VICTORIANBRITAIN

WhenwedescribeGreatBritainintheVictorianperiod,wordslikestability, progress,prosperity,reform,andImperialismcometomind.TheBritishhadgroundsfor somesatisfactionbecauseevidenceofgreateconomicgrowthandtechnicalprogress seemedtoabound.Despitethecontinuedexistenceofwidespreadpoverty,teeming, miserableslumsandpoorworkingconditionsinmanyindustries,theBritishcouldtake somerealprideintheobviousfactthatthevastmajorityofBritishsubjectswerebetter fed,betterhoused,andenjoyedmoreoflife'samenitiesthaneverbefore. Politically, GreatBritainenjoyedremarkablestability. Fromthemomentofheraccession,Queen Victoria(r.18371901)showedthequalitiesthatweretoremainwithherthroughouther reign:astrongsenseofduty,aconvictionofmoralrighteousness,andadeepfeelingfor hercountry,sinceithaspleasedProvidencetoplacemeinthisstation,shewrotein herdiary,IshalldomyutmosttofulfillmydutytowardsmycountryIamveryyoung, andperhapsinmany,thoughnotinallthings,inexperienced,butIamsure,thatveryfew havemoregoodwillandmorerealdesiretodowhatisfitandrightthanIhave. Queen VictoriasmarriagetotheearnestyoungGermanprince,Albertof SaxeCoburgGotha, helpedtoestablishthemodernroleoftheBritishmonarchy.VictoriaandAlbertquickly graspedthesignificanceofthemonarchy'snewfunctions,whichcombinedasmall amountofpoliticalmanipulationwithanunlimitedresponsibilityastheemotionaland ceremonialfocusofapeopleinsocialturmoil.ItwasAlbertwhosegrowingdomination overhiswifeforcedVictoriatotakeaninterestinmattersthathadpreviouslyboredher, suchasscienceandliteratureandevenindustrialprogress.

TheCrystalPalace:1851
In 1849, Albert hit upon the idea of the Great Exhibition, to give us a true test and a living picture of the point of development at which the whole of mankind has arrived in this great task of applied science and a new starting point from which all nations, will be able to directtheirfurtherexertions.Theprince'sideawasapprovedbytheRoyalSociety,andwonthe financial backingof industryandthegeneralpublic,whosubscribed200,000asguarantee.A Royal commissionofarchitectsand engineerswasappointedtoplanthe building andexhibits. Out of 234 plans submitted, the commission, urged by the prince, eventually picked the most originaldesignofall,a massivegreenhousedesigned bythe headgardenerofanorthernduke. Joseph Paxton, however, was no mere gardener, but an engineer, railroad director, newspaper promoter,andimaginativearchitectinglassandiron.Heofferedabuilding1,848feetlong,308 feetbroad,and66feethigh,tallenoughtocovertheoldelmtreesalreadyoccupyingthechosen site in Hyde Park. It was composed of massproduced and standardized parts, including over 6,00015footcolumnsandoveronemillionsquarefeetofglass.Itcouldbeerectedinseventeen weeksanditcouldbe,andwas,dismantledandreerectedinanotherpartofLondonwhenthe exhibitionwasover.Inspiteof many fearsexpressedoverthebuilding'sdurability, itsurvived until 1936. Inside it was a place of light illuminated by gas and electricity. The building overflowedwithnewwonders:theAmericanIsaacSingerdisplayedasewingmachine,Alfiied Krupp of Essen displayed the world's largest cast iron cannon and the French displayed a machine that could stamp out 1,000 medals per hour. The British displayed new railway

locomotives, heldthe world's first internationalphotographiccompetition,andallowed visitors tosendmessagestoEdinburghbyelectrictelegraphforanominalcharge.Progressseemedtobe on the march. Prince Alberts opening speech stressed the theme of human dominance over nature. He described the exhibition as a sign that man is approaching a more complete fulfillmentofthatgreatandsacredmissionwhichhehastoperforminthisworld:toconquer naturetohisuse. Notcontentwiththat,however,healsoconnectedBritisheconomicsuccess withthedivinewill: Inpromoting[theprogressofthehumanrace],weareaccomplishingthe will of the great and blessed God. (Spielvogel, p. 713) The Great exhibition of 1851 was a hymnofpraisefortheIdeaofprogress.PrinceAlbert,theroyalconsortofQueenVictoria,gave a speech at the opening ceremonies that attracted a great deal of attention and approval. He struckanoteofoptimismforthepowerofscienceSciencediscoverslawsofpower,motion andtransformationindustryappliesthemtorawmatter,whichtheearthyieldsinabundance,but whichbecomevaluableonlybyknowledge.Itwasnowpossibletoconquernaturebyculture thatis,bytheapplicationofhumanknowledgeandskill.(Loader) The London exposition made a great impact on most observers around the world. Many peopleresentedtheBritishEmpire, manyEuropean nationschosetorejecttheBritishpolitical systemasamodel,buteveryoneenviedandadmiredBritishwealth.TheeconomichistorianPaul Kennedy hascalculatedthat with2oftheworld'spopulation.,GreatBritaincontrolledabout 45oftheworld'sindustrialcapacity.(Kennedy,p.151)ThesefiguresindicatethatBritainwas by far the wealthiest society on earth. It was also the world's most dynamic society. The Victorianswerethefirstpeopletoexperiencevastsocialandtechnologicaltransformationsasa constantfactorintheirlives. The British could certainty point out some stunning examples of economic and technical progress.TheBritishjustlyboastedthattheirsmallkingdomwasthe"WorkshopoftheWorld." By 1850 such boasting was simple fact. The world was flooded with cheap, British products ranging from WattBoulton steam engines to Manchester cotton shirts. Other British products included household utensils from Birmingham, Josiah Wedgwood China, steam engines and ships,andthefineststeelcutlery.TheBritisheconomywasthewonderoftheworld,theengine that dragged an unwilling world into a new age. Britain exported over 170 million pounds sterling worth of products annually. The value of British trade wastwice as high of thatof its nearestcompetitorFrance,andthreetimesashighasthatoftheUnitedStates.(Hobsbawn) Great Britain could also point out some examples of progress in dealing with the social miseryofthe1830sand1840s.Oneofthemoststrikingexampleslayinthedecliningdeathrate. AdvancesinpublichealthsuchastheprovisionofcleanwatertothepopulationofLondon,the improvementsInsewagedisposal,andimprovementinthedietwerebringingaclosetoaperiod datingbacktotheancientworld,whentheurbanpopulationsofEuropewouldbevulnerableto epidemic diseases such as cholera. Far greater medical advances were in store: by 1851 Louis Pasteurand RobertKochwerewellontheir wayto making stunningadvances in bacteriology that would lead to the identification of the microorganism responsible for cholera, typhus, malaria.,tuberculosis,diphtheriaandbubonicplague.

ProsperityandPoliticalStability
By1851GreatBritainwasalsotheworld'sshipper,thecenteroftheworld'sinsuranceand banking. It was also the source of much of the world's capital for investment. Most of the railways in the United States for example were built with British capital. More importantly,

Britain'swealthwasnotlimitedtotheupperclassesalone.Beginninginthe1850stheindustrial workingclassatlastbegantoshareinthegeneralprosperity.Thereasonforthiswaslargelythe resultofagreateconomic boomthatthatbeganabout1850and lasteduntilthe beginningofa worldwide economic constriction that began about 1873. During the years of prosperity, however,theBritishGNP increased by3.2percentperyear.Workersenjoyedasteadyrise in realwages(30percentoverallforthe2ndhalfofthe19thcentury). The British working class made some real political progress as well: labour unions were legalized the right to strike was gradually recognized by all governments. One result, a very important result, was that Great Britain, alone of all European countries did not develop a powerful socialist movement. Great Britain alone of all European nations did not experience a majorrevolutionaryupheavalduringthe19thcentury.Theprevailingmood,evenintheBritish workingclasswasconfidenceinthenationanditspoliticalinstitutions.Intherevolutionaryyear 1848, when thrones toppled in France, Italy, and Germany, Britain remained an island of political stability. As the German economist Werner Sombart commented, Against roast beef andapplepie,alldreamsofsocialistUtopiascometonothing. Thisbringsupaninterestinghistoricalproblem.HowdidtheBritishmanagetodealwithan industrial revolution that literally changed everything without seeing a great political upheaval occur at the same time? The British would have responded that the British political system provided a means for gradual reform. A number of reform bills (1832 and 1867) extended the votetopeopleinthelowermiddleclassandworkingclassesinprincipleatleast,itwaspossible fortheBritishtoaddresssocialproblemsthroughapeacefulprocessofreformwithinParliament withoutrevertingtoviolence.Ontheotherhand,politics isonlypartofthestory. HOW DO PEOPLEDEALWITHSOCIALANDECONOMICCHANGESONTHISSCALE?Peopletryto make sense of changing conditions, they try to bring the dynamic under some type of control, ultimately,theytrytocreatenewstandards,newresponses.Inmanyways,Victorianswanteda sensethatthesetremendousforcesofchangehadbeenbroughtundercontrolbutnoteliminated. Changewasnotbadinitself,especiallyifitledtoobvious,palpableimprovementsinthehuman condition.

VICTORIANISM
In the mid 19th century of Western Europe and the United States, the response to social changewasamiddleclasscomplexofvaluesandattitudesthatwecallVictorianism.Oneofthe mostdistinctiveaspectsofVictorianismwastheprocessbywhichothersocialclassescameto accept the classic middle class virtues of self improvement, temperance, thrift, duty and character.Inotherwords,itwastheMiddle Class(NOTTHEARISTOCRACY)whowould set the tone for all of society in the midnineteenth century. The spread of Victorian morality ended the age of the aristocratic rake. Above all, Queen Victoria was the great symbol of this change.QueenVictoriareplacedWilliamIV,aroyalrogueofthehighestorder,in1837andshe setthebehavioroftheRoyalfamilysquarelyonthesideofpropriety. Forexample,whenitbecameknownLordPalmerston,headoftheLiberalPartyduringthe 1850s fathered seven children out of wedlock, Queen Victoria maintained an icy relationship with him. When her sensibilities were offended, the Queen often would respond with a chilly, Wearenotamused. Andthatwasthat!Bythe1860sevenahintofsuchcarryingson,could spelltheendofapoliticalcareer.Britishnoblesceaseddueling,gamblingandothertraditional

vices,oratleastpracticedtheminprivate.TheEnglishpeerageacceptedmiddleclassstylesin clothingaswellkneepantsandotherfineryassociatedwiththearistocraticDandywerealso relicsofapassingage.Themiddleclassfrockcoat,theemblemofthebusinessman,becamethe uniformoftheLordsofEnglandtoo.

VICTORIANMORALITY:SEXUALPRUDERY
In manyways,thecontrolof naturelayattheheartofVictorian ideology:wecancontrol nature by spanning continents with railways. However, are we equally able to control the impulses of our own natures? Can we control our own impulses towards sexual license or intemperanceintheuseofalcohol?ItismoredifficulttounderstandVictorianmoralitythanto ridicule it. Several generations of writers have spilled an ocean of ink debunking Victorian prudery. Marxists have analyzed it as a function ofcapitalism andclassdomination.Feminists have indicted Victorian morality as an instrument of sexual politics: a way in which men kept theirwivesinservitudeinmuchthesamewaythatVictoriancorsetsandbustleskeptthefemale bodyimprisoned. WhydidtheVictoriansfeelsouncomfortableabouthumansexuality?Aladyorgentleman of the 19th century simply could not discuss the topic in polite company. One Victorian critic sawtheprimaryvirtueofCharlesDicken'snovelsasthefactthatInfortyvolumesormoreyou will not find a single phrase which a mother need withhold from her married daughter. Victorian prudery led to such absurdities as the separation of the works of female and male authors on library shelves and the use of euphemisms for every reference to the body. Victorianismwasaninternationalphenomenon,notmerelyaBritishoneanditwasintheUnited States that a British visitor noticed that the limbs of a grand piano in a girl's school were decently covered by little knit trousers lest they lead adolescent minds down the path towards impurethoughts.ItwastheVictorianswhogavethewordimmoralityitspresentconnotation of defying sexual convention rather than telling lies, or practicing fraudulent bookkeeping. CounterpartstoallthiscouldeasilybefoundintheFranceofNapoleonIIIortheUnitedStates of Abraham Lincoln. Germany was also a nation of good, solid middle class people, but the GermansneverdevelopedasetofattitudesthatwecoulddescribeasVictorian prudery. Whyallthisprudery?Onepartoftheansweristhatitreflectsaprofoundsenseofanxiety associatedwithdevelopmentsintheworldofscience.CharlesDarwinpublishedhisOriginof Species in 1859 and the book caused a sensation. We often discuss the argument between scientists and the organized churches over the theory of evolution. But Darwin's book did something else: it suggested that humanity was partof the natural world. If we are descended fromloweranimalswhatpartofthatanimalnatureremained?AlfredLordTennysonwrote: CanitbethatMan WhotrustedGodwasloveindeed, Andlovecreation'sfinallaw Tho'Nature,redintoothandclaw Withravine,shriekedagainsthiscreed Simplydiesthedeathofallanimals? 0lifeasfutile,then,asfrail... Whathopeofanswer,orredress? Behindtheveil,behindtheveil.

Darwin'sideaofnaturewasverydifferentfromthatofIsaacNewtonandtheotherthinkers ofthe18thcenturyEnlightenment.ItwasnottheorderlyworkoftheCreator.Itwasalsonotthe heroic, authentic Nature that the romantics admired. Instead, it was an eternal struggle for survival,"Redintoothandclaw."WhatKarlMarxandtheSocialDarwinistsadmiredinDarwin, respectable Victorians abhorred. When social Darwinists spoke about the survival of the fittest, many Victorians were appalled that human success should be judged by the same standardsasthatofanimals. If human natureisthewaythatDarwinportrayed it,humannatureneedstoberestrained, disciplined,andcurbed.FormanypeopleintheVictorianperiod,sexrepresentedeverythingthat wasbaseandirrationalinhumannature.TherewerethoseVictorianslikeDr.Bowdler,awell todo physician and part time social reformer who added a new verb tothe English language, Bowdlerize by editing a family edition of Shakespeare, in which nothing is added to the originaltextbutthosewordsandexpressionsareomittedwhichcannotwithproprietyberead aloud in a family. Dr. Bowdler also provided a guide to the Bible indicating passages that shouldbereadonce(SongofSolomonetc.)andthenignored. Puritywasthestandardfortheladyandrestraintbecameatleasttheprofessedidealforthe gentleman,whointhesexualaswellasthebusinessworld,wasexpectedtopostponeimmediate gratification for ultimate domestic bliss. Thomas Huxley, Darwin's defender was also a good Victorian and his anatomical charts were published without genitals. For members of polite society good breeding meant that people should remain ignorant about the facts of life. Children came via the Stork. Museum curators added strategic figleafs to classical statues. Good Victorians believed that if we hide all expressions of sexuality, we can eliminate the troublingthoughtstheymightengender.DecentpeopledidnotreadFrenchliterature.Thatgood Victorian Sigmund Freud forbade his sister to read Gustave Flaubert's great novel of feminine liberation,MadameBovarybecausedecentpeoplesimplydidnotreadFrenchliterature. Isitevennecessarytopointoutthatallthispublicposturingcertainlydidnotmeanthatthe Victorianswereavoidingsexualactivity?Victorianswerepeoplelikeus,whotrybutoftenfail to live up to our standards. The flourishing trade in pornography the infamous 'French Postcards"thatsoshockedourancestors,indicatesthe factthatnotallVictorianswereableto liveuptosociety'snorms.Prostitutionwaswidespread.OneLondonstreetwassofamousforits streetwalkersthatitwasdescribedasthe"WesternequivalentofanEasternslavemarket."The London police kept records of 70,000 registered prostitutes. It was obvious that someone was keeping them employed. Partof the explanation lies in the medical realities of the nineteenth century. Inanagebeforeantibiotics,venerealdiseasescouldwellleadtolongillnessanddeath. More than a few famous figures died of Syphilis: the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and Al Capone,forexample.Uncurableuntilthediscoveryofpenicilin,Syphiliswastheequivalentof AIDstoday.

TheBourgeoisFamily
IfatwentyfirstcenturyreturnedtoVictorianEnglandinatimemachine,thetraveler wouldimmediatelynoticeanynumberofdifferencesbetweenourworldandtheirsthesmells Londonwouldberemarkabletothemodernsensibility:horsedungandstrawinthestreets,the smellsoffattyfoodsfrying,andthesweatysmellofworkersandservantswhohadnoaccessto bathingbeyondthekitchentaptonametwo.Thesmellofflaringgasfromthestreetlighting systembeforeelectricityarrivedwouldhavebeenverynoticeable.Arguably,thenoisepollution

oftheVictorianagemightsurpassthestreetsofmodernNewYork.Therewouldbenojet aircraftorboomboxes,buttheclatterofhundredsofthousandsofhorsehoovesdrawingcabs, carriages,andfreightwagonscreatedanassaultontheears.Beforethe1870s,onewouldbe surprisedatthedarknessoftheeveningawayfromthegaslightedmainstreets. Ontheotherhand,onemightwellnoticethateveryoneworeverywellmadehatsand welltailoredclothing,evenworkers.TheRailServicewasexcellentandcompletely dependable.TheRoyalPostprovidedfourorfiveswiftdeliveriesperdayandthepostmenwore resplendentuniformsredcoatswithgoldpiping.Onewouldnoticethatthepopulacewas remarkablyhomogenousasidefromafewLascarsailorsorvisitorsfromIndia.Thesightofan AfricanAmericanoraNativeAmericanonthesidewalkwouldhavebeenconsideredexotic. Onewouldhavealsonotedtheterrifyinginadequacyofmedicalanddentalcare. Terribleteeth,toothachepain,halitosisweremanifestinpubliceveryday.Alongwiththis evidenceonewouldseechildrenscoffinsbeingtrundledinglasssidedhearsesalongthe cobblestonestreetstestifyingtotheprevalenceofinfantmortality.Onewouldseeragamuffin children,childrenworkingaschimneysweeps,andactiveineverysortoflaborimaginable.One wouldalsohavenoticedtheeverpresentevidenceofclassdistinctionsanddeferencetothe socialhierarchy.Cockneyswouldinstinctivelyknuckletheirforeheadsinthepresenceofa LadyoraGentleman.AdozenthingsatoncewouldshowusthattheVictorianAgewasutterly alientoourown. Butthegreatest,andthemostextraordinarydifference[wouldbe]the differencebetweenwomen,thenandnow. (A.N.Wilson,pp.30708) NoageeverpraisedthevirtuesoffamilylifemorethoroughlythanourVictorian ancestors.TheVictorianfamilywaspatriarchal,boundbyunspokenrulesandthewifewasseen asthedomesticangel whoprovidedasafehavenforherhusbandandastrong,moralexample forthechildren.Althoughthemiddleclasswifewasinnowaytheequalofherhusbandinthe sensethatshesharedaccesstoeducationorpoliticalandcivilrights,shedidexertpowerover otherpeople.TheVictorianwifewasthehouseholdmanager,responsibleforthemoral instructionoftheservantsaswellasthechildren.Familieswerelarge,andtheaveragewife spentabout15yearsinastateofpregnancyandnursingchildreninthefirstyearoflife. Afterinfancy,childrenwereexpectedtobeseenbutnotheard. Thealternativewouldhavebeen bedlam.VictoriaandAlbert'smarriagewasatruelovematch.Victoriagavebirththreetimesin thefirstthreeyearsofmarriage,sixtimesinherfirsteightyearsofmarriage.Inall,theRoyal couplehadninechildren.Althoughallofherchildrenlivedtoadulthood,shedidnotenjoy childbearing:Whatyousayoftheprideofgivinglifetoasoulisvery finemydear,shewrote toheroldestdaughter,"butIthinkmuchmoreofourbeinglikeacoworadogatsuchmoments whenourpoornaturebecomessoveryanimalandunecstatic. FeministscholarshavedeconstructedthelanguageofpatriarchyinVictorianliteratureand culture. They have also pointed out that even the fashions in respectable feminine clothing reflectedthestrictboundariesimposedonwomen.Weshouldrememberhowever,thatallthose hoop skirts, corsets, and petticoats were also outward signs of wealth and social status of respectability. Armoredas shewas,the middleclasswifecouldscarcely havedonephysical laborevenifshewantedtodoso. It is perfectly legitimate to read the message of female subservience writ on the page of female fashions, but I would also suggest that something else is work here: that profound Victorianfearofthenaturalpersonality.Itisnotreallynecessarytodeconstructthemessageof patriarchy in Victorian literature it was everywhere. Young women were taught to aspire to idealoffemininitypopularizedbywriterslikethepoetAlfredLordTennyson:

Manforthefieldandwomanforthehearth: Manfortheswordandfortheneedleshe: Manwiththeheadandwomanwiththeheart: Mantocommandandwomantoobey Allelseconfusion.(Spielvogel) Victorianpsychologytaughtthatmenweremoreanimalisticthanwomen,moretiedtotheir primitive natures. Perhaps the most Victorian of all novels might be Robert Louis Stevenson's classic Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: the novel of a man who gives in to the beast within us all. VictorianslikeDr.ThomasBowdlerbelievedthatitwasimpossibletooverstatetheimportance ofmoralityindeedgoodbehaviorandgoodmoralitywastheonlydefenseavailabletosocietyin atimeofeconomicandpoliticalupheaval.Onemustbeevervigilantlestthebeastwithinburst the bonds of law and custom. Edmund Burke expressed the idea well: Manners are of more importance than law. The law touches us but here and there and now and then. Manners are what vex or soothe, corrupt or purify, exalt or debase, barbarize or refine us, by a constant, steady, uniform, and insensible operation, like that of the air we breathe in. (Gertrude Himmelfarb,p.282).Becauseofthis,men'ssexualescapadesweretoleratedasinevitablethose of women were never tolerated. All of this amounted to a double standard. Women were expectedtolivealifeofutterpurity,yetyoungladiesatfinishingschoolweretaughttoflirtand manipulate themenintheirlives. The Victorians elevated genderdefined roles to the status of universal truths, at least for middleclasswomen.Manyrespectablewomenaspiredtotheidealofdomesticityexpressedby onebookofadvicetoyoungwives: Where want of congeniality impairs domestic comfort, the fault is generally chargeableonthe female side. it is forwoman, notforman,tomakethe sacrifice. Shemustbeplasticherself,tomoldothers.Thereis,indeed,somethingunfeminine inindependence.Itiscontrarytonature,andthereforeitoffends.Areallysensible woman feels her dependence. She does what she can but she is conscious of inferiority, and therefore grateful for support. She knows that she is the weaker vessel,andthatassuchsheshouldreceivehonor.(Spielvogel) Many middle class wives were caught in a nowin situation. For the sake of her husband's career,shewasexpectedtomaintain herpublic imageasthe idlewife, freed fromdemeaningphysicallaborandabletopasshertimeinornamentalpursuits.Inmany ways,thegreatsymbolofallthiswasQueenVictoriaherself.