Abbasids (749-1258 A.D.

) This second major Muslim dynasty took their name from their ancestor, al- Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib, who was the Prophet's uncle. A fter succeeding the Umayyads in 749 A.D., they ruled for the next 500 years, alt hough in reality their effective power declined after around 900 A.D. The Abbasi ds moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, building al-Mansur's famous round city in 762 A.D. It was during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809 A.D.) t hat the Abbasid caliphate reached its peak, a time of prosperity, peace and comm unal unity. After that, the decline started, with clashes between the population and troops stimulating the construction of Samarra in 865 A.D. as a city for th e troops. In 945 A.D. the Buwayhids replaced Abbasid power in Iran and Iraq, alt hough they continued to be the nominal caliphs. By the time of the Mongol occupa tion of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. their reign was completely reduced to being a mere figurehead. Abbasid architecture was influenced by Sassanian, Central Asian, and later twelfth and thirteenth century A.D. Saljuk prototypes. Despite the breadt h of the Abbasid territories, the majority of remaining monuments are in the Abb asid homeland of Iraq. Abbasid architecture is noted for the vastness of the sca le used for their cities, as well as the Samarra stucco decoration that spread a nd continued to be used elsewhere for a long time. Abjad The order used in the traditional system of calculation, wherein each le tter signifies a numerical value. Abjad order is derived from the same source of the Greek, Hebrew and other alphabets (alpha, beta, gamma, delta) and differs f rom the current order used in Arabic dictionaries. In many examples of Ottoman a rchitecture we find the date of the building by deciphering the last verse of a poem inscribed on any of the elements of the building using the abjad values. Ablaq A decorative technique, popular during the Mamluk period, based on alter nating courses of black and white masonry. The term is derived from the Turkish iplik, meaning rope or thread. Ablution Fountain fore prayers. Fountain found in mosques and used for ritual washing be

Abzin Derived from Persian, it means a small basin found in hammams (baths) fo r washing feet. Acanthus Derived from the Greek akanthos. A plant with serrated leaves co mmonly used in Greek architecture and was continued in Islamic architecture, in both natural and abstract forms. Adhan The daily call to prayer that is carried out mostly from the tops of min arets, and sometimes from the rooftops or the doors of places of worship. Aghani Literally means songs . In Mamluk architecture there are long corri dors lined with seats and walled by mashrabiyyas. The aghani are usually galleri es on upper floors overlooking the main reception areas of houses; the durqa a or the sahn. An alternative term is maq ad aghani. Aghlabids (800-909 A.D.) This dynasty was established in 800 A.D. by Ibra him ibn Aghlab, who was the governor sent by the Abassid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid , to suppress the unrest caused by the Berber tribes in North Africa. Following Ibn Aghlab's success with the tribes, Harun al-Rashid rewarded him by granting h im relative independence in Ifriqiyya in return for an annual tribute. Aghlabid rule centered in Qayrawan, controlled what is now eastern Algeria and Tunisia, a nd expanded into Sicily, Malta and Southern Italy. Their power ended at the hand s of al-Mahdi and a coalition of Berber tribes in 909 A.D. The Aghlabids were th e most important and most powerful of the three dynasties that ruled North Afric a in the ninth century. They founded Qayrawan, the city which became the nerve-c

enter for the entire Maghrib. The contributed greatly to the infrastructure of I friqiyya, and built many waterways and forts. The Great Mosque of Qayrawan was e nlarged and those in Susa and Tunis were repaired. The Great Mosque of Qayrawan, the oldest surviving mosque built by the Arabs in North Africa, was originally by the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi . The Aghlabid Ziyadat Allah rebuilt the entire structure during the 9th century, where only the minaret and the mihrab were fro m previous periods. Ahl al-Bayt Literally means 'family of the house' and refers to the family o f the Prophet. A jami Anything that is non-Arab is a jami. In Mamluk documents that term is used to describe non-Arab style of decoration. Ajur Clay baked brick.

Almohads (1130-1269 A.D.) Almohads, also known as al-Muwahhidun, literally means 'adherents of divine unicity'. This was a Berber dynasty founded by Mahdi ibn Tumart, who had studied in the east and then came back to claim himself the mahdi. He had a lot of followers and his dynasty was established with the eradi cation of Almoravid s rule, yet the military occupation of both North Africa and S pain only took place after his death. The city of Marrakesh continued to flouris h under their rule, especially the artistic and intellectual milieus. Monumental construction was at its peak during the first fifty years of their rule, as evi dent from the mosques at Taza, Marrakesh, Tinmallal, Seville, Rabat, Fez and the fortresses and citadels in Marrakesh and Rabat. Almoravids (1046-1157 A.D.) A dynasty of Berber origin that ruled North Afri ca and Spain. Also known as al-Murabitun, their name literally means those who l ived in a ribat. In the case of Almoravids, it was those who lived in a ribat at the mouth of the Senegal River. They were instigated by Abdallah ibn Yasin, a n oted Moroccan scholar, and then led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin who founded Marrakesh a s his capital in 1062 A.D. Their position in North Africa weakened with the rise of a new power, that of Almohads in the early years of the twelfth century A.D. The descendants of Yusuf ibn Tashfin succeeded him to the throne one after the other until the dynasty of Almohads overruled them. Almoravids are responsible f or the unification of Morocco and the rapid assimilation of the Andalusian cultu re through their patronage of architecture, poetry and philosophy. During their rule they spread a simple and fundamentalist form of Islam, advocating close adh erence to Islamic law, and were opposed to theology and Sufism. Al-Murabitun Al-Muwahhidun Amir See Almoravids. See Almohads.

Prince or dignitary.

Amir Akhur A Mamluk post; the prince responsible for the royal stables. The blazon for this position is symbolized by a polo stick. Amir al-Mu'minin Caliphal title meaning 'Commander of the Faithful.' This title was first given to 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634-644 A.D.), the second cal iph, who was known for his strength of character, candor and incredible justice. This title was later assumed by several Muslim leaders until its use faded out in the thirteenth century A.D. following the Mongol invasion. Nevertheless, this title was used through the early nineteenth century A.D. by West African Muslim communities. Amir al-Silah A Mamluk post; the prince responsible for arms.

Anatolian Saljuks

See Saljuks of Rum.

Aqqoyunlu (1467-1502 A.D.) Literally meaning 'Tribes of the White Sheep', t his was a Turkish dynasty that ruled eastern Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Persia, Iraq, Afganistan and Turkestan. Originally Turkic tribes, they began raiding Syria, M esopotamia and Byzantium c.1340 A.D., shortly taking over Diyarbakir. Their init ial advances were by Qara Yuluk Uthman (1389-1435 A.D.) who was appointed by Tam erlane as governor of Diyarbakir in 1402 A.D. After 1435 A.D. they lost some ter ritories to their rival Qaraqoyunlo. Uzun Hasan (1453-1478 A.D.) however defeate d the Qaraqoyunlus in 1467 A.D., taking over their territories in 1469 A.D. Turk oman culture flourished under the rule of Hasan and his son Yaqub (1478-1490 A.D .). They were eventually defeated by the Safavids who took over Tabriz in 1501 A .D. and annihalted the Aqqoyunlu political power in 1502 A.D. The last Aqqoyunlu ruler was sacked from Mardin in 1507 A.D. Arabesque One of the main decorative elements in Islamic art. It is basica lly a scroll of leaf and stems where the intertwining elements create an interla cing geometric system. This vegetal scroll appears to whirl in circles and inter lope with its own indefinite blossoms. Ashara A decorative motif used in illuminating Qur ans, to tell where the end of each tenth aya is. Ataba A term used for both lintel and doorstep. There are different descriptio ns of lintels found in the Mamluk documents, one of which is atab musfan to mean joggled voussiors. Atabeg/Atabek Young prince's guardian, who is often a governor. Can also refer to the commander in chief of an army. Atruja Literally meaning 'citrus fruit'. This refers to a recurring mot if in Islamic architecture, resembling a lemon, often adorned by a three trilobe d chalice at the top. Awlad al-Nas Literally means 'children of people' and was the term given to t he children of the Mamluks who were born in Egypt. A Mamluk could only be a Turk ic slave, and this title did not extend to their offspring born in Egypt. Ayyubids (1171-1250 A.D.) The dynasty was founded by the Kurdish general S alah al-Din al-Ayyubi (d.1193 A.D.), also known as Saladin, who was celebrated f or his recovery of Jerusalem. In the name of Sunni Islam, Salah al-Din establish ed the Ayyubid dynasty (1169 A.D.) and eradicated the Shi i influences of the prev ious Fatimid rule in Egypt and Syria. Despite building the walls and enormous ci tadel of Cairo, he actually only spent eight years in his capital. As well as hi s victory in Jersualem, Salah al-Din also conquered parts of Yemen and Diyarbaki r. The last Ayyubid Sultan was Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub who built a huge corpus o f slave soldiers and stationed them on the island of Roda (Bahri Mamluks). Most Ayyubid building activity concentrated on two main aspects, military architectur e, including walls and citadels, to combat Crusade invasions, andmadrasas. Azar In Mamluk th the ceiling of ly inscribed with cases is thuluth architecture this term is used to denote the wooden band benea rooms. This band is used structurally for support and is usual Qur anic verses and the foundation text. The script used in most on an arabesque background.

Azulejo Spanish for glazed tiles. The term was derived from zilij, Maghr ibi Arabic for tiles. Important production centres in Spain were Paterna, Valenc ia and Seville.

Bab

Gate or door.

Bab Sirr A small door, usually hidden, found in most medieval Cairene arc hitecture. The bab sirr usually led to a narrow corridor within the walls of the premises, and acted as an escape route. In religious buildings it was a means f or the ruler to enter and leave the building without being seen. Badhahanj Derives from Persian, meaning 'opening for breeze'. An early for m of air-conditioning, often found in medieval Cairene houses, where a direction al opening allowed cooler air to circulate and admitted light into the room. Bagh Garden.

Bahri Mamluks (1250 1382 A.D.) The corpus of slave soldiers built by al -Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, the last Ayyubid Sultan, and stationed in barracks on the island of Roda during the 13th century A.D. They were Turks bought at a very young age from the various areas in Central Asia, converted to Islam and highly trained in all military sciences. They rose to power in 1250 A.D. when Shajar a l-Durr, widow of al-Malik al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub claimed herself sultana and married the Mamluk amir Izz al-Din Aybak. Although Aybak (r. 1250-1257 A.D.) bec ame the first Bahri Mamluk sultan, the proper Mamluk state started with Sultan a l-Dhahir Baybars al-Bunduqdari (r. 1260-1277 A.D.). His rule extended for sevent een years, throughout which he protected the Mamluk territories from both the Mo ngols and the Crusaders. On the inner front he created an infrastructure by reco nstructing roads, repairing bridges and fortifying the north coast. He was also a patron of arts and his mosque in al-Dhahir is a living proof. In general the M amluks were great patrons of the arts and architecture. The epitome of Mamluk ar chitecture can be seen in the buildings of Sultan Qalawun (r.1279-1290 A.D.) and his descendants; the mosque of Sultan Hasan, the complex of Qalawun and the mos que of al-Nasir Muhammad in the Citadel. Amirs, especially those of al-Nasir Muh ammad, were encouraged to build. Elegant buildings of amirs include the mosques of Salar and Sanjar, Altinbugha al-Maridani, Shaykhu and the madrasa of Sarghatm ish. They were also great patrons of the art of the Book. Qur an illumination of t his period was heavily influenced by the Ilkhanid style. This can be seen in the Qur ans commissioned or bequeathed by Sultan Sha ban to his madrasa in al-Darb al-A hmar. The artifacts belonging to this period in the Museum of Islamic Art of the different mediums show a great variety in techniques and creativity. Glass enam eling for example reached perfection during this period. Ba ika or piers. An arcade; a series of opened or blind arches joined together by columns

Ballat Floor tiler; formerly a specialist in lime plaster waterproofing. Banna i Derives from Persian and literally means 'what pertains to the mason'. I t was used by the Persians to describe a specific type of surface decoration of alternating plain and enameled bricks. Basmala Refers to the phrase Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim, 'In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate', or its shortened form, Bismillah, 'In the Name of God'. This is the opening phrase of the first chapter of the Qur'an, and is generally written or orally spoken by Muslims at the start of almost all actions. It frequently marks the beginning of inscriptions on monuments and art ifacts. Bayt Arabic for house.

Bayt al-Hilani Gatehouse that is usually fenestrated.

Bayt al-Mal Arabic term that literally means 'house of money.' It refers to the financial establishment that acted as a royal treasury, and was responsible for the adminstration of taxes and zakah. Bayt al-Myiah Bazaar Bedesten Beg Compartment used to store water containers. Marketplace and business centre of an Islamic city. Market that is covered, and often domed.

Leader of a tribe.

Bey Turkish for 'gentleman'. It is a general title of rank and is equivalent to the Arabic title amir. Bidri A technique of metalwork developed in early 17th century India, where th e zinc alloy vessel is inlaid with silver, brass, and sometimes gold. This is th en covered with salts and mud, making the alloy black and leaving the ornamentat ion contrastingly bright. Bimarhane Mental hospital.

Bimaristan Derived from Persian, meaning 'place for the sick'. A general ho spital. Maristan is alternative name for bimaristan. Bint al 'usada Small cushion usually used as head rest. Birka Pond. See Basmala.

Bismillah

Blazon A symbol used by Mamluks in both architecture and decorative arts to den ote a certain position or rank. Blazons started as simple shields with a decorat ive symbol and eventually became more complex. Examples of blazons include the p en, denoting the court scribe; the polo stick, denoting the amir akhur; the cup, denoting the court saqi; and the napkin, denoting the master of the robes. Bukhariyya A decorative element that is usually of a round or oval shape an d filled with patterns (arabesque), with a palmette or calice decorating either end. It is used on all mediums of decoration, buildings, textiles, metalwork, wo odwork, illuminated manuscripts, etc. The name is derived from that of the city of Bukhara in Uzbekistan or the quarter of Bukhariyya in Basra. Burda Literally means 'mantle' and refers to the cloak of Prophet Muhammad. 'B urda' is the name of a famous panegyric written by al-Busiri in the 13th century A.D. for the Prophet and was used to adorn many of the Islamic monuments, espec ially the houses of Cairo. Burj A tower of a fortress or of city walls.

Burji Mamluks (1382 1517 A.D.) Also referred to as Circassian Mamluks. These we re the slave soldiers who ruled Egypt from 1382 A.D. until the Ottoman invasion in 1517 A.D. Ethnically they were Turks but unlike the Bahri Mamluks who were fr om Central Asia, the Burji Mamluks were from the areas around the north and the west of the Caspian littoral. They were named so because they were lodged in the towers of the citadel. The first Burji Mamluk to rule was al-Dhahir Sayf al-Din Barquq (r. 1382-1399 A.D.). He protected Egypt from the danger of the Timurids by slaying all their emissaries. Their artistic patronage reached its zenith dur

ing the reign of al-Ashraf Qaytbay (r. 1468-1496 A.D.). Architectural masterpiec es from his period include his funerary complex in the Northern Cemetery, his mo sque in Qal at al-Kabsh and the mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi in Darb al-Ahmar. Compl exity in design and technique can be seen in their woodcarvings; excellent examp les are the minbar and the kursi in the funerary complex of Qaytbay, and theminb ar in the mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi. Buwayhids A Shi'i dynasty established by mercenary soldiers from the Caspi an region of Daylum who ruled Iran and Iraq from the mid-tenth to the mid-eleven th century A.D. As Dailamites, they lived in mountainous areas north of Qazvin, and like Turks they were popular mercenaries. Up until the ninth century they ma naged to repel more than a dozen Muslim attacks, and as many 'Alids sought refug e in their mountains they were gradually converted into Shi i Islam. During the ea rly years of the tenth century Ali ibn Buyah (Imad al-Dawla), the founder of the dynasty, began his career in the military, employed in the court of the Samanid prince Nasr ibn Ahmad and was appointed as the governor of Ray. Although they w ere able to wrest their territories from the 'Abassids and were essentially an i ndependent seat of authority, they still maintained recognition of a puppet 'Aba ssid Caliph, ruling in his name. The Buwayhids created courts in Isfahan, Shiraz and Baghdad. They were the first to establish the use of revenue grants,iqta', to pay the soldiers, a system that was built upon and used extensively by the Se ljuks. Buyyids Caftan See Buwayhids. A collarless robe open at the front from top to bottom.

Caliph Arabic for successor. The Qur an (II: 30) describes Adam as the pr imordial norm and as Caliph, the representative of God on earth. Man in this sen se is the vicegerent of God on earth. In a historical context however, the word Caliph referred first to the four rightly guided caliphs after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) and subsequently to any Muslim ru ler, in various dynasties. Cami Turkish word referring to a Friday or congregational mosque. The smaller mosque is referred to as mescit. Caravanserai Derived from the Persian karawan (company of travelers) and sera i (large inn). The caravanserai provided safe accommodation for travelling merch ants and their goods. They functioned as centres of commerce and artisan manufac ture, though not all buildings of this type and function were called caravansera i. Other terms describing the same building were khan, wikala, funduq or ribat. The use of multiple terms was a mere reflection of regional differences. Chahar Bagh Persian and Mughal word referring to a garden divided into four equal sections around two central axes. Chahar Taq Square open structure covered with a dome, with an arched openin g in each side. Chajja A sloping stone supported on heavy corbels and placed overhanging at roo f level to direct rainwater away from the walls of the building. Commonly used i n Mughal architecture. Chatri A domed kiosk built on pillars used extensively in Mughal architecture o n the tops of palaces, mosques and tombs. In Mughal architecture a chatri was de corative, while in Hindu architecture, which is where it is derived from, it was used as a cenotaph.

Chinoiserie Chinese motifs used in Islamic decoration. These often include p eony scrolls and lotuses. Circassian Mamluks See Burji Mamluks.

Colophon Last page of a manuscript which includes information about its d ate, author, provenance, etc. Crenellations Also referred to as 'cresting' and mean battlements. They are pa rapets of alternating spacing of solid and open intervals, usually decorating mo sques or fortresses. From its early usage in Achaemenid Iran, different styles o f crenellations developed, such as the doll-like shapes associated with Ibn Tulu n, and trefoils of complicated forms used by the Burji Mamluks. Cresting See Crenellations.

Cruciform Plan Four vaulted iwans facing each other and surround a court (sahn) . Cuerda Seca From Spanish, meaning 'dry cord'. A glazing technique for cerami cs which separates the colors by using a line of manganese dioxide and grease, t hus preventing the colours from running during the firing process. Dakhma Literally means 'tower of silence,' and refers to a tower with a flat ro of that is used to expose corpses. Damascening Technique of decorating metal with silver or gold inlay.

Dar A place where a lot of movement takes place. The word dar is used for a wide variety of buildings, however the most common usage of the term is to mean a house. Darabzin Dar al-Hadith traditions. An Arabized Persian word meaning a balustrade. Educational institute for the study of Islamic hadith, Prophetic

Dar al-Harb Refers to territories of war. This usually meant territories bor dering Dar al-Islam that did not hold a peace treaty with Muslims. Dar al-Huffaz Institute for the study of Qur'an recitation.

Dar al-Imara The building that houses the seat of authority. It is usually th e palace of the governor. Dar al-Islam Dar al-Shifa Darb Refers to Muslim lands where sovereignty of Islamic law applies. See Bimaristan.

Arabic for alley or path.

Darb Khayt A term used by craftsmen for the geometric patterns they carve o n wood, marble, or any other medium. Darih Means cenotaph but can also mean the tomb as a whole. Dervish. Persian for poor and means a Sufi. The Arabic equivalen

Darwish t is faqir.

Dayma Dervish

Kitchen or guard house in the fields. See Darwish.

Dhikr Literally means remembering or reminding. In general religious practice this denotes ways of reminding oneself of God, be it through prayer, praise, sup plication, etc. It can also refer to the actual litanies and prayers of remember ing, as well as the regular activity of remembrance, particularly in a Sufi cont ext. Dhimmi People of the book; Christians, Jews, Sabaeans, Zoroastrians, Hi ndus and Buddhists. The term was used to describe those who had to pay the jizya (poll tax) and who were not forced to convert because they were adherents of ot her religions, unlike idolators. Dihliz An Arabized Persian word meaning corridor.

Dikka An elevated small structure with a flat top on which a person would be s eated. Some are found in religious buildings for those reciting the Qur an or some in markets for sellers to display their goods. They are made of wood, stone or marble. In religious buildings it can be referred to as dikkat al-mubaligh. Divan See Diwan.

Divani Arabic script, primarily used in the administrative documents of the Ott oman Sultan's chancery. Diwan Originating from Persian, this term refers to a reception chamber, parti cularly in a palace or residence. It later came to mean ministry or government o ffice. It can also mean anthology of poems placed in alphabetical order. Diwan al-'Amm Public reception hall for public audiences.

Diwan al-Khass Private reception hall for private audiences. Doublure Inside lining of book cover; usually ornamental.

Durka A Persian composite word; dur meaning door and ka meaning place. A vesti bule which is found in all kinds of buildings especially houses to ensure privac y. Durqa a A covered small court (sahn) which interspaces two iwans or more. It is an essential element of a qa a, and thus an important feature of Burji Mamluk arch itecture. Duwaira Mausoleum or shrine.

Duwar A colloquial word derived from dar used in the Mamluk documents to mean court or garden. Duwira Small courtyard. Faqih Expert in Islamic law. Until the twentieth century A.D., a faqih could f unction as a qadi, judge, and mufti, juriconsultant. As a judge he would be resp onsible for supervision of charitable trusts, acting as a trustee of orphans' pr operty, and other similar tasks in addition to regular court duties. The faqihs represented an important and powerful segment of the community, and were conside

red protectors of the community and religion. With the advent of modern legal fo rms, the role of the faqih has been decreased in power and importance, where his duties have been taken over by modern judges, jurists and lawyers. A faqih is n ow restricted to the function of juriconsultant. Faqir Arabic for poor and means a Sufi. The Persian equivalent is Dervish, als o spelled Darwish. Farshakhana A composite word meaning the warehouse of furniture and tents.

Fatimids (969-1171 A.D.) One of the most important Shi i dynasties that rul ed in the Muslim world. They were prominent patrons of festivities, art and arch itecture. Their history can be divided into two periods. First the Ifriqiyya per iod, when they ruled between 908-973 A.D. from Tunisia. Despite the ambiguity of their origin we do know that their founder started in Salamiyya in Syria, where he alleged descent from 'Ali and Fatima and claimed to be the only rightful rul er of Islam. He had many followers, all Isma ilis (Seven-Imam Shi i), and helped bui ld a strong military base from which he overruled the Aghlabids in Tunisia. In 9 10 A.D. a descendant of his, named himself Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi, made Raqqada his capital until al-Mahdiyya was built. During his 25 year reign Ubayd Allah al-Mah di sent two expeditions to Egypt, in 914 A.D. and 919 A.D., but both failed. Ano ther attack in 935 A.D. also failed. Egypt was finally conquered by al-Mu iz li-Di n illah in February 969 A.D. when the commander of the armies Jawhar al-Siqilli marched into the country removing the Ikhshidids with very little effort. This m arks the second period of the Fatimid history, which ended in 1171 A.D. After ma rching into Egypt Jawhar al-Siqilli built the city of al-Qahira and from there t hey ruled Greater Syria and were the guardians of the Holy Places in Hijaz. Fati mid caliphs claimed themselves the true caliphs as opposed to the Abbasids in Ba ghdad. Their da is for Isma ili ideology were sent by the Fatimids as far as Yemen a nd Sind. Despite all their efforts the people directly under their rule remained Sunni. The economy of Egypt witnessed a boost with Fatimid administration and t rade links were well maintained and supported with the main centers in the world . Some of the finest examples of Islamic art were a product of Fatimid workshops . The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo has a vast collection of Fatimid woodwork a nd luster, at which they excelled. Their architecture was greatly influenced by the style of North Africa, mainly that of the Aghlabids. Mosques usually followe d the riwaq style with the protruding entrances and the tower-like minarets. Muq arnas first appeared in Egypt during their rule. They mastered stucco carving an d all the extant Fatimid mihrabs are a proof to that. Their style was influenced by the Samarra style of carving and then Persian influence took the lead, as ca n seen from the mihrab in al-Juhyushi. Finial A ornamental part usually placed at the top of an architectural structur e such as a minaret or canopy. It can also refer to an ornamental piece ending a t the top of a post or a piece of furniture. Fiqh The scienc of Islamic law; jurisprudence.

Fisqiyya In architecture the word has several meanings. It means either a basin for ablutions, a fountain or a small grave. Fleur de Lis French royal lily. Frequently used in Mamluk crenellations.

Folio From the Latin 'folium'; it means a sheet in a manuscript. Sheets are nu mbered consecutively while the front and back are given letters a and b or r and v (recto and verso). Fritware A hard, whitish, kind of pottery made of quartz, white clay and

frit. Frit itself is made of quartz with soda flux. Frontispiece The first page of a manuscript. Also means the pediment over doo rs and the gable on top of the middle part of a building. Funduq A North African complex used by merchants for lodging or storage. It is usually a multi-story building contructed around a central courtyard. Such compl exes are also known as caravanserais, wikalas, ribats, or khans according to reg ional differences. Furn Arabic for oven or bakery.

Fusayfisa Mosaic. In Egypt the use of mosaic began during the Roman era in Alexandria, especially in baths. The design employed then influenced to a great degree Coptic textile designs. Futuwwa Chivalry order, usually associated craft guilds or Sufi orders.

Ghazi slam.

Conqueror or warrior, often referring to Turkomans on the frontiers of I

Ghaznavids (962-1187 A.D.) A Turkish dynasty that ruled Khurasan, Afghanist an and northern India from its base in Ghazna. Their founder Nasir al-Dawla Sebu ktigin ruled this area on behalf of the Samanid court and eventually ruled the p rovince for himself. It was his son Mahmud of Ghazna (r. 998-1030 A.D.) who beca me fully independent and became known as the 'hammer of the infidels' because of his victories in the Indian subcontinent. Towards the end of his life he overru led the Buwayhids and occupied Ray and Hamadan. As a dynasty that proclaimed aff inity to Persianate culture through claiming Persian rather than Turkish lineage , Mahmud insisted on maintaining a Persian administration and cultural legacy. U nder his son Mas ud the empire disintegrated in the west and Khurasan and Khawariz m were lost to the Saljuks. With the rise of the Ghurids in central Afghanistan the power of the Ghaznavids was reduced dramatically. Architecture flourished du ring their rule in the cities of Bust, Balkh, Herat and Nishapur. Unfortunately most of the sites of the Ghaznavid capitals are now in ruins. In Bust, remains o f the palace of Lashkhari Bazaar in the suburbs, the arch of Bust, and the Giyat h al-Din Mausoleum exist, while in Ghazni, the Palace of Mas'ud III, and the Bah ram Shah minaret have survived. Ghiordes Knot 'Turkish' or symmetrical now used in carpets and rugs.

Ghurab Literally means a crow but in Mamluk architecture it means door hooks and latches. Ghurfa Arabic for room.

Ghurids (1150-1212 A.D.) Sunni Eastern Persian dynasty that ruled from th e central region of Afghanistan, which was called Ghur, lasting from the mid-twe lfth to early thirteenth century A.D. They were originally chiefs of mountain tr ibes who had defeated the Khwarazmis in Iran and the Ghaznavids in Afghanistan a nd India, where their first known ruler was Izz al-Din Husayn who paid tribute t o the Saljuk Sultan Sanjar. Once the Saljuks fell in Khurasan the Ghurids then e stablished an empire stretching from the Caspian Sea to northern India. The empi re ended when internal squabbles arose. Artistically the Ghurids are best exempl ified by the madrasa at Shah-i Mashhad, which is remarkable for its brick and te rracotta decoration and best shows the style of the period.

Girikh Knotted geometric ornament. Gul Gunbad Rose. Persian for dome. It denotes free-standing domed mausolea.

Gur Persian for wild donkey, but also means tomb. This is why we have Gur-i Mir, or Tomb of the Amir, in Samarkand where Timur Lang is buried.

Hadith The sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. Any hadith is of two parts the matn (subject) and the isnad (chain of transmission). Hadra Literally means presence and is used by Sufis to denote an act of devoti on. In a hadra different prayers, verses from the Qur an and zikr (remembrance of God) are recited/chanted. Hafsids (1229-1574 A.D.) This was the dynasty ruling Tunisia, eastern Alg eria and Tripoli from their main capital Tunis. They were originally the Berber tribes of Banu Hafs Umar, named after one of the primary supporters of Ibn Tumar t, the Almohad founder. Abu Hafs Umar's son, Abu Zakariya Yaha (r. 1229-1249 A.D .) became the Almohad governor of Tunisia, and established independence in 1229 A.D. creating the largest dynasty succeeding the Almohads. Zakariya's son, Muham mad I al-Muntasir (r.1249-1277 A.D.) repelled the Seventh Crusade in 1270 A.D., taking on the title of caliph. Following his death bloody feuds errupted, but pr osperity was recovered under Abu-l Abbas Ahmad (1370-1394 A.D.) and continued un til 1494 A.D. when many sub-regions gained independence. The Hafsids were domina ted by Ottomans in 1505 A.D. and forced to accept the Spanish Emperor Charles V' s occupation in 1535 A.D. They struggled between Ottoman authority and Spanish a ttacks until they were eventually deposed by the Ottomans in 1574 A.D. Haft rang in Iran. Persian for seven colours. It describes overglaze painted tiles

Hajib Derived from the Arabic root hajab or to veil. A hajib is a chamberlain who controlled the access to the ruler. Hajj The Pilgrimage to Mecca. It can also be used as a title for someone who has gone on pilgrimage. In the latter context, Hajj refers to a man and Hajjah i s used for women. Halabi A special type of a staircase mentioned frequently in the Mamluk documen ts, however examples of which are no longer extant. The name is derived from Hal ab (Aleppo), because the style was inspired from there. Hamam/Hammam Refers to bath houses, both private and public. Public hammams w ere an important feature of Islamic cities. Hanafi One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this scho ol was Abu Hanifa al-Nu man ibn Thabit ibn Zuta (699-767 A.D.), a Persian who stud ied with Ja far al-Sadiq in Madina. Hanbali One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this scho ol was Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855 A.D.). His school of law was the strictest amon gst the four. Haniyya A squinch. An architectural element in the form of a niche used to carry domes on square or rectangular bases. Some other uses are purely decora

tive as the one used on the Raqqa gate built by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur in the 8th century A.D. In a sense it was the basis for the evolution of muqarnas. Hanut Rooms beneath religious buildings used as shops, warehouses, or stand-al one stores. This can be seen in the shops beneath the Mosque of Salih Tala i (1160 A.D.), the Madrasa of Sarghatmish (1356 A.D.) and the Mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi (1481 A.D.). The hanuts were rented and the revenue generated as a result was u sed for the upkeep of the building. Haram Arabic word generally referring to a sort of sanctuary. It is usually us ed to denote sanctuary of the mosque, specifically with reference to the Holy Mo sques of Mecca and Medina. Haramayn Arabic term referring to the Holy Mosques of Mecca and Medina. I t derives from the word haram, meaning sanctuary. Haramlik or the women. Derived from Turkish. The space in a house or palace allocated f

Hasht Bihisht Literally means 'Eight Paradises,' and is a term used to refer t o octagonal pavilions. Hasil A storage place. They were rooms found in wikalas or beneath religious b uildings, the function of which were the same as the hanut. Hawd Water basin.

Hawsh A large open area that could be a courtyard of a house or a cemetery att ached to a large religious structure. Hayat s. Ground floor hall in Anatolian Ottoman houses used to receive male guest

Hayr Walled enclosure, sometimes used to contain game for hunting, and usuall y associated with early Islamic palaces. Examples are found in Qasr al-Hayr West (724-7 A.D.)and Qasr al-Hayr East (728-9 A.D.) in Palmyra, Syria, although thes e enclosures may have been more utilitarian in nature. Hazar Baf Persian, literally meaning 'thousand weavings'. In architecture it is a surface decoration where the wall is patterned in relief with bricks tha t create a play of light and shadow. Hazira Funerary enclosure that is unroofed and often includes a mosque, found p articularly in the Iranian regions. Hilal Crescent.

Hijra The migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Madina (Yathrib) in 622 A.D., which is the first year in the Hijri calendar. Hira Camp for short-term usage.

Hiraqlah A square terrace-like structure with four corner towers that is surrounded by a circular moat and circular walls. Hisba Prefecture of civil life during the medieval period. The post was held b y the muhtasib. Hisn A fortress.

Hizam With reference to the kiswa of the Ka'ba this is an embroidered or woven textile band composed of eight sections used to cover the upper part of the kis wa. Hujra Room, chamber or cell.

Husayn Al-Husayn was the second son of Ali and Fatima, and the grandson of the P rophet. He was born in 642 A.D. and was murdered in 680 A.D. Being a venerated s aint, many structures were built in different parts of the Muslim world commemor ating him. The Fatimids had brought his head from Karbala and buried it next to t he Eastern Palace. The 19th century mosque of al-Husayn now occupies this spot. Hypostyle A structure composed of supporting columns beneath a flat roof. This was very popular in mosque construction, particularly in the early periods.

drisids (789-985 A.D.) This dynasty ruling from North Africa during the ninth c entury. A.D., was founded by Moulay Idris ibn Abdallah, a descendant of the Prop het. The Berbers in Morocco recognized him as their leader and he founded Fez in 789 A.D., thus creating the first independent Islamic dynasty in Morocco, which continued until 985 A.D. when their last ruler was killed. Moulay Idris's son, Idris II, created the first central government, stressing the Islamic-Arab chara cter of the state, founded Qayrawan and Andalus mosques, and Qayrawan university . The Idrisids were Shi'i, and were thus at odds with all their eastern neighbor s. Ijaza Licence or authorization. This is usually in the form of a certificate a warded to a student after successful completion of the study of Islamic law, had ith and Qur'an. It is also awarded to students of calligraphy once they master a certain writing style. The ijaza functioned as a certified qualification. Ikat Textile technique where threads are tie-dyed before weaving.

Il-Khanids (1256-1353 A.D.) The first Mongol dynasty to rule Iran. In Januar y 1256 A.D. Hulagu the grandson of Jinghis Khan crossed the Oxus River coming fr om Transoxiana (bilad ma wara al-nahr) to Iranian lands to consolidate the victor ies of his grandfather. The empire founded by Hulagu in Iran was one of the four Mongol empires established by Jinghis Khan s descendants. The first Il-Khanid to rule after Hulagu was his son Abaqa followed by his grandson Arghun who at a cer tain stage converted from Shamanism to Buddhism. Ghazan, Arghun s son, converted t o Islam in 1295 A.D. and in so doing the ruling class of Iran were once again Mu slims. Ghazan was followed by his brother Uljaytu who made twelver Shi i Islam the court religion in 1310 A.D. The Il-Khanids thence became very important patrons of Islamic art and architecture. Many grand examples from the period can still be seen in Iran. The mosque of Ali Shah in Tabriz (the Arg), the Friday Mosque at Kirman, the Friday Mosque at Varamin and the stucco mihrab added to the Masjidi Jami at Isfahan are some examples of their excellent patronage in the field of architecture. It was during the Il-Khanid period that tile mosaic gradually beca me the main form of decoration. The Qur ans commissioned by both Ghazan and Uljayt u are among the summits of illumination and calligraphy. Ikhshidids A dynasty that ruled Egypt right before the Fatimid conquest. Th e founder was the general Muhammad ibn Tughdj al-Ikhshid. However the figure tha t played an important role in shaping the empire was Kafur, a black eunuch who i mpressed ibn Tughdj greatly and was thence promoted. After the death of Ali al-I

khshid in 966 A.D. Kafur declared himself as the sole ruler of Egypt. He was abl e to delay the Fatimid expansion in Egypt until his death. He is known to have s ponsored scholars and writers, the most important of which was al-Mutanabbi. It is also known from the sources that he constructed a number of sumptuous palaces , two mosques, a hospital and the Kafuriyya gardens. Unfortunately none of his e stablishments are extant. Imam A religious leader; the preacher of the Friday ceremony or leader of the Muslim community. Imamis See Ithna 'Asharis. Imaret Soup kitchen; a main unit found in Ottoman religious complexes. Iqd Arabic for arch. Some of the different kinds of arches are: iqd mada ini: t rilobed arch; iqd mudabab: pointed arch; iqd qawsi: horseshoe arch. Iqta A grant of land given for military officials and is not hereditary. The iqta' system was created by the Buwayhids and was developed extensively by the S aljuks. Isma'ilis An important Shi'i community whose ideology is based on recogniz ing the esoteric, batin, and exoteric, zahir, aspect of scripture. Named after t he eldest son of Ja'far al-Sadiq (d.765 A.D.), Isma'il, decendents of 'Ali ibn A bi Talib, the Ismailis made significant contributions to Islamic civilization, p articularly during the flourishing period when they established the Fatimid cali phate. Over time, the Isma'ilis have been divided into several main branches and minor sects, where currently the two major branches are the Nizaris and the Dau dis. The Nizaris recognize the Agha Khan as their imam, while the Daudis belong to the Mustali-Tayyibi branch who recognize a line of da'is in their imam's abse nce. Istabl Stable.

Ithna 'Asharis They constitute the largest division of Shi'i Muslims, and are n amed after their recognition of the twelve imams. They are also known as Imamis or Twelvers. Iwan A vaulted open hall with a rectangular or arched facade. The iwan is a P ersian invention and its origins can be traced back to the palaces of Achaemenid Iran. The ceremonial purpose of the structure is epitomized by its use in Ctesi phon, where we find the magnificent remains of the 6th century palace of Kisra o r Taq-i Kisra. The iwanworked well as an entrance of a mosque, an entrance to th e prayer hall or the prayer hall itself. The combination of four iwans arranged axially around a courtyard became one of the most important plans of religious b uildings in the Muslim world. The qibla iwan (sanctuary iwan) was always the lar gest and the deepest. The opposite one was next in size and the other two were t he smallest. Izar A decorative frieze.

Jalayrids (1336-1432 A.D.) Mongul dynasty ruling Iraq, western Iran and Aze rbaijan from their main capital in Baghdad and also Tabriz (1358-188 A.D.). They were originally a major Mongul tribe that rose to high positions under the Ilkh anids. Sheikh Hasan Buzurg (r. 1336-1356 A.D.) seized power of Baghdad in 1336 A .D. after the Ilkhanid downfall in 1335 A.D. and his son, sheikh Uwais (r. 13561374 A.D.) took over northwest Iran in 1358 A.D., Azerbaijan in 1360 A.D., Mosul

and Diyarbakir in 1365 A.D. The Jalayrids later fought against the Muzaffarids in Iran, the Qaraqoyunlu in Diyarbakir and Tamerlane in Baghdad. Tamerlane expel led the Jalayrid ruler from Baghdad in 1393 A.D., but the latter returned in 139 5 A.D. The battles continued where Tamerlane detsroyed Baghdad in 1401 A.D., but the Jalayrids returned again in 1406 A.D. The Qaraqoyunlu however ousted the Ja layrids from Baghdad in 1411 A.D. and deposed the last Jalayrid ruler from Basra and Khuzistan in 1432 A.D. Artistic patrimony by the Jalayrids was not as glamo rous as other Turkish dynasties, although Shaikh Uwais was a great patron of the arts. They nevertheless developed their own distinct style in miniature paintin g. Jali Jamalun Pierced marble or stone screen used in India. A term used to describe a gabled roof.

Jami From the Arabic root jam', which means to 'gather things' and literally means mosque. This is why it is used to denote the mosque where the Friday noon prayer is celebrated. It is the principal religious building of Islam. The simpl est and earliest form it took was the riwaq-mosque; opened arcades overlooking a squarish or rectangular open courtyard. Janissaries Derived from the Turkish yeni ceri or 'new troop'. These were th e infantry troops of the Ottoman army brought at a very young age from the Balka ns, converted to Islam and highly trained. They were directly answerable to the Sultan. Jaran A basin usually found in Mamluk baths. The different types encountered i n the Mamluk documents are the 'marble jaran' and the 'stone jaran'. Jarokha This is a feature used extensively in Mughal architecture derive d from Hindu architecture. It is a protruding balcony supported on corbels, with a hood placed on columns. Jashankir the amirs. Persian for 'taster'. A prominent Mamluk post occupied by one of

Jawsaq Derived from Persian meaning kiosk, pavilion or fortress. In Bur ji Mamluk architecture the gallery beneath the finial of the minaret was referre d to as a jawsaq. Jihad 'Holy war' to extend Islam in the non-Muslim provinces. Those who die in jihad are considered martyrs. However this is the limited meaning of jihad. The other meaning is the greater war against one s self; jihad al-nafs. Jizya A tax that used to be levied on non-Muslim adult males, specifically the people of the book, although the infirm and poor were exempted from this tax. I n return for exemption from military service, this money was used for maintainin g the army. If a Muslim ruler could not provide the needed security for his subj ects, he was required to refund this money; which is what Salah al-Din did when he was forced to withdraw from Syria. Joggled Voussoirs Construction method where the stones of an arch or linte l are placed interlocking. Joggled voussoirs were typically used in alternating colors in Ayyubid architecture, becoming more complex in design under the Mamluk s where they became a major architectural decorative feature. In Mamluk document s they are referred to as 'atab musfan. Jukha Juz Woolen blanket. Arabic and literally means 'part'. Its common usage is for one of the th

irty volumes of the Qur an. The plural is ajza .

Ka ba The house of God which is located in Mecca. Muslims face the Ka ba when th ey pray and this is the direction to which mihrabs point. It was Ibrahim (Abraha m) and his son Isma il who rebuilt the Ka ba as ordered by God. The Qur an tells us th at God ordered Ibrahim to build a sanctuary at a specific spot in Bacca (XXII:26 ), another name for Mecca. Ibrahim and Isma il were told that it should be a cube and around a celestial stone, which was preserved nearby a hill in Mecca and the n given to Ibrahim by an Angel. This black stone was kept at the eastern corner of the Ka ba. God then informed Ibrahim to institute the rite of pilgrimage to Mec ca. Kalip Kapi Stencil used in calligraphy. Turkish for portal or gateway. Practice sheet used by calligrapher.

Karalama

Karkhana A term used in the literature written on Indian art and means th e princely workshop of the Mughal court. Katib Scribe, clerk or secretary. The root of this word katab means to write. A secretary of an Islamic court. It literally it means 'scribe o

Katib al-Shari a f the religious law'. Katkhuda

Mamluk rank of executive offficer of the janissaries.

Khan Derived from Persian meaning a 'house with full amenities'. In Islamic a rchitecture khan is used to describe the caravansaries found in Iran, Syria and Anatolia. An alternative name for khan is wikala or ribat. The basic plan consis ted of an open court with a well and surrounded by rooms for storing and display ing merchants goods. Annexed there is usually an area that would function like a stable for housing the animals of the merchants, mostly horses. The upper floors of a khan are the accommodation areas, with single rooms, duplexes or triplexes for the travellers. The details of the plan differed from one province to the o ther. Khan can also refer to Turkish nobility, a term commonly used during the r eign of the Saljuk and Mongol rulers. Khanqa Persian for Sufi monastery. The idea behind a Sufi hospice started when Zayd ibn Sawkhan constructed during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Afan a house for a scetics. The first time the word khanqa is encountered was in the 10th century A .D. in Khurasan. Kharaba/Khirba Kharaza Ground with ruins; ruined building. Above-ground opening of the well of the sahrij, water tank.

Khart Small carved wooden pieces used in the construction of geometrical windo w grilles. Khartum Khatt A wind-catcher on the roof of a building. Literally it means a line and is used in Egypt to mean street as well.

Khatta Literally means 'marked out.' It was used in the early Islamic period wi th reference to marking out new settlements such as Kufa, Basra and Fustat. It a lso indicates the sense of one marking out a piece of land to claim its possessi on. Khawarnaq An Arabized Persian word meaning a small wooden niche. It litera lly means the place where a king eats or drinks. Khazana Khazindar Small room or chamber. The one responsible for the treasury of the Sultan.

Khazna Treasury. Khedive The title given to the sovereign ruling Egypt from 1867 until 19 14 A.D. under the command of the Ottoman Sultan. The first Khedive was Isma il, so n of Muhammad Ali. Khilwa A small cell for meditation. The word root in Arabic khuluw mean s to become isolated, destitute or unoccupied. Khukha A wicket. A small door set in a larger one.

Khurda In architectural terms it means a small piece of colored marble used for marble mosaic panels. Khuristan A small cabinet or room for the storage of prepared food.

Khushkhasha An Arabized Persian term meaning a small kiosk. In Mamluk archit ecture it means a small shallow stucco dome with perforations in the form of geo metric patterns. It was always used as a ceiling technique for toilets. A typica l example is the one still found in the toilet in the house of Muhib al-Din al-M uwaqqa in Bayt al-Qadi known as the waqf of Uthman Katkhuda. Khutba Literally means 'speech' or 'sermon', but generally refers to the Friday sermon. Kilim Kiosk Kiswa Kit'a Kitab Rug of flatweave without knots. Turkish term referring to a small pavilion used for temporary residence. The black silk that covers the Ka ba, which used to be donated by Egypt. See Qit'a. Book.

Kufi (Kufic) One of the oldest types of Arabic calligraphy and the first call igraphic perfection of Islam. Its name derives from the Iraqi town Kufa, which w as one of the earliest centeres of Islamic learning. Kufic has many derivatives; al-kufi al-farisi or al-kufi al-baghdadi and al-kufi al-maghribi. It is also th e direct ancestor of all the calligraphic styles of Andalusia and of North-West Africa. Kulliye Turkish for madrasa or a religious school where students reside as well as study. This term was used in Ottoman Turkey where this institution fl ourished. See madrasa.

Kumbet Turkish for free-standing mausoleum. Kundal Multicolored painting on a relief case. Kunna Narrow canopy above window, usually wooden.

Kurdi A decorative element (decorative brackets) that appeared in Egypt during the Burji Mamluk period. Usually made out of carved wood, it was used to decora te the springing of the arch into the area proper of an iwan. During the Ottoman period they became narrower and more elongated. Kursi The word means chair and in architecture it had several meanings. The mo st popular meaning is the chair that carries the mushaf (Qur an) in a religious bu ilding. Qur ans endowed to religious buildings were very big in size and were alwa ys kept on the kursi where the reader sits and recites from it. The lower part o f the kursi is a closet to keep the Qur an or its volumes (ajza ). A kursi was as la vishly decorated as any other part of the building. Exquisite geometric designs executed on wood can be seen onkursis. Another usage for the term is to mean toi let and in this context it is called kursi raha, kursi khala , kursi mirhad. It al so means the base of a minaret. Kuttab A primary school where children learn how to read, write and recite the Qur an, and is usually a charitable foundation. Kutubiyya A wooden cupboard for the storage of books found in houses and r eligious buildings as well. Usually it is in the form of a recess in one of the walls that is covered by wooden doors.

Lala

The tutor of the sultan's sons during Mamluk times. Enamelled pottery with a cobalt blue glaze.

Lajvardina

Laqabi Pottery decoration where colored glazes are placed within carved ridges. Latif Literally means gentle and gracious. In Mamluk documents it was used to describe any element that was small in size. Lazurd Lapis lazuli. Levha Libn Libna Large calligraphic panel. Sun-dried earth bricks. Area unit, c. 44m2

Lintel The horizontal stone or beam over an opening. This is usually found abov e doors and windows and was often decorated. Luster A technique for decorating glass that developed in Egypt and Iraq throug h the 7th and 8th centuries. Later it was adopted for the decoration of pottery. Lusterware was made by the addition of metal alloys on the glaze and then firin g the item at a low temperature. Mabayn Cloisters or corridor.

Mabkhara Literally means incense burner. The term was used to describe a specific shape of minaret finial that flourished in Egypt during the Ayyubid per iod and the early Bahri Mamluk. Examples of this finial can be found in the Madr asa Salihiyya, Zawiyat al-Hinud, minarets installed by Baybars al-Jashankir in t he mosque of al-Hakim and those in the mosque of Salar and Sanjar. Machicolation/Machicoulis Openings looking downward used for defense; usua lly found in forts, citadels, city gates and walls. These could be used to throw stones or pour boiling liquids on unwanted intruders. Mada ini In Mamluk architecture it describes a trilobed arch. The word it self could be derived from the city of Mada in (Ctesiphon). Madfan Grave.

Madhhab School of Islamic law. There are four schools in Sunni Islam, Ma liki, Hanafi, Hanbali and Shafi'i. Madina City. If the name of the city however is al-Madina, then it is referring to Medina, the Prophet's city. Madrasa An institute for higher education, in which religious sciences w ere taught. The madrasa usually consisted of the teaching halls and the dorms. S tudents there studied Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), traditional system of mathem atics (abjad), literature, history, higher grammar, etc. The earliest madrasas w e know of are those built in the tenth century A.D. in eastern Iran. Modern hist orians working on the pre-Saljuq period in eastern Iran suggest that madrasas ex isted one and a half centuries before the official Saljuq adoption of the instit ution. These however had not been open to the public during that period. The Gha znavids also used madrasas in order to spread Islam in the areas of Ghur. Mediev al documents prove the existence of about 38 madrasas in Nishapur alone, all pre dating the great madrasa of Nizam al-Mulk (1068 A.D.). The formal history of the madrasa as a public institution starts with the Saljuk wazir Nizam al-Mulk who inaugurated his madrasa in Baghdad in 1068 A.D. Following this inauguration, sev eral madrasas were disseminated throughout the Saljuk territories and many were found in cities including Merv, Balkh and Herat. Some of thesemadrasas were anne xed to already existing mosques. Some of the madrasas were built by teachers who taught in them, by Sufis or by wealthy notables. Many madrasas were built next to the houses of the founders or in other cases the houses became the madrasas. Architectural origins of the madrasa are traced back to eastern Iran where the i nstitution originated. Bartol d linked the madrasa to the Buddhist vihara, which f lourished in eastern Iran and Central Asia right before the Muslim conquest of t he area. The structure was a communal one combining worship, education and buria l. The vihara constituted of several elements and the ones discovered are of a f our-iwan plan overlooking a courtyard. Andr Godard argues that the Khurasani hous e plan is the origin of the madrasa plan, with its four iwans overlooking a cour tyard. In the beginning each madrasa was dedicated to the teaching of one of the four schools of law (madhhab); Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i. The tutor in the madrasa sits, probably with his back against a pillar, and expounds to a gr oup of students sitting in a circle around him in what is known as a halaqa. Sin ce Egypt was Shi i during the dissemination of madrasas all around the Islamic wor ld, there are no madrasas to be found in it before the twelfth century A.D. Madr asas were introduced in Egypt with the advent of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, who use d the institution to eliminate all the traces of Shi i presence in Egypt. Five yea rs after his arrival there were five madrasas in Cairo. The most important of th e Ayyubid madrasas was the last, the Salihiyya built in 1242 A.D., which was int ended for all the four rites. Under the rule of the Mamluks the building of madr asas flourished tremendously; the first of which was that of Baybars al-Bunduqda ri built in 1266 A.D. in the form of a cruciform plan or four iwan plan overlook ing a courtyard. In 1356 A.D. we get the first mosque-madrasa in Cairo, that of

Sultan Hasan with a miniature scale plan of the mosque for each madrasaoccupying one of the corners of the building. Being of a residential nature madrasas had amenities for the students living inside like toilets, kitchens, stables and in some cases, hospitals. Mafraj Reception chamber, often with a view. Maghani Maghribi See aghani. A fully cursive script which developed directly from Kufic.

Maghtas Derived from ghatas or to immerse or dip. It is found in baths a nd is the pool in the hot room. Majana Clepsydra. This is an old device used to tell time by measuring the regu lated flow of water through an opening. Ma'jil Open air cistern. Majlis Derived from the Arabic root, jalas, which means to sit. A room in a house which served the same function as the iwan, to receive people, and al ways overlooked a court. Its mention in the sources started with the tenth centu ry A.D. historian Mas udi who described the majlis hiri bi-kummayn or the T-plan h ouse found in Iraq and Egypt. During the Mamluk period it meant a room that was closed as to differentiate it from the iwan. Majma' Large assembly hall. It is also used to refer to prayer areas in complex es built in the proximity of the Haramayn in Mecca and Medina, and al-Masjid alAqsa in Jerusalem. In this context, the majma' replaces what would have been the mosque area in a madrasa or khanqa complex for instance. The proximity of these three holy mosques makes the construction of nearby individual mosques redundan t since most people would not foresake praying in the Haramayn and al-Masjid alAqsa. Makhzan Warehouse or storeroom.

Maliki One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this school was I mam Malik (713-795 A.D.), the second of the four major imams, who studied and ta ught in Medina. His teachings spread to the western Islamic world including al-A ndalus, Spain. Malkaf A cooling and ventilation device composed of a wind scoop on a roof conn ected to a wind shaft. This creates wind circulation in the building. Malwiya Mamluks Manar/Manara A spiral tower. See Bahri Mamluks and Burji Mamluks. Minaret.

Mandara Male reception room that is usually found on the ground floor. I t is the same as salamlik. Mangur The Nile Delta cities' traditional style of building where red (single b ake) bricks and black (burnt) bricks with white pointing are used on mihrabs and entrance faades. Manjanik A weapon placed above fortresses which threw heavy stones to def end the place.

Manwar Derived from the Arabic root nur or light. In architecture it is the light shaft; on open place that lets light in the building. Manzil House. Maq ad The loggia of a house or a palace. The word is derived from the root qa ad , to sit. It was introduced in Cairo in the fifteenth century A.D. in amirs resid ences and on an enormous scale, as can be seen from the maq ad of amir Mamay. It w as invariably on the first floor and facing north to catch the northern breeze. Being a loggia it was opened by at least one arch and overlooked the courtyard o f the house. The portal to the maq ad, found beside the maq ad and thus overlooking the courtyard as well, was usually beautifully adorned and leading to a staircas e. This maq ad is also called maq ad turki Maq ad Qibti The closed form of a maq ad. Instead of the opened arcade it had l arge window grilles. Two maq ad qibtis s are still extant in Cairo; the one of Qay tbay in the Northern Cemetery and the one of al-Ghuri in al-Ghuriyya. According the endowment deed (waqfiyya) of al-Ghuri the function of the maq ad qibti is to l odge women who are there to visit the tomb of the sultan or to see the buildings of the family. In Arabic, qibti means Egyptian, however the term now means Copt ic in spoken Egyptian Arabic. Maq ad Samawi Maqbara A maq ad with no roof. No example of this kind is extant. Tomb or cemetery.

Maqsura Prayer area, usually part of the qibla, separated from the rest by means of a wooden screen. It was reserved for the ruler or the governor. Marabut Warriors and Sufis who dwelled in the ribats. By extension, the mausoleum of the Sufi is sometimes called marabut. Even today a Sufi is called m arabut in North Africa. Maristan Derived from Persian, meaning 'place for the sick'. A general ho spital. Maristan is an alternative name for bimaristan. Marvered Method of glass decoration. While turning the vessel against a m etal surface or flat stone, glass trails are pressed flush against its surface. The stone or metal surface are called a 'marver'. Mashhad Literally means 'scene of witness', and is used to refer to a sh rine or sanctuary. Mashrabiyya Derived from the Arabic root, sharab, to drink. The wooden scree ns that covers windows of medieval houses. They served to protect the privacy of the household by allowing the family to see the street, while disabling the pas serby or the neighbours from viewing the inside of the house. It was also a good way to minimize the heat caused by direct sunlight during the long summer days. Water jars were kept behind them or in front of them and this is probably why t he element was called mashrabiyya. The equivalent of this element in Anatolia is the kafes, which literally means a cage. Mashura Pronounced 'mas-hura'. Small closet in the walls of a qa a to keep cushions, small lanterns, carpets, etc. Mashwar Tribunal or public reception hall.

Masjid Maslakh

Mosque. A changing room in a bath.

Mastaba A bench. Mastabas were found in vestibules of houses for the gua rd or doorman, or in marketplaces for the merchants to display their goods. They were carved of stone and in some cases encased with marble. Mathara Mayda Pronounced 'mat-hara'. Place for ablution. An ablution area usually found next to religious buildings.

Maydan Originally used to denote polo ground, but now refers to a city square o r open space. Ma zana Mazar um. Minaret. Literally means 'place of visitation,' but is used to refer to a mausole

Mazmala A place where jars of water were stored to be cooled. They were usually found in corridors and covered by a carved wooden screen. Other terms us ed in its stead aremazyara or bayt al-azyar. Mazwala Sun dial.

Merenids (1244-1465 A.D.) This is a berber dynasty which ruled Morocco fro m 1244-1465 A.D. originating from the Banu Marin tribe who settled in eastern an d southeastern Morocco at the turn of the twelfth century A.D. The Merenids took Meknes (1244 A.D.) and Fez (1248 A.D.) as well as other important Moroccan town s, deposing the Almohads in Marrakesh in 1269 A.D. They then became the most imp ortant power in the Maghreb, spreading all the way to Algeria, and even launchin g several attacks on Spain. Decline started post 1358 A.D. where child sultans r uled between 1358-1374 A.D. and 1393-1458 A.D. under the authority of the Wattis ids and even under the Nasrids of Granada (1374-1393 A.D.). Although the Merenid ruler Abd al-Haqq (r. 1421-1465 A.D) managed to stop the Wattasid power in 1458 A.D., he died soon after, following which Morocco was ruled by the Wattasids. Mihman Sarai Hotel or guest accommodation.

Mihrab A prayer niche found in religious buildings indicating the direction to the Ka ba in Mecca. The mihrab can be either flat or a concave recess in the wall; the latter form is the most popular one. Most mihrabs were decorated with stucc o carvings, marble dadoes or mosaic. Some, however, were left plain like the one in the Khanqa of Barquq in the Northern Cemetery of Cairo. Another type of mihr ab is the portable one which flourished during the Fatimid period. These mihrabs were wooden, intricately decorated and can be moved from one place to the other . Interesting examples can be seen in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. Millefiori Italian word literally meaning a 'thousand flowers'. This is a t echnique of glass mosaic. Mimar Architect.

Mina i A type of pottery that developed in Iran under the Saljuks, during the t welfth century. It was very detailed and depicted epics as in miniature painting s. The technique is like that of enameling.

Minbar Pulpit from which the imam of the mosque gives his sermon on Fri day. Intricate geometric patterns with mother of pearl inlay and ivory usually a dorned minbars. Wood was the most common material used for the construction of m inbars, however stone and marble were used as well. Mirhad Latrine.

Mishka An oil lamp. Mizrab e building. Drainage pipe with an outlet pouring from any of the walls of th

Mongols A Turkic tribe that originated from the eastern part of Mongolia . Their leader was Temjin (blacksmith), a young ambitious Mongol born in 1162 A.D . who unified the different Mongol tribes by winning dominion over all the small tribes. He was re-named Jingis Khan, meaning fierce, oceanic or universal ruler , in 1206 A.D. and ten years later he had overtaken the lands of northwestern Ch ina. He later marched west and eradicated the Khawarizmshahs ruling northeast of Iran. After his death in 1227 A.D. his son Sgodei continued the Mongol conquest s in Korea, northern China, Georgia, Armenia, parts of West Asia and Russia. His grandsons enlarged the empire even farther. By that time, the thirteenth centur y A.D. witnessed the fragmentation of the empire started by the military genius. Four separate empires evolved as a result; one in Mongolia and China (Yuan Empi re), one in Central Asia (Chagatay Khanate), one in Eastern Europe (Khanate of t he Golden Horde) and one in Iran (Il-Khanids). Mu'adhdhin Mu'allim man. Mudjar Muezzin. The man who raises the call to prayer. Also spelled muezzin. Literally means 'teacher', but generally refers to master crafts Muslim citizen in Christian Spain. See Mu'adhdhin.

Mughals (1526-1857 A.D.) This dynasty, based in India, was established by Babur (d. 1523 A.D.) in 1526 A.D. The Mughal empire spread all over the Indian subcontinent except the far south, reaching a climax during the rules of Akbar ( r. 1556-1605 A.D.), Jahangir (r. 1605-27 A.D.), Shah Jahan (r. 1627-57 A.D.) and Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707 A.D.). Following Aurangzeb's reign, Mughal control weak ened and territories broke off into individual states, reaching an end in 1857 A .D. when the British dethroned the last sultan. The Mughals were great patrons o f the arts and architecture, sponsoring the Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal. Their architectural palette was inspired by local Hindu, Persian Central Asian, and native Indian Islamic architecture. Common Hindu influences include the ric h ornamentation of piers and columns, the use of corbelling rather than voussoir s, chatris, chajjas and jahokas. Persian influence is seen in the tilework, the iwans, and chahar baghs. Mughal buildings are distinguished by the use of red sa ndstone and white marble. Mughals also excelled in the use of pietra dura inlay using semi-precious and colored stones. Mugharaf Mughatta Niches. The covered or sanctuary area of the mosque.

Muhaqqaq A rounded calligraphic script with well proportioned horizontal and ascending lines, developed by the wazir ibn Muqala. This type of calligraphy was popular for Qur'ans from the thirteenth century A.D. onwards, and is consid ered one of the six 'classical hands'.

Muhtasib The post responsible for prefecture of civil life during the med ieval period. This person is responsible for overseeing public cleanliness, prev enting fraud, overseeing commercial transactions, restraining public harassment or fights, and other similar civil regulations. Mulid The celebration of the birthday of a Prophet or a Saint.

Muluk al-Tawa'if The rulers of smaller Spanish principalities following t he end of the Cordovan caliphate, otherwise known as the 'Party Kings.' Muqarnas One of the most important decorative elements of Islamic archite cture; also called stalactites. They are composed of small arches carved of the building material and arranged on top of each other forming honeycombs. Another definition would be the division of a squinch into a number of small niches. Murabit Soldiers for the faith, usually at the borders of Dar al-Islam, where they would often be based in ribats. Muraqqa' Literally means 'collection of fragments', but refers to an albu m collecting samples of drawings, paintings and calligraphy. Musalla Generally means place of prayer. Can refer to a small prayer are a or to a large open-air space for congregational prayer. The latter context is where 'Id prayers usually take place. Mushaf Pronounced 'mus-haf'. Single volume Qur'an. Mushahhar Construction technique where red and white stone are placed in a lternating courses. Mustahfizan Mamluk member of the janissaries.

Muzaffarids (1314-1393 A.D.) This is an Arab dynasty ruling southern Iran, Ku rdistan, and at a time, all of Persia. Taking its name from Sharaf al-Din Muzaff ar, the grandson of a Khorasani ruler who had advanced under the Ilkhanids becom ing the governor of Maibod, a town in the vicinity of Isfahan. Al-Muzaffar's son , Mubariz al-Din Muhammad (r. 1314-1358) took over after his father and occupied Yazd in 1318 A.D. With the Ilkhand fall in 1335 A.D., he took over Kerman in 13 41 A.D., Fars with Shiraz in 1353 A.D., Tabriz and Isfahan in 1357 A.D., thus be coming the most powerful dynasty in Iran. Under Shah Juha (r. 1358-1384 A.D.) th e Muzaffarids acquired wealth and invested in cultural achievements. From 1387 A .D. they were in battle with pretenders until Tamerlane deposed them in 1393 A.D .

Nadir Nahas

Refers to the frieze beneath the ceiling in Mamluk architecture. Copper.

Nafura Fountain. Namaz Persian for prayer. See Salat.

Naskh/Naskhi Literally means 'copied'. It is a type of calligraphy that was d eveloped by the wazir Ibn Muqala, and is one of the most widespread styles. This

rounded, clearly written script is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. Nasrids (1232-1492 A.D.) This was the last Muslim dynasty that ruled Spai n, lasting from 1238 A.D. when it was founded by Muhammad I ibn Nasr, until 1492 A.D. when it fell to the Christians. It was following the defeat of Almohads whe n many Andalusian Muslim cities fell into Christian hands, that the Muslim gener al Muhammad I ibn Nasr rose to power and was able to control Granada. Although M uhammad I ibn Nasr, was able to expand the Granada region further south, he stil l created peace treaties with the Christian kings, and paid tribute to Ferdinand I of Castile. The Nasrid dynasty continued until Granada fell to the Christians in 1492 A.D. The Nasrids were the patrons of one of the most celebrated Islamic buildings, Alhambra, which was their main palace. In general, the Nasrid court in Granada was a viable cultural center. Ibn Khaldun was a diplomat in the court of Muhammad VI. Nasta liq A type of calligraphy developed in Iran and known also as the fa rsi script or ta liq. This script is composed of elongated sweeping diagonals and short ascending strokes. Popularly used for non-Qur'anic Iranian manuscripts, th is type of calligraphy was also extensively used by the Ottomans on their buildi ngs and in their manuscripts. Calligraphers who excelled at this script included Sultan Ali al-Mashhadi, Mir Ali and Mir Imad. Ottomans An important dynasty that traces its origins to Uthman, the lead er of a Turkic clan who moved to the borders of Byzantine empire having fled the Mongul invasion in the thirteenth century A.D. A strong military organization w as established and by 1453 A.D. the Ottomans had taken over what remained of the Byzantine Empire, making Constantinople their capital, Istanbul. By the sixteen th century A.D. they ruled all of modern Turkey, the Balkans, much of North Afri ca and the Middle East. Although the Ottomans continued to be a major power unti l the nineteenth century A.D., they had already started losing land to local lea ders in Europe and the Middle East. Joining the First World War was a destructiv e blow leading to the loss of the rest of its Arab provinces. Its end was at the hands of the movement of the Young Turks led by Ataturk in 1922 A.D. The Ottoma n dynasty can thus be divided into three stages. The first, from the thirteenth century A.D. until the capture of Constantinople represents a period of growth f rom a small sovereignty to a major dynasty. From 1453 A.D. to the mid-sixteenth century A.D. is considered the grand Ottoman period of superior developments in technology and arts. The last period, was that of the decline which started in t he mid-sixteenth century A.D. until its end in 1922 A.D. The Ottomans left a ric h architectural legacy for they had built extensively, particularly in their imp erial cities, establishing a recognized Ottoman architecture known for its tall pointed minarets, multi-leveled domes and tilework. They were also great patrons of the arts, where Iznik tiles, carpets and textiles are among their most celeb rated artistic legacies. Parison a 'gather'. Molten glass ball inflated on a blowpipe. This is also known as

Pietra Dura Technique of inlay using colored and semi-precious stone used in Mughal architecture. Pishtaq Persian term for portal projecting vertically or horizontally pe rpendicular to the faade. Pomander Pierced container of perfumes.

Pontil Solid metal rod onto which glass vessels are moved after the blowpipe. T he mark left by the pontil on the base of the glass object is called the 'pontil

mark'. Qa a A room with the following plan: two elevated areas (iwans) opposing each other and overlooking a lower area called the durqa a. The plan was inspired from the four-iwanplan or cruciform plan of the religious buildings. They were found in houses on ground floors and first floors alike. The source of light and air in the qa a was theshukhshaykha or a wooden hexagonal skylight. For extra ventilat ion a badhahanj was usually found on top of one of the iwans. In Cairene archite cture the size of the qa as was reduced as time went by, Burji Mamluk qa as being sm aller than Bahri Mamluk ones. Mashrabiyyas were used inside the qa as to cover the recesses on the side walls of the two iwans; these were called aghani. The area inside the aghani was reached by a small staircase. Qabaq Qabr Sport based on target practice. Grave.

Qabw An Arabic term meaning 'to make something in the shape of a dome'. In ar chitecture in means a vault. Vaults are of many shapes, including barrel, crosse d and fan. Qadi Arabic for judge.

Qajars (1796-1925 A.D.) This dynasty, of Turkic tribal origins, originat ed as a tribal federation established by Muhammad Khan (d. 1797 A.D.), and took power over Iran in 1796 A.D. The eighteenth century A.D. saw civil conflicts whi ch ended Qajar unity, and by 1919 A.D. Reza Khan led a coup ending Qajar rule, l eading to the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925 A.D. Qajar art was he avily influenced by European art, and marks the beginning of artistic decadence. Qal a A citadel. Pointed turban for men.

Qalansuwa

Qamariyya A type of opening in the form of a stucco grille. There is no on e single shape associated with a qamariyya, it could be round, rectangular or sq uarish. In Mamluk documents they have been described in different ways; includin g stone carved, with stained glass. Qamis Short tunic or shirt.

Qandil Lamp. Qaraqoyunlus (1380/90 -1469 A.D.) Literally meaning the 'Tribes of the Bla ck Sheep', this Turcoman dynasty named after their original totem animal, ruled parts of eastern Anatolia, Azerbaijan, the Caucasus, Iraq and most of Iran from 1380/90 -1469 A.D. Originally Jalayrid allies, Qara Muhammad (r. 1380-1390 A.D.) ruled the territories from eastern Anatolia through Azerbaijan and Armenia, unt il his successor Qara Yusuf (r. 1390-1420 A.D.) gained independence and took ove r northwest Iran with Tabriz. Battling against the Timurids and the Jalayrids, h e took over Baghdad in 1411 A.D., Diyarbakir, parts of Georgia and Shirvan by 14 19 A.D. Their zenith was under Jahanshah (1435-1467 A.D.) who deposed the Timuri ds in 1447 A.D., took over southern and central Iran with Isfahan in 1452 A.D., Fars and Kerman in 1453 A.D., and Herat in 1458 A.D. The Qaraqoyunlus were defea ted by the Aqqoyunlus in 1467 A.D., and their last ruler was unseated in 1469 A. D. Their contribution to architecture can be seen in their capital Tabriz, where their blue mosque stands with its distinct style.

Qarqal

A small basin to which water flows from the shadirwan.

Qasaba Central part or avenue of town or citadel. It usually comprises the main axial area. Can also refer to the citadel, capital or metropolis. Qashani Glazed tiles. The name is derived from the city Kashan in Iran, which was a major centere of tile production. Tiles adorned buildings in Iran si nce the pre-Islamic period. In Egypt their use to decorate buildings was only in troduced during the Mamluk period. Qasr Palace.

Qaysariyya A type of caravanserai that lodges craftsmen on its upper floors and housed their goods on the ground floor around a sahn. Qaytun In Egypt, it was the space in a house that overlooked water. Mos t of the houses overlooking the ponds in Cairo (birkat al-fil or al-azbakiyya) h ad a qaytun as its basement. Qibla The direction to Ka ba in Mecca. For example, the mihrab is found in the q ibla wall of a mosque. Qishlaq Qit'a Quarters used in winter, often by an army. Literally means 'piece', and is used to refer to a calligraphic panel.

Qizilbash Literally means 'red-head' and refers to Turkomen who followed t he Safavids and were part of their court. They wore the red head gear known as t aj-i Haydari. Qulla Clay water jug. Architecturally can refer to a minaret finial that resem bles the upper part of such a water jug. Qubba Qur an Literally means dome. It is also used to mean a mausoleum. The Word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.

Rab In Arabic, it literally means 'a place where someone would feel comforta ble'. In Mamluk architecture the term describes a small hotel. A group of duplex es or triplexes rented mostly for travelers or to anyone interested. It can also be defined as a type of collective building for the accommodation of the middle class. Noteworthy examples are those of Qaytbay built in 1474 A.D. in the North ern Cemetery close to his funerary complex and that of Kizlar in Siyufiyya stree t built in 1618 A.D. Some rab s were found above wikalas, khans or stores. Rahba An open stretch of space.

Rank A Persian word meaning colour and in a historical context it means blazo n, insignia or emblem. It symbolizes the position of a dignitary and his functio ns. Different ranks used by the Mamluks included cupbearer (al-saqi), the one re sponsible for the royal arms (silahdar), the one responsible for the royal wareh ouse (jamdar), and the taster (jashinkir). The Bahri Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muha mmad ibn Qalawun was the first to use written blazons and from his time onwards the inscribed rank became the sultanic blazon.

Rawda

Garden or paradise.

Rawhayn fi jasad Literally 'two souls in one body'. Medieval architects u sed this expression to describe two windows joined by a column in between. Rawshan Another term for mashrabiyyas. More specifically, it is used to describe mashrabiyyas when they overlook a street, forming some sort of balcony. Rayhan A calligraphic script where a finer pen is used for the vowels. This is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. Ribat The term is derived from the Arabic root, rabata meaning to tie, to bind . It is a kind of caravanserai but with a specific function. By the tenth centur y A.D. it came to mean an Islamic castrum used as a base for holy war (jihad). R ibats were built throughout the Muslim world from Morocco to Central Asia. The w ord was also used to describe urban structures which served commercial purposes or in which Sufis congregated. Another role they played was supporting the posta l services, especially throughout the Seljuk lands. Many ribats are still to be found in the Maghrib; Munastir, Susa, Tafertast and Tit. In the eastern Muslim l ands we have the celebrated eleventh century Ribat-i Sharaf in Khurasan and Riba t-i Malik on the road between Bukhara and Samarqand. Khan, wikala, and caravanse rai can also be used to denote a ribat, particularly in the commercial or lodgin g context. Rikabkhana Derived from Persian, meaning stable.

Riq'a Calligraphic script usually used on administrative documents. It is also used sometimes for sura headings, dedications and colophons in Qur'ans. It is c onsidered one of the six 'classical hands'. Riwaq The meaning of this word differs according to the context in which it wa s used. In a mosque, it means an arcade carried on columns or pillars. In a hous e, it means a living unit with all its dependencies.

Sabat Sabil

Passage with vaulted ceiling. Drinking fountain usually established for public charity.

Sabil-Kuttab A charitable foundation composed of a sabil, public water dispen sary, and a kuttab, an elementary Qur'anic school for children where they would usually learn reading, writing and Qur'an. The sabil would usually be located on the ground floor with the kuttab above it on the first floor. This foundation c ould be attached to a mosque or be a separate structure in itself. Sadr The back wall of an iwan.

Safavids (1501-1722 A.D.) A dynasty that ruled Iran from 1501 A.D. until 1 722 A.D. They were the descendants of the Sufi Shaykh Safy al-Din Ishaq (1252-13 34 A.D.) who founded his tariqa in his hometown Ardabil in 1300 A.D. It was stri ctly Sunni in orientation but by the mid fifteenth century A.D. it became Shi i. A t the age of twelve Shaykh Safy s grandson Isma il invaded Iran. Isma il was full of p assion and vigor and this was how he marched into Tabriz in 1501 A.D. after the Aq Qoyunlu fled in fear of his advances. Few years later he was ruling from Iraq to Uzbekistan. After his death in 1524 A.D. no other Safavid was as passionate or charismatic. Tabriz was the first capital, Qazvin the second and then later i n 1598 A.D. Shah Abbas made Isfahan the capital. The last Safavid Shah was Sulta

n Husayn who was overthrown in 1722 A.D. by the Afghan Ghazali tribe. The Safavi ds were amongst the important patrons of Islamic art, however they are not one o f the peaks. The Maydan-i Shah in Isfahan represents the typical Safavid style o f architecture, which was to a great degree influenced by the Timurids but never reached its excellence. Saha Sahn Terrace or open space. The court of a mosque whether it be opened or closed.

Sahrij The root sahar means to melt something. In architecture it means a water tank. Salamlik Men s reception area in houses and palaces. During the ninteenth c entury A.D. rich households had the salamlik as a separate building. Salari The wooden leaves of a window attached to the iron window grilles often encountered in sabils. Salat Prayers. Derives from the Arabic root silla, meaning link. These are the second pillar of Islam and are performed by Muslims five times a day. In the co ntext of the root, these prayers are a constant link to God. An individual must be ritually pure by performing wudu', ablution, beforehand, and must pray in any clean place oriented towards the qibla, i.e. towards the Ka'ba in Mecca. Prayer s can be individually or in congregation. The Friday prayer taking place at noon however needs to be in congregation. Saljuks (1038-1195 A.D.) This was the first great Turkish dynasty to rule Iranian lands. The advent of Turkic tribes from beyond the Oxus and Syr Darya r ivers had already been taking place long before the rise of Islam, and they were known as the nomadic predators of the Iranian north-eastern frontiers and the m ercenaries in the armies of the Abbasid Caliphate. Those migrating into the Iran ian lands were Turkish military aristocracy and many small Turkish dynasties rep laced the established Iranian ones as what happened with the Samanids and the Ma m unid Khawarazm-Shahs. The Saljuks belong to the Oghuz clan part of the Gok Turki c tribes, rising to power with Tughril who marched into Baghdad in 1055 A.D. dep osing the Buwayhid prince, and by 1058 A.D. the Abbasid Caliph al-Qa im had bestow ed on him an honorary title. The advent of the Saljuks, who eventually ruled fro m Transoxiana to Anatolia marks the elimination of the Shi i presence in this part of the world. Not having a rich culture of their own, they adopted the cultural and literary heritage of Persia and maintained a Persian administration. They o pened the way for the immigration of Turkic tribes to Anatolia, eventually leadi ng to the Turkicization of Byzantine lands following the Manzikert victory in 10 71 A.D. Sunni Islam was to become the system of their government, especially wit h the eradication of the Shi i Buwayhids. The Saljuks were the bearers of the flag of Sunni Islam and which they spread through the institution of the madrasa. Th e formal history of themadrasa as a public institution started with the Saljuk v izier, Nizam al-Mulk, who inaugurated his madrasa in Baghdad in 1068 A.D. Follow ing this inauguration, moremadrasas were established throughout the Saljuk terri tories, and many were found in Merv, Balkh, and Herat. Viziers, military officia ls and merchants also endorsed several madrasas. Architectural forms developed a nd spread rapidly during the Saljuk dynasty. An important transformation took pl ace in the mosque plan, where a new prototype incorporating a domed chamber in t he qibla area in front of the mihrab evolved. The combination of four iwans over looking a court with a dome chamber on theqibla side soon became a standard plan throughout the Iranian lands. In general, the iwan became an important feature in both secular and religious architecture. In terms of decoration, elaborate st ucco and terracotta were extensively used in Iran and the eastern areas, while s tone was used in Anatolia. Few Saljuk monuments still remain in their homeland, Iran, for the majority was destroyed by the Mongul invasion. There are several m

adrasas and tombs in Iraq and Syria, but the most Saljuk monuments have remained in Anatolia. Saljuks of Rum (1037 A.D. - 1308 A.D.) This Turkish dynasty ruling Anatolia was a branch of the Great Saljuks. It was founded by Kutalmish, who was a cousin of the Saljuk rulers, and it was his son Suleyman I (r. 1077-1086 A.D.) who took o ver Iznik in 1078 A.D. During the Crusade conflicts the Saljuks of Rum managed t o acquire extensive autonomy although they were under the official authority of the Great Saljuks. The dynasty experienced great prosperity from the mid twelfth century A.D. until the mid thirteenth century A.D. when in 1240 A.D. territorie s were lost and in 1243 A.D. they were defeated by the Monguls. From 1279 A.D. t he Saljuks of Rum ruled under the authority of the Ilkhanids who eventually took over their territory making it an Ilkhanid province in 1308 A.D. Artistically t he Saljuks of Rum were distinct from those of Iran. Their arts were influenced b y Central Asia, Syria, Mesopotamia and of course, the land of Anatolia. The most popular plan for mosques was the basilica plan with three domes in front of the qibla wall. Monumental portals were another feature of the mosques there, toget her with the single or twin minarets. The entrance of the mosque of Sultan Hasan in Egypt was heavily influenced by Anatolian entrance portals, like the Ince Mi nare Madrasa in Konya or the G?k Madrasa in Sivas. Salsabil A marble or stone plaque that leans on the wall of a sabil or a qa a and is part of the shadirwan. Its main function is for the water to flow over it, babbling into a fountain in the middle of the room. This plaque is decorate d finely with geometric patterns or with carvings of fish. Samanids (819/874-999 A.D.) The Samanid dynasty, founded and named after Sam an Khudat, ruled over Eastern Iran, Afganistan and Central Asia from the late ni nth century to 999 A.D. This Sunni dynasty continued to be faithful to the Abass ids, although they were Tahiridi subjects, where Saman Khudat's 4 grandsons were Tahirid governors in Heart, Shash, Fergana and Samarqand. In 874 A.D., the Tahi ridis were overthrown by Nasr I ibn Ahmad (r. 874-892 A.D.), the son of the Sama rqand governor, who then made Bukhara the capital. His brother, Ismail (r. 892-9 07 A.D.) defeated the Saffarid Empire by 903 A.D., controlling Afganistan, large areas of Persia with Khorasan. Under Nasr II (r. 914-943 A.D.) the dynasty expa nded greatly to include territories from Baghdad, Kerman and Mazandaran (Persian Gulf) to the Indian borders and Turkestan. The Buyids however pushed the Samani ds back to Transoxiana and Khorasan from 945 A.D. Nevertheless, their court flou rished becoming a locus of Persian spitituality and Persian Islamic literature u nder Mansur I (961-976 A.D.) and Nuh II (967-997 A.D.). They were defeated by th e Ghaznavids in 994 A.D. where they lost Khorasan, and by the Qarakhanids where they lost Transoxiana in 999 A.D., and the latter finally killed their last rule r while fleeing in 1005 A.D. Art and culture flourished under the Samanids, and it was during this period that the renowned philosopher and physician Ibn Sina, known to the West as Avicenna, was born and studied in Bukhara. Saqaqa Tank of water used for ablution. Saqi Mamluk rank of cupbearer who's responsibility includes the sultan's tabl e and drinks. Sarai Turkish for palace.

Sasanians (c. 225-651 A.D.) Pre-Islamic dynasty in Iran that ruled c. 225-65 1 A.D., whose main administrative capital was Ctesiphon, Iraq. This dynasty was founded by Ardashir, possibly a distant relative of the Achaemenids, who had rep laced the Parthian dynasty. Zoroastrianism was the state religion, and their lan guage was Pahlavi. The Muslim armies started taking over following the conquests of Qadisiyya (636 A.D.) and Nihavand (642 A.D.) The last Sasanian ruler was Yaz degird III (651 A.D.). In general, Sasanian prototypes were important infleunces

in Islamic art and architecture. In Umayyad architecture this is indicated by t he mosaic motifs in the Dome of Rock, stucco work at Khirbat al-Mafjar and the e ntire design of Qasr Kharana. Further influence can also be noted in Khan 'Atsha n and the 'Abassid palace of Ukhaidar. Sawma'a Sayyid Cell or minaret. A title given to descendants of the Prophet or to Sufis.

Saz Popular Ottoman vegetal motif based on the leaves of the reed. It can al so refer to a type of musical instrument. Sehna Knot 'Persian' or assymetrical knot used in carpets and rugs.

Sgraffiato Italian term which literally means 'scratched'. This refers to a pottery where patterns are incised onto a vessel that was first covered with a slip and coated with a lead glaze. Shad It is derived from the Arabic root, shadd or to strengthen, though gener ally it means architect. Shadirwan A Persian word for an element mostly found in sabils adorning on e of its walls. It consists of a wooden stalactite conch with an opening for wat er to pour from into a small basin called qarqal. From the qarqal the water flow s on the salsabil, set on the wall at an angle, and then flows to a fountain in the middle of the room. The whole idea is for decorative purposes and for causin g a cool breeze in the place and this is why we find it in houses as well. Shafi'i One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this scho ol was Imam Shafi'i (767-819 A.D.), the third of the four major imams. He was bo rn in Palestine and raised in Mecca. Imam Shafi'i studied under Imam Malik (see Maliki) in Medina, in Mecca and in Iraq, finally spending the last years of his life in Egypt where he is buried in the Mausoleum of Imam Shafi'i. This school h as always been one of the, if not the, most widespread in Egypt. Shah Persian for king. It was in use since the Achaemenids.

Shahid The Arabic root of the word means 'to witness'. In architecture it describes the tombstone, which carries some Qur anic verses and an epitaph. Tom bstones were always beautifully adorned with the different scripts. Shamsa A term derived from shams or sun used in documents to describe o rnaments that are round in shape or rounded windows. It might have been used for windows because they admit sunlight and are thus shamsas. Shamsiyya Another term used to describe rounded ornaments, especially used for manuscripts. It is also derived from the word shams. See shamsa. Shararif Plural for shirfa. See Crenellations.

Sharbakhana A composite Arabic-Persian word meaning warehouse for storing dr inks and their respective tableware such as expensive porcelain, gold or rock cr ystal cups. It is also used for the storage of sweets, fruits, essential oils an d even potions. In the royal palaces it is supervised by the mihtar al-sharabkha na. Shaykhuni A way of roofing.

Shikaste Literally means 'borken.' This refers to calligraphy where parts of the word are placed at different levels. Shurfa/shurfat See crenellations. Sidila A large recess in the side walls of a qa a. By the end of the Burji Mamluk period the side iwans (northern and southern) were reduced in size greatly and were thence calledsidilas. Simurgh Sinf Sirdab Sirja Siyyaj Slip-carved Persian mythical bird. Constitution of workers into guilds An underground corridor or a tunnel. Sesame oil press. Fence of any kind. Pottery decoration where slp is carved away from the surface.

Slip-painted Pottery decoration technique where the piece is covered in a col or against which contrasting earthy pigments are painted thinly. Squinch An arch or system of arches usually placed at the corners of a s quare supporting a dome. Stalactite See Muqarnas.

Stucco Fine plaster carved into low-relief decoration used both in interiors an d on exteriors of monuments. Sunna The traditions of the Prophet Muhammad that forms a huge body of literat ure. It supplements the Qur an and acts as a source of guidance for the followers of Islam. Ranging over topics as varied as doctrine, prayer, taxation, governmen t, fasting, pilgrimage, and spirituality, this unique reservoir of religious gui dance is an indispensable foundation for the study and understanding of any aspe ct of Islam. Suq Sura Marketplace. Qur'an chapter.

Tabaqa The Arabic root means 'to fold' and also means 'level; levels of earth, buildings or people'. In architecture it means a lodging area in a building; a r oom, a duplex, triplex, etc. Tabhane Turkish term referring to lodging section attached to some mosqu es where travellers, usually mystics, could stay for three days free of charge. In the early mosques these were separate annexes, but they were incorporated int o the main body of later mosques. Tablakhana A composite Arabic-Persian word meaning the 'house of the drums' . It was basically a warehouse for the storage of musical instruments. Amir tabl akhana was the prince who had the right to have drums played at the gate of his palace.

Tabut Storage box. Its most common usage means cenotaph. In Mamluk baths the w ord tabut meant a wooden box used as a locker by the bathers, and in mills the t erm was used for a flour storage place. Tadhhib Tahun Mill. Pronounced 'tad-hib'. To illuminate a manuscript.

Taj al- Amud Capital of a column. Different capitals were used in Muslim arch itecture, amongst which are the ionic, Corinthian, muqarnas and bell-shaped capi tals. Taj-i Haydari Red head gear worn by Turkomen of the Safavid court.

Takhtabush A space designated for the public that was found in the Ottoman domestic architecture of Cairo. Mainly found in big houses, it was the hall on t he ground floor allocated for receiving male visitors before they were allowed i n other areas of the house. It was usually flat roofed with a faade opening onto the courtyard. The facade was divided in two parts by a supporting column. Its A natolian equivalent is the hayat. Talar An open hall of columns found in many Iranian palaces. Its origins are f rom Persian or Near Eastern house plans. Tamwih Tanur Taq Enameling. Traditional clay oven with open top. Persian for arch.

Tarbi a A square shaped area. It could be a court, a small garden in a house or a decorative panel in the shape of a square. Tarima Open loggia. Tariqa Literally means 'path' or 'way'. Refers to Sufi order. Tarsi A masonry technique where pieces of stone are inlaid in a panel of stone . The applied stones were commonly marble or semi-precious stones. Tasfih Tashtiyya Covering anything with metal sheets, iron or brass Also pronounced tastiyya. It means a small fountain.

Tashtkhana A composite Arabic-Persian word used to describe the place where the textiles of the Sultan were washed. It also houses the Sultan s entire wardro be, carpets and cushions. Tawqi' Calligraphy used for administrative documents. This is considered one th e six 'classical hands'. Tawriq Literally means leaf tendril. It is used to describe leaf work or scroll work in Islamic art. Tawwaf Circumambulation, mainly with reference to that around the Ka'ba in Mecc a. Tazzgig Using a transparent glaze for pottery

Tekke

See Tikiyya.

Thuluth A cursive script that is bold and monumental. This is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. Tikiyya A Sufi hospice. This term was used during the Ottoman period, as it replaced the term khanqa . The usage of the Ottoman structure does not vary from the usage of the Ayyubid or the Mamluk khanqa, however the plan differed. T ikiyyas flourished all around the Ottoman Empire until World War I when most of them were abandoned. Atikiyya consists of an open courtyard surrounded by arcade s on its four sides. Surrounding the arcades were the Sufi cells, which were usu ally small vaulted rooms. Also included were a small mosque and a graveyard. Tim Covered market.

Timurids (1370 1507 A.D.) This great Turkic dynasty founded by Timur Lang who claimed descent from Jingis Khan, was the last greatest Muslim dynasty of St eppe origin. Timur s father ruled Kish in Transoxiana, which allowed Timur to crea te a base in Samarqand. From there he conquered areas to the west, thus gaining power over Iran. His first campaigns were in Khawarizm and Khurasan., after whic h he went into Iran and conquered Muzaffarid and Jalayrid lands. Further west he defeated the invincible Bayazid I in Ankara in the year 1402 A.D., three years before his death when he had set out to conquer China. To the north he penetrate d Moscow. Timur's descendents continued to control the Timurid empire, but by th e mid-fifteenth century A.D. western provinces were lost, and their rule ended i n 1507 A.D. when Heart was overtaken by the Turkmans. Cultural patronage was an important aspect of Timurid court life, where the remains of Timur's palace Aq S aray, in Shahr-i Sabz, show the grandeur of this chieftain. He attested that the measure of the genius of an empire is its buildings, and would thus send all th e craftsmen from conquered territories to Samarqand. After his campaign in India , Timur built one of the biggest mosques in the Muslim world in Samarqand, the M osque of Bibi Khanum. The shrine complex of Khuja Ahmad Yasavi in Jassy and Timu r s Mausoleum, Gur-i Mir in Samarqand are yet other examples of the Timur's grande ur. His descendants were also great patrons of both architecture and the arts of the book. His son Shah Rukh moved the capital to Heart, transforming it into on e of the most important cities in the history of Islamic culture. Gawhar Shad, S hah Rukh s wife, commissioned several buildings throughout Timurid territories, th e most important of which is her Friday Mosque in Mashhad. Ulug Beg, Shah Rukh s s on, also commissioned several observatories and refurbished the Registan Square in Samarqand by building his madrasa. The Shahname of Firdawsi, the Khamsa of Ni zami, to name a couple, were commissioned by most of Timur s descendants. Historia ns, like Hafiz-i Abru, great mystics, like Abd al-Rahman Jami and painters like Bihzad were appreciated and sponsored by the Timurids. Tiraz Inscription band found on the faade of a building.

Tughra Derived from Turkish, it means the artistic signature of the Ottoman Sul tan, which contained his name and a victory phrase drawn beautifully. It was use d to certify documents by the Sultan. Tulunids (868 - 905 A.D.) This was a minor dynasty established by Ahmad ib n Tulun (d. 884 A.D.) which ruled briefly over Egypt and Syria. As a subgovernor of Egypt for the Abassids, Ibn Tulun seized the chance of the weakening Abassid s to create a private army and take over Egypt in 868 A.D. Although the Tulunids expanded into Syria, the Abassids still managed to reclaim their lost power in 905 A.D. by taking over Egypt and destroying the Tulunid capital. The celebrated mosque of Ibn Tulun (876-879 A.D.) however remains standing. Turba Grave or tomb. In Mamluk documents it was used to denote the mausoleum w

ith all its dependencies. Turbe Mausoleum in Turkish. See Ithna 'Asharis.

Twelvers

Ulama Ulu Cami

Religious scholars of Islam. Turkish for 'Friday Mosque' or 'Great Mosque'.

Umayyads (661-750 A.D.) The first dynasty of Islam which was founded by Mu awiyya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661-80 A.D.), who was the governor of Syria after the Syrian conquest. He came to rule the entire Muslim world from his capital Damas cus, which became a main cultural center of the Muslim world. Mu awiyya used the a lready existing Byzantium base of shipyards to build a strong Arab navy. The gre atest caliphs of the Umayyads were Mu awiya, Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705 A.D.), Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717-20 A.D.) and Hisham (r. 724-744 A.D). Their caliphate fe ll in 750 A.D. because of the opposition of the Arab tribes in Iraq and others i n Medina. They were overthrown by a revolution that began in Khurasan, led by Ab u Muslim who gained the caliphate for the Abbasids. Most of the Umayyads were ki lled during these happenings, one of those who survived was Abd al-Rahman who fl ed to North Africa and reinstituted the Umayyads in Spain. Their architecture wa s heavily influenced by Byzantine norms. Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan built th e dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, in 691 A.D., the first monument in Islam. Its p lan is derived from Byzantine mausolea and its decoration, the mosaic on its inn er walls, are classical in inspiration. Umayyad caliphs built several desert pal aces, all similar to Roman forts. The bath at Qusayr Amra is the typical Roman b ath. The mural paintings adorning its walls are all of Byzantine inspiration. Th e mosaic floors in Khirbat al-Mafjar are yet another classical influence. Other influences from the east played a role, but not as strong as those of Byzantium. The faade of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi shows Sasanian influences on the sculpted fi gures. Ustadar Mamluk position of tutor, who was also responsible for managing the sultan's private issues, including his residence and treasury affairs. Utruja e elements. Citron or ethrog and is used to describe the shapes of decorativ

Valide Turkish for mother. In the Ottoman period it referred to the mother of t he Sultan, who became a very important persona in the later periods of the Ottom an court. Vizier Minister. Voussoir Stones shaped like wedges used in the construction of arches. Valide Turkish for mother. In the Ottoman period it referred to the mother of t he Sultan, who became a very important persona in the later periods of the Ottom an court. Vizier Minister. Voussoir Wajiha Stones shaped like wedges used in the construction of arches. Faade.

Wakala See Wikala.

Wali

Governor.

Waqf A very important institution in the history of Islamic architecture. For the upkeep of religious buildings and charitable foundations a system had to be instituted to guarantee that their functions will not come to a halt once the f ounder had died. The revenues generated from allotted plots of land or other ins titutions were dedicated to the upkeep of a mosque, madrasa, khanqa or complex. Usually the patron would stipulate in the endowment deed that what he draws up f rom his property will be dedicated for this cause and he appoints someone to ove rlook the occurrence of his stipulations, which include the conditions of admini stration and upkeep, including the cost of maintenance and salaries. The person appointed was usually a descendant of the patron. The deed itself had to be lega lly authenticated and kept with a qadi (judge). Some waqfiyyas were carved on th e exterior or interior walls of the buildings. It was not only lands that were e ndowed to buildings, but Qur ans as well and their deed was usually inscribed on e ither the first or last page of the Qur an. Curses called down on anyone who alter s any of the waqfiyya s conditions are often encountered in them.Waqfiyyas are imp ortant documents for the study of the social history of Islamic architecture as it thoroughly describes the building, what goes on inside and the relation of th e building with its surroundings. Waqfiyya The deed where the waqf is written. The alternative name in Pers ian is waqfnamah. Waq-waq Mythical talking tree.

Wazara In Mamluk architecture, it referred to a dado usually made of marble. Wazir Arabic for minister or vizier.

Wikala The Egyptian caravanserai. Like the khan, the basic plan consist ed of an open court surrounded by rooms for storing merchants goods and for their display as well. Annexed there is usually an area that would function as a stab le for housing the animals of the merchants, mostly horses. The upper floors of a khan are the accommodation areas, with single rooms, duplexes or triplexes for the travelers. Wudu' Ablution required to make the believer ritually pure. It is obligatory b efore prayer, and is composed of washing hands, mouth, face, arms, head and feet . Yasa Customs, traditions or behavioral codes of Turks. Long sword with a blade that curves inwards.

Yataghan

Yurt A round tent used in Turkey and Central Asia composed of a movable woode n frame covered in felt or skin. Zawiya In Arabic, it literally means collecting things and then compres sing them or contracting them. It can also mean a corner. Since many shaykhs sat in the corners of the mosques or madrasas instructing their students so term wa s thus used for small mosques and oratories. Zawiyas were also used by Sufi tari qas and named after them and in this sense resemble khanqas. Zawiyas however had no lodging area. Zeghir Thumb-ring used by archers, Zellij Moroccan Arabic term for small enamelled ceramic tiles used to decorate

buildings. These are used extensively in North African and Andalusian architectu re. Ziggurat y levels. Zikr Zilu The Zoroastrian temple, which was in the shape of a tower of man

See Dhikr. Floor covering made of flat weave.

Ziyada The extra or empty space between the mosque and the surrounding buffer wall. Not all mosques had ziyadas, but a very good example is the one of the mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo. Ziyarat . Lterally means 'visitation', but is used to refer to a mausoleum

Zulla Arabic term meaning shaded area, which usually refers to the covered par t of the mosque.