Renewable Energy There are many forms of renewable energy.

Most of these renewable energies depend in one way or another on sunlight. Wind and hydroelectric power are the direct result of differential heating of the Earth's surface which leads to air moving about (wind) and precipitation forming as the air is lifted. Solar energy is the direct conversion of sunlight using panels or collectors. Biomass energy is stored sunlight contained in plants. Other renewable energies that do not depend on sunlight are geothermal energy, which is a result of radioactive decay in the crust combined with the original heat of accreting the Earth, and tidal energy, which is a conversion of gravitational energy. Solar: This form of energy relies on the nuclear fusion power from the core of the Sun. This energy can be collected and converted in a few different ways. The range is from solar water heating with solar collectors or attic cooling with solar attic fans for domestic use to the complex technologies of direct conversion of sunlight to electrical energy using mirrors and boilers or photovoltaic cells. Unfortunately these are currently insufficient to fully power our modern society. The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. The sun, an average star, is a fusion reactor that has been burning over 4 billion years. It provides enough energy in one minute to supply the world's energy needs for one year. In one day, it provides more energy than our current population would consume in 27 years. In fact, "The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day period is equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy sources." Solar energy is a free, inexhaustible resource, yet harnessing it is a relatively new idea. The ability to use solar power for heat was the first discovery. A Swiss scientist, Horace de Saussure, built the first thermal solar collector in 1767, which was later used to heat water and cook food. The first commercial patent for a solar water heater went to Clarence Kemp of the US in 1891. This system was bought by two California executives and installed in one-third of the homes in Pasadena by 1897. Producing electricity from solar energy was the second discovery. In 1839 a French physicist named Edmund Becquerel realized that the sun's energy could produce a "photovoltaic effect" (photo = light, voltaic = electrical potential). In the 1880s, selenium photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed that could convert light into electricity with 1-2% efficiency ("the efficiency of a solar cell is the percentage of available sunlight converted by the photovoltaic cell into electricity"), but how the conversion happened was not understood. Photovoltaic power therefore "remained a curiosity for many years, since it was very inefficient at turning sunlight into electricity." It was not until Albert Einstein proposed an explanation for the "photoelectric effect" in the early

1900s, for which he won a Nobel Prize, that people began to understand the related photovoltaic effect. "Solar technology advanced to roughly its present design in 1908 when William J. Bailey of the Carnegie Steel Company invented a collector with an insulated box and copper coils." By the mid-1950s Bell Telephone Labs had achieved 4% efficiency, and later 11% efficiency, with silicon PV cells. From then on, interest in solar power intensified. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the space program took an active role in the development of photovoltaics. "The cells were perfect sources of electric power for satellites because they were rugged, lightweight and could meet the low power requirements reliably." Unfortunately, the cells were not practical for use on earth due to the high cost of making them efficient and lightweight, so further research was necessary. Solar energy may have had great potential , but it was left on the backburner whenever fossil fuels were more affordable and available. "Only in the last few decades when growing energy demands, increasing environmental problems and declining fossil fuel resources made us look to alternative energy options have we focused our attention on truly exploiting this tremendous resource." For instance, the US Department of Energy funded the installation and testing of over 3,000 PV systems during the 1973-1974 oil embargo. By the late 1970s, energy companies and government agencies had invested in the PV industry, and "a tremendous acceleration in module development took place." Solar energy improvements were again sought during the Gulf War in the 1990s. Considering that "the first practical solar cells were made less than 30 years ago," we have come a long way.The profligation of solar professional companies designing unique and specific solar power systems for individual homes, means there is no longer an excuse not to consider solar power for your home. The biggest jumps in efficiency came "with the advent of the transistor and accompanying semiconductor technology." The production cost has fallen to nearly 1/300 of what it was during the space program of the mid-century and the purchase cost has gone from $200 per watt in the 1950s to a possible mere $1 per watt today. The efficiency has increased dramatically to 40.8% the US Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Lab's new world record as of August 2008. We still use solar power in the same two forms today, thermal and photovoltaic. The first concentrates sunlight, converts it into heat, and applies it to a steam generator or engine to be converted into electricity in order "to warm buildings, heat water, generate electricity, dry crops or destroy dangerous waste." Electricity is generated when the heated fluid drives turbines or other machinery. The second form of solar power produces electricity directly without moving parts. Today's photovoltaic system is composed of cells made of silicon, the second most

abundant element in the earth's crust. "Power is produced when sunlight strikes the semiconductor material and creates an electric current." The smallest unit of the system is a cell. Cells wired together form a module, and modules wired together form a panel. A group of panels is called an array, and several arrays form an array field. There are several advantages of photovoltaic solar power that make it "one of the most promising renewable energy sources in the world." It is non-polluting, has no moving parts that could break down, requires little maintenance and no supervision, and has a life of 20-30 years with low running costs. It is especially unique because no large-scale installation is required. Remote areas can easily produce their own supply of electricity by constructing as small or as large of a system as needed. Solar power generators are simply distributed to homes, schools, or businesses, where their assembly requires no extra development or land area and their function is safe and quiet. As communities grow, more solar energy capacity can be added, "thereby allowing power generation to keep in step with growing needs without having to overbuild generation capacity as is often the case with conventional large scale power systems." Compare those characteristics to those of coal, oil, gas, or nuclear power, and the choice is easy. Solar energy technologies offer a clean, renewable and domestic energy source. Photovoltaic power even has advantages over wind power, hydropower, and solar thermal power. The latter three require turbines with moving parts that are noisy and require maintenance. Solar energy is most sought today in developing countries, the fastest growing segment of the photovoltaics market. People go without electricity as the sun beats down on the land, making solar power the obvious energy choice. "Governments are finding its modular, decentralized character ideal for filling the electric needs of the thousands of remote villages in their countries." It is much more practical than the extension of expensive power lines into remote areas, where people do not have the money to pay for conventional electricity. India is becoming one of the world's main producers of PV modules, with plans to power 100,000 villages and install solar-powered telephones in its 500,000 villages. By 2000, Mexico plans to have electrified 60,000 villages with solar power. Zaire 's Hospital Bulape serves 50,000 outpatients per year and is run completely on solar power, from air conditioning to x-ray equipment. And in Moroccan bazaars, carpets, tin ware, and solar panels lie side by side for sale. Probably the most outstanding example of a country's commitment to solar power is in Israel . In 1992, over half of all households (700,000) heated their water with solar energy systems. And there are 50,000 new installations every year.

Solar power is just as practical in populated areas connected to the local electrical power grid as it is in remote areas. "An average home has more than enough roof area to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power needs. With an inverter, which converts direct current (DC) power from the solar cells to alternating current (AC), which is what most home appliances run on, a solar home can look and operate very much like a home that is connected to a power line." Household energy supply is but one use of solar power. There are actually four broad categories that can be identified for solar energy use: industrial, rural habitation, grid-connected, and consumer/indoor. Industrial uses represent the largest applications of solar power in the past 30 years. "Telecommunications, oil companies, and highway safety equipment all rely on solar power for dependable, constant power far from any power lines." Roadside call boxes and lighted highway signs rely on the sun's energy in order to provide reliable services without buried cable connections or diesel generators. Navigational systems such as marine buoys and other unmanned installations in harsh remote areas are also ideal applications for solar power because "the load demands are well known and the requirements for reliable power are the highest." Rural habitation includes "cabins, homes, villages, clinics, schools, farms, as well as individually powered lights and small appliances." Grid-connected systems pair solar power with an existing grid network in order to supply a commercial site with enough energy to meet a high demand, or to supplement a family's household supply. Consumer/indoor uses of PV cells include watches and calculators; PV modules power computers and radios. The practicality and environmentally safe nature of solar power is influencing people worldwide, which is evident in equipment sales. According to Seimens Solar, production of PV cells and modules increased threefold from 40 MW in 1990 to about 120 MW in 1998. "Worldwide sales have been increasing at an average rate of about 15% every year during the last decade . We believe that there is a realistic possibility for the market to continue to grow at about a 15% rate into the next decade. At this rate, the world production capacity would be 1000 MW by 2010, and photovoltaics could be a $5 billion industry." There are only two primary disadvantages to using solar power: amount of sunlight and cost of equipment. The amount of sunlight a location receives "varies greatly depending on geographical location, time of day, season and clouds. The southwestern United States is one of the world's best areas for sunlight . Globally, other areas receiving very high solar intensities include developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America ." See also sustainable house design But a person living in Siberia would not benefit much from this renewable resource. And while "solar energy technologies have made huge technological and cost improvements, [they]are still

more expensive than traditional energy sources." However solar equipment will eventually pay for itself in 2 to 5 years depending on h ow much sun a particular location receives. Then the user will have a virtually free energy source until the end of the equipment's working life, according to a paper called "Energy Payback Time of Crystalline Silicon Solar Modules." Future improvements are projected to decrease the payback time to 1 to 3 years. The best way of lowering the cost of solar energy is to improve the cell's efficiency, according to Larry Kazmerski, Director of the DOE's National Center for Photovoltaics. "As the scientists and researchers at the NCPV push the envelope of solar-cell efficiency, we can begin to visualize the day when energy from the sun will be generating a significant portion of the country's electric power demand." Any improvements and subsequent cost cuts will also be vital to space applications.Also try finding the right Electric company in order to save money. Power companies can help you benefit with decisions such as this. As the price of solar power lowers and that of conventional fuels rises, photovoltaics "is entering a new era of international growth." So much so, that solar power "will remain an excellent energy option, long after the momentary fossil fuel model fades into smoke." Wind Power: The movement of the atmosphere is driven by differences of temperature at the Earth's surface due to varying temperatures of the Earth's surface when lit by sunlight. Wind energy can be used to pump water or generate electricity, but requires extensive areal coverage to produce significant amounts of energy. Hydroelectric energy. This form uses the gravitational potential of elevated water that was lifted from the oceans by sunlight. It is not strictly speaking renewable since all reservoirs eventually fill up and require very expensive excavation to become useful again. At this time, most of the available locations for hydroelectric dams are already used in the developed world Biomass is the term for energy from plants. Energy in this form is very commonly used throughout the world. Unfortunately the most popular is the burning of trees for cooking and warmth. This process releases copious amounts of carbon dioxide gases into the atmosphere and is a major contributor to unhealthy air in many areas. Some of the more modern forms of biomass energy are methane generation and production of alcohol for automobile fuel and fueling electric power plants. The Windmill The Dutch were responsible for many refinements of the windmill, primarily for pumping excess water off land that was flooded. As early as 1390, they had connected the mill to "a multi-

story tower, with separate floors devoted to grinding grain, removing chaff, storing grain, and (on the bottom) living quarters for the windsmith and his family." Its popularity spread to the point that there were 10,000 windmills in England. But perfecting the windmill's efficiency to the point that it "had all the major features recognized by modern designers as being crucial to the performance of modern wind turbine blades" took almost 500 years. By then, applications ranged from saw-milling timber to processing spices, tobacco, cocoa, paints, and dyes. The windmill was further refined in the late 19th century in the US; some designs from that period are still in use today. Heavy, inefficient wooden blades were replaced by lighter, faster steel blades around 1870. Over the next century, more than six million small windmills were erected in the US in order to aid in watering livestock and supplying homes with water during the development of the West. The first large windmill to produce electricity was the "American multi-blade design," built in 1888. Its 12-kilowatt capabilities were later superceded by modern 70-100 kilowatt wind turbines. Wind Energy Sources Today, people are realizing that wind power "is one of the most promising new energy sources" that can serve as an alternative to fossil fuel-generated electricity. With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America's electricity (or about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than 1% of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be occupied by wind equipment-the remaining 95% could continue to be used for farming or ranching. By the year 2020, 10 million average American homes may be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO2 emissions every year. Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all living things, and wind energy can do just that. The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines annually displace the energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons of carbon emissions, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid rain. In other words, "more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions." Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not imagined that wind power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact, many utility services around the world offer wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3 cents per kWh. If a household used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or $5 dollars per month for it and the price is still dropping.

Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear power. Wind energy is therefore "cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural gas.[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of electricity it generates." The success of this energy is in part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the early 1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost dropping by an additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005." Electricity from wind Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, India and Australia are among the world's leading nations in the acquisition of wind energy. Wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds. Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $3 billion in 2008. Major offshore developments are likely in northern European waters in the early part of the next century. This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land As of 1999, global wind energy capacity topped 10,000 megawatts, which is approximately 16 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. That's enough to serve over 5 cities the size of Miami , according to the American Wind Energy Association. Five Miamis may not seem significant, but if we make the predicted strides in the near future, wind power could be one of our main sources of electricity. "With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America 's electricity (or about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than 1% of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be occupied by wind equipment the remaining 95% could continue to be used for farming or ranching." By the year 2010, 10 million average American homes may be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO 2 emissions every year. Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all living things, and wind energy can do just that. "The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines annually displace the energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons of carbon emissions, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid rain." In other words, "more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions."

Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not imagined that wind power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact, many utility services around the world offer wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3 cents per kWh. If a household used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or $5 dollars per month for it and the price is still dropping. Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear power. Wind energy is therefore "cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural gas[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of electricity it generates." The success of this energy is in part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the early 1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost dropping by an additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005." Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, and India are among the world's leading nations in the acquisition of wind energy. According to Chris Flavin, a speaker at the World Oil Forum held in Denver , Colorado , on October 30, 1998, " Navarro , Spain , is utilizing wind power to generate 23% of its electricity needs." Denmark now generates 8 percent of its electricity from wind power. Flavin, a vice president and senior energy policy analyst at the Worldwatch Institute, reported that wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds. In fact, according to Worldwatch Institute Online , "The world added 2,100 megawatts of new wind energy generating capacity in 1998, a new all-time record, and 35% more than was added in 1997. Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $2 billion in 1998." Major offshore developments are likely in northern European waters in the early part of the next century. This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land. According to an April 1999 press release, "Worldwide, wind energy capacity has expanded at an annual rate of 25.7% during the 1990s, with the total doubling every three years and the cost of production declining steadily as each doubling occurs and economies of greater volume are realized." Christophe Bourillon, executive director of the European Wind Energy Association, remarked that Europe has emerged "as a world leader in wind energy development" in the 1990s, which he expects this to continue. As far as the wind industry in the US is concerned, June of 1999 signaled the end of the best year yet. The executive director of the American Wind Energy Association attributes this "wind

rush" to "progressive state policies and growing consumer demand for 'green' (lowenvironmental-impact) power." Many states now require that part of their energy production come from renewable sources. And utilities are now offering people "the choice of buying green power at a premium over power from conventional, environmentally-damaging sources such as fossil fuels. In most cases, wind, as one of the lowest-cost renewable energy sources, is the primary beneficiary." Utilities as well as policymakers are continuously surprised by the public's positive response to the availability of this green power. Bird fatalities on wind farms are a concern. A study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area in California found 182 dead birds, 119 of which were raptors. In response to this, the wind industry is committed to modifying the equipment in order to make the area safer for birds. Ideas include reducing the number of perches on turbines, spacing turbines far apart and in the direction of migration, painting patterns on blades that contrast with landscape colors, and even broadcasting a radio frequency to keep birds away altogether. Amidst its efforts to take responsibility in this issue, the industry quietly points out how many millions of species are killed annually during the acquisition and distribution of most conventional sources of energy.

Overall, the advantages of wind power heavily outweigh the disadvantages. Although it can only supplement other sources of energy for now, it provides skilled jobs for people in rural communities, replaces environmentally harmful energy sources, and is inexhaustible." It will never be subject to embargoes or 'price shocks' caused by international conflicts," and "unlike oil fields, wind energy is renewable, year after year, forever." Hydroelectric Power Moving water is a powerful entity responsible for lighting entire cities, even countries. Thousands of years ago the Greeks used water wheels, which picked up water in buckets around a wheel. The water's weight caused the wheel to turn, converting kinetic energy into mechanical energy for grinding grain and pumping water. In the 1800s the water wheel was often used to power machines such as timber-cutting saws in European and American factories. More importantly, people realized that the force of water falling from a height would turn a turbine connected to a generator to produce electricity. Niagara Falls , a natural waterfall, powered the first hydroelectric plant in 1879. Man-made waterfalls dams were constructed throughout the 1900s in order to maximize this source of energy. Aside from a plant for electricity production, a hydropower facility consists of a water reservoir enclosed by a dam whose gates can open or close depending on

how much water is needed to produce a particular amount of electricity. Once electricity is produced it is transported along huge transmission lines to an electric utility company. "By the 1940s, the best sites for large dams had been developed." But like most other renewable sources of energy, hydropower could not compete with inexpensive fossil fuels at the time. "It wasn't until the price of oil skyrocketed in the 1970s that people became interested in hydropower again." Today one-fifth of global electricity is generated by falling water. "Over the past 100 years, the United States has led the world in dam building. Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt recently observed that, 'on average, we have constructed one dam every day since the signing of the Declaration of Independence.'"Of the 75,187 dams in the US , less than 3% are used to produce 10-12% of the nation's electricity. With over 2,000 facilities, the US is the second largest producer of hydropower worldwide, behind Canada . The dams that do not produce electricity are used for irrigation or flood control. Many people believe these preexisting sites could contribute to the country's power supply in a cost-effective manner if hydroelectric facilities were constructed. There are several favorable features of hydropower. Anywhere rain falls, there will be rivers. If a particular section of river has the right terrain to form a reservoir, it may be suitable for dam construction. No fossil fuels are required to produce the electricity, and the earth's hydrologic cycle naturally replenishes the "fuel" supply. Therefore no pollution is released into the atmosphere and no waste that requires special containment is produced. Since "water is a naturally recurring domestic product and is not subject to the whims of foreign suppliers," there is no worry of unstable prices, transportation issues, production strikes, or other national security issues. Hydropower is very convenient because it can respond quickly to fluctuations in demand. A dam's gates can be opened or closed on command, depending on daily use or gradual economic growth in the community. The production of hydroelectricity is often slowed in the nighttime when people use less energy. When a facility is functioning, no water is wasted or released in an altered state; it simply returns unharmed to continue the hydrologic cycle. The reservoir of water resulting from dam construction, which is essentially stored energy, can support fisheries and preserves, and provide various forms of water-based recreation for locals and tourists. Land owned by the hydroelectric company is often open to the public for hiking, hunting, and skiing. Therefore, "hydropower reservoirs contribute to local economies. A study of one medium-sized hydropower project in Wisconsin showed that the recreational value to residents and visitors exceeded $6.5 million annually." Not to mention the economic stimulation provided by employment.

Hydroelectric power is also very efficient and inexpensive. "Modern hydro turbines can convert as much as 90% of the available energy into electricity. The best fossil fuel plants are only about 50% efficient. In the US , hydropower is produced for an average of 0.7 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is about one-third the cost of using fossil fuel or nuclear and onesixth the cost of using natural gas," as long as the costs for removing the dam and the silt it traps are not included. Efficiency could be further increased by refurbishing hydroelectric equipment. An improvement of only 1% would supply electricity to an additional 300,000 households. Hydropower has become "the leading source of renewable energy. It provides more than 97% of all electricity generated by renewable sources worldwide. Other sources including solar, geothermal, wind, and biomass account for less than 3% of renewable electricity production." In the US , 81% of the electricity produced by renewable sources comes from hydropower. "Worldwide, about 20% of all electricity is generated by hydropower." Some regions depend on it more than others. For example, 75% of the electricity produced in New Zealand and over 99% of the electricity produced in Norway come from hydropower. The use of hydropower "prevents the burning of 22 billion gallons of oil or 120 million tons of coal each year." In other words, "the carbon emissions avoided by the nation's hydroelectric industry are the equivalent of an additional 67 million passenger cars on the road 50 percent more than there are currently." The advantages of hydropower are therefore convincing, but there are some serious drawbacks that are causing people to reconsider its overall benefit. Since the most feasible sites for dams are in hilly or mountainous areas, the faults that often created the topography pose a great danger to the dams and therefore the land below them for thousands of years after they have become useless for generating power. In fact, dam failures do occur regularly due to these terrain conditions, and the effects are devastating. When a new dam's reservoir floods the countryside, people who live in the area have to move and relinquish their former lifestyles in order to make way for the project. This is very stressful and often controversial, especially if a community has maintained a particular way of life on the same land for generations. Such is the case in Chile, where the indigenous Pehuenche "are currently fighting construction of the 570MW, US $500,000,000 Ralco Dam on the Biobo River Eight families continue to refuse to negotiate land exchanges with Endesa [the utility company], and wish to remain on their lands." If the project succeeds, a 13-square-mile reservoir would flood the land and force 600 people out of their homes, 400 of whom are Pehuenche "whose ancestral home is the upper Biobo." A total of five dams have been planned, which "would force the relocation of 1,000 Pehuenches, 20% of the survivors of this ancient culture."

The construction of a dam not only affects the people nearby, it can severely alter a river's natural functions. According to American Rivers, a conservation organization, "by diverting water for power, dams remove water needed for healthy in-stream ecosystems. Stretches below dams are often completely de-watered." This may not seem like a significant problem until animal species are studied. Birds that have migrated to a specific riparian environment for generations no longer have enough insects on which to prey when the water level drops. If they have few migration alternatives, that could mean the endangerment of species that once flourished. Fish species such as salmon "depend on steady flows to flush them down river early in their life and guide them upstream years later to spawn. Stagnant reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and significantly increase the duration of their migration." Native populations of fish may decrease or disappear altogether due to temperature changes caused by dams. Slower water flow means warmer temperatures, and bottom-release of cold water means cooler temperatures. Several of hydropower's disadvantages focus on fish. It is easy to forget how important fish and other aquatic life are, some of which reside at the bottom of the food chain. The environmental changes caused by hydroelectric projects may be obvious to the local biologist, but elude the average person. Most people will more readily notice a smoggy haze developing in an area where a coal plant is operating than a smaller population of a particular bird species where a hydropower facility functions. Such oversights lead people to believe that nothing is wrong. Hydroelectric companies and organizations often emphasize their "clean" manufacture of electricity and neglect to mention the long-term environmental hazards. "Dams hold back silt, debris, and nutrients." Silt collects behind the dam on the river bottom, accumulating heavy metals and other pollutants. Eventually this renders the dam inoperable, leaving the mess for future generations, who will either have to remove the collected debris or live with a potentially catastrophic mudflow poised to inundate the area below the dam. There is also a debate between preserving rivers for their aesthetic value versus meeting the energy needs of thousands of people. The latter has prevailed. Today "there are 600,000 river miles impounded behind dams. In contrast, only 10,000 river miles (not even half of 1%) are permanently protected under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System." The only undammed river in the US that is longer than 600 miles is the Yellowstone . Hydropower may be better on the environment than fossil-fuel sources, but its future is so uncertain that we may need to focus on other alternatives. According to the National Hydropower Association, "an increasing array of statutes, regulations, agency policies and court decisions have made the hydroelectric licensing process costly, arbitrary and time-consuming. A

typical hydropower project takes 8 to 10 years to find its way through the licensing process. By comparison, a natural gas fired plant, which emits significant carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) gases, can typically be sited and licensed in 18 months. Given this uncertain climate, few investors are willing to risk their capital on new hydropower development. Furthermore, some project owners and operators contemplate abandonment of their projects rather than proceeding with relicensing." Relicensing is a complex process in which private dams are re-evaluated every 30 to 50 years. The Federal Energy Regulatory Committee "considers anew whether it is appropriate to commit the public's river resources for private power generation FERC is now required, when deciding whether to issue a license, to consider not only the power generation potential of a river, but also to give equal consideration to energy conservation, protection of fish and wildlife, protection of recreational opportunities, and preservation of other aspects of environmental quality." Relicensing was infrequent until 1993, when hundreds of licenses began to expire. "The Hydropower Reform Coalition formed in 1992 to take advantage of this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to restore river ecosystems through the relicensing process." To the Coalition's dismay, a new bill is being considered called the Hydroelectric Licensing Process Improvement Act, which if passed, "would limit the abilities of federal agencies to protect natural resources," making relicensing easier for dam operators. Some people favor dam removal so that healthy rivers and riverside communities can be restored, but American Rivers reports that most of the larger dams in the US "are not likely candidates for removal." In that case it may be wasteful not to use them to their full potential as long as they are still sturdy. A hydropower assessment conducted by the US Department of Energy found that 4,087 sites could be developed without constructing a new dam. "The assessment consider[ed] such values as wild/scenic protection, threatened or endangered species, cultural values and other non-power issues. If all of this potential were to be developed 22.7 million metric tons of carbon could be avoided." But this savings in carbon emissions pales when compared to the tonnage of silt and other material that must be handled if the river is to be restored to a freely-flowing state. All rivers will eventually silt up the dam. At this point future generations will have the choice to either keep the useless dam or remove it. Keeping the poorly consolidated silt and mud behind the dam is potentially dangerous. Removal costs will often exceed the value of power produced over the dam's lifetime. Unlike other renewables such as wind and solar power that receive more praise than criticism, hydropower is a highly controversial issue. While it does have many merits, it too is

like so many other sources of energy if we ignore the critics' warnings, we may not realize its full impact on our natural resources until it is too late.