change. It is noted that too often leaders and managers address technical dimensions of projects but fail to consider what it takes at each stage for leaders to actually carry out that project implementation. It is noted that leading implementation of projects requires, establishing direction, aligning people, and motivating and inspiring. Other elements like operations system do not come out clearly on the observed literature as well as the organisation culture from both within and out of the organisation hence it is of essence to carry out a study on factors affecting project implementation amongst nongovernmental organizations in Kenya.

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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter presents the methodology that will be used to carry out the study. The chapter presents the research design, the population, sample and sampling technique, data collection methods and instruments and data analysis.

3.2 Research Design The study will adopt a descriptive design to research on factors affecting project implementation amongst nongovernmental organizations in Kenya. Descriptive research studies are designed to obtain pertinent and precise information concerning the current status of a phenomenon and draw valid general conclusions from the facts discovered. This research design will be both qualitative and quantitative methods that probe for deeper understanding rather than just examining surface features (Patton 1990). The adoption of this research design is based on Strauss and Corbin (1990) claim that qualitative methods can be used to better understand any phenomenon about which little is yet known. They can also be used to gain new perspective on things about which much is already known or to gain more indepth information that they may be difficult to convey quantitatively. Thus, this qualitative method is appropriate in this situation where researchers needs to first identify the variable that might later be tested quantitatively, or where the researcher has determined that quantitative measures cannot adequately describe or interpret a situation.

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3.3. Target Population The study will focus on the personnels who are charged with carrying out projects within the organisations. The project in consideration are on education, developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices worldwide. The study target population will be drawn from the personnels at the Kenya Nairobi office which entails 160 personnels (techno serves HR 2012). The Nairobi based office is considered to be having permanent and temporary staffs and volunteers. The table below shows the population stratus to be considered.

Table 3.1 Target Population Category Directors/Chief of Party Heads of projects Programme Managers Administration Logistics team Field Personnels Volunteers Affiliates Totals Source: Researcher (2012) 3.4. Sampling Procedure According to Kothari (2004) sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals or objects from a population such that the selected group contains elements representative of the characteristics found in the entire group. Stratified random sampling technique will be used to select the sample. Kothari further states that the method allows the researcher to divide the sample into appropriate strata that is mutually exclusive. The strata entail the departmental staffs Frequency 4 12 16 23 27 39 20 19 160 Percentage 3 8 10 14 17 24 13 12 100

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involved with the project initiation to implementation. A representative sample of at least 50% of the target population will be considered for the study. Sekaran, (2003) contend that a sample size should be at least 50% of the target population. The sample selection is shown in the table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2 Sample Size Category Directors/Chief of Party Heads of projects Programme Managers Administration Logistics team Field Personnels Volunteers Affiliates Totals Source: Researcher (2012) Frequency 4 12 16 23 27 39 20 19 160 Sample Size 2 6 8 11 14 19 10 9 79

3.5. Data Collection Instruments The data collection instruments will include questionnaires. The questionnaires will contain both closed and open ended questions. The questionnaire will consist of two sections A and B. Section A will sort for general information on the respondents while section B will focus on the study information. The administration of the questionnaires will be done by the drop and pick method that allow respondents ample time to complete the questionnaires. The respondents approval to participate in the survey will be sought before administering, the questionnaire. A letter of identification introducing the researcher will be obtained from the learning institution.

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3.6 Data Analysis Before analyzing the responses, the completed questionnaires will be edited for completeness and consistency. The data will be coded and checked for errors and omissions. This will be done to ensure precision; precision is expressed as validity and reliability. The responses will be analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. The data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics to assess the influence of various variables.

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REFERENCE Adams, J. R. and Barndt, S. E. (2006). Behavioral Implications of the Project Life Cycle, . New York, Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley. Arthur, J. (2003). Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing performance and turnover, Academy of Management Journal. Barnard, W. (1998). A casual model of organizational performance , The 1998 Annual: Developing Human Resources, University Associates, San Diego, pp. 277-88. Beck, D. R. (2010). "Implementing Top Management Plans through Project Management," in Project Management Handbook, New York. Black, R. (2003). Organisational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success, London UK, Brungardt, C. L. (1996). The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership development and education. The Journal of Leadership Studies. Burman, R. and Evans, A. J. (2008). Target Zero: A Culture of safety, Defence Aviation Safety Centre Journal. Cleland, D. I. and Kerzner, H. (2005). A Project Management Dictionary of Terms. Nostrand Reinhold. New York, Cole. G., (2004). Management theory and practice, 6th Sussex Institute of Education
edition

, Research fellow, University of

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Cooper, D. and Schilndler. P. S., (2002). Business Research Methods, 9th edition. McGraw Hill/Iruib. New York, U.S.A. Cummings, T. G. and Huse, E. F. (2005). Organizational Development and Management. St Paul: West Publishing Company. Czarniawska, B. (2003). Social constructionism and organizational studies, in Westwood, R. and Clegg, S. (Eds), Debating Organization Point and Counterpoint, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 128-39. Danny. S. (2007). Operations Management An Integrated Approach Cambridge University Press Deal, T. and Kennedy, A. (2009). Corporate Culture: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life, Penguin Business, London. Drucker, P. (1999). Managementb of Challengesin Projects for the 21st century, Harper Business, New York. Harrison, R. (2007). How to describe your organization, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 51, May/June, pp. 119-28. Hill, J. (2002). "Managing an Organizational Learning System by Aligning Stocks and Flows". Journal of Management Studies 39 (4): 437469. Ivancevich, J. M. (1998). Organizational Behaviour and Management, 2nd ed, Richard Irwin, Homewood. Leibenstein, H. (1999). General X-Efficiency and Economic Development. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Locke, E. (1998). The relationship of intentions to level of performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 50, 6066. Manning, M. M. (1995). Self-efficacy expectancies, outcome expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology21-431. Mayo, E. (1933). The Human Problems of Industrial Civilization. New York: Macmillan. Miller D (2002). Successful Change leaders: What Makes Them? What Do They Do That Is Different? J. Change Manage, 2(4): 359-68. Morris, P. W. G. (2005). Managing Project Interfaces-Key Points for Project Success in Project Management Handbook, ed. Cleland, D. I. and King, W. R. (Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York. Nelson, G. L., & Pasternack, B. A. (2005). Results: Keep whats good, fix whats wrong, and unlock great performance. New York: Crown Business. Nutt, P. C. (2005). Implementation Approaches for Project Planning." Academy of Management Review, Vol. 8. Pinto, J. K. (2011). Project Implementation: A Determination of Its Critical Success Factors, Moderators, and Their Relative Importance across the Project Life Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh. Rao, P. (2000). Personnel and Human Resource Management. Text and cases; Himalaya Publishing House. Simon, H. A. (1995). Administrative Behavior. New York: Free Press.

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Slevin, D. P. (2000). "The Project Implementation Profile: New Tool for Project Managers." Project Management Journal, Vol. 18. TechnoServe Solution to Poverty, (2012). Retrieved September 18th 2012 from

http://www.technoserve.org/who-we-are/ Tetlock, A., & Kim P. (1997). The effects of appraisal instrument, feedback and goal-setting on worker satisfaction and commitment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 145 153. Thomas, R. and Davies. A. (2005). Theorizing the micro-politics of resistance: new public management and managerial identities in the UK public service, Organization Studies, 26(5): 683-706. Touwen. A., (2001). Handbook for Projects: Development Management and Fundraising, Convener IFUW Special Committee on Project Development Tuman, G. J. (2008). Development and Implementation of Effective Project Management, Project Management Handbook, New York Uris, A. (1986). 101 of the Greatest Ideas in Management. New York. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE The purpose of this questionnaire is to facilitate data collection to the study that seeks to address factors affecting project implementation amongst non-governmental organizations in Kenya, with a focus on TechnoServe Kenya which is a non-governmental organization that seeks to provide business solutions to poverty. Information gathered will be treated confidential and no names should be indicated in the questionnaire. Section A: Bio Data 1. State your Gender as applicable a.) Male b.) Female [ ] [ ]

2. State your age as applicable a.) Between 18 25 b.) 26 40 c.) 41 55 d.) Over 56 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

3. What is you department of work and job title ... 4. State your level of education. a.) Diploma level b.) Degree Level c.) Postgraduate Level (Masters) d.) Postgraduate Level (PhD) [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

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5. How long have you worked at TechnoServe Kenya? a.) Below one year b.) Between one to two years c.) Between two to four years d.) Over five years Section B: Study Information I. Resource Management 6. Do you think resource management is handled poorly on the organisation? a.) Yes b.) No Give reasons; 7. Do you agree that the human/personnels at TechnoServe Kenya affect project implementation? a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Undecided or Neutral d) Disagree e) Strongly Disagree [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

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8. Are there adequate allocation of finance to ensure projects are implemented at TechnoServe Kenya? a.) Yes b.) No Give reasons; 9. Do you agree that the cost efficiency is not well managed hence affect project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Undecided or Neutral d) Disagree e) Strongly Disagree [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

10. Is the human resource well trained on TechnoServe Kenya projects? a.) Yes b.) No [ ] [ ]

Give reasons;

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II. Operation Systems 11. Are the operation systems in place affects project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? .... 12. Are the TechnoServe Kenya operational system advance to ensure projects are executed? a.) Yes b.) No Give reasons; 13. How would you rate the budgeting plans in relation to implementation of projects? a.) Reasonable [ ] 41 [ ] [ ]

b.) Acceptable c.) Justifiable d.) Fair e.) Not Sure

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

14. Do you agree that the manner in which problems and challenges are addressed project affect implementation? a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Undecided or Neutral d) Disagree e) Strongly Disagree [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Organizational Culture 15. Are you as an employee TechnoServe influenced by the prevailing organizational culture? a.) Yes b.) No Give resons; [ ] [ ]

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16. How does governance within TechnoServe Kenya affects project implementation? 17. Does the level of individual staff performance affects project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Undecided or Neutral d) Disagree e) Strongly Disagree [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

18. Would you consider the staffs level of experience to be of effect to project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? a.) Yes b.) No Give reasons 43 [ ] [ ]

IV. Leadership 19. Are you as an employee affected by the organization leadership? a.) Yes b.) No Give reasons, 20. Do you agree that communication in the organization effect to project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Undecided or Neutral d) Disagree e) Strongly Disagree [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

21. Does the form of leadership in the organization effect project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? a.) Yes b.) No [ ] [ ]

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Give reasons;

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22. Finally what is your opinion on practices and procedures in implementation of projects at TechnoServe Kenya? ...

24. What are your recommendations for better approaches to project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya? ..

Thank you for your cooperation

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APPENDIX II: BUDGETARY ALLOCATION No. 1. Travelling Cost (kshs) 2,000.00

2.

Research and Stationery

1,500.00

3.

Photocopying

2,00.00

4.

Typing and Printing

2,000.00

5.

Binding three copies

560.00

6.

Hard Cover Binding

3,000.00

7. Total

Miscellaneous

2,000.00 14,060.00

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APPENDIX III: TIME FRAME (2012 - 2013) Activities 1. 2. Formulation of problem Writing of research 3. 4. 5. proposal Presentation of proposal Data collection Data analysis and Final presentation September October November December January

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