DIGITAL

MODULATIONS
2
Why digital modulation?
If our goal was to design a digital baseband
communication system, we have done that
Problem is baseband communication wont takes
us far, literally and figuratively
Digital modulation to a square pulse is what
analog modulation was to messages
3
A block diagram
Messsage
source
Source
coder
Line coder
Pulse
shaping
demodulator detector
channel
modulator
decision
1011
GEOMETRI C
REPRESENTATI ON OF
SI GNALS
5
The idea
We are used to seeing signals expressed either
in time or frequency domain
There is another representation space that
portrays signals in more intuitive format
In this section we develop the idea of signals as
multidimensional vectors
6
Have we seen this before?
Why yes! Remember the beloved e
j2fct
which
can be written as
e
j2fct
=cos(2f
c
t)+jsin(2f
c
t)
inphase
quadrature
7
Expressing signals as a weighted sum
Suppose a signal set consists of M signals
s
i
(t),I=1,,M. Each signal can be represented
by a linear sum of basis functions
s
i
t ( ) = s
ij

j
t ( )
j =1
N

i =1,...,M
0s t s T
8
Conditions on basis functions
For the expansion to hold, basis functions must
be orthogonal to each other
Mathematically:
Geometrically:

i
t ( )
j
t ( )
}
dt =
0 i = j
1 i = j



|
i
|
j
|
k
9
Components of the signal vector
Each signal needs N numbers to be represented
by a vector. These N numbers are given by
projecting each signal onto the individual basis
functions:
s
ij
means projection of s
i
(t)on
j
(t)
s
ij
= s
i
(t)
j
t ( )
0
T
}
dt
s
ij
s
i
|
j
10
Signal space dimension
How many basis functions does it take to
express a signal? It depends on the
dimensionality of the signal
Some need just 1 some need an infinite number.
The number of dimensions is N and is always
less than the number of signals in the set
N<=M
11
Example: Fourier series
Remember Fourier series? A signal was
expanded as a linear sum of sins and cosines of
different frequencies. Sounds familiar?
Sins and cosines are the basis functions and are
in fact orthogonal to each other
cos 2nf
o
t ( )
T
o
}
cos 2mf
o
t ( )dt = 0,m= n
f
o
=1/T
o
12
Example: four signal set
A communication system sends one of 4 possible
signals. Expand each signal in terms of two
given basis functions
1 1
1 1 2
1
- 0.5
2
1
13
Components of s
1
(t)
This is a 2-D signal space. Therefore, each
signal can be represented by a pair of numbers.
Lets find them
For s
1
(t)
s
11
= s
1
(t)
1
t ( )
0
2
}
dt = 1 ( ) 1 ( )
0
1
}
dt + 0=1
s
12
= s
1
(t)
2
t ( )
0
2
}
dt = 0+ 0.5 ( ) 1 ( )
0
1
}
dt = 0.5
t
t
1 2
1
1
- 0.5
s
1
(t)
|
1
s=(1,- 0.5)
14
Interpretation
s
1
(t) is now condensed into just two numbers.
We can reconstruct s
1
(t) like this
s
1
(t)=(1)
1
(t)+(-0.5)
2
(t)
Another way of looking at it is this
1
- 0.5
|
1
|
2
15
Signal constellation
Finding individual components of each signal
along the two dimensions gets us the
constellation
s4
s1
s2
s3
|
1
|
2
- 0.5
- 0.5 0.5
16
Learning from the constellation
So many signal properties can be inferred by
simple visual inspection or simple math
Orthogonality:
s
1
and s
4
or orthogonal. To show that, simply find their
inner product, < s
1
, s
4
>
< s
1
, s
4
> = s
11
xs
41
+s
12
xs
42
=(1)(0.5)+(1)(-0.5)=0
17
Finding the energy from the
constellation
This is a simple matter. Remember,
Replace the signal by its expansion
E
i
= s
i
2
(t)dt
0
T
}
E
i
= s
ij

j
(t)
j =1
N

(

(
0
T
}
s
ik

k
(t)
k=1
N

(

(
dt
18
Exploiting the orthogonality of
basis functions
Expanding the summation, all cross product
terms integrate to zero. What remains are N
terms where j=k

E
i
= s
ij
2

j
2
t ( )
j =1
N

(

(
0
T
}
dt = s
ij
2

j
2
t ( )dt
0
T
}



(

(
j=1
N

s
ij
2

j
2
t ( )dt
0
T
}
=1

j =1
N

= s
ij
2
j =1
N

19
Energy in simple language
What we just saw says that the energy of a
signal is simply the square of the length of its
corresponding constellation vector
3
2
E=9+ 4=13
E
20
Constrained energy signals
Lets say you are under peak energy E
p
constraint in your application. Just make sure
all your signals are inside a circle of radius
sqrt(E
p
)
E
p
21
Correlation of two signals
A very desirable situation in is to have signals
that are mutually orthogonal. How do we test
this? Find the angle between them
u
s1
s2
cos
12
( ) =
s
1
T
s
2
s
1
s
2
transpose
22
Find the angle between s
1
and s
2
Given that s
1
=(1,2)
T
and s
2
=(2,1)
T
, what is the
angle between the two?
s
1
T
s
2
= 1 2
| |
2
1



(

(
= 2+ 2= 4
s
1
= 1+ 4= 5
s
2
= 4+1= 5
cos
12
( ) =
4
5 5
=
4
5

12
= 36.9
o
23
Distance between two signals
The closer signals are together the more
chances of detection error. Here is how we can
find their separation
d
12
2
= s
1
s
2
2
= s
1j
s
2j
( )
2
j =1
N

= (1)
2
+ (1)
2
= 2
d
12
= 2
1 2
1
2
24
Constellation building using correlator
banks
We can decompose the signal into its
components as follows
s(t)
|
1
|
2
|
N
dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
s
1
s
2
s
N
N components
25
Detection in the constellation space
Received signal is put through the filter bank
below and mapped to a point
s(t)
|
1
|
2
|
N
dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
s
1
s
2
s
N
components
mapped to a single point
26
Constellation recovery in noise
Assume signal is contaminated with noise. All N
components will also be affected. The original
position of s
i
(t) will be disturbed
27
Actual example
Here is a 16-level constellation which is
reconstructed in the presence of noise
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Eb/No=5 dB
28
Detection in signal space
One of the M allowable signals is transmitted,
processed through the bank of correlators and
mapped onto constellation question is based on
what we see , what was the transmitted signal?
received signal
which of the four did it
come from
29
Minimum distance decision rule
It can be shown that the optimum decision, in
the sense of lowest BER, is to pick the signal
that is closest to the received vector. This is
called maximum likelihood decision making
this is the most likely
transmitted signal
received
30
Defining decision regions
An easy detection method, is to compute
decision regions offline. Here are a few
examples
decide s1
decide s2
s1
s2
measurement
decide s1
decide s2
decide s3 decide s4
s1
s2
s3
s4
decide s1
s1
31
More formally...
Partition the decision space into M decision
regions Z
i
, i=1,,M. Let X be the measurement
vector extracted from the received signal. Then
if XZ
i
s
i
was transmitted
32
How does detection error occur?
Detection error occurs when X lands in Z
i
but it
wasnt s
i
that was transmitted. Noise, among
others, may be the culprit
departure from transmitted
position due to noise
X
s
i
33
Error probability
we can write an expression for error like this
P{error|s
i
}=P{X does not lie in Z
i
|s
i
was
transmitted}
Generally
P
e
= P XeZ
i
|s
i
{ }P{
i =1
M
s
i
}
34
Example: BPSK
(binary phase shift keying)
BPSK is a well known digital modulation obtained
by carrier modulating a polar NRZ signal. The
rule is
1: s
1
=Acos(2f
c
t)
0: s
2
= - Acos(2f
c
t)
1s and 0s are identified by 180 degree phase
reversal at bit transitions
35
Signal space for BPSK
Look at s
1
and s
2
. What is the basis function
for them? Both signals can be uniquely written
as a scalar multiple of a cosine. So a single
cosine is the sole basis function. We have a 1-
D constellation
A - A
cos(2pif
c
t)
36
Bringing in E
b
We want each bit to have an energy E
b
. Bits in
BPSK are RF pulses of amplitude A and duration
T
b
. Their energy is A
2
T
b
/2 . Therefore
E
b
= A
2
T
b
/2 --->A=sqrt(2E
b
/T
b
)
We can write the two bits as follows
s
1
t ( ) =
2E
b
T
b
cos 2f
c
t ( )
s
2
t ( ) =
2E
b
T
b
cos 2f
c
t
( )
37
BPSK basis function
As a 1-D signal, there is one basis function.
We also know that basis functions must have
unit energy. Using a normalization factor
E

=1

1
t ( ) =
2
T
b
cos 2f
c
t ( )
38
Formulating BER
BPSK constellation looks like this
E
b
- E
b
X|1=[E
b
+ n,n]
transmitted
received
noise
P
e1
= P E
b
+ n< 0|1 is transmitted
{ }
if noise is negative enough, it will push
X to the left of the boundary, deciding 0
instead
39
Finding BER
Lets rewrite BER
But n is gaussian with mean 0 and variance N
o
/2
P
e1
= P E
b
+ n< 0|1
{ }
= P n< E
b
{ }
- sqrt(E
b
)
40
BER for BPSK
Using the trick to find the area under a
Gaussian density (after normalization with
respect to variance)
BER=Q[(2E
b
/No)
0.5
]
or
BER=0.5erfc[(E
b
/No)
0.5
]
41
BPSK Example
Data is transmitted at R
b
=10
6
b/s. Noise PSD
is 10
-6
and pulses are rectangular with
amplitude 0.2 volt. What is the BER?
First we need energy per bit, E
b
. 1s and 0s
are sent by

2E
b
T
b
cos(2f
c
t)
2E
b
T
b
= 0.2
42
Solving for E
b
Since bit rate is 10
6
, bit length must be
1/R
b
=10
-6
Therefore,
E
b
=20x10
-6
=20 w-sec
Remember, this is the received energy. What
was transmitted are probably several orders of
magnitude bigger
43
Solving for BER
Noise PSD is N
o
/2 =10
-6
. We know for BPSK
BER=0.5erfc[(E
b
/No)
0.5
]
What we have is then
Finish this using erf tables
BER=
1
2
erfc
E
b
N
o
|
\

|
.
| =
1
2
erfc
210
7
210
6
|
\

|
.
|
=
1
2
erfc( 0.1) =
1
2
erfc(0.316)
44
Binary FSK
(Frequency Shift Keying)
Another method to transmit 1s and 0s is to
use two distinct tones, f
1
and f
2
of the form
below
But what is the requirements on the tones? Can
they be any tones?
s
i
t ( ) =
2E
b
T
b
cos 2f
i
t ( ),0s t s T
b
0





45
Picking the right tones
It is desirable to keep the tones orthogonal
Since tones are sinusoids, it is sufficient for
the tones to be separated by an integer
multiple of inverse duration, i.e.
f
i
=
n
c
+ i
T
b
,i =1,2
n
c
= some integer
46
Example tones
Lets say we are sending data at the rate of 1
Mb/sec in BFSK, What are some typical tones?
Bit length is 10
-6
sec. Therefore, possible
tones are (use n
c
=0)
f
1
=1/T
b
=1 MHz
f
2
=2/T
b
=2MHz
47
BFSK dimensionality
What does the constellation of BFSK look like?
We first have to find its dimension
s
1
and s
2
can be represented by two
orthonormal basis functions:
Notice f
1
and f
2
are selected to make them
orthogonal

i
t ( ) =
2
T
b
cos 2f
i
t ( ),0s ts T
b
48
BFKS constellation
There are two dimensions. Find the components
of signals along each dimension using
s
11
= s
1
t ( )
0
T
b
}

1
t ( )dt = E
b
s
12
= s
1
t ( )
0
T
b
}

2
t ( )dt = 0
s
1
= ( E
b
,0)
E
b
E
b
49
Decision regions in BFSK
Decisions are made based on distances. Signals
closer to s
1
will be classified as s
1
and vice
versa
50
Detection error in BFSK
Let the received signal land where shown.
Assume s
1
is sent. How would a detection error
occur?
x
2
>x
1
puts X in the
s
2
partition
s
1
s
2
X=received
x
1
x
2
P
e1
=P{ x
2
>x
1
| s
1
was sent}
51
Where do (x
1
,x
2
) come from?
Use the correlator bank to extract signal
components
x =
s
1
(t)+ noise
|
1
|
2
dt
0
T
b
}
dt
0
T
b
}
x
1
(gaussian)
x
2
(gaussian)
52
Finding BER
We have to answer this question: what is the
probability of one random variable exceeding
another random variable?
To cast P(x
2
>x
1
) into like of P(x>2), rewrite
P(x
2
>x
1
|x
1
)
x
1
is now treated as constant. Then, integrate
out x
1
to eliminate it
53
BER for BFSK
Skipping the details of derivation, we get
P
e
= BER=
1
2
erfc
E
b
2N
o
|
\

|
.
|
54
BPSK and BFSK c ompar i son:
ener gy ef f i c i enc y
Lets compare their BERs
P
e
=
1
2
erfc
E
b
2N
o
|
\

|
.
|
,BFSK
P
e
=
1
2
erfc
E
b
N
o
|
\

|
.
|
, BPSK
What does it take to have the
same BER?
E
b
in BFSK must be twice as
big as BPSK
Conclusion: energy per bit must
be twice as large in BFSK to
achieve the same BER
55
Comparison in the constellation
space
Distances determine BERs. Lets compare
Both have the same E
b
, but BPSKs are farther
apart, hence lower BER
E
b
E
b
2 E
b
E
b
E
b
1.4 E
b
56
Differential PSK
Concept of differential encoding is very
powerful
Take the the bit sequence 11001001
Differentially encoding of this stream means
that we start we a reference bit and then
record changes
57
Differential encoding example
Data to be encoded
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Set the reference bit to 1, then use the
following rule
Generate a 1 if no change
Generate a 0 if change
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
58
Detection logic
Detecting a differentially encoded signal is
based on the comparison of two adjacent bits
If two coded bits are the same, that means
data bit must have been a 1, otherwise 0
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Encoded
received bits
unknown
transmitted bits
59
DPSK: generation
Once data is differentially encoded, carrier
modulation can be carried out by a straight
BPSK encoding
Digit 1:phase 0
Digit 0:phase 180
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Differentially encoded data
Phase encoded(BPSK)
60
DPSK detection
Data is detected by a phase comparison of two
adjacent pulses
No phase change: data bit is 1
Phase change: data bit is 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Detected data
61
Bit errors in DPSK
Bit errors happen in an interesting way
Since detection is done by comparing adjacent
bits, errors have the potential of propagating
Allow a single detection error in DPSK
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Back on track:no errors
Transmitted bits
Incoming phases
Detected bits
2 errors
62
Conclusion
In DPSK, if the phase of the RF pulse is
detected in error, error propagates
However, error propagation stops quickly. Only
two bit errors are misdetected. The rest are
correctly recovered
63
Why DPSK?
Detecting regular BPSK needs a coherent
detector, requiring a phase reference
DPSK needs no such thing. The only reference
is the previous bit which is readily available
64
M-ary signaling
Binary communications sends one of only 2
levels; 0 or 1
There is another way: combine several bits into
symbols
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
Combining two bits at a time gives rise to 4
symbols; a 4-ary signaling
65
8-level PAM
Here is an example of 8-level signaling
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
binary
7
5
3
2
1
- 1
- 3
- 5
- 7
66
A few definitions
We used to work with bit length T
b
. Now we
have a new parameter which we call symbol
length,T
1 1
0
T
T
b
67
Bit length-symbol length relationship
When we combine n bits into one symbol; the
following relationships hold
T=nT
b
- symbol length
n=logM bits/symbol
T=T
b
xlogM- symbol length
All logarithms are base 2
68
Example
If 8 bits are combined into one symbol, the
resulting symbol is 8 times wider
Using n=8, we have M=2
8
=256 symbols to pick
from
Symbol length T=nT
b
=8T
b
69
Defining baud
When we combine n bits into one symbol,
numerical data rate goes down by a factor of n
We define baud as the number of symbols/sec
Symbol rate is a fraction of bit rate
R=symbol rate=R
b
/n=R
b
/logM
For 8-level signaling, baud rate is 1/3 of bit
rate
70
Why M-ary?
Remember Nyquist bandwidth? It takes a
minimum of R/2 Hz to transmit R pulses/sec.
If we can reduce the pulse rate, required
bandwidth goes down too
M-ary does just that. It takes R
b
bits/sec and
turns it into R
b
/logM pulses sec.
71
Issues in transmitting 9600
bits/sec
Want to transmit 9600 bits/sec. Options:
Nyquists minimum bandwidth:9600/2=4800 Hz
Full roll off raised cosine:9600 Hz
None of them fit inside the 4 KHz wide phone
lines
Go to a 16 - level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate
is reduced to
R=R
b
/logM=9600/4=2400 Hz
72
Using 16-level signaling
Go to a 16-level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is
then cut down to
R=R
b
/logM=9600/4=2400 pulses/sec
To accommodate 2400 pulses /sec, we have
several options. Using sinc we need only 1200
Hz. Full roll-off needs 2400Hz
Both fit within the 4 KHz phone line bandwidth
73
Bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth efficiency is defined as the number
of bits that can be transmitted within 1 Hz of
bandwidth
=R
b
/B
T
bits/sec/Hz
In binary communication using sincs, B
T
=R
b
/2
=2 bits/sec/Hz
74
M-ary bandwidth efficiency
In M-ary signaling , pulse rate is given by
R=R
b
/logM. Full roll-off raised cosine
bandwidth is B
T
=R= R
b
/logM.
Bandwidth efficiency is then given by
=R
b
/B
T
=logM bits/sec/Hz
For M=2, binary we have 1 bit/sec/Hz. For
M=16, we have 4 bits/sec/Hz
75
M-ary bandwidth
Summarizing, M-ary and binary bandwidth are
related by
B
M-ary
=B
binary
/logM
Clearly , M-ary bandwidth is reduced by a
factor of logM compared to the binary
bandwidth
76
8-ary bandwidth
Let the bit rate be 9600 bits/sec. Binary
bandwidth is nominally equal to the bit rate,
9600 Hz
We then go to 8-level modulation (3
bits/symbol) M-ary bandwidth is given by
B
M-ary
=B
binary
/logM=9600/log8=3200 Hz
77
Bandwidth efficiency numbers
Here are some numbers
n(bits/symbol) M(levels) (bits/sec/Hz)
1 2 1
2 4 2
3 8 3
4 16 4
8 256 8
78
Symbol energy vs. bit energy
Each symbol is made up of n bits. It is not
therefore surprising for a symbol to have n
times the energy of a bit
E(symbol)=nE
b
E
b
E
79
QPSK
quadrature phase shift keying
This is a 4 level modulation.
Every two bits is combined and mapped to one
of 4 phases of an RF signal
These phases are 45
o
,135
o
,225
o
,315
o
s
i
(t) =
2E
T
cos 2f
c
t +(2i 1)

4


(

,i =1,2,3,4
0





,0s t s T
Symbol energy
Symbol width
80
QPSK constellation
45
o
00
01
11
10
E

1
t ( ) =
2
T
cos2f
c
t

2
t ( ) =
2
T
sin2f
c
t
Basis functions
S=[0.7 E,- 0.7 E]
81
QPSK decision regions
00
01
11
10
Decision regions re color- coded
82
QPSK error rate
Symbol error rate for QPSK is given by
This brings up the distinction between symbol
error and bit error. They are not the same!
P
e
= erfc(
E
2N
o
)
83
Symbol error
Symbol error occurs when received vector is
assigned to the wrong partition in the
constellation
When s
1
is mistaken for s
2
, 00 is mistaken for
11
00
11
s1
s2
84
Symbol error vs. bit error
When a symbol error occurs, we might suffer
more than one bit error such as mistaking 00
for 11.
It is however unlikely to have more than one bit
error when a symbol error occurs
10 10 11 10 00
11 10 11 10 00
10 symbols = 20 bits
Sym.error=1/10
Bit error=1/20
85
Interpreting symbol error
Numerically, symbol error is larger than bit
error but in fact they are describing the same
situation; 1 error in 20 bits
In general, if P
e
is symbol error
P
e
logM
s BERs P
e
86
Symbol error and bit error for
QPSK
We saw that symbol error for QPSK was
Assuming no more than 1 bit error for each
symbol error, BER is half of symbol error
Remember symbol energy E=2E
b
P
e
= erfc(
E
2N
o
)
BER=
1
2
erfc(
E
2N
o
)
87
QPSK vs. BPSK
Lets compare the two based on BER and
bandwidth
BER Bandwidth
BPSK | QPSK BPSK | QPSK
1
2
erfc
E
b
N
o
|
\

|
.
|
1
2
erfc
E
b
N
o
|
\

|
.
|
R
b
R
b
/2
EQUAL
88
M-phase PSK (MPSK)
If you combine 3 bits into one symbol, we have
to realize 2
3
=8 states. We can accomplish this
with a single RF pulse taking 8 different phases
45
o
apart
s
i
(t) =
2E
T
cos 2f
c
t +(i 1)

4


(

,i =1,...,8
0





,0s t s T
89
8-PSK constellation
Distribute 8 phasors uniformly around a circle
of radius E
45
o
Decision region
90
Symbol error for MPSK
We can have M phases around the circle
separated by 2/M radians.
It can be shown that symbol error probability is
approximately given by
P
e
~ erfc
E
N
o
sin

M
|
\
|
.
|
\

|
.
| ,M > 4
91
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
MPSK was a phase modulation scheme. All
amplitudes are the same
QAM is described by a constellation consisting
of combination of phase and amplitudes
The rule governing bits-to-symbols are the
same, i.e. n bits are mapped to M=2
n
symbols
92
16-QAM constellation using Gray
coding
16-QAM has the following constellation
Note gray coding
where adjacent symbols
differ by only 1 bit
0010 0011 0001 0000
1010
1110
0110
1011
1111
0111
1001
1101
0101
1000
1100
0100
93
Vector representation
of 16-QAM
There are 16 vectors, each defined by a pair
of coordinates. The following 4x4 matrix
describes the 16-QAM constellation
[a
i
,b
i
] =
3,3 ( ) 1,3 ( ) 1,3 ( ) 3,3 ( )
3,1 ( ) 1,1 ( ) 1,1 ( ) 3,1 ( )
3,1 ( ) 1,1 ( ) 1,1 ( ) 3,1 ( )
3,3 ( ) 1,3 ( ) 1,3 ( ) 3,3 ( )





(

(
(
(
94
What is energy per symbol in QAM?
We had no trouble defining energy per symbol E
for MPSK. For QAM, there is no single symbol
energy. There are many
We therefore need to define average symbol
energy E
avg
E
avg
=
1
M
a
i
2
+ b
i
2
( )
i =1
M

95
E
avg
for 16-QAM
Using the [a
i
,b
i
] matrix and using E=a
i
^2+b
i
^2
we get one energy per signal
E =
18 10 10 18
10 2 2 10
10 2 2 10
18 10 10 18





(

(
(
(
E
avg
=10
96
Symbol error for M-ary QAM
With the definition of energy in mind, symbol
error is approximated by
P
e
~ 2 1
1
M
|
\
|
.
erfc
2E
avg
2 M1 ( )N
o
|
\

|
.
|
97
Familiar constellations
Here are a few golden oldies
V.22
600 baud
1200 bps
V.22 bis
600 baud
2400 bps
V.32 bis
2400 baud
9600 bps
98
M-ary FSK
Using M tones, instead of M phases/amplitudes
is a fundamentally different way of M-ary
modulation
The idea is to use M RF pulses. The
frequencies chosen must be orthogonal
s
i
t ( ) =
2E
T
cos 2f
i
t ( ),0s t s T
i =1,...,M
99
MFSK constellation:
3-dimensions
MFSK is different from MPSK in that each
signal sits on an orthogonal axis(basis)
s
1
s
2
s
3
|
1
|
2
|
3

i
t ( ) =
2
T
cos 2f
i
t
( )
,
0s t s T
i =1,...,M
s
1
=[E ,0, 0]
s
2
=[0,E, 0]
s
3
=[0,0,E]
E
E
E
100
Orthogonal signals:
How many dimensions, how many signals?
We just saw that in a 3 dimensional space, we
can have no more than 3 orthogonal signals
Equivalently, 3 orthogonal signals dont need
more than 3 dimensions because each can sit on
one dimension
Therefore, number of dimensions is always less
than or equal to number of signals
101
How to pick the tones?
Orthogonal FSK requires tones that are
orthogonal.
Two carrier frequencies separated by integer
multiples of period are orthogonal
102
Example
Take two tones one at f
1
the other at f
2
. T
must cover one or more periods for the integral
to be zero

2cos 2f
1
t ( )cos 2f
2
t ( )dt = cos2 f
1
+ f
2
( )dt
0
T
}
averages to zero

0
T
}
+ cos2 f
1
f
2
( )dt
0
T
}
averages to zero if T=i/(f1-f2)
; i =integer

Take f
1
=1000 and T=1/1000. Then
if f
2
=2000 , the two are orthogonal
so will f
2
=3000,4000 etc
103
MFSK symbol error
Here is the error expression with the usual
notations
P
e
s
1
2
M1 ( )erfc
E
2N
o
|
\

|
.
|
104
Spectrum of M-ary signals
So far E
b
/N
o
, i.e. power, has been our main
concern. The flip side of the coin is bandwidth.
Frequently the two move in opposite directions
Lets first look at binary modulation bandwidth
105
BPSK bandwidth
Remember BPSK was obtained from a polar
signal by carrier modulation
We know the bandwidth of polar NRZ using
square pulses was B
T
=R
b
.
It doesnt take much to realize that carrier
modulation doubles this bandwidth
106
Illustrating BPSK bandwidth
The expression for baseband BPSK (polar)
bandwidth is
S
B
(f)=2E
b
sinc
2
(T
b
f)
B
T
=2R
b
f 1/T
b
BPSK
f
c
+ /T
b
f
c
- /T
b
f
c
2/T
b
=2R
b
107
BFSK as a sum of two RF streams
BFSK can be thought of superposition of two
unipolar signals, one at f
1
and the other at f
2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
BFSK for 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
+
108
Modeling of BFSK bandwidth
Each stream is just a carrier modulated
unipolar signal. Each has a sinc spectrum
f
1
f
2
1/T
b
=R
b
f
c
f
c
=(f
1
+ f
2
)/2
Af
B
T
=2 Af+ 2R
b
Af= (f
2
- f
1
)/2
109
Example: 1200 bps bandwidth
The old 1200 bps standard used BFSK
modulation using 1200 Hz for mark and 2200
Hz for space. What is the bandwidth?
Use
B
T
=2f+2R
b
f=(f
2
-f
1
)/2=(2200-1200)/2=500 Hz
B
T
=2x500+2x1200=3400 Hz
This is more than BPSK of 2R
b
=2400 Hz
110
Sundes FSK
We might have to pick tones f
1
and f
2
that are
not orthogonal. In such a case there will be a
finite correlation between the tones
=
2
T
b
cos(2f
1
t)
0
T
b
}
cos(2f
2
t)dt
1 2 3
2(f
2
- f
1
)T
b
Good points,zero correlation

111
Picking the 2nd zero crossing:
Sundes FSK
If we pick the second zc term (the first term
puts the tones too close) we get
2(f
2
-f
1
)T
b
=2--> f=1/2T
b
=R
b
/2
remember f is (f
2
-f
1
)/2
Sundes FSK bandwidth is then given by
B
T
=2f+2R
b
=R
b
+2R
b
=3R
b
The practical bandwidth is a lot smaller
112
Sundes FSK bandwidth
Due to sidelobe cancellation, practical
bandwidth is just B
T
=2f=R
b
f
1
f
2
1/T
b
=R
b
f
c
f
c
=(f
1
+ f
2
)/2
Af
B
T
=2 Af+ 2R
b
Af= (f
2
- f
1
)/2
Af
113
BFSK example
A BFSK system operates at the 3rd zero
crossing of -T
b
plane. If the bit rate is 1
Mbps, what is the frequency separation of the
tones?
The 3rd zc is for 2(f
2
-f
1
)T
b
=3. Recalling that
f=(f
2
-f
1
)/2 then f =0.75/T
b
Then f =0.75/T
b
=0.75x10
6
=750 KHz
And B
T
=2(f +R
b
)=2(0.75+1)10
6
=3.5 MHz
114
Point to remember
FSK is not a particularly bandwidth-friendly
modulation. In this example, to transmit 1
Mbps, we needed 3.5 MHz.
Of course, it is working at the 3rd zero
crossing that is responsible
Original Sundes FSK requires B
T
=R
b
=1 MHz
Bandwidth of MPSK modulation
116
MPSK bandwidth review
In MPSK we used pulses that are log
2
M times
wider tan binary hence bandwidth goes down by
the same factor.
T=symbol width=T
b
log
2
M
For example, in a 16-phase modulation, M=16,
T=4T
b
.
B
qpsk
=B
bpsk
/log
2
M= B
bpsk
/4
117
MPSK bandwidth
MPSK spectrum is given by
S
B
(f)=(2E
b
log
2
M)sinc
2
(T
b
flog
2
M)
f/R
b
Notice normalized frequency
1/logM
Set to 1 for zero crossing BW
T
b
flog
2
M=1
- - >f=1/ T
b
flog
2
M
=R
b
/log
2
M
B
T
= R
b
/log
2
M
118
Bandwidth after carrier modulation
What we just saw is MPSK bandwidth in
baseband
A true MPSK is carrier modulated. This will
only double the bandwidth. Therefore,
Bmpsk=2R
b
/log
2
M
119
QPSK bandwidth
QPSK is a special case of MPSK with M=4
phases. Its baseband spectrum is given by
S
B
(f)=2Esinc
2
(2T
b
f)
f/R
b
0.5
B=0.5R
b
- - >
half of BPSK
1
After modulation:
B
qpsk
=R
b
120
Some numbers
Take a 9600 bits/sec data stream
Using BPSK: B=2Rb=19,200 Hz (too much for
4KHz analog phone lines)
QPSK: B=19200/log
2
4=9600Hz, still high
Use 8PSK:B= 19200/log
2
8=6400Hz
Use 16PSK:B=19200/ log
2
16=4800 Hz. This
may barely fit
121
MPSK vs.BPSK
Lets say we fix BER at some level. How do
bandwidth and power levels compare?
M Bm-ary/Bbinary (Avg.power)M/(Avg.power)bin
4 0.5 0.34 dB
8 1/3 3.91 dB
16 1/4 8.52 dB
32 1/5 13.52 dB
Lesson: By going to multiphase modulation, we save bandwidth
but have to pay in increased power, But why?
122
Power-bandwidth tradeoff
The goal is to keep BER fixed as we increase
M. Consider an 8PSK set.
What happens if you go to 16PSK? Signals get
closer hence higher BER
Solution: go to a larger circle-->higher energy
123
Additional comparisons
Take a 28.8 Kb/sec data rate and lets compare
the required bandwidths
BPSK: B
T
=2(R
b
)=57.6 KHz
BFSK: B
T
= R
b
=28.8 KHz ...Sundes FSK
QPSK: B
T
=half of BPSK=28.8 KHz
16-PSK: B
T
=quarter of BPSK=14.4 KHz
64-PSK: B
T
=1/6 of BPSK=9.6 KHz
124
Power-limited systems
Modulations that are power-limited achieve
their goals with minimum expenditure of power
at the expense of bandwidth. Examples are
MFSK and other orthogonal signaling
125
Bandwidth-limited systems
Modulations that achieve error rates at a
minimum expenditure of bandwidth but possibly
at the expense of too high a power are
bandwidth-limited
Examples are variations of MPSK and many
QAM
Check BER rate curves for BFSK and
BPSK/QAM cases
126
Bandwidth efficiency index
A while back we defined the following ratio as a
bandwidth efficiency measure in bits/sec/HZ
=R
b
/B
T
bits/sec/Hz
Every digital modulation has its own
127
for MPSK
At a bit rate of R
b
, BPSK bandwidth is 2R
b
When we go to MPSK, bandwidth goes down by
a factor of log
2
M
B
T
=2Rb/ log
2
M
Then
=R
b
/B
T
= log
2
M/2 bits/sec/Hz
128
Some numbers
Lets evaluate vs. M for MPSK
M 2 4 8 16 32 64
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Notice that bits/sec/Hz goes up by a factor of
6 from M=2 and M=64
The price we pay is that if power level is fixed
(constellation radius fixed) BER will go up. We
need more power to keep BER the same
129
Defining MFSK:
In MFSK we transmit one of M frequencies for
every symbol duration T
These frequencies must be orthogonal. One way
to do that is to space them 1/2T apart. They
could also be spaced 1/T apart. Following The
textbook we choose the former (this
corresponds to using the first zero crossing of
correlation curve)
130
MFSK bandwidth
Symbol duration in MFSK is M times longer than
binary
T=T
b
log
2
M symbol length
Each pair of tones are separated by 1/2T. If
there are M of them,
B
T
=M/2T=M/2T
b
log
2
M
B
T
=MR
b
/2log
2
M
131
Contrast with MPSK
Variation of bandwidth with M differs
drastically compared to MPSK
MPSK MFSK
B
T
=2R
b
/log
2
M B
T
=MR
b
/2log
2
M
As M goes up, MFSK eats up more bandwidth
but MPSK save bandwidth
132
MFSK bandwidth efficiency
Lets compute s for MFSK
=R
b
/M=2log
2
M/M bits/sec/HzMFSK
M 2 4 8 16 32 64
1 1 .75 .5 .3 .18
Notice bandwidth efficiency drop. We are
sending fewer and fewer bits per 1 Hz of
bandwidth
COMPARISON OF DIGITAL
MODULATIONS*
*B. Sklar, Defining, Designing and Evaluating Digital Communication Systems,
IEEE Communication Magazine, vol. 31, no.11, November 1993, pp. 92-101
134
Not at i ons
M = 2
m
# of symbols
m=log
2
M bits/symbol
R=
m
T
s
=
log
2
M
T
s
bits/sec
T
s
= symbol duration
R
s
= symbol rate
T
b
=
1
R
=
T
s
m
=
1
mR
s
bit length
Bandwidth efficiency
measure
R
W
=
log
2
M
WT
s
=
1
WT
b
135
Bandwidth-limited Systems
There are situations where bandwidth is at a
premium, therefore, we need modulations with
large R/W.
Hence we need standards with large time-
bandwidth product
The GSM standard uses Gaussian minimum shift
keying(GMSK) with WT
b
=0.3
136
Case of MPSK
In MPSK, symbols are m times as wide as
binary.
Nyquist bandwidth is W=R
s
/2=1/2Ts. However,
the bandpass bandwidth is twice that, W=1/Ts
Then
R
W
=
log
2
M
WT
s
= log
2
M bits/sec/Hz
137
Cost of Bandwidth Efficiency
As M increases, modulation becomes more
bandwidth efficient.
Lets fix BER. To maintain this BER while
increasing M requires an increase in E
b
/N
o
.
138
Power-Limited Systems
There are cases that bandwidth is available but
power is limited
In these cases as M goes up, the bandwidth
increases but required power levels to meet a
specified BER remains stable
139
Case of MFSK
MFSK is an orthogonal modulation scheme.
Nyquist bandwidth is M-times the binary case
because of using M orthogonal frequencies,
W=M/Ts=MR
s
Then
R
W
=
log
2
M
WT
s
=
log
2
M
M
bits/sec/Hz
140
Select an Appropriate Modulation
We have a channel of 4KHz with an available
S/No=53 dB-Hz
Required data rate R=9600 bits/sec.
Required BER=10
-5
.
Choose a modulation scheme to meet these
requirements
141
Minimum Number of Phases
To conserve power, we should pick the minimum
number of phases that still meets the 4KHz
bandwidth
A 9600 bits/sec if encoded as 8-PSK results in
3200 symbols/sec needing 3200Hz
So, M=8
142
What is the required E
b
/No?
S
N
o
=
E
b
R
N
o
=
E
b
N
o
R
E
b
N
o
(dB) =
S
N
o
(dB Hz) R(dBbits/sec
=13.2dB
143
Is BER met? Yes
The symbol error probability in 8-PSK is
Solve for Es/No
Solve for PE
P
E
M ( ) = 2Q
2E
s
N
o
sin

M
|
\
|
.



(

(
BER=
P
E
log
2
M
=
2.210
5
3
= 7.310
6
E
s
N
o
= log
2
M ( )
E
b
N
0
= 320.89= 62.67
144
Power-limited uncoded system
Same bit rate and BER
Available bandwidth W=45 KHz
Available S/No=48-dBHz
Choose a modulation scheme that yields the
required performance
145
Binary vs. M-ary Model
M-ary Modulator
R bits/ s
R
s
=
R
log
2
M
symbols/ s
M-ary demodulator
S
N
o
=
E
b
N
o
R=
E
s
N
o
R
s
R bits/ s
146
Choice of Modulation
With R=9600 bits/sec and W=45 KHz, the
channel is not bandwidth limited
Lets find the available Eb/No
E
b
N
o
(dB) =
S
N
o
dB Hz ( ) R(dB bit / s) =
E
b
N
o
(dB) = 48dB Hz
= (10log9600)dB bits/ s
= 8.2dB
147
Choose MFSK
We have a lot of bandwidth but little power -
>orthogonal modulation(MFSK)
The larger the M, the more power efficiency
but more bandwidth is needed
Pick the largest M without going beyond the 45
KHz bandwidth.
148
MFSK Parameters
From Table 1, M=16 for an MFSK modulation
requires a bandwidth of 38.4 KHz for 9600
bits/sec data rate
We also wanted to have a BER<10^-5.
Question is if this is met for a 16FSK
modulation.
149
16-FSK
Again from Table 1, to achieve BER of 10^-5
we need E
b
/No of 8.1dB.
We solved for the available E
b
/No and that
came to 8.2dB
150
Symbol error for MFSK
For noncoherent orthogonal MFSK, symbol error
probability is
P
E
M ( ) s
M1
2
exp
E
s
2N
o
|
\

|
.
|
E
s
= E
b
log
2
M
151
BER for MFSK
We found out that Eb/No=8.2dB or 6.61
Relating Es/No and Eb/No
BER and symbol error are related by
E
s
N
o
= log
2
M ( )
E
b
N
o
P
B
=
2
m1
2
m
1
P
E
152
Example
Lets look at the 16FSK case. With 16 levels,
we are talking about m=4 bits per symbol.
Therefore,
With Es/No=26.44, symbol error prob.
PE=1.4x10^-5-->PB=7.3x10^-6
P
B
=
2
3
2
4
1
P
E
=
8
15
P
E
153
Summary
Given:
R=9600 bits/s
BER=10^-5
Channel bandwith=45 KHz
E
b
/No=8.2dB
Solution
16-FSK
required bw=38.4khz
required E
b
/No=8.1dB