Chapter10INTRODUCTIONTOTHEMEMO 10.01.WHATISAMEMO? Thememorandumoflaw,ormemo,isaninternalofficedocument.Itisa researchtoolthatanalyzesthelawasitappliestothefactsofaclientscaseandoffersan unbiasedevaluation.1Amemoincludesbothhelpfulanddamaginginformation.It suggestssolutionstoalegalproblemorpredictstheoutcomeofadispute.Itisthe precursortoinformeddecisionmakingaboutacase. Thememoisthemostbasicoflegaldocumentsandisessentialtothepracticeof law.Duringthecourseofyourlegalcareer,youlikelywillwriteamultitudeofmemos formoreseniorattorneys.Theywillvaryinlengthandintopic.Theywillalsoserveasa gaugeofyourabilitytoanalyzeandpresentalegalproblem.Onceyoumasterthistype ofwriting,youwilldraftotherkindsoflegaldocumentswithgreaterskillandease. Thischapterintroducesyoutothememo.Itdescribesthepurposesofamemo, thepartsofamemo,andthehallmarksofawellwrittenmemo.

Chapter11focuseson thepartsofamemoinmoredetail,anddemonstrateshowtodrafteachsection effectively. 10.02.THEPURPOSESOFAMEMO Thepurposeofamemoistoprovidearealisticanalysisofthelawasitappliesto thefactsoftheclientscase.Thatanalysiswillbethebasisforgivingadviceormaking decisionsaboutthecase. Amemocanservemanypurposes.Itspurposedetermineshowextensivethe researchshouldbe,whatthenatureoftheanalysisshouldbe,andhowitshouldbe written.Thememoshouldbewrittentoservethespecificpurposeforwhichitwas requested.Bywayofexample,anattorneymayuseamemoto: (1)evaluatethemeritsofacase, (2)decidewhethertosettleortryacase, (3)decidewhethertoacceptacase, (4)informthereaderofthestatusofthelaw, (5)presentrecommendationsastohowtoproceedwithacase, (6)concludethatmoreinformationisneededtoproperlyevaluatethecase, (7)identifythelegaltheoriesapplicabletothecase, (8)decidewhethertofileanymotions, (9)preparefortrial, (10)formthelegalfoundationofmotions,pleadings,andbriefs, (11)prepareacontract,will,settlementagreement,orcorporatepapers, (12)preparefornegotiations,or (13)prepareforanappeal. Thememosyouprepareduringthecourseofacasewillprovideaconvenient summaryofthefacts,issues,legaltheories,andargumentsinvolvedinthecase.You

andanyotherattorneysonthecasewillrefertothemtorefreshyourmemoriesasthe caseprogresses. 10.03.THEPARTSOFAMEMO Thememoisastructureddocumentthatisdividedintodistinctbutrelated sections.Eachsectionislabeledandperformsaparticularfunction.Thereisnouniversal memoformat,andnomandatoryorderinwhichtopresentthepartsofamemo.Many lawfirms,corporatelegaldepartments,andgovernmentofficesprescribeastandard form.Youshouldfindoutwhetherthereisastandardformatinyouroffice,orifnot, whethertheattorneyforwhomyouarepreparingthememoprefersacertainformat. Althoughtherearemanyvariationsinthestructureofamemo,thefollowingformatis widelyused: (1)aheading, (2)abriefstatementoftheissuetobediscussed, (3)aconclusion, (4)abriefstatementofthefacts,and (5)adiscussionofthepertinentauthorities. 1.TheHeading TheHeadingindicatesthatthedocumentisamemorandum,thepersonto whomthememorandumisaddressed,thepersonwhowroteit,itsdate,anditssubject matter,inthefollowingform: MEMORADUM TO: FROM: DATE: SUBJECT:(orRE:) 2.TheIssue TheIssue,sometimescalledtheQuestionPresented,framesthelegalquestionto beresolvedbythememo.Ifthereismorethanoneissueorseveralsubpartstoanissue, numbereachissueandsubpartseparately.TheIssuesectionofthememoinformsthe readerofthescopeofthememo.AmemoshouldnotgobeyondthescopeoftheIssue. 3.TheConclusion TheConclusion,sometimescalledtheshortanswer,providesacomplete,but brief,answertotheIssue.AttimesanattorneywillreferonlytotheConclusion,atleast initially.TheConclusionincludesaconcisestatementofthereasonsforyourconclusion. Italsoorientsthereadertothegeneralthrustofthediscussion.TheConclusiondoesnot containadetaileddiscussionofhowyoureachedtheconclusion.Citationstoauthority andcrossreferencestothebodyofthememoareinappropriate.Inamemothat discussesmorethanoneissue,numbertheconclusionstoreflecttheissuestowhichthey refer.

4.TheFacts Thissectionrequiresaclearandconcisestatementofthefactsrelevanttothe legalanalysispresentedbythememo.Thefactsletthereaderknowwhathappened.The purposeofthememoistoevaluatethesoundnessofaparticularlegalpositiongiven certainfacts.Therefore,presentthefactsobjectivelyandincludebothfavorableand unfavorableinformation.IncludeallthefactsthatyouwillraiseintheDiscussion section. 5.TheDiscussion TheDiscussionsectionistheheartofthememo.Inityouanalyzethepertinent legalauthoritiesandapplythemtothefactsoftheproblem.Ifthereismorethanone issue,addresseachissueseparately.TheDiscussion,liketheFacts,shouldbeobjective, notargumentative.Evaluatebothhelpfulanddamagingauthorities.Attheendofthe Discussion,summarizethefindingspresentedbythememo. 10.04.THEHALLMARKSOFAWELLWRITTENMEMO Thepurposeofamemoistoinformandexplain.Ifyourmemobearsthe hallmarksenumeratedbelow,itwillachievethisdualpurpose. 1.ThoroughResearch Thoroughlyresearchthequestionyouareassigned.Evaluatethelawyoufind withinthecontextofthefactsofyourcase.Findandanalyzeallofthepertinentlegal authorities,thosethatarehelpfultoyourcaseandthosethataredamagingtoit.Donot citeorrelyonanyauthoritywithoutcriticallyreadingityourself.Treatisesand encyclopediasstatethelawonlyingeneralterms.Lookupthecasesonwhichtheyrely. Neverrelyonheadnotestocases.Rememberthatmajordecisionsaboutthecasewillbe madebasedonyourmemorandum,andthatincompleteorinaccurateresearchwillhave farreachingimplications. 2.GoodJudgment Becertainthatthememorandumyouprepareiswhattheassigningattorney wants.Whenyouaregiventheassignment,besureyouunderstandwhatpurposethe memoistoserve,whenitistobesubmitted,andhowdetaileditshouldbe.Alsobe certainthatyouunderstandthequestionthatyouaretoresearch.Eveniftheinitial instructionsareclear,problemsmayariselater.Asyourresearchprogresses,theissue maytakeonadifferentfocus,unanticipatedquestionsmayarise,oradditionalfactsmay becomeimportant.Returntotheassigningattorneyandresolvetheseproblems.Butuse goodjudgment.Donottroubletheattorneywithquestionsyoushouldbeableto resolveyourselforwiththehelpofoneofyourpeers. 3.ObjectiveAnalysis Amemomustbeobjective.Thisisascrucialasitissimple.Youranalysisofthe legalauthoritiesmustberealisticandcomprehensive.Examineyourownarguments. Evaluatethoseyouanticipatefromopposingcounsel.Considertheissuesfromevery perspective.Honestlyandthoroughlyassessthestrengthsandweaknessesofyour position.Amemoisnottheforumforpersuasion,orforadvocacy.Majorchoicesand

decisionswillbemadeonthebasisofthememoyouwrite.Thosechoicesanddecisions canbemadeintelligentlyonlyonthebasisofanobjectivememo.Indeed,theclients interestswouldnotbeservediftheappraisalofhispositionwereanythinglessthan scrupulouslyrealisticandobjective. 4.ClearWritingStyle Amemoisacompleteandindependentdocument.Anotherattorneywhoreads itshouldbeabletofullyunderstandthematterandmakeadecision.Thememo memorializes,forallfuturereadersofthefile,thereasonsthosehandlingthecasechose aparticularcourseofaction.Bynowyouhavereadenoughcasesinyourclassesto appreciatetheimportanceofwritingstyle.Anypoorlywrittenlegaldocumentleadsto confusionanduncertainty.Amemoshouldbeprecise,accurateandwellorganizedin ordertoexplainalegalquestioneffectively. a.GoodOrganization Thefoundationofagoodmemoiscareful,detailedorganization.Thememo mustbeorganizedandwrittensothatyourthoughtsareclearlypresentedandprecisely stated.Skillfulwriting,thoughtfulanalysis,andclearpresentationwillbewastedunless yourworkisorganizedintelligently.Thereadershouldnothavetoworkat comprehendingyourdiscussion.Noonereadsmemosforentertainment.Yourlegal analysisandyourapproachtotheproblemshouldbeapparentfromyourorganization. Makethereaderstaskaseasyaspossible. Aswithothertypesoflegalwriting,memowritingrequiresaparticular organizationalframework.Stateyourconclusionsfirst.Followthemwithyour reasoning.Usemechanicalaidssuchasheadingsandsubheadingstohelpyouorganize thememo. Outliningisanecessaryorganizationaltechniqueandonethatwillsaveyou time.Outliningforcesyoutodevelopyouranalysisonestepatatimeandwillexpose thegapsinyourdiscussion. b.WritefortheReader Analyzeandconsidertheproblemandyourmemoindetail.Rememberthat yourprimaryaudienceistheattorneywhorequestedit.Youarenotwritingfor yourself. Includeallofthefactsthatyouweregivenwhenyouwereassignedtheproblem. Donotassumethat,becausetheassigningattorneyisfamiliarwiththematter,heorshe willrememberexactlywhatyouweretold.Youmustincludeeveryfactyourelyonin youranalysis.Explainthesignificanceofthelegalauthoritiesinthecontextofthefacts oftheproblem.Becertainthatyourconclusionsdonotappearwithoutthebenefitofthe analysisthatprecededthem.Yourdiscussionmustprogresslogically.Carefullyand clearlyguidethereaderthroughthememo.Onewaytodothisistoprovidethereader witharoadmap,aguidetothediscussioncontainedinthememo. Thememoistheendproductofyourexplorationoftheproblemandits implications.Putyourselfinthepositionofthepersonforwhomyouarewritingthe

memo.Askyourselfwhetheryourmemoprovidesthatpersonwithathoughtful analysisoftheproblem.Onlywhenyouaresatisfiedthatthememoiscomplete,thatit fullyanswersthequestionputtoyou,andthatitisyourbestwork,shouldyousubmit it. c.PrecisionandClarity Tocommunicateyourthoughtseffectively,youmustbepreciseandclear.You havebeenaskedtoresolveaconcreteproblem.Makecertainthatyouprovideaconcrete answerandspecificreasonsforit.Bepreciseaboutthefactsandthelaw,butdonotmiss theforestforthetrees.Makeitclearwhytheauthoritiesyourelyonarerelevant.Donot justtellthereaderthattheyarepertinent.Showhowthoseauthoritiesapplytoyour case.Drawtheconclusionsyourself.Whenreadingyourmemo,thereadershouldfully understanditandshouldbesatisfiedwithyourresolutionoftheproblem. 5.Creativity Yourmemoshouldpresentacomprehensiveandorganizedanalysisofthelaw inthecontextofthefactsofyourclientsproblem.Onoccasion,itmightalsodisplay somelegalcreativityinregardtoyourrecommendationforfurtheraction.Whenyouare researchingandwritingthememo,bealertforalternativetheoriesorcreative approachestotheproblem.Becauseyouaretheonewhoismostimmersedintheissue andwhoismostawareofitspermutations,youaretheidealpersontoprovideafresh perspective.Manifestingsuchcreativitywilldemonstrateyourinitiative,evenwhere yourtheorymayultimatelynotbeworkable. 6.CorrectCitationFormat Yourmemomustincludecitationstotheauthoritiesonwhichyourely. Moreover,thecitesmustbecomplete,accurate,andinpropercitationform.Correct citationformisimportantforatleasttworeasons.First,sloppyandincompletecitations givethereadercausetosuspectthatthesubstanceofyouranalysisisequallyweak. Second,ifyouincludeaninaccuratecitationinthememo,youprobablywillcopythat citationinsubsequentdocumentsthatrelyonthememosresearch.Simplyput,bad citationscanhauntyouandcreateanextremelynegativeimpressionofyourwork. Chapter11THEMEMO:HEADING,ISSUE,ANDCONCLUSION AsyoulearnedinChapter10,thememoisastructureddocumentthatisdivided intodistinctsections.Eachsectionhasalabelandperformsaparticularfunction.In Chapter11youwilllearnhowtowriteeachofthesesections. 11.01.THEHEADING TheHeadingusesthefollowingformattosetoutthemostbasicinformation aboutthememo. MEMORANDUM TO:LeslieOBrienWallace FROM:MichaelR.North DATE:August7,1993

RE:Danev.Lapp;fileno.56432007;Recoveryfornegligentinflictionof emotionaldistressunderPennsylvanialaw. Thecenteredheadingindicatesthatthedocumentisamemorandum.TO indicatesthepersontowhomthememorandumisaddressed.FROMindicateswho wrotethememorandum.Althoughpracticesvaryfromonetothenext,therecipientand thesenderofthememoareusuallyreferredtobytheirfullnames.Occasionallythetone ismoreformalandtitlesused,forexample,Ms./Miss/Mrs.OBrienWallaceandMr. North.Donotincludejobtitlessuchasseniorpartnerorassociateafterthenameofthe recipientorsender. DATEindicatesthedateyousubmittedthememo.IncludingthedateIs important.Anyreaderofthememomustbeabletoassumethattheresearchand analysiscontainedinthememoareaccurateandcompleteasofthedateofthememo. Thelaw,however,mayhavechangedbythedateyouoranotherattorneynextreferto thememo.Thedatewilladvisethereaderwhethertheresearchrequiresupdating. REindicatesthesubjectmatterofthememo.YoumayalsoseeSUBJECT usedinsteadofRE.Includethecasename,ortheclientnameifnocaseispending,and theofficefilenumber.DescribebrieflyandbroadlyThelegalquestionthememo addresses.BecausemostcasefilescontainaLargenumberofdocuments,including numerousmemoranda,thisinformationwillmakeiteasytolocateaparticular memoranduminthefuture. Inaddition,theexplanationofthesubjectmatterfacilitatesindexingandfilingof thememorandumforgeneralresearchpurposessothatitmaybeusedforfuture referenceinothercases. Supposeforpurposesofillustrationthatyouhavejustbeencalledintotheoffice ofamoreseniorattorneyandgiventhefollowingfacts. WilliamDanehasretainedthefirmtofilesuitforinjurieshesustainedinan automobileaccident.Mr.Danealsowouldlikethefirmtofilesuitonbehalfofhis fourteenyearoldniece,Edna.Ednawitnessedtheautomobileaccident.Theaccident occurredonJune10,1997.Mr.Danehadvolunteeredtohelphisrecentlydivorcedsister bytakingEdnatoschool.At8:00a.m.Mr.DanedroppedEdnaoffatschoolanddrove away,intendingtogotothegrocerystore.Ednawavedgoodbyetoheruncleand turnedtotalktosomefriends.Asshewaswalkingthroughtheschoolyardwithher friends,Ednaheardaloudcrash,followedbyanexplosion.Whensheturnedtosee whathadhappened,Ednasawthatacarhadcollidedwithherunclescaratan intersectiononeblockawayfromtheschool.Herunclescarwasonfire.Ednarantothe sceneoftheaccident.Bythetimeshearrived,herunclehadbeenpulledfromhiscar. Ednasawthatherunclehadbeenseverelyburnedandthathehadalargegashonhis forehead.Eversincetheaccident,Ednahassufferedfromrecurringnightmares,a debilitatingfearofautomobiles,andchronicstomachproblems.Theseconditionsdid notexistpriortotheaccident.AninvestigationoftheaccidentdisclosedthatMrs. DonnaLapp,thedriveroftheothercar,hadrunaredlightwhileintoxicated.

Youhavebeenaskedtoresearchwhether,underthesefacts,Ednacanmakeout acauseofactionfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistressunderPennsylvanialaw. Thesampleheadingatthebeginningofthissectionincorporatestheinformationthat wouldberequiredintheHeadingofthememoconcerningthiscase. BeforewritingtheHeadingforyourmemo,reviewafewrecentmemosprepared byotherattorneysinyourofficetodeterminethepreferredstyle.Youmayfindthat thereareminorvariationsfromtheformatwedescribe. 11.02.THEISSUE ThememobeginswiththeIssuesection,alsocalledtheQuestionPresented.The Issuesectionofthememostatesthelegalquestionpresentedinyourcase.Hereisan exampleofanissueconcerningtheDanecase: Whether,underPennsylvanialaw,aniecewhowitnessesthe,aftermathofan automobileaccidentinvolvingherunclefromablockawaycanrecoverfornegligent inflictionofemotionaldistresswhenshearrivesatthesceneandobserveshissevere injuries. Hereisanotherequallyacceptablewaytoframetheissue: UnderPennsylvanialaw,cananiecerecoverfornegligentinflictionofemotional distressifsheisoneblockawaywhenanautomobileaccidentinvolvingheruncle occursand,immediatelyaftertheaccident,arrivesatthesceneandobservesheruncles severeinjuries? TheIssuesectioninformsthereaderofthescopeofthememo.Thescopeofthe memoshouldneverexceedthescopeoftheIssue.Framethequestionprecisely.Failure todosowillmisleadthereaderaboutthelimitsofyourdiscussionandanalysis. Identifyingtheissueisthefoundationofeffectiveanalysis.Onsomeoccasions, theattorneywhorequeststhememowillidentifytheissueclearlyforyou.Moreoften, youwillbeabletoidentifythepreciseissueonlyafteryouhavethoroughlyresearched andthoughtfullyanalyzedtheproblem.Forthisreason,finalizeyourdraftoftheIssue onlyafteryouhavewrittentheDiscussionsectionofthememo. Toframeanissue,youmustdotwothings.First,identifythepreciseruleoflaw. Second,identifythekeyfacts.Keyfactsarelegallysignificantfacts.Keyfactsarethose factsthatdeterminewhetherandhowaparticularruleoflawappliestoyoursituation. Thesefactsareofcrucialimportancetotheoutcomeofthecase.Onceyouhavefully researchedthelawwithinthecontextofyourfacts,youcandeterminewhichfactsare key.Finally,afteridentifyingthepreciseruleoflawandthekeyfacts,drafttheIssueto askwhethertheruleoflawappliesundertheparticularfactsofyourcase. ConsiderthefollowingexamplesofpoorlyphrasedIssues,andaskyourself whatthewritershavedoneincorrectly: Whetherabystandertoanaccidentcanrecoverfornegligentinflictionof emotionaldistressunderPennsylvanialaw. Whetherabystanderatanautomobileaccidentwillbeabletobringatortaction torecoverfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistress.

Whether,undercurrentPennsylvanialaw,abystanderatanautomobileaccident cansuccessfullybringatortactionfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistress. Comment:Althoughthewritersproperlyidentifiedtheultimatelegalquestion, theyfailedtoincludethekeyfacts.Thereaderislefttowonderaboutthecircumstances thatpromptedthequestion.Thereadershouldunderstandthequestionwithouthaving torefertothefactssection.Ifyoufailtoincludekeyfacts,youwilldraftanabstract question,aquestionwithoutcontext.ThewritersoftwooftheIssuesincludeareference toPennsylvanialaw.Whenpossible,statethejurisdictionsincethelawmayVary dramaticallyfromonestatetothenext. Whetheraniecewhowitnessestheaftermathofanaccidentinvolvingheruncle willbeabletostateacauseofactionfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistress. Comment:ThewriterofthisIssueomittedoneverysignificantfact:thenieces distancefromtheaccident.Thewritershouldalsohaveincludedareferenceto Pennsylvanialawasthecontrollingjurisdiction.WhetherEdnacanrecoverdamagesfor negligentinflictionofemotionaldistressasaresultofwitnessinganaccidentinvolving Mr.Dane. Comment:WhenincludingthekeyfactsinyourIssue,avoididentifyinganyof thepeople,places,orthingsinyourcasebypropername.Namesmayhavenomeaning toyourreaderbecausethefactssectionofyourmemodoesnotcomeuntillater.Evenif you,theauthorofthememo,returntothefileafterthecasehasbeendormant,youmay notrecallwhoalltheplayersare.Insteadofusingpropernames,usegeneralcategories todescribethepeople,places,orthingsintheIssue. TheIssueshouldconsistofaconcise,onesentencequestion.TheIssueusually startswithwhetherandshouldcallforayesornoinresponse.TheIssuealsomay beginwithaninterrogativesuchasisorcan.BecertainthatyourIssueispreciseand complete.Donot,however,draftaquestionthatissocomplex,lengthy,andawkward thatyourreadercannotfollowit.Askyourselfwhethertheruleoflawisstatedclearly andsuccinctly.Examineyourfactsandcriticallyevaluatewhichareessentialtothe Issue.DonotgeneralizebecauseyouwillriskdistortingtheIssue.Amemocanaddress severalquestions.Thequestionsmightbedistinctorrelatedandcanconsistofseveral individualquestionsoraquestionwithsubparts.Writingandrewritingthequestions andtheirsubpartsoftenpromotesamorethoroughunderstandingoftheproblem. Generally,themorespecificallythequestionisphrased,themorepreciselyitwillbe understood.Donot,however,dividetheIssueintosomanyquestionsandsubquestions thatthereaderwillbecomeconfused.Donotuseasinglesubquestion.Ifthequestionis dividedintosubparts,theremustbeatleasttwosubparts. Donotforgetthatthememoisaninformativedocumentthatrealistically evaluatesyourclientsposition.Adoptanobjective,nonpartisantone.Evenifakeyfact isunfavorabletoyourclientsposition,youmustincludeit. Donotdraftaquestiontosuggestacertainanswer.Avoidadvocacyinissue writing. HerearetwogoodexamplesofIssues.Theycomefromdifferentcases:

UnderthePennsylvaniaWorkersCompensationAct,cananemployeerecover forinjuriesthathesustainedinapersonalfightwithacoworker duringworkinghourswhen,sixmonthsearlier,hehadaworkrelateddispute withthesamecoworker? UnderNewJerseylaw,cantheparentsofachildbornwithDownsSyndrome relyonthediscoveryruleortheconcealmentexceptiontobringanactionfor wrongfulbirthtwoyearsafterthestatuteoflimitationshasrunwhen: A.beforethebirth,theirphysicianstatedthatamniocentesiswoulddetectany geneticdefectsinthefetus; B.themotherunderwentamniocentesis;and C.afterthebirth,thephysicianstatedthattheamniocentesishadnotdetected DownsSyndrome,eventhoughheknewthatthetechnicianhadmadeerrorsin performingthetestandhadarrivedatanincorrectresult? TheseIssuesarewellwritten.Bothincludethelegalquestionandthefactsthat arekey,accordingtothecaselaw.Thequestionsarepreciseandobjective.Theyadvise thereaderofthescopeandfocusofthememo.Asthesamplesdemonstrate,thereisno onecorrectwaytodraftanIssue.SimplybecertainthatyourIssuecontainsallofthe necessaryelements,thatyouhaveframeditsuccinctlyandaccurately,andthatyouhave madeitcomprehensible. 11.03.THECONCLUSION TheConclusion,sometimescalledtheBriefAnswerorShortAnswer,providesa shortanswertoeachquestionthattheIssuesectionposes.Inadditiontoansweringthe question,thissectionincludesaconcisestatementofthereasoningthatsupportsthe conclusion.TheConclusionsectionprovidesimmediateanswerstothequestionsthat thememoraises.TheConclusionsectionimmediatelyfollowstheIssuesection.Forthat reason,someattorneysbeginwithadirectresponsetoeachofthequestions,suchas yes,no,probably,probablynot.andmaybe.Becausefewthingsinthelaware everabsolutelyclear,andbecauseanoncommittalansweraddslittletoawellwritten conclusion,weprefermemorandawithoutthistypeofresponse.Nevertheless,opinions andpracticesvary;therefore,bealerttothepreferencesofthoseforwhomyouare working.InwritingtheConclusionsection,accommodatethereader.Inamemo discussingmorethanoneissue,identifyeachconclusionwithanumbercorresponding totheissuetowhichitrefers.Becertainthateachanswerisselfcontained.Whileeach answershouldcontainasuccinctexplanationofthereasoningthatsupportsyour conclusion,donotdiscussthedetailsofyouranalysis.Donotincludecitationstocases, statutes,regulations,orothertypesofauthorityonwhichyourely.Onlyontherare occasionwhenanauthorityisdispositiveofthequestion,shouldyounoteitinthe Conclusion.RelegateallsuppositionsandhypothesestotheDiscussion YoumayfindithelpfultodrafttheConclusionafteryouhavedraftedtheIssue andwrittentheDiscussion.Draftingthesesectionswillforceyoutounderstandfullythe reasonsforyourconclusion.WritingtheConclusionisatwostepprocess.First,begin

theConclusionbyrestatingyourIssueasadeclarativesentence.Second,addabrief explanationofthereasoningsupportingyourconclusion.TheConclusionshouldbeten tofifteenlines.ConsideragainthefactsoftheDanematter,theillustrativecaseforthis chapter.Then,pleasereviewthefollowingsampleConclusionsfromstudent memoranda. UnderPennsylvanialaw,aniecewillbeabletorecoverdamagesfornegligent inflictionofemotionaldistressiftheemotionaldistresswasforeseeabletothedefendant. Thefactorsdeterminingforeseeabilityinclude:(1)whethertheplaintiffwasnearthe sceneoftheaccident,(2)whethertheshockresultedfromthedirectemotionalimpact upontheplaintifffromthesensoryandcontemporaneousobservanceoftheaccident, and(3)whethertheplaintiffandthevictimwerecloselyrelated. Comment:Thewriterhasdoneonlypartofthejob.ThisConclusionsetsoutthe elementsofthetestthataplaintiffmustmeettorecover.Therecitationofthelawis correct.TheConclusion,however,failstoanswerthequestion. APennsylvaniacourtwouldholdthatthebystanderattheautomobileaccident couldrecoverfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistressbecausesuchemotional distresswasreasonablyforeseeable. Comment:Strictlyspeaking,thewriterhasansweredthequestionandprovided asuccinctexplanationofthereasonfortheanswer.TheConclusion,however,lackskey facts.Whentheissueisdevoidofkeyfacts,theConclusionisoftensimilarlydefective. Keyfactsareascriticaltoa.ConclusionastheyaretoanIssue.Whileyouneednot reiterateeverykeyfactinyourConclusion,includeenoughfactstogivetheConclusion contextandmeaning.Legalconclusionsarebasedoninterpretationsoffactsinthe contextoftheapplicablelaw. Ednawillbeallowedtorecoverforheremotionaldistressbecauseofherclose proximitytotheaccident,hershockasaresultoftheperceptionoftheaccident,andher relationshipwithMr.Dane. Comment:Thewriterhasansweredthequestionandsummarizedthereasons forit.Thewritersusageofpropernames,however,deprivesthereaderoftheabilityto identifytheplayersandtheirroles. Aniecebystandercanrecoverfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistress becausetheemotionaldistresswasreasonablyforeseeabletothedefendant. Pennsylvania,inSinnv.Burd,486Pa.146,404A.2d672(1979),adoptedathreesteptest toevaluatewhethertheemotionaldistresswasforeseeable:(1)whethertheplaintiff stoodnearthesceneoftheaccident,(2)whethertheemotionalimpactanddistress followedsensoryobservanceoftheaccident,and(3)whethertheplaintiffandthevictim werecloselyrelated.Theniecestoodonlyoneblockfromtheaccident.Theniecesaw heruncleimmediatelybeforetheevent,heardtheevent,andsawthesceneandher uncleimmediatelyaftertheevent.Theniece/unclerelationshipisacloserelationship. Allelementsofthetestarethereforesatisfiedandaclaimfornegligentinflictionof emotionaldistressismadeout.

Comment:IntheConclusion,donotsetoutthegoverningstandard,orthe applicablelaw,insuchdetail.Donotapplythelawtoyourfacts.Applicationinthe Conclusionsectionisusuallyineffectivebecauseitistoogeneral.Itcanbemisleading becauseitisusuallyincomplete.IftheattorneyreadingtheConclusiondevelopsa misimpression,youareresponsible.Donotcondenseyouranalysis.TheDiscussion sectionshouldbethesolesourceofanalysis.Provideonlytheanswerandabrief statementofyourreasoning.ThisConclusionistoolonggiventhenatureofthe question.Moreover,citationstoauthorityareimproperintheConclusion. HerearetwogoodConclusions: (1)APennsylvaniacourtwouldallowaniecewhowitnessedanautomobile accidentinvolvingherunclefromoneblockawaytorecoverfornegligentinflictionof emotionaldistressbecause:(1)shewasnearthelocationoftheaccident,(2)hershock wasaresultofherdirectsensoryperceptionoftheaccident,and(3)sheiscloselyrelated tothevictim. (2)APennsylvaniacourtwouldpermitaniecewhoheardacaraccident involvingherunclefromablockawayandwhothenimmediatelywitnessedhissevere injuriestorecoverfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistress. AswiththeIssue,thereisnoonecorrectwaytowriteaConclusion.Becertain thatyouanswerthequestionandthatyouprovideabriefstatementofthereasoning thatsupportsthatanswer,asthewritersoftheabovetwosampleshavedone.