Lca PDF

Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry
Substudy 6:What LCA Can Tell Us about the Cement Industry March 2002
by Steven B. Young, Shannon Turnbull, Andrea Russell Five Winds International

with contributions from Konrad Saur, Five Winds International, Germany Kun Mo Lee, Anjou University, Korea Jose Antonio Costa Perez, Brazil
An Independent Study Commissioned by:
World Business Council for Sustainable Development This substudy is one of 13 research investigations conducted as part of a larger project entitled, "Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry". The project was commissioned by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development as one of a series of member-sponsored projects aimed at converting sustainable development concepts into action. The report represents the independent research efforts of Battelle Memorial Institute and their subcontractors to identify critical issues for the cement industry today, and pathways forward toward a more sustainable future. While there has been considerable interactive effort and exchange of ideas with many organizations within and outside the cement industry during this project, the opinions and views expressed here are those of Battelle and its subcontractors. Battelle Battelle endeavors to produce work of the highest quality, consistent with our contract commitments. However, because of the research nature of this work, the recipients of this report shall undertake the sole responsibility for the consequence of their use or misuse of, or inability to use, any information, data or recommendation contained in this report and understand that Battelle makes no warranty or guarantee, express or implied, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose or merchantability, for the contents of this report. Battelle does not engage in research for advertising, sales promotion, or endorsement of our clients' interests including raising investment capital or recommending investments decisions, or other publicity purposes, or for any use in litigation. The recommendations and actions toward sustainable development contained herein are based on the results of research regarding the status and future opportunities for the cement industry as a whole. Battelle has consulted with a number of organizations and individuals within the cement industry to enhance the applicability of the results. Nothing in the recommendations or their potential supportive actions is intended to promote or lead to reduced competition within the industry.
(W H A T L C A C A N T E L L U S A B O U T T H E C E M E N T I N D U S T R Y )
Foreword
Many companies around the globe are re-examining their business operations and relationships in a fundamental way. They are exploring the concept of Sustainable Development, seeking to integrate their pursuit of profitable growth with the assurance of environmental protection and quality of life for present and future generations. Based on this new perspective, some companies are beginning to make significant changes in their policies, commitments and business strategies. The study, of which this substudy is a part, represents an effort by ten major cement companies to explore how the cement industry as a whole can evolve over time to better meet the need for global sustainable development while enhancing shareholder value. The study findings include a variety of recommendations for the industry and its stakeholders to improve the sustainability of cement production. Undertaking this type of open, self-critical effort carries risks. The participating companies believe that an independent assessment of the cement industrys current status and future opportunities will yield long-term benefits that justify the risks. The intent of the study is to share information that will help any cement company regardless of its size, location, or current state of progress to work constructively toward a sustainable future. The pursuit of a more sustainable cement industry requires that a number of technical, managerial, and operational issues be examined in depth. This substudy, one of 13 conducted as a part of the project, provides the basis for assessing the current status or performance and identifies areas for progress toward sustainability on a specific topic. The project report entitled Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry may be found on the project website: http://www.wbcsdcement.org.
Study Groundrules This report was developed as part of a study managed by Battelle, and funded primarily by a group of ten cement companies designated for this collaboration as the Working Group Cement (WGC). By choice, the study boundaries were limited to activities primarily associated with cement production. Downstream activities, such as cement distribution, concrete production, and concrete products, were addressed only in a limited way. Battelle conducted this study as an independent research effort, drawing upon the knowledge and expertise of a large number of organizations and individuals both inside and outside the cement industry. The cement industry provided a large number of case studies to share practical experience. Battelle accepted the information in these case studies and in public information sources used. The WGC companies provided supporting information and advice to assure that the report would be credible with industry audiences. To assure objectivity, a number of additional steps were taken to obtain external input and feedback. A series of six dialogues was held with stakeholder groups around the world (see Section 1.5). The World Business Council for Sustainable Development participated in all meetings and monitored all communications between Battelle and the WGC. An Assurance Group, consisting of distinguished independent experts, reviewed both the quality and objectivity of the study findings. External experts reviewed advanced drafts of technical substudy reports. The geographic scope of the study was global, and the future time horizon considered was 20 years. Regional and local implementation of the study recommendations will need to be tailored to the differing states of socioeconomic and technological development.
( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )
List of Acronyms
AFR BRE ECCO EPP ESSAM GHG LCA LCCA LCI NIST NSW PCA SETAC WBCSD Alternative Fuels and Raw Materials Building Research Establishment Environmental Council of Concrete Organizations Environmentally preferable purchasing Ecologically Sustainable Strategic Asset Management Greenhouse gas Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Costing Analysis Life Cycle Inventory National Institute for Standards and Testing New South Wales Portland Cement Association Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry World Business Council for Sustainable Development
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Glossary
Allocation Partitioning the input and output flows of a unit process to the product system under study.1 Cement Within the cement industry, and especially the technical domain, this term is often understood as Ordinary Portland Cement. Comparative assertion Environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product that performs the same function.1 Co-product Any of two or more products from the same unit process.1 Eco-efficiency Reduction in the resource intensity of production; i.e., the input of materials, natural resources and energy compared with the output; essentially, doing more with less. Extended Producer Responsibility An strategy to reduce the impact from a product by making the manufacturer of the product responsible for the entire life cycle of the product and especially for the take-back, recycling and final disposal of the product.45 Flow Input to or output from a process or system.1 Functional unit Quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit in a life cycle assessment study.1
Greenhouse gases Gases in the earths lower atmosphere that may contribute to global warming, including the major component CO2.
Life cycle Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation of natural resources to the final disposal.1 Life cycle approach Using a systems perspective (cradle-to-grave) to evaluate the full life cycletypically from raw materials through production to application and ultimate end-of-life. The approach also often involves consideration of multiple environmental issues (resources, air, water, land, etc.) and provides evaluations of impacts and their importance, for purposes of decision-making or management. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) The LCA acronym is usually reserved for Life Cycle Assessment. This is a technical analytical procedure or method that includes the compilation and evaluation of the inputs and outputs and the potential impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle. Basic guidance and rules for LCA are defined in the ISO 14040 series of standards; however, key methodological requirements are not prescribed in the standard (boundary setting, cut-offs, allocations, determination and inclusion of significant inputs and outputs, etc.); rather these details are left to specific methods to determine. Life cycle data Life cycle data on resource inputs and environmental outputs of activities, products and systems have been compiled over the last few decades. Other categories of data are environmental effect information; weighting schemes; and life cycle costs. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis In LCA, the step of collection of the data necessary to meet the goals of the defined study, essentially an inventory of input/output data with respect to the system being studied.
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Life cycle management An approach to various management functions that takes into account the whole life cycle of the product or service. Life cycle methods Based on a life cycle approach, specific analysis methods have been developed to serve specific decision-making or management purposes (costing, design, marketing, strategy, etc.), and emphasis specific elements of analysis (graphical flowcharting, data inventory, impact assessment, interpretation). Life cycle study Life cycle studies are outcomes of analyses that use a life cycle approach, and may include results from LCA, qualitative life cycle reviews, life cycle costing, life cycle design, etc. In undertaking a study, the analyst needs to consider appropriate methods, tools and datadepending on the specific decision-making or management needs. Life cycle tools Numerous tools are available for users to apply life cycle methods and undertake life cycle studies. These include decision support tools such as software, matrices and checklists. Both quantitative and qualitative life cycle tools are used. Moreover, one or more methods (e.g., environmental indicators) might be available within a single tool. Integrated Product Policy An approach that considers how the environmental performance of products can be improved most cost-effectively. It is founded on the consideration of the impacts of products throughout their life-cycle, from the natural resources from which they come, through their use and marketing to their eventual disposal as waste (European Commission). Product stewardship All parties - designers, suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retailers, consumers, recyclers, and disposers - involved in producing, selling, or using a product take responsibility for the full environmental and economic impacts of that product.45 Product system Collection of materially and energetically connected unit processes that perform one or more defined functions; can also include service systems.1 Stakeholder A person or group that has an investment, share, or interest in something, as a business or industry. Sustainable development Ability to continually meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. System boundary Interface between a product system and the environment or other product systems.1 Unit process Smallest portion of a product system for which data are collected when performing a life cycle assessment.1
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Executive Summary
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systems analysis tool to inform environmental decisionmaking for Sustainable Development. The goal of this substudy was to provide guidance to the cement industry regarding their use of LCA as part of their efforts to contribute to sustainable development. This substudy had two main objectives: 1. 2. To document the status of LCA and the cement industrys experience with LCA. To identify the potential relevance and value of LCA to designing a sustainable future for the cement industry.
The systems analysis that LCA provides is rigorous, science-based and whole-systems focused and is now standardized under the ISO 14040 international standards. From cradle-to-grave, the life cycle includes processes beginning at resource extraction from the earth and continues through cement production, to cement applications like concrete structures, their use, and product end-of-life. LCA results provide information that assists in defining key environmental issues, identifying important processes or activities across the system, and help provide structure in determining best options from an eco-efficiency perspective. Given the whole life-cycle concept of LCA, there is clear utility for LCA in the context of cement applications like concrete products and building structures. However, experience and practice show a broader relevance of LCA to the industry. Research unearthed about 80 publications related to LCA of cement. Some of these addressed cement directly; others applied the method for different purposes related to cement. Examples of LCA application to cement and downstream products are provided for Europe, Australia, Japan, Canada, Brazil and the U.S. The following ten uses of LCA for the cement industry were identified, including existing and potential applications. They are rated according to their value to the cement industry. Use of LCA
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Generic data sets Performance Improvement Industry Benchmarking Technology Assessment Industrial Ecology Assessment Greenhouse Gas Measurement Environmental Reporting Labeling Marketing Sales Support
Value to the cement industry

High Mid Mid Mid-High Low Mid Low-Mid Mid Mid-High Mid
There are more than 30 LCA software tools presently available. It was judged that the most useful tools to the cement industry are those with high quality databases, that comply with the ISO 14040 series of LCA standards, and that can be used to fulfill the full LCA methodology (from goals and scope definition, to inventory, to Life Cycle Impact Assessment and final Interpretation). LCA tools and data are primarily used to evaluate cement applications or endproducts, the results of which impact the use and selection of cement in the marketplace.
Recommendations
The industry should compile LCA data on cement and provide this information to support customers and other stakeholders. This effort, already well underway in some regions, meets basic requirements but is nonetheless challenging in the effort required. Internal use of LCA by the sector should continue, as this has already demonstrated value on a case-by-case basis in areas such as AFR evaluations. Cement customers and users should be informed on LCA by the cement industry. Professionals like architects and engineers need to be aware of the environmental advantages and disadvantages of cement and cement applications throughout the whole life cycle, not just during production. Coordination of LCA efforts is recommended. A mechanism is necessary to ensure consistency and accountability of methodologies and databases across the industry and internationally. Regional assistance will be required. Larger cement companies can contribute to the overall industry effort, supporting smaller companies and transferring experience from one area to another. More proactive options include cement companies engaging their suppliers and downstream partners, maintaining LCA profiles of alternative products and applications, and using LCA for communications.
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Table of Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Objectives ................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Scope ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.3. Technical Approach .................................................................................................... 1 2. State of LCA Practice.......................................................................................................... 3 2.1. What is Life Cycle Assessment? ................................................................................. 3 2.2. LCA method................................................................................................................ 4 2.3. State of Practice ......................................................................................................... 7 3. LCA and Cement .............................................................................................................. 10 3.1. Applying LCA to Cement........................................................................................... 10 3.2. European Experience ............................................................................................... 11 3.3. Experience in Australia with LCA of Building Materials ............................................. 11 3.4. Canadian LCA Work on Concrete Roads.................................................................. 13 3.5. LCA Experience in the USA ...................................................................................... 14 4. Tools for LCA .................................................................................................................... 16 4.1. Suggested LCA-Analysis Tools for the Cement Industry ........................................... 17 4.2. Other LCA-related Software Tools ............................................................................ 17 4.3. Databases................................................................................................................. 18 5. Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 20 5.1. Status of LCA............................................................................................................ 20 5.2. Cement and Eco-efficiency ....................................................................................... 20 5.3. Meeting Market and Societal Expectations for LCA................................................... 21 5.4. How Should the Cement Industry Use LCA?............................................................. 22 6. Findings and Recommendations ....................................................................................... 27 6.1. Findings .................................................................................................................... 27 6.2. Recommendations .................................................................................................... 27 6.3. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 28 7. References ....................................................................................................................... 30 8. Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 33 APPENDIX A: LCA Annotated Bibliography Cement and Applications .................................... 1 APPENDIX B: LCA Annotated Bibliography Alternative Products............................................ 1 APPENDIX C: LCA Software and Databases ............................................................................. 1 APPENDIX D: Users Guide to Understanding an LCA Study .................................................... 1 APPENDIX E: Case Study Taiheiyos use of LCA for Technology Evaluation ......................... 1 APPENDIX F: Case Study Norcems Use of LCA to Communicate Environmental Performance............................................................................................................................... 1 1.
List of Tables
Table 2-1. Example Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) results for 1 kg of Cement from a plant in Sweden (Source: Bjorkland5). ........................................................................................................... 5 Table 2-2. Example Life Cycle Impact Assessment Indicator Results (Source: Eyerer and Reinhardt6). ......................................................................................................................... 6 Table 4-1. LCA-analysis Tools Suitable for the Cement Industry (compare to Table 4-2) ......... 17 Table 4-2. Important LCA-related Software Tools (compare to Table 4-1)................................ 18 Table 4-3. Relevant Databases ................................................................................................ 19 Table C-1. Eco-Tools & Databases Summary ........................................................................... 2 Table C-2. LCA Tools Suitable for the Cement Industry ............................................................. 4 Table C-3. Important Downstream Tools .................................................................................... 7 Table C-4. Relevant Databases.................................................................................................. 8 Table E-1. Global warming ......................................................................................................... 3 Table E-2. Depletion of energy resources .................................................................................. 3
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Table E-3. Depletion of mineral resources.................................................................................. 3 Table E-4. Shortage of landfill sites ............................................................................................ 3 Table E-5. Economic Effects of Environmental Conservation Efforts .......................................... 5 Table F-1. Main Impacts of Cement Production (Vold and Ronning 1) ....................................... 2
List of Figures
Figure 1-1. The product life cycle extends from primary extraction through various economic activities of value creation to product end-of-life disposal. ................................................... 2 Figure 5-1. Uses of LCA vary from internal company uses to more industry-level and external applications, and range from more tactical to more strategic areas. The value to the cement industry of each use is low (green), mid (yellow) or high (red). .......................................... 22 Figure E-1. Global Warming ....................................................................................................E-2 Figure E-2. Depletion of Mineral Resources ............................................................................E-2 Figure E-3. Depletion of Energy Resources.............................................................................E-3 Figure E-4. Shortage of Final Landfills.....................................................................................E-3
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( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )
1. Introduction
The cement industry is faced with many challenges that span the product life cycle. On the one hand, the cement industry itself is challenged by a number of significant sustainability and environmental issues like carbon dioxide emissions and production energy requirements. On the other hand, studies indicate that certain aspects of the cement industry (e.g., products for durable end-use applications, disposal of hazardous waste) can contribute greatly to sustainable development. The goal of this substudy is to identify opportunities for the use of LCA that will guide the cement industry in contributing to sustainable development objectives.
1.1.
Objecti v es
This substudy has two main objectives: 1. Document LCA status and cement industry experience with LCA. This substudy illustrates the use of LCA by cement companies, industry associations, and other interested parties. It demonstrates the use of LCA in areas such as comparisons of differing production technologies, comparisons of cement to alternative construction materials, and product environmental labeling. 2. Identify the potential relevance and value of LCA to designing a sustainable future for the cement industry. This substudy provides a concise report of the applicability of LCA to the cement industry. Additionally, it identifies how these applications might provide business benefits to the industry.
1.2.
Scope
This substudy reviews the use of LCA by and for the cement industry. It does not provide an LCA analysis, nor does it provide specific suggestions or guidance arising from technical or environmental assessments. Numerical and other specific information, where provided, are illustrative of the types of uses and results possible from LCA. The cradle-to-grave life cycle of cement includes production processes beginning at earth and continuing through cement production (as covered in the WBCSD study scope), extending to cement applications, their use, and end-of-life (Figure 1-1). LCA considers some or all of this entire life cycle. The scope of this substudy therefore encompasses consideration of concrete, various concrete applications (residences, roads, other structures, etc.), and end-of-life of concrete and cement, in addition to raw materials sourcing and production. This substudy is global in scope, but also respects that there are regional industrial practices that affect global environmental impacts and company priorities.
1.3.
Technical Approach
The information in this substudy was compiled through a number of approaches. A literature search of printed and Internet sources was undertaken. Surveys were submitted to cement companies, followed by interviews. Additional interviews and research were conducted with other individuals in cement companies, industry associations, cement users and other stakeholders. Experts familiar with LCA and with cement, located in North America, Europe, South America and Asia contributed to the content of this report. The first part of the report explains what LCA is and how it has developed up to this time. The second part discusses the use of LCA in the cement industry, including experiences in Europe, Australia and North America; and case studies of LCA use in cement companies. An account of LCA in the aluminum industry provides possible lessons applicable to the cement industry. Part three is an evaluation of LCA tools and databases, with an assessment of their applicability
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specifically to the cement industry. The fourth part offers an analysis and synthesis of the research. It details areas for using the tool, applicable to companies and the industry. Part five summarizes the findings of this substudy and suggests several paths forward for the use of LCA in the cement industry. Appendix D, Users Guide to Understanding an LCA Study, is a tool that allows companies to summarize an existing LCA study and helps identify important features such as the functional unit, system boundaries and final conclusions.
Cradle
Resource extraction Resource (e.g., limestone quarry) E i
Materials Materials production plant) P (e.g., d cement i

Gate
Product manufacture Product (e.g., fconcrete M i structure)
Product Use (e.g., bridge 50 year life) U

End -of-life End -of-Life
Recycling
(e.g., demolition)
Grave
Figure 1-1. The product life cycle extends from primary extraction through various economic activities of value creation to product end-of-life disposal.
2. State of LCA Practice

2.1. What is Life Cycle Assessment?
LCA is a systems analysis tool for compiling and assessing environmental information. The basic life cycle includes production processes beginning at resource extraction from the earth (the cradle) and continues through cement production, to cement applications like concrete structures, their use, and end-of-life (see Figure 1-1). Originally devised to assess and improve the environmental performance of final products (e.g., buildings, roads), LCA has found wide application in process analysis, too. Guidelines for LCA were first established by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), and since 1997, the ISO 14040 series of international standards have defined the method, providing rules and formal guidance for its use and applicability. Typically, LCA is used to evaluate the environmental performance of functionally comparable systems. This may be a comparison of two competing products (e.g., concrete structure vs. steel structure), or a comparison of an existing system to a new option that may have environmental advantages (e.g., improved technology for destroying hazardous waste). The tool is also used, frequently and simply, to evaluate a stand-alone system to identify and quantify areas of potential interest or improvement. The ISO 14040 series of standards from the International Organisation for Standardisation provides internationally agreed to principles for LCA studies (ISO 14040,1 ISO 14041,2 ISO 14042,3 ISO 140434). To meet needs in various countries and industrial sectors, the basic standard was developed in 1997 to provide a framework for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product or service.
4) Interpretation
3) Impact Assessment
materials
1) Goal and Scope

use use end-of-life end-of-life
energy
water
air
materials materials
manufacture manufacture
2) Life Cycle Inventory
waste
Fundamentally, LCA is for product-focused environmental decision-making; however, the tool is representative of a broader conceptual framework that includes the application of the life-cycle discipline at various levels, but also extends to a general discipline of thinking and for decisionmaking. Terms that commonly arise in the life-cycle framework include: product stewardship, life cycle management, extended producer responsibility and integrated product policy.
2.2.
LCA method
The LCA method can be summarized as four steps (Figure 2-1). Each step is described in the international standards (ISO 14040, ISO 14041). These steps are iterative, where the level of detail and effort will depend on the goals of the study.
Step 1: Goal and Scope

This step defines the goal and scope of a study. Defining the goal of an LCA study is an important first point. The execution of the LCA method will vary according to goal. A number of important factors related to the goal need to be considered: Whether the work is internal or external. For example, if the work is intended for an internal audience of company decisions-makers, the level of rigor and quality will not be as arduous as a study that is to be used externally, perhaps to inform policy-makers. Whether the goals are strategic or tactical. This affects the level of risk involved, and determines the required certainty that is desired. A tactical goal, such as deciding between two materials, involves little risk and a streamlined study would be adequate to make the decision. A full study would be required when the goal of the study is to assist in making strategic decisions, where there are significant revenue or cost implications. Whether a critical review will be desirable, or even necessary, which at the most involves an independent third-party panel of experts to review the work (ISO 14040). The scope of a study sets-up how and where data are to be compiled, including the system boundaries and functional unit for the study. System boundaries are defined according to the intended goal. System boundaries determine what will be considered in the study and what will be left out. Central to this is the functional unit for a studythis explicitly defines the service or function provided by the system (e.g., structural integrity for 50 years, or hazardous waste disposal to defined criteria). The results of the LCA study will relate directly to the functional unit; for example, if the functional unit is 1 kg of a product, the results would include the amount of pollutants released for every kg of product that is made. Unit processes are defined, usually with a process flow diagram, to define the physical sequence of mass and energy activities across the life cycle (see Figure 1-1). For simple, macro-level studies there may be only several unit processes; for complex studies, particularly if primary data are to be collected, the number of unit processes may be in the hundreds.
Step 2. Life Cycle Inventory

This step is called the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis (ISO 14041), and involves compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs of a product system, covering multiple environmental aspects. The data inventory takes place for each unit process defined in the system. Depending on the study and aims, data may be collected first-hand from measurements and estimates of key
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activities, or will be based on information drawn from existing LCA databases. Different levels of consideration are possible, including individual processes and sub-systems (such as energy supply or transport, etc.). A complete study may consist of several different layers of analysis from specific activities, up to the whole life cycle of a product. The LCI portion of the study is often considered in stages. A cradle-to-gate inventory for cement would include all resources and energy required to produce cement, to the gate of the plant (see Figure 1-1). A cradle-to-grave inventory would cover all unit processes extending from original resources on to final disposal in the earth. Data analysis considers environmental inputs and outputs (see Table 2-1 for an example of life cycle inventory data for cement production). Tools and software are available to assist, but smaller studies are performed using conventional spreadsheets. In a fully executed LCA study, all the environmental inputs and outputs associated with each material are tracked (e.g., machine grease is tracked back to crude oil, and traced forward to water emission). Table 2-1. Example Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) results for 1 kg of Cement from a plant in Sweden (Source: Bjorkland5).
OUTPUTS Air Emissions Explosives 0.27 g Carbon dioxide 800 g Grinding media 0.09 g Particulate 0.16 g Iron sulfate 9.2 g Nitrogen oxides 1.9 g Quartzite 46 g Hydrocarbons 0.016 g Waste oil 12 g Ashes 0.0020 g Limestone 1400 g Cadmium 0.000010 g Gypsum 46 g Methane 0.31 g Carbon monoxide 0.78 g Chromium 0.000017 g Energy Copper 0.0000026 g Coal 0.86 MJ Mercury 0.0000035 g Coke 1.5 MJ Nitrous oxide 0.00000015 g Diesel 0.058 MJ PAH 0.00000034 g Fossil fuel 0.93 MJ Lead 0.0000087 g Oil 0.016 MJ Phenol 0.00000042 g Waste fossil fuel 0.53 MJ Sulfur dioxide 0.45 g Electricity 0.47 MJ Thallium 0.00010 g Volatile organic carbons 0.13 g Zinc 0.000013 g Water Emissions COD 0.000087 g Total nitrogen 0.000014 g Oil 0.000030 g Note: Not all flows have been tracked back to the Earth. LCI results are for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to be representative of LCI study results.
Raw Materials
INPUTS
As a distinct methodological element of LCA, LCI has demonstrated considerable benefit. In a sense, the LCI method is an accounting system for mass and energy flows. It builds upon conventional process management techniques based in chemical, metallurgical engineering and the like, but LCI demands a consistency of accounts across many operations and life-cycle activities. Managers and engineers recognize that LCI can help them keep more accurate and more comprehensive inventories of energy consumption and raw materials usage and doing so while providing a zoom lens from unit process, to complete facilities, to corporate divisions, to the level of the company or across the industry. This process can help identify savings in
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energy and materials usage, which relate very directly to process optimization and to economic savings.
Step 3: Impact Assessment

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (ISO 14042) evaluates the possible environmental impacts associated with measured environmental inputs and outputs. It is important to note here that LCA is not a single-issue tool; rather, the analysis encompasses numerous environmental issues (e.g., energy, water pollution, climate change), thus allowing for broad consideration of the impacts of the system (see Table 2-2). The results of an LCI study will be a quantitative profile of environmental parameters. Information may be first examined at a disaggregated level right from the inventory (e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide) or may be grouped or aggregated according to environmental indicator categories like greenhouse gases or toxicity (Table 2-2). Many studies are taken to a point where results are expressed as selected environmental indicators or scores, be it for largescale system comparisons, technology scenarios or internal improvement assessments. Ranking and scoring are optional elements, guidance for which is provided in ISO 14042. At this step, LCA can be extended beyond quantitative measurement and analysis to a point where an evaluation or judgment is made. At its simplest, this may be an assessment of what is better or what is worse; for example deciding between two production processes. The intent is to provide insights into priorities, based on data, but the value judgment has no scientific basis. LCA provides structure and direction to help decision-makers focus on key priorities for environmental sustainability. Sets of indicators have been developed, addressing commonly agreed and important environmental impact categories. Note, however, that additional environmental and other analysis will still be necessary to complete any decision. The judgment of relative importance of specific issues is always a challenge. Depending on the goals and scope of a specific LCA study, different indicators will exhibit different value. If the decision is narrow and local versus global and strategic, the consideration of Global Warming Potential versus toxicity versus water use will differ. Table 2-2. Example Life Cycle Impact Assessment Indicator Results (Source: Eyerer and Reinhardt6).
Indicator Value Unit Primary Energy Requirement 4355 MJ/t cement (Measure of energy input) Global Warming Potential 872 kg CO2-equivalent/t cement (Measure of greenhouse gas emissions) Acidification Potential 1.68 kg SO2- equivalent/t cement (Measure of air pollution, acid rain) Photo-oxidant Potential 0.07 kg C2H2- equivalent/t cement (Measure of air pollution, smog) Nutrification Potential 0.20 kg PO2- equivalent/t cement (Measure of water pollution) Note: Indicator results are for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to be representative of LCA study indicator results.
Step 4: Interpretation
Interpretation (ISO 14043) is the final phase of an LCA. In the interpretation, the analyst looks for significant environmental aspects (e.g., energy use, greenhouse gases), significant contributions to indicators or scores, and significant unit processes in the system. For example, if the results of an impact assessment had indicated a particularly high value for the Global Warming Potential indicator, the analyst could refer back to the inventory to determine which outputs are contributing to the high value, and which unit processes those outputs are coming from. This is also used as a form of quality control. It helps provide more certain conclusions and recommendations. The procedure typically involves examination of the sensitivity of results, performance of a scenario analysis, a review data quality, and a comparison of the results to the original goals of the study.
2.3.
State of Practice
Value of a Product Approach

In applying LCA the product provides a tangible focal point for environmental consideration of process and product choices. The product perspective is already a framework in which decisions have been made: we have markets for products, businesses make products, and Case Study: Norcem: Life Cycle consumers use products. A product-oriented Perspective in Environmental approach to environmental management Management and Communication builds on the strengths and infrastructures that are already intact in traditional product Norcem is a cement producer located in Norway, part of the Northern Europe Region of orientations, but simultaneously extends the Heidelberger Zement. Norcem has used life consideration of environmental issues to the cycle assessment (LCA) to their advantage in whole product life cycle. End-product sectors with significant activity and application of LCA include: Automotive Buildings and construction Packaging Paper products Electronics Appliances Detergents and chemicals Military equipment Food Waste management In product-focused environmental management, the product represents the tangible outcome of a production system that delivers value (as cement is to the cement industry). However, in the functional unit approach, services can also be analyzed with LCA sectors like waste management use the tool as a decision-making tool to help understand and evaluate long-term technological options for management and policy.
a number of different applications. From 19941997 they participated in a Nordic cement and concrete project that aimed to establish the impacts of cement and concrete life cycle and identify opportunities for improvement. The project was carried out through several LCA studies of concrete products. In 1998, while Norcem was part of the Scancem group, Scancem used a life cycle approach in their environmental report. The report highlighted the importance of the use phase in the cement life cycle, and showed how LCA had been used to target improvements in operations. Recently Norcem has been involved in a program to create environmental product declarations for different sectors. The declarations use life cycle data and a standard format so that consumers can compare different products to each other. In addition to these activities Norcem has used LCA internally to track data that is required for their certification to the European Eco Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS) and ISO 14001. The use of LCA in all of these ways has been beneficial both for Norcem and their customers. For more information, see Appendix F.
When a product-orientation is applied, the consideration of environmental issues is extended in new ways. Conventional frameworks for environmental management include the facility (e.g., in permits for emissions control), the sector (e.g., in regulations for an industry), the medium (to air or water or soil), habitat, and more recently substance (e.g., chlorine). By using the product as a focus for information, both existing and new datasets may be required. Production, use and disposal information about a product demand extensive data sets (the data requirements of LCA are addressed in Part III: Tools for LCA).
Ability to See Trade-offs

Single issues (like solid waste or energy) can be seen in perspective and aligned against broader priorities (like resource utilization, climate change, or toxics reduction). The product life cycle also helps identify potential problem shifting, whereby a problem waste might otherwise be combusted to air but subsequently precipitated to surface water, eliminating the waste but not the real problem. LCA provides a way to see trade-offs between issues and across different activities. For industry (but also government regulators) this systems focus provides a constructive perspective for environmental management.
Limitations
The strengths of the method also play into its weaknesses. Systems analysis, structured around the functional unit, tends to obscure important factors necessary to determine real environmental impacts. Both spatial and temporal specificity are usually lost during the inventory; thus the life-cycle impact assessment step can only approximate potential environmental impacts, and does not address or estimate real impacts. This challenge is an area of continuing LCA research. In the early days of LCA the tool was seen as a panacea, a means of providing conclusive environmental evaluations on products and systems. Since the mid-1990s, particularly after the Comprehensive European release of the first ISO standard in 1997, the tool has Database for LCA found a more realistic position in the environmental toolbox. Early use of LCA for comparative assertions led to A reference quality European guidance defined in ISO 14040 to prevent misuse of the LCA database for concrete tool. LCA understood today to be one source of products is due for release in information that can feed into sustainability decisions. autumn 2001. The work will Economic contexts, social priorities and other deliver an inventory dataset, environmental data are also required to complete the software tool and Life Cycle picture Impact Assessment results. The One of the more challenging parts of an LCA study is the final determination of significant environmental issues. Although the method structures this step, using data and indicators, the value-choices in the judgment are ultimately provided by the sponsors or analysts of the study. This is true of any tool, like cost benefit analysis or engineering design, where if objectives are clear, the decision can be transparent and conclusive. If however goals and objectives are not clear, there will be a degree of uncertainty inside the study, leading to reduced conclusiveness or credibility in results.
exercise promotes the need to understand LCA of cement as part of the life-cycle of concrete. Ten different functional units are being examined (e.g., residential, roads). This work will effectively replace existing national-level European LCA data on cement. The work is coordinate by CEMBUREAU, which actively advocates the use of LCA for environmental information on construction products. (CEMBUREAU 1999(1), 8 Chandelle 2001(1), )
8
7
Level of effort
The systems analysis that LCA provides is rigorous, science-based and whole systems focused. Applications of the tool vary from simple, in-house analyses requiring several days of effort, to large externally communicated studies that can take months to complete. Use of commercial software and databases can greatly facilitate study execution. Regardless, LCA results provide information that assists in defining key environmental issues, identifying important processes or activities across the system, and help provide structure in determining best options from an ecoefficiency perspective. Investment in level of effort for a study needs to be balanced against need: if a higher degree of certainty and confidence in results is necessary, perhaps because the LCA study will feed into an important decision, then investment in better data, more comprehensive definitions of unit processes, and possibly an external critical review of the study might be well worth the additional investment. A particular kind of LCA study is the development of basic materials data by an industry. Several regional cement groups have already completed first-generation cement LCI datasets (see for example the box called Comprehensive European Database for LCA). The level of effort necessary to establish a basic materials database is substantial: requiring in the order of one-years time of one or more full-time professionals plus support from multiple facility personnel and corporate managers. This kind of foundation initiative demands the highest degrees of analytical rigor and critical review, to ensure consistency to standards, transparency and credibility of data. Moreover, it is desirable to ensure means to update the data as technologies and practices evolve, and as further information becomes available. Lastly, to achieve results, it is important to have a communication strategy for the data, to publish the information clearly and meaningfully, and allow means to monitor and support its appropriate use.
3. LCA and Cement

3.1. Applying LCA to Cement
Given the whole life-cycle concept of LCA (see Figure 1-1), one might presume that LCA is useful only in the context of concrete products and structures. However, experience and practice show a broader utility of LCA for the industry. Research in this project unearthed about 80 publications related to LCA of cement. Some of these addressed cement and/or alternative materials; others used the method for a variety purposes. Many of the available references are academic reports, which focus on the method and application of LCA to cement and other building materials. Appendix D, which is intended as a guide to the reader or user of a pre-existing LCA study, highlights some areas of focus that are important for doing an LCA study. The ISO 14040 series standards define requirements in detail. Some areas of consideration that are of particular interest to the cement industry are: System boundaries, for example whether the full life cycle of cement including raw materials, production, application and final end-of-life is included (see Figure 1-1); Co-product allocations, like co-generation of energy or the provision of waste management services in conjunction with traditional cement manufacture; Careful accounting of fuels, including combustion emissions and pre-combustion emissions occurring upstream (this is important in the use of LCA approaches in GHG accounts); Definitions and categories of waste, for LCA of a Building example the manner in which overburden and waste rock are treated in waste LCA results for a building constructed of accounts during raw-material extraction; Portland cement concrete provide an Recycling of concrete or cement, and the informative picture of the role of cement in manner in which this is included in contributing to environmental issues. What assumptions regarding the full life cycle becomes apparent is that cement does play of a building or similar application. an important role in contributing to
LCA to analyze cement applications

Because cement is a commodity, its life cycle is embedded in cement-applications most commonly this is Portland cement concrete used in structural applications. Thus it is the end application that is of primary life-cycle interest (e.g., building or bridge), and in this context, the cement is part of the greater system (for an example see box on LCA of a Building).* Thus there is a body of LCA studies that examine the role of cement in buildings, roads and other applications (see Appendix A for a listing, and Appendix B for alternative
*
environmental impacts associated with building materials and construction; although steel rebar, if used, can also be substantial. But what is more informative is that the majority of total life-cycle environmental burdens of a building are almost invariably due to building use, not materials or construction. Studies conducted by the Scancem Group (now part of the Heidelberger Group) showed that when the materials complete life cycle is analyzed...it can be seen that their environmental effects during their 34 usage are completely dominant. The numerous systems of a building, especially heating, ventilation and air conditioning, generate significant need for energy and are the source of the majority of associated emissions.
Note: In accordance with the terms of the WBCSD cement project, this sub-study did not comprehensively examine the full-life cycle of cement applications; rather the research focus was on cement production.
10
materials). In these cases, it is the quantitative results that may be useful to decision-makers who are seeking to differentiate the environmental performance characteristics between options.
Use of LCA for other areas of assessment in the cement industry

Another category of LCA application considers areas or technologies relevant to cement but without assessing cement product itself. This kind of use of LCA draws on the power of the method to provide a rigorous systems analysis, often to compare two options (see box on Alternative Fuel Resources).
3.2.
European Experience
LCA Evaluates Alternative Fuel Resources (AFR) In a number of jurisdictions, based on regional conditions and environmental priorities, LCA studies have revealed the benefits of processing AFR in cement plants. CEMBUREAU reported that the use of waste in European cement kilns saves the equivalent of 2.5 million tonnes of coal per year, based on an LCA analysis of environmental benefits of fuel 9 substitution.
LCA activities in Europe have been on going since the early 1990s, but the focus has been varied and the utility mixed. Several early studies on cement were completed in response to market claims concerning the environmental impacts. However, in the period before 1997, prior to the ISO 14040 standard, LCA results often did not prove to be conclusive. In fact, the use of LCA may have confused debates concerning the relative greenness of materials and buildings. This experience is not unique to cement, but is typical also of other sectors (e.g., packaging and automotive), where early LCA activity proved difficult.
What was accomplished, that pertains to the In Switzerland, following an LCA project, present value of the tool, is the development of regulations concerning the treatment of expertise in a number of centers (academic and hazardous waste were changed to private consultants), plus the establishment of provide greater allowance for processing 10 AFR in cement kilns. first-generation databases and LCA tools. Most cement industry associations at the national level made efforts to develop representative generic LCA data sets describing the cradle-to-gate production of cement; several went so far as to include concrete and end products. The value of developing and making available generic LCA data is highlighted below in Part IV: Analysis. Of particular significance today is the new CEMBUREAU lead LCA project, due for completion in the autumn 2001 (see box on Comprehensive European Database for LCA).
3.3.
Experience in Australia with LCA of Building Materials
Australia has become a leading region in the use of LCA for examining building materials, as part of broader efforts to improve the environmental performance of buildings.
Sydney Summer Olympic Games

One of the main pressures to use LCA arose from the 2000 Olympic Summer Games in Sydney. Sydneys bid for the games included specifications for environmental performance. When Sydney won the games, these specifications became the Environmental Guidelines of the Summer Olympic Games.46 The requirements were also incorporated into the New South Wales (NSW) State Environmental Planning Policy for Olympic Games Projects11.
11
One of the outcomes of the green games was the LCA of Stadium Australia, the structure erected to host the opening and closing ceremonies and the track and field events. The LCA looked at all the major life cycle stages: raw material acquisition, manufacturing, transportation, use and maintenance, demolition and final disposal. The study assumed a 50-year life span for the stadium.13 The LCA was initially used (in conjunction with cost/benefit analysis) to decide between three possible stadium designs, and to make decisions about materials. The LCA inventory results of the actual design showed compliance with the Environmental Guidelines and quantified the advantages that the stadium had over a conventional design12. Of the main materials used to build the stadium, reinforced concrete was the most prominent material by mass (79%) and energy for procurement (39%). Within the concrete product system, it was found that the most energy intensive materials were the steel reinforcing and the cement. In the use phase, the thermal mass of the concrete is expected to contribute to the energy efficiency of the passive ventilation in the stadium. The most challenging aspect of the LCA was data collection. The data was collected by means of a quantitative survey that accounted for the raw materials, energy, water and waste associated with each material. It was recognized from the beginning that the data would have to be obtained from numerous different sources. For many companies in this industry it was the first time they had participated in an LCA inventory. To ensure participation by all parties, the data requirements were included in contractual agreements between Multiplex and their subcontractors, suppliers and manufacturers.11 Proprietary data was kept private and only aggregated data for life cycle stages was released to the public.12 This project is expected to act as an example for large-scale LCA studies in the future. It has raised awareness of environmental impacts within the building and construction industry.12,13,46 As a result, requests for life cycle information are becoming more common in contracts and specifications.11
Related Initiatives
The Queensland government supports the use of a life cycle perspective in the building and construction industry through Ecologically Sustainable Strategic Asset Management (ESSAM). The government has established an ESSAM Guideline that ensures that environmental considerations are included in all steps of asset management: planning, material procurement, construction, maintenance, refurbishment and disposal. The guideline is being tested for implementation throughout the Queensland government.14 The Australian Greenhouse Office is seeking to reduce energy use associated with buildings. They are working with the Australian Building Energy Council, which represents the building and construction industry. They have conducted extensive research and consultation and are moving forward with two initiatives. The first is a voluntary code of practice for the building and construction industry. The code will include practical guidance and will be developed over the period 2000-2001.15 The second is an amendment to the Australian Building Code to include minimum energy requirements, in an effort to eliminate the worst practices in building design. These measures are intended to encourage the adoption of energy efficient and environmentally conscious methods at each stage of the building life cycle.16
12
3.4.
Canadian LCA Work on Concrete Roads

Case Study: Concrete Roads in Brazil
Similar to LCA are other methods employing the life-cycle approach. Costing is one such area. The life cycle cost advantages of using cement concrete roads have made them a popular choice in Brazil. Some of these advantages include: Durability (typically greater than 25 years); Low maintenance requirements (up to 20 years before requiring maintenance); Fuel savings, especially for heavy trucks (one study showed a fuel economy increase of about 20% over conventional material surfaces); Better light reflection on the bright concrete surface, resulting in savings of approximately 30% savings in electricity for lamps, lampposts 17 and signs. Votorantim is working together with the Brazilian Portland Cement Association (ABCP) to promote concrete roads. Votorantim CEO Luiz Vilar de Carvalho proposed the program and provided financial incentives, and both BPCA and Votorantim purchased equipment that would allow concrete roads to be 18 constructed.
Roads play a particularly important role in Canadas infrastructure, due to the vast distances in the country. Construction and maintenance of roads, and the vehicles that use these roads, consume large amounts of energy and produce damaging emissions. Various organizations in Canada are investigating the possibility of reducing fuel consumption by expanding the use of concrete roads. Their work takes a life cycle approach, similar to LCA, to assess impacts and costs of roads. The Athena Sustainable Materials Institute completed a study in 1998 entitled Life Cycle Embodied Energy and Global Warming Emissions for Concrete and Asphalt Roadways.19 It looked at the construction and maintenance of major freeways, major highways and secondary highwaysfocusing on the manufacture, transportation and construction effects of cement, concrete, steel reinforcement and asphalt. The study concluded that, compared to asphalt, concrete would require the least energy for construction and maintenance. Advantages were most significant for thicker pavements and high traffic roads.19
In 2000, the Canadian government undertook One outcome of this project was concrete a complementary initiative looking at the lifepaving of the Castello Branco marginal roads. cycle use of roads. The Center for Surface Paving of the two 4-lane roads with concrete Transportation Technology at the National was completed in May 2001. The project used 3 Research Council carried out the study for the 90,000 m of concrete, corresponding to 34,000 tonnes of cement, of which up to 34% Cement Association of Canada. The study, was made up of blast furnace slag. An Effect of Pavement Surface Type on Fuel economic assessment of the project showed Consumption, looked at concrete, asphalt and that compared to asphalt: asphalt/concrete composite roads while Initial construction costs were reduced by varying a number of conditions (pavement 6.3%; roughness, vehicle type, load on the vehicle, The net present value of maintenance is 85% speed, season, temperature, direction on the lower; road). The researchers used short, uniform Maintenance of concrete causes less disruption road segments and liquid tankers with special 17 to traffic. tracking equipment to test road performance. They found that at the fastest speed and Recognition of the life cycle economic benefits under the heaviest load there were statistically of concrete roads will ensure their continued significant advantages in the fuel consumption construction in Brazil. values for the concrete roads. Specifically, at a speed of 100 km/h, a fully loaded tractor semi-trailer uses 11% less fuel on a concrete road than on an asphalt road. Moreover, concrete roads showed the least change in roughness throughout the seasons.20
13
As a result of these two projects, the Canadian government has recognized the potential benefits of using cement concrete for road construction. In fact, in the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change21 it suggested increasing awareness of the advantages of concrete roads for improving vehicle mileage. As of 2001, Canada has dedicated $3.5 million dollars over the next five years to educate provincial transportation departments about the advantages of concrete highways.22 As well, the province of Quebec has already mandated that a portion of the highways in high volume corridors be concrete23. Roadways suitable for concrete paving will be identified using Life Cycle Costing Analysis (LCCA) and multicriteria analysis. LCCA will be used to determine the return on investment for asphalt and concrete pavements, and non-quantifiable criteria, such as winter maintenance, will be assessed using multicriteria analysis24.
3.5.
LCA Experience in the USA
Coordinated by the Portland Cement Association (PCA), the USA cement industry has been collecting LCA information on cement manufacturing since 1994, and on concrete production and construction since 1996. More specifically, the data are life-cycle inventory profiles, as they do not include explicit impact assessment of the environmental inputs and outputs. Data for the complete concrete life cycle inventories are supplied by member associations of the Environmental Council of Concrete Organizations (including aggregate, ready-mix concrete, precast concrete, masonry block, etc.). There are now ten trade associations, and through them, more than 200 companies participating, as the initiative has completed its second round of data collection. The data set for cement manufacturing will be updated every three years in concert with the economic research functions at the PCA. There is no current PCA or ECCO initiative for updating the data set for concrete production and construction. 25-28,29) Data have been used for a cross-section of applications, generally aimed at providing market support. The PCA with Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc. has undertaken LCA studies examining cement applications in concrete, including research on buildings and roads that has been published. 27 Further activities are planned, to better understand and direct the life-cycle use of concrete.29,30 For external parties, the PCA provided the data to the BEES project of the National Institute for Standards and Testing (NIST), a USA government initiative in support of environmentally preferable purchasing (EPP). The Athena Sustainable Materials Institute has been supported also with PCA data that are now used in a computer model aimed for use by architects interested in environmental performance evaluations of residential housing (see Table 4-3). In at least one case the LCA data were provided directly by a cement company to an architectural firm engaged in green building analysis. The industry keeps a close watch on green building initiatives in the USA.29 Internally, the PCA calculates industry average values for the industry to provide benchmark information to cement companies to assist in directing areas for process improvement. Ann Dougherty at the PCA expects to see significant progress in the industry over the next decade, as measured and documented by LCA techniques, as new equipment and operational controls continue to be implemented.
14
Case Study: Can cement borrow from the experience of the aluminum industry?
Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s, three aluminum companies (Alcan, Alcoa and Reynolds) started to use LCA. Original efforts were prompted by market claims made about aluminum cans by competing industries and other parties. After developing generic LCA data in a number of regions for beverage cans and automotive applications, the companies began to realize a greater utility of LCA and LCA data. The interest in LCA was expanded from simply meeting customer needs for LCA, to developing LCA into a more powerful tool useful for process benchmarking and technology evaluation. After some education from the global companies to others in the sector, the industry organized itself more broadly. Like the cement industry, aluminum producers employ processes that are very similar at plants around the world with similar resource inputs. A few fundamental technologies such as "prebake" or "soderberg" electrolysis that differ primarily only by age and capacity are employed to convert bauxite ore into primary aluminum and aluminum castings, extrusions or rolled products. Aluminum companies now compare environmental performance across mining, metallurgical and processing facilities; comparing individual plants to industry average and best-in class performance, leading to identification of improvement opportunities for eco-efficiency. Today the aluminum sector has a highly integrated LCA capacity, coordinated through the International Aluminum Institute, and including the majority of companies and production worldwide. Comprehensive data coverage has been built for energy and greenhouse gases; now in its third generation, it is being expanded to included additional environmental aspects for all sites. The sector is not only ready and able to provide detailed LCA data suitable for customer needs-but has also found extensive value in the tool for environmental management and business needs. 31 32 Sources: Young, Martchek
15
4. Tools for LCA

There are more than 30 LCA or LCA-type software tools available. Some are more applicable than others for use by the cement industry. A survey was conducted to evaluate the availability and relevance of these tools, and to produce a subset that can be suggested as useful. The software and database survey (Appendix C) considered various sources including web pages of software vendors, other literature, prior reviews of software, and professional contacts. Tools examined presented a broad range of capabilities related to LCA. One factor is the intended user of the tools: product designers, LCA practitioners, environmental managers, process engineers, or downstream users such as planners, architects, and builders. Another consideration is the type of LCA being performed, for example, a simple screening study versus as larger project involving intensive primary data collection. For example, with todays software tools and databases, a practitioner can complete a quick study in less than a day, using secondary data as an estimate of the real system they are studying. This type of study, however, may not be sufficiently conclusive to support situations involving significant business risk, such as investment in new technologies or advertising product attributes. It was judged that the most useful tools to the cement industry are those that contain high quality databases, comply with the ISO 14040 series of LCA standards, and can be used to fulfill the full LCA methodology from goals and scope definition, to inventory to Life Cycle Impact Assessment and final Interpretation. However, it is important that the cement industry understands that LCA-type tools intended to evaluate downstream applications of end-products can and do have an impact on how the marketplace views cement in its various applications; these tools are discussed separately below.
16
Table 4-1. LCA-analysis Tools Suitable for the Cement Industry (compare to Table 4-2)
Name GaBi 3 LCAiT 4.0 NIRE LCA 2 SimaPr o 4.0 TEAM 3.0 Vendor IKP Uni. Stuttgart/PE, Germany Chalmers Ind. (CIT), Sweden NIRE, Japan Pre, The Netherlands Ecobilan/Ecobalance/ PriceWaterhouse Coopers, Europe/USA Tool a a a a a Database a a a a a a a a a a a a ISO a a DQA a Impacts a a Stats a More Info
http://www.gabisoftware.com http://www.lcait.com http://www.nire.go.jp http://www.pre.nl http://www.ecobilan.c om
Legend: ISO actively supports studies to comply with the ISO 14040 standards on LCA DQA includes data quality assessment indicators or evaluation Impacts includes features for Life Cycle Impact Assessment Stats includes features for statistical analysis
4.1.
Suggested LCA-Analysis Tools for the Cement Industry
Based on findings in this study, five strong LCA tools can be positively suggested for use by the cement industry (Table 4-1). The absence of a specific tool from the suggested list should not be perceived as a negative recommendation. In general, each of these five software tools should be applicable and useful to cement companies. While some are weaker in the functions they offer, others have weaker databases, or databases only useful to a particular country or region. Many of the software providers offer add-on datasets to their standard databases.
4.2.
Other LCA-related Software Tools
There are currently many life cycle based (LCA-related) tools being used by planners, engineers and architects to evaluate downstream cement applications, for example comparing concrete to wood to steel structures. These tools, in most cases, are not as powerful as the LCA-analysis tools mentioned above, as they do not allow the user to perform the Life Cycle Inventory step (see Part 2) based on primary data. Instead, they provide pre-defined data of fixed data quality and applicability. The intent of the LCA-related tools is to allow non-LCA experts quickly to compare generic products or processes to support decisions during the design process. This substudy positively identified three important LCA-type software tools useful for assessing products containing cement (Table 4-1). It should be recognized that none of these tools is intended to perform an LCA study compliant with the ISO 14040 standards. Because downstream actors are using these tools to judge the environmental benefits of cement, whether directly or indirectly in cement applications, it is important that the cement industry be familiar with these more user-friendly tools.
17
Table 4-2. Important LCA-related Software Tools (compare to Table 4-1)

Name BEES Vendor National Institute for Standards and Testing, USA. IKP, University of Stuttgart, Germany BRE, United Kingdom Tool a Database a ISO DQA Impacts a Stats More Info
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov /oae/ software/bees.html
Build-IT
http://www.ikpgabi.unistuttgart.de/
ENVEST
http://www.bre.co.uk/s ustainable/ envest.html
Legend: ISO actively supports studies to comply with the ISO 14040 standards on LCA DQA includes data quality assessment indicators or evaluation Impacts includes features for Life Cycle Impact Assessment Stats includes features for statistical analysis
4.3.
Databases
Databases are fundamental to the quality of an LCA study and crucial to the timely completion of an LCA project. LCA databases typically include a cross-section of energy, materials and process data that, together, provided a generic foundation suitable to LCA in a diversity of industries. Process information will include common extractive and chemical technologies, plus transport, fuels, electric power and possibly waste management. Many stand-alone LCA databases include data relevant to cement. The substudy generated a short selection of databases that are suggested to be widely applicable to the cement industry (Table 4-3). In some cases the data are provided within an LCA software tool (see Table 4-1); in other cases, the data are purchased separately. An important distinction is between industryprovided data and independent databases, which include consultant, academic and government generated data. Industry-provided data tend to be comprehensive datasets compiled by survey of facilities in a region (see under heading on Level of Effort in section 2.3). Data are usually industry average information, published by the association, with some indication of variability and representativeness; although sometimes data are provided specifically from one site or company. Independent databases are more likely to contain data from several sources and give a more rounded view of an industry. Finally, note that considerable effort in the LCA community is underway in the area of data exchange: it is anticipated that within two to five years, there will be viable standard enabling users effectively to transfer LCA data from one platform to another, thus allowing for a more fluid use of LCA data universally. A more complete listing of tools and databases, and their characteristics, is provided in Appendix C.
18
Table 4-3. Relevant Databases

Name IVAM LCAdata 3.0. Athena Vendor IVAM Environmental Research Athena Institute for Sustainable Materials Comments Very strong database Used alone or with Athena software tool (see Appendix C). Canadian based data, expanding to USA and UK. Japanese language and content More Info
http://www.ivambv.uva. nl/ uk/index.htm http://www.athenasmi. ca/
Use Nordic Countries Canada and USA
JEMAI
BEES
BRE Environmental Profiles
Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology BRE & Department of
Energy, Transport & Regions UK
http://www.jemai.or.jp/in dex-e.asp
Japan
USA government in support of environmentally preferable purchasing
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/ oae/software/bees.html
USA
UK Industry inventory and other databases, used by BRE for different LCA tools
http://collaborate.bre.co. uk/ envprofiles/
United Kingdom
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5. Analysis
5.1. Status of LCA
LCA is a tool for business but also, more generally, a tool for sustainable development. The use of the method, whether in the public or the private sectors provides a discipline for thought and considered action. The life-cycle framework is intuitively understood and provides a good vehicle for communication of environmental information both inside and outside organizations. The tool has matured, too. Today, LCA is not nearly as difficult or as costly as it once was. Working from existing databases, using off-the-shelf LCA software, quick studies can be completed in a period of days appropriate and useful for internal decision purposes. Still, to be clear, for a study to be suitable to take to external audiences (e.g., to inform public policy or use for market claims), greater effort is required. However, even if more rigorous data collection or possibly a critical review is included, comprehensive high-quality studies can be completed with only a couple of person-months of labor. The power of LCA lies in its systems analysis approach. To expose trade-offs across different life-cycle stages, to balance environmental considerations across different media, and to assess the relative importance of key issues in comparative systems these characteristics make LCA a useful and valuable tool for a wide variety of applications. Interestingly, the most widespread and arguably most value-added application of LCA supporting product improvement is not a use that is directly relevant to the cement industry. The nature of cement as a commodity does not lend itself to useful analysis for purposes of identifying improvement opportunities using LCA, in contrast for example to the Design-forEnvironment opportunities for a manufactured product like an automobile. This does, however, leave many important purposes of value to the cement industry.
5.2.
Cement and Eco-efficiency
Eco-efficiency is a route to maximize environmental and economic benefits, while simultaneously minimizing both environmental and economic costs.47 In a full eco-efficiency evaluation of cement, there needs to be consideration of the environmental costs of cement production and the diverse economic, social and environmental benefits of the use of cement. In fact, the eco-efficiency of cementand its contribution to sustainability more generallyis not obvious unless a life-cycle perspective is taken. A wide variety of specific applications are possible, allowing cement to facilitate innumerable serviceslike transport (in pipes, roads and bridges), storage and containment (in tanks and other vessels), protection (in walls and dams), and integrity of structures (in buildings and other infrastructure). Each of these physical functions is typically part of greater social and economic services, including personal and freight transport, waste management, shelter and housing, and other kinds of containment and security. The results of the present study indicated a growing awareness of sustainability issues in the industry due to life-cycle management considerations. More than one survey respondent suggested that life-cycle tools (and the life cycle approach more generally) are a powerful means that can be used to place cement in its appropriate role for sustainable development, for example, LCA can support civil engineers in their professional roles as stewards or guardians.29 A systems approach that LCA offers allows decision-makers to see options in a meaningful context. This allows economic and other resources to be applied where the most benefits can be gained where eco-efficiency and effectiveness can be achieved. For example, in the LCA analysis of buildings it is found that the use phase is the over-riding determinant in total
20
impact, and the direct contribution of cement to total LCA results is often marginal (see box entitled LCA of a Building). Another important eco-efficiency area has been the disposal of waste materials and their use as fuels. LCA analyses inform policy and technical stakeholders on a case-by-case basis regarding the efficacy of AFR use in cement production (see box entitled LCA evaluates Alternative Fuel Resources). LCA can help us consider if and how the use of cement can contribute to sustainability, by assisting in reducing the energy and emissions burdens of transport, buildings and other systems. Pertinent questions include: How and where can the use of cement contribute to greater eco-efficiency? Where can broader system gains be found that offset the environmental costs associated with the production of cement?
Appropriate use of cement

The survey of LCA studies undertaken for this report indicated that LCA is useful to guide appropriate use of cement, in order to contribute to the sustainable development goals of society. The outcomes of LCA studies often discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate use of cement, pointing the way for decisions that can best contribute to sustainability. As will always be the case, some discretion is required when determining which paths are more sustainable. The conditions and assumptions of each decision are circumstance dependant. Users of results must be aware that conclusions should be readdressed as conditions change and time passes. LCA is one tool to help decision-makers guide their choices of materials and technologies.
5.3.
Meeting Market and Societal Expectations for LCA
The use of a life-cycle perspective a broad systems approach is fundamental to achieving the sustainable development objectives of society.
Cement contributes to the sustainability objectives of society

Central to the relevance of LCA to the industry is societys growing interest in evaluating cement applications. In effect, the cement industry should be using LCA because customers and other down stream users of cement are applying the tool in their decisions. For cement, this is apparent in the activities, programs and policies of government agencies, end-users of buildings and other infrastructure, and the engineering and design communities. Governments have implemented, and continue to develop, various product-oriented environmental policies and purchasing programs, e.g., USA Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP), Canada Department of Public Works and Services (Boyle). (See also box on Norcem). End-users are evaluating the total environmental profiles of buildings and other structures; their intent is to assess, develop, and promote environmentally preferable designsas measured using an LCA approach, e.g., Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (United States Green Buildings Coalition), The Building Research Establishment Ltd. (BRE) In the UK (BRE), Eco-Quantum in The Netherlands (Eco-Quantum), and LCAid in Australia (NSW Department of Public Works and Services). Engineers, architects and designers are, more and more, consciously and systematically integrating environmental considerations into their designs, e.g., the Green Building Guide (Anderson and Howard) and related tools in the UK (Howard et al), Athena from Canada (Athena 2001), and the Environmental Resource Guide in the USA (American Institute of Architects).
21
Each of these stakeholders is looking to make better decisions that enable them in their own ways to contribute to the sustainable development objectives of society. Where these decisions involve cement or, more directly, cement applications, LCA is popular and widely used tool. And its use is expected to grow. LCA will be necessary for the concrete industry to participate in the market hence the keen interest of the cement industry " Jean-Marie Chandelle, Chief Executive, CEMBUREAU8 The clear message is that society has identified LCA as an essential tool for decision-making to contribute to the sustainable development. It should be noted, the level of interest and activities in these areas, at this time, appears to be concentrated in Europe, North America, Australia and some Asian countries. In this regard, for cement, LCA has become a regional market requirement with varying degrees of relevance in different countries.
strategic
E. Industrial Ecology Assessment D. Technology Assessment
G. Environmental Reporting I. Marketing
internal
C. Industry Benchmarking
F. GHG Measurement
A. Generic Data Sets
external
H. Labeling B. Performance Improvement J. Sales Support
tactical
Figure 5-1. Uses of LCA vary from internal company uses to more industry-level and external applications, and range from more tactical to more strategic areas. The value to the cement industry of each use is low (green), mid (yellow) or high (red).
5.4.
How Should the Cement Industry Use LCA?
Findings indicated that the cement industry is not widely familiar with LCA. There has been distributed and ad-hoc use of the tool over the last decadeprimarily in response to customer and market requests for LCA information. However, in comparison to other sectors, including alternative materials to concrete like steel and wood, the cement industry has been slow in adopting LCA, and slow in developing concerted responses to societys expectations.
22
In this study, results on use of LCA were sorted and processed into a comprehensive summary. Other areas of LCA use, not apparent or not identified by cement companies, were added; thus providing a map of ten potential uses of LCA for the cement industry (Figure 5-1). These uses were then considered according to their applicability for internal applications versus more external uses. A second screen was applied to classify purposes into those that are more tactical versus strategic. Strategic uses are related to longer-term benefits, and tactical uses are more focused on immediate considerations. For example, using LCA to provide information to support markets is recognized to be a more strategic, external use; whereas using LCA to identify key environmental issues at facilities for environmental performance improvement is tactical and internal in nature. Related uses are grouped together; for example, environmental reporting and labeling both involve publishing results. These ten general uses of LCA are explained in more detail below, where explicit evaluation of the value of each to the cement industry is provided. The value of each use is based on its prior use by cement industry, proven value to the industry, ease of application, and whether it is an area of importance to the industry. A. Generic data sets intended for general market and customer support Value to the industry: high The availability of LCA information on cement, and competing products like steel, wood and asphalt, has become a market expectation in many regions. Generic data sets are typically reference quality cradle-to-gate LCI profiles, useful for downstream users in their LCA efforts. Stakeholders including customers, NGOs and government agency are performing full-life cycle analyses on cement applications. Results from this work feed into decisions concerning choice of building material, closely related to uses I) Sales support and J) Marketing, discussed below. Examples: National databases are developed or in development in Australia, Japan, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Italy, Sweden, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Germany, USA, Canada33 More comprehensive, regional databases are present in North America29 (see section 2), and near completion in Europe33 (see box on Comprehensive European Database for LCA). The need for generic data has been recognized in many materials sectors as a part of on going market support. This is usually coordinated at the industry association level, but has demanded an investment in data collection and know-how by companies. Results provide a degree of market preparedness: enabling the sector to provide generic data to customers and other stakeholders, and to help the industry analyze its own situation relative to the life-cycle of downstream applications. In the process of this whole activity, however, there has quite often been a crossover in purpose, where individual participating companies have discovered the benefits of LCA for understanding and improving their production facilities (see box entitled Can cement borrow from the experience of the aluminum industry?). Thus there is evidence to support the assertion that both revenue-side and cost-sides of a firm benefit from LCA. It should be noted that LCA data age and require updating. Technology changes, facilities upgrade and efficiencies improveusually new data show a better LCA profile. Moreover, as might be expected, there is an ever-growing demand from the user communities for more detailed environmental information. In evaluating the value of LCA in some of the following uses, this analysis is hinged on the assumption that the need for generic data is acceptedthat there is a distinct incentive for the industry to develop and make ready LCA data. It is acknowledged that in many regions, there will be limited or no expectation from the market for LCA. But, in more developed countries
23
(particularly Europe, Australia and Canada) there are strong incentives already in place. Moreover, it is presumed that these activities, both public and private sector, will continue to grow and mature, leading to greater demands for environmentally friendly buildings and infrastructure. B. Environmental Performance Improvement for intra-company benchmarking, identification of opportunities, support of EHS activities, KPI Case Study: Taiheiyos use of LCA Value to the industry: mid Taiheiyo Cement Corporation has Presuming the need for industry-wide LCA efforts, successfully utilized LCA for a variety of companies will develop internal expertise in LCA, valuable applications, including a which can be utilized to identify and support activities number of decision-making efforts for continual environmental performance internally and for communication efforts improvement. For example, Norcem has employed to external parties. The company uses LCA to assist in the identification of environmental LCA to continually monitor its aspects under its ISO 14001 environmental contributions to greenhouse gases (CO2 management system and EMAS.34 emissions), depletion of mineral C. Industry Benchmarking of environmental performance Value to the industry: mid Presuming the need for industry-wide LCA efforts, companies and plant data can be valuably used for company-to-company performance comparison and benchmarking best practices. The Portland Cement Association program in the USA enables this use, and is updated every three years to measure improvement (Dougherty). Similarly, in Europe the industry-wide LCA study lead byCEMBUREAU33 will support benchmarking of cement and concrete. D. Technology Assessment and business planning
resources, use of energy resources, and shortage of final landfill sites (amount of waste used). Internally, the company has used LCA results to evaluate: Thermal recycling of waste plastic materials AFR Ecocement production and Recycling processes for incinerator ash from urban waste. Externally, the company uses LCA results to communicate the contribution of their activities towards sustainability to stakeholders. Additionally, Taiheiyo uses this approach to demonstrate the environmental benefits of cement compared to alternatives and has augmented the environmental information with social benefits analyses to help justify their continued presence in the industry in Japan.
Value to the industry: mid-high LCA can be used to assess new technologies for their environmental performance, contributing to other sources of information on business, regulatory, technology, legal, etc. Findings suggest this type of study is most appropriate where the overall environmental performance of two dissimilar For more information see Appendix E. technologies is being considered (e.g., waste treatment). LCA can help cement companies determine the impacts of AFR or recycling optionsand thus aid in the decision process when evaluating new technologies. For example, the decision as to whether or not AFR is an appropriate option will depend on case-specific circumstances. Excellent illustrations of this high-value use of LCA are provided in the boxes on AFR and Taiheiyo.
24
The broader expectations of stakeholders with respect to environmental performance of cement-containing products were not the subject of this study; however, gathered evidence suggested a spectrum of interest and requirements.
E. Industrial Ecology Assessment Value to the industry: low LCA can potentially help to evaluate the efficiency in industrial ecology efforts. This use is largely unproven, and is therefore rated as low; although Taiheiyo used LCA in their development of their Ecocement Plant (see Appendix E). F. Greenhouse gas (GHG) measurement of CO2 and other emissions, including direct and indirect inventories, baseline establishment and scenario models Value to the industry: mid LCA tools and databases are suitable for GHG measurement, for direct and indirect emissions, and allowing for measurement of more than just CO2. Moreover, an LCA approach allows for tradeoffs and opportunities to be exposed. The LCA method encompasses major elements necessary in a GHG measurement protocol. LCA rules, in fact, are standardized in the ISO 14041 standard, covering areas such as systems boundary, allocations and cut-off criteria. Taiheiyo is one firm known to have used LCA for GHG measurement. Moreover, the Working Group Cement Cement CO2 Protocol is compatible with a life cycle approach. G. Environmental Reporting and Communications at the industry, company or local level Value to the industry: low-mid LCA can be useful to generate and structure public information about company products, including communication of case studies and reporting of product performance indicators. See Appendix F. H. Environmental Labeling and Environmental Product Declarations Value to the industry: mid Product information generated through LCA takes environmental reporting to a more target audience, the consumer. Guidance for this kind of use has been developed by ISO for Type III environmental labeling. One model is to provide structured environmental information along with other more conventional technical or product descriptions. (See text box and the text box on Norcem in Appendix F.)
Case Study: Type III Labeling in Australia

Environment Australia is working with a consortium of academic institutions and industry to disseminate LCA in the building and construction industry. The project is being conducted in three stages: 1. An investigation of existing LCA tools that could be used in the building and construction industry. 2. The development and testing of methods to collect LCA data on products and systems in building and construction. 3. Promotion of project results. As part of stage three, the consortium is currently developing a Type III label for the building industry. This label is third party certified and, as is standard for Type III environmental labels, gives specific quantified data about the environmental impacts of a product under a life-cycle framework. The Australian label, called an Environmental Performance Data Sheet, is based on the Material Safety Data Sheets, the system used to identify the health and safety aspects of chemicals. The data sheet is intended to serve a number of different purposes. It will allow material specifiers to assess products according to environmental impact and choose product with the minimum impact. It can be used by manufacturers to benchmark their products against competitors and to measure product improvement. They will also provide much needed specific data to LCA practitioners on the impacts of building materials. Specific data will allow greater precision in LCA studies than the 35 use of average data .
25
I. Marketing and support of customer product environmental analysis Value to the industry: mid-high More specific than using LCA to provide Generic Data Sets (see above), marketing implies active communication of the life-cycle benefits of cement into specific applications or market regions (e.g., cement concrete highways). Numerous initiatives support or encourage architects, engineers and other professionals to evaluate cement-applications (and their alternatives) for environmental merit. This kind of product-focused environmental analysis typically uses LCA tools or LCA frameworks. For example, a number of Design-for-Environment or Eco-design programs are targeted specifically at this design-user group (see Table 4-2)36,37,38,39,40. The cement industry can provide accurate profiles, suggest appropriate applications, and ensure downstream users assess cement (and its alternatives) in a fair and accurate manner. The value of this use depends on local market needs: it is important for cement industry or company experts to familiarize themselves with the types of decisions, in order to participate, support and help inform these decisions towards sustainability objectives. J. Sales support Value to the industry: mid This use is immature for the cement sector, but substudy research showed that the provision of data to immediate customers has already been necessary for cement companies in Europe, North America and Australiaand is expected to escalate. Alternative materials to cement, like steel and wood, maintain initiatives in LCA for purpose of supporting their downstream markets. In this use, LCA serves a close and immediate use, the value of which needs to be determined on a case-by-case basis.
26
6. Findings and Recommendations

This study has examined the potential relevance and value of LCA to designing a sustainable future for the cement industry. The LCA tool, itself, has been critically examined. Results indicate that it has reached a level of maturity suitable for wide use by the sector. Past experiences and potential uses relevant to the cement industry show that LCA can be valuable in a variety of ways.
6.1.
Findings
LCA provides a systems perspective, organized around the concept of the functional unit LCA is a rigorous, well-defined approach, but is still reliant on clearly defined goals and objectives in order best to lead to conclusive results in any particular situation. The view that LCA is time-consuming or biased is no longer valid. Today LCA studies vary in complexity from simple to comprehensive, can be internal or external, and are used for a wide variety of purposes (see Figure 4-1). International standardization of LCA method promotes transparency and clarity of results, although it must be understood that conclusions from results inherently rely on value judgments. LCA supports eco-efficiency, as it can help frame the benefits provided by cement application, in relation to the impacts of production. To date, use of LCA by the cement industry has been fragmented and of mixed value. Significant benefit has been demonstrated through its use in evaluating AFR options and, in some regions, by providing LCA data to support customers and other stakeholders. Capable software and good databases are available, regionally and internationally, providing analysts with quick and easy tools necessary to conduct a study. Ten potential uses of LCA for the cement industry were identified and evaluated (see Figure 4-1). LCA is a tool for sustainable development: for market support, to assist in communication of environmental information about products, for technology assessment including potential use to support industrial ecology, for GHG measurement, and for supporting environmental performance improvement through benchmarking, indicators and EHS analysis. One of the greatest values of LCA to the cement industry is indirect: its use by stakeholders such as architects and engineers helps guide the selective use of cement for sustainable applications. It is important for the cement industry to support these market groups.
6.2.
Recommendations
The industry should compile LCA data on cement and make this information available to customers and other stakeholders. Although already well underway in some regions, more needs to be done. This effort is both basic and challenging. Basic because it is data that underpin decisions and the business and environmental value of LCA is largely realized in cement applications. It is challenging because of the magnitude of effort: collecting data from multiple sites, ensuring consistency of method, providing checks and balances on quality, publishing information clearly and meaningfully, and undertaking systematic updates to ensure currency of information. Moreover, LCA profiles of cement products and downstream applications of cement should be developed; the sector needs to be prepared to participate in initiatives and provide LCA profiles and data to decision-makers (architects, engineers, government purchasers).
27
Internal use of LCA by the sector should continue. Cement industry experience to date has shown LCA to be valuable on a case-by-case basis in areas such as intra-industry benchmarking, performance improvements, greenhouse gas measurement and AFR evaluations. Under this vision, companies would have current LCA data on each of their facilities, be able to compare from site-to-site and benchmark themselves to industry best practices. Cement customers and users should be informed on LCA by the cement industry. At a general level, consumers and professionals like architects and engineers need to be aware of the environmental advantages and disadvantages of cement and cement applications throughout the whole life cycle, not just during production. It is often the case environmental costs of cement production are balanced by environmental and social benefits associated with the use of cement in final products. More specifically, as architects, engineers and other professionals use LCA tools and cement LCA data they need to understand the strengths and limitations of the approach. Guidance would cover areas such as data validity and applicability, scope and boundaries of studies, indicators and life cycle impact assessment, and conclusiveness and interpretation of results. Coordination of LCA efforts is recommended. A mechanism is necessary to ensure consistency and accountability of methodologies and databases across the industry and internationally. Existing associations might take this role, or perhaps it is a job for the proposed Sustainable Development Institute of Cement and Concrete. Efforts should be closely developed with affected industry partners (upstream, readimix, concrete, etc.). Regional assistance will be required. In some areas and markets, the level of interest and effort in LCA is already underway, but in other regions the demand for LCA information is low, and LCA use is apparent only on a case-by-case basis. Larger cement companies with broader and deeper resources are in a position to contribute to the overall industry effort, to support smaller companies, and to transfer experience from one area to another. The value of LCA is common to the whole sector. Cooperation within the industry will allow it to better meet user needs, to provide higher quality and more comprehensive datasets, and to better manage data as they are picked up and used. More proactive options, too, are apparent. Cement companies can lead by engaging their suppliers and downstream partners. Leadership could be taken externally too: companies and associations should maintain LCA profiles of alternative products and applications and know their products environmental value relative to alternative materials. Reporting and communications can be enhanced by LCA. Sales and marketing of cement should be aligned with sustainable development objectives, giving informed positions regarding appropriateand inappropriateapplications of cement.
6.3.
Conclusion
LCA is a tool for measuring the environmental performance of systemsit is fundamentally about supporting decision-making. Materials like cement are important building blocks in product systems and LCA analysis and information on cement is increasingly important. At this time, the cement industry needs to inform the market and, at the same time, can leverage additional analysis for internal improvement and other decisions. On the one hand, the environmental costs of cement are largely incurred in cement production; on the other, sustainability benefits are ultimately realized by society. A systems analysis weighs options and balances trade-offs. LCA is a tool to help map the sustainability journey, to link the cement industry to sustainable development decisions of society, through assessment of cement production and products.
28
The global sustainability debate has evolved to the point where businesses must consider the impacts of products and services throughout life cycle and supply chains J. Aloisi de Larderel UNEP Industry and Environment
29
7. References
1. ISO 14040:1997(E), Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and framework. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. First edition, 1997. 2. ISO 14041:1998(E), Environment management Life cycle assessment Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. First edition, 1998. 3. ISO 14042:1999(E), Environmental management Life cycle assessment Life cycle Impact assessment. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. First edition, 1999. 4. ISO 14043:2000(E), Environmental management Life cycle assessment Life cycle interpretation. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. First edition, 2000. 5. Bjrkland, T., . Jnsson and A.-M. Tillman. LCA of Building Frame Structures Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle of Concrete and Steel Frames. Gteburg: Chalmers University of Technology, 1996. 6. Eyerer, P. and H.W. Reinhardt. kologische Bilanzierung von Baustoffen und Gebuden Wege zu einer ganzheitlichen Bilanzierung. Birkhuser: Bau Praxis, 2000. 7. CEMBUREAU 1999(1), CEMBUREAU LCI Format for Cement, internal document, Brussels: CEMBUREAU, Feb 1999. 8. Chandelle, J.M., Chief Executive, CEMBUREAU, Personal communication, 23 May 2001. 9. CEMBUREAU 1999(2), Environmental Benefits of using Alternative Fuels in Cement Production - A Life-Cycle Approach. Brussels: CEMBUREAU, Feb 1999. 10. Vanderborght, B. Vice President, Environmental Research and Development, Holcim. Personal communication. Jul 2001. 11. Janssen, M., B. Buckland and Z. Peshos. Stadium Australia energy use and the role of concrete. Concrete in Australia. Vol. 25, No. 1. Mar-May 1999. <http://www.engaust.com.au/magazines/cia/0399coverstory.html> 12. Hes, Dominique. The Olympic stadium analysed using the DPWS tool. Greening the Building Life Cycle. 2001. <http://www.cfd.rmit.edu.au/lca/buildlca/menu9.html> 13. BICT. Checking 'Green' claims for Sydney's Olympic Stadium. Building Innovation and Construction Technology. No. 5 Feb 1999. <http://www.dbce.csiro.au/innoweb/0299/greenolympics.htm> 14. RMIT. Activities per State. Greening the Building Life Cycle. Centre for Design at RMIT University. 2001. <http://www.cfd.rmit.edu.au/lca/buildlca/menu14.html> 15. AGO 2001 (1). Energy Efficiency Energy Codes and Standards for houses and commercial buildings. Australian Greenhouse Office. 24 May 2001. <http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/energyefficiency/building/practices.html>
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16. AGO 2001(2). Voluntary Building Industry Initiatives. Australian Greenhouse Office. 8 May 2001. <http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/energyefficiency/building/practices.html> 17. ABCP (Brazilian Portland Cement Association). Appropriate use of cement concrete in roads in Brazil. 2001. 18. Rocha, J. Business Manager, Houston Office, Votorantim Cimentos. Personal Communication. July 2, 2001. 19. Athena. Life Cycle Embodied Energy and Global Warming Emissions for Concrete and Asphalt Roadways. Ottawa: Athena Sustainable Materials Institute. 1998. 20. CSTT. Effect of Pavement Surface Type on Fuel Consumption. Ottawa, Canada: Centre for Surface Transportation Technology, National Research Council Canada, 2000. 21. Government of Canada. Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change. 17 Mar 2001. <http://www.climatechange.gc.ca/english/whats_new/action_plan.shtml> 22. Fournier, Benoit. Natural Resources Canada. Personal Communication. 6 Jul 2001. 23. Wilker, Carolyn. Cement Association of Canada. Personal Communication. 28 Jun 2001. 24. Chevrette, G. Orientation ministrielle sur le choix des types de chausses (Departmental Pavement Selection Policy). Ministre des Transports, Quebec, Canada. Translation by Cement Association of Canada. 31 May 2001. <http://www2.mtq.gouv.qc.ca/reseau/chaussees/orientation.htm> 25. PCA. A Comparison of Six Environmental Impacts of Portland Cement Concrete and Asphalt Cement Concrete Pavements. R&D Serial Number 2068. Portland Cement Association, 1997. 26. PCA 1999. Life Cycle Briefing Paper. R& D Serial Number 2247. Portland Cement Association, 1999. 27. PCA 2000(1). Energy Use in Residential Housing: A comparison of Insulating Concrete Form and Wood Frame Walls. R&D Serial Number 2415. Portland Cement Association, 2000. 28. PCA 2000(2). Environmental Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement Concrete. R& D Serial Number 2137. Portland Cement Association, 2000. 29. Dougherty, A. Director, Environmental/Process Technology, Portland Cement Association, USA. Personal Communication, 2001. 30. Marceau, M. Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc. USA. Personal Communication, Apr 2001. 31. Young, S.B. Life Cycle Management in Canadian Industry. Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1996. 32. Martchek, K. Alcoa, Pittsburgh, USA. Personal Communication, 2001. 33. CEMBUREAU 2001(2), response to survey, Brussels: CEMBUREAU, 2001.
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34. Scancem. Scancem Environmental Report. 1998. <http://www.scancem.com/environ/ eng98.pdf> 35. EPDS. Environmental Performance Data Sheet Greening the Building Life Cycle. Centre for Design at RMIT University. 6 Aug 2001. http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/ 36. American Institute of Architects. Environmental Resource Guide, 1996. 37. Athena Sustainable Materials Institute. Athena. 9 Jul 2001. <http://www.athenasmi.ca/> 38. NIST. BEES 2.0. Office of Applied Economics. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2 May 2001. <http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/software/bees.html> 39. United States Green Buildings Coalition. Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED). 7 Aug 2001. <http://www.usgbc.org/index.htm> 40. Building Research Establishment Ltd. BRE. 21 Jun 2001. http://www.bre.co.uk/index.html 41. Kreissig, Johannes. IKP, University of Stuttgart, Germany. Personal Communication. Apr 2001. 42. Lee, Kun. Anjou University, Korea. Personal Communication. 2000-2001. 43. Jonbrink, A. K., C. Wolf-Watz, M. Erixon, P. Olsson and E. Walln. LCA Software Survey. Mlndal, Sweden: IVF Research Publication 00824, 2000. 44. Wilgenbush, Brian. LCA Software- Internal Report. Atlanta: Interface Research Corporation, 2000. 45. ILSR. The Concepts of Extended Producer Responsibility and Product Stewardship Institute for Local Self-Reliance. 2001. <http://www.ilsr.org/recycling/concepts.html> 46. NCCNSW. Green Building Legacy. Green Games Watch 2000. Nature Conservation Council of New South Wales. 30 Aug 2000. http://www.nccnsw.org.au/member/ggw/projects/GreenIssues/gbl.html 47. Five Winds International. Eco-Efficiency and Materials: Foundation Paper. Ottawa: International Council on Metals and the Environment, First Printing, April 2001. <http://www.icmm.com>
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8. Bibliography
Anderson, J. and N. Howard. The Green Guide to Housing Specification. London: Construction Research Communications, 2000. Athena. Athena Sustainable Materials Institute (SMI) Members Newsletter 3.1 Dec 2000. Boyle, C. Public Works and Government Services Canada, Real Property Services, AES, Environmental Services. Canada. Personal Communication, 2001. CEMBUREAU 1999(2), Environmental Benefits of using Alternative Fuels in Cement Production - A Life-Cycle Approach. Brussels: CEMBUREAU, Feb 1999. CEMBUREAU 2001(1), WBCSD Study on Sustainable Cement Industry. Brussels: CEMBUREAU, 25 Jan 2001. De Caluwe, Nils. Ecotools Manual A Comprehensive Review of Design for Environment Tools. Manchester: Manchester Metropolitan University, Design for the Environment Research group, DFE/TR33, 1997. Ecodesign Navigator. Design for the Environment Decision Support Project. 1998. Manchester Metropolitan University. <http://sun1.mpce.stu.mmu.ac.uk/pages/projects/dfe/deeds/ecodnavi/toolbox/analyse/lcabased/l cabased.html> Eco-Quantum. 18 Jul 2001. http://www.ecoquantum.nl/ Ecosite. EcoSite Software Back Information. Ecosite. 13 Aug 2001 <http://www.ecosite.co.uk/depart/backinfo/softconb.html> EPP. Office of Pollution Prevention. Environmentally Preferable Purchasing. Environmental Protection Agency. 5 Sept 2000. <http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/epp/> European Commission. Integrated Product Policy Europa. 12 Nov 2001. <http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ipp/home.htm> Gloria, T. LCA Software. Life Cycle Assessment Links. 2000. <http://www.lifecycle.org/LCA_soft.htm> Green Paper on Integrated Product Policy. Integrated Product Policy. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, 2 Jul 2001. <http://europa.eu.int/eurlex/en/com/gpr/2001/com2001_0068en01.pdf > Green Paper on the Contribution of Product-Related Environmental Policy to Sustainable Development. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, February 2001. Hes, Dominique. The Olympic stadium analysed using the DPWS tool. Greening the Building Life Cycle. 2001. <http://www.cfd.rmit.edu.au/lca/buildlca/menu9.html> Howard, N., S. Edwards and J. Anderson. BRE Methodology for Environmental Profiles of Construction Materials, Components and Buildings. London: Construction Research Communications, 1999.
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Jensen, A.A., L. Hoffmann and A. Schmidt. List of commericially available life cycle assessment tools. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) A Guide to Approaches, Experiences and Information Sources. 1998. European Environment Agency. <http://service.eea.eu.int/envirowindows/lca/tab43.htm> NSW Department of Public Works and Services, Environmental Services. LCAid. Apr 2001. <http://www.projectweb.gov.com.au/dataweb/lcaid/> The White House. Executive Order #13101: Greening the Government through Waste Prevention, Recycling, and Federal Acquisition. Environmental Protection Agency. 14 Sept 1998. <http://es.epa.gov/oeca/fedfac/cfa/eo13101.htm> Vanderborght, B. Vice President, Environmental Research and Development, Holcim. Personal communication. Jul 2001.
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APPENDIX A: LCA Annotated Bibliography Cement and Applications

HEADINGS
Corporate Environmental Reports Environmental Impacts of Cement and Concrete Life Cycle of Cement and Concrete Use of Alternative Fuels Use of Alternative Raw Materials LCA Methodology for Cement and Concrete Alternative Production Techniques LCA/LCI of Cement LCA of Concrete Buildings/Building Components LCA of Concrete Roads and Bridges
Corporate Environmental Reports

1.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Report Taiheiyo Cement, Japan 2000 We evaluate how Taiheiyo's cement production, by utilizing large volumes of waste and by-products, helps to reduce society's total burden on the environment using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methods. Based on the outcome of this assessment, the environmental accounting item ''(2) Environmental conservation effect from upstream and downstream (waste utilization effect)'' is calculated and then converted into economic terms. <http://www.taiheiyo-cement.co.jp/english/env2000/index.html>
Abstract
Source
2.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Report Taiheiyo Cement, Japan 1999 The LCA of Cement System boundary: Mining of raw material Transport Production Impact Category: Global warming, energy resource depletion, mineral source depletion, landfill volume Weighting Factor: 1) Importance factor: Based on questionnaire, Based on price 2) Durability Factor <http://www.taiheiyo-cement.co.jp/english/env/index.html>
Abstract
Source
3.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Report Scancem, Sweden 1999
A-1
An analysis conducted by the Chalmers University of Technology (Gothenburg, Sweden) compared how different framework materials contribute to a buildings overall environmental impact. The studied focused on seven different types of structures made of steel, precast concrete units and in situ concrete. The study covered both office buildings and apartment buildings. Abstract The analysis was conducted in three steps: new production, service during a 50-year period, and demolition and disposal. The results indicated that more than 80 percent of a buildings environmental impact is during its service life, despite the fact that only the biggest environmental impact was focused on in the analysis energy consumed for heating the building. Heavy frameworks have better thermal storage, which conserves energy by reducing both heating and cooling requirements. <http://www.scancem.com/environ/index.htm>
Source
4.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Report Scancem, Sweden 1998 Despite reduced emissions from point sources, Scancem's operations still affect the environment, although to a lesser extent. Sources of emissions are more diffuse and pollutants are spread over a wide area. Increased attention is therefore being given to reducing emissions that are released after products pass through factory gates. That is when Scancem's impact on the environment requires other approaches. A life cycle perspective is necessary to clarify how a product impacts the environment during its entire lifetime. The life cycle perspective is consequently the main thread connecting the sections of this Environmental Report, which has also been expanded to include quantitative descriptions. <http://www.scancem.com/environ/index.htm>
Abstract
Source
Environmental Impacts of Cement and Concrete

5.
Title Author Publication year A Comparative Study of Low-Rise Residential Building Systems in Canada Cement Association of Canada (Formerly the Canadian Portland Cement Association) 1996
A-2
This publication presents a comparative study of various concrete framing systems and a typical wood frame for a low-rise multi-family residential structure. Comparative data are presented for construction costs, environmental aspects, fire and acoustics. The structure chosen for the study was a four-story, 47-unit apartment building typical of Canadian low-rise multi-family construction. Nine different alternatives were evaluated for the structure with and without underground parking. The study showed that two concrete framing systems were more economical than the original wood frame design. Based on the average cost for eight cities across Canada, using Hollow-core floors with insulating concrete form walls for the structure with underground parking, a 5.0% cost saving can be realized over the construction cost for the all wood frame design. Abstract Using masonry walls and Hollow-core floors, a cost saving of 3.1% could be realized. For the same structure without underground parking the cost advantage increased to 6.1% and 4.5% respectively. Concrete construction was also shown to be competitive on the environmental front. Out of all the designs studied, masonry walls with Hambro floors emerged with the lowest total embodied energy. The ICF and Hambro option ranked a close second followed by the wood designs. In terms of CO2 emissions and waste, again, masonry walls and Hambro floors scored lowest. This combination also performed well against other designs in the remaining emissions categories. All the concrete design options studied provide a minimum two-hour fire separation double the code requirements for low-rise multi-family buildings. Concrete is inherently non-combustible and will not add fuel to an existing fire load. Further, under identical fire conditions, the structural integrity of a concrete design will outperform a wood design built to Code. Cement Association of Canada
Source
6.
Title Author Publication year Energy Comparisons of Concrete Homes Versus Wood Frame Homes P. VanderWerf Statistical comparison indicates that constructing the exterior walls of a house with insulating concrete forms (ICFs) instead of conventional wood frame will reduce the amount of energy consumed for space heating by approximately 44%, and for space cooling (where applicable) by approximately 32%. All figures are averages for houses constructed across the U.S. and Canada. All ICF homes were constructed with a system made of pure foam (no foamcement composites). The statistics derive from analysis of 58 homes, 29 ICF and 28 frame. The investigators undertook several steps to get an apples-to-apples comparison. They solicited participation so each ICF house would be paired and compared with one frame house that was (1) nearby, (2) of similar square footage, and (3) of new construction (less than 6 years old). They then adjusted the energy consumption of each house to control for differences in size, design, foundation, number of occupants, thermostat settings and HVAC equipment. Portland Cement Association
Abstract
Source
A-3
7.
Title Author Publication year Concrete Houses Reduce CO2 Fact or Fiction? A. Cornelissen The cement industry has been targeted as being one of the three worst carbon dioxide emitters. While the manufacture of cement is energy intensive, and the calcination of limestone does produce approximately 50% of the industrys total CO2, cement itself is not the product that is sold, concrete is. Furthermore, the CO2 associated with the manufacture of cement on a per tonne basis has decreased by 3% form 1990 to 1996, and is forecast to decrease by a further 3% by the year 2000. The CO2 associated with concrete on a per tonne basis, has decreased by 7% from 1990 to 1996, and is forecast to decrease by a further 7% by the year 2000. Encouraged by such news, the CPCA decided to compare the environmental impacts of a concrete house and a wood frame house in terms of the total greenhouse gases (converted to carbon dioxide equivalents) emitted to the environment during a 20-year period. ATHENA, a computer model that assesses the environmental impact of buildings and HOT2000, another computer model that is used to determine compliance with energy performance requirements, were used for the comparison. Factors that were considered in this environmental assessment included the embodied energy and greenhouse gases associated with the production and manufacture of the building materials, the energy associated with the construction of the houses and the operating energy associated with heating/cooling and every day appliance use. The outcome of this assessment showed some very surprising results. Cement Association of Canada
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Title Author Publication year Exergy Analysis and Environmental Impact Assessment of Cement Production: Tanzanian and South African Case Studies P. van Schijndel, F. Janssen, G. Mrema and I.L. Greeff 2000 Aim of this research is the use of exergy-analysis in the analysis of the energy efficiency of a chemical-plant. At this time an analysis is being carried out on the production of Portland cement. In the near future other energy inefficient processes will be investigated. Exergy analysis will be coupled with life cycle analysis. Development of tools for cleaner production and validation of this tool in practical cases will be a major target for this research. Proceedings International Conference Efficiency, Costs, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Aspects of Energy Systems ECOS 2000. G.G. Hirs (ed.). Enschede, the Netherlands. 2000. 1425-1436. <http://www.chem.tue.nl/set/set_files/Publications/publications2000.htm>
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Title Author Publication year A Study on Trace Metals in Portland Cement Kiln Dust M.S. May III 1999
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On Oct 21, 1976, Congress enacted the Resource Conservation and recovery Act (RCRA). In the course of promulgating regulations for managing hazardous wastes pursuant to Subtitle C of RCRA, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) deferred promulgating regulations for six special wastes until appropriate regulations could be determined. Cement kiln dust was one of these wastes. When the Solid Waste Disposal Act Amendments of 1980 was enacted., dust was temporarily exempt to human health and the environment from the disposal of the dust. Since 1980, three studies of trace metals in dust have been conducted and reported because of this new interest in whether or not dust may be hazardous waste. The first was Characterization of U.S. Cement Kiln Dust (Haynes and Kramer, 1982). The second was An Analysis of Selected Trace Metals in Cement and Kiln Dust (Portland Cement Association, 1992), and the third was Report to Congress on Cement Kiln Dust (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993). Cement Americas May, 1999: 19-22.
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Title Author Publication year Time-Variability of NOx Emissions from Portland Cement Kilns L.J. Walters, Jr., M.S. May III, D.E. Johnson, R.S. MacMann and W.A. Woodward 1999 Due to the presence of autocorrelation between sequentially measured nitrogen oxide (NOx) concentrations in stack gas from Portland cement kilns, the determination of the average emission rates and the uncertainty of the average has been improperly calculated by the industry and regulatory agencies. Documentation of permit compliance, establishment of permit levels, and the development and testing of control techniques for reducing NOx emissions at specific cement plants requires accurate and precise statistical estimate of parameters such as means, standard deviations, and variances. Usual statistical formulas such as for the variance of the sample mean only apply if sequential measurements of NOx emissions are independent. Significant autocorrelation of NOx emission measurements revealed that NOx concentration values measured by continuous emission monitors are not independent but can be represented by an autoregressive, moving average (ARMA) time series. Three orders of time-variability of NOx emission rates were determined from examination of continuous emission measurements from several cement kilns. Long-term variations are related to changes in process control, feed composition, fuel composition, and types of product produced and are reflected by nonperiodic drift in the time series. Intermediate-term variations result from changes in process control and operator technique. Very short-term variations, which are not normally visible due to the averaging process applied to data collection, are related to the dynamics of the flame. Autocorrelation effects within the emission rates extend over a period of 8-10 h. the high levels of autocorrelation observed between sequential readings result in underestimating the variance of the average emission rate unless autocorrelation effects are considered. Although thousands of NOx measurements may be recorded, autocorrelation of sequential measurements implies that many of them are redundant. Environmental Science & Technology 33.5 (1999): 700-704.
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Application of Best Available Techniques (BAT) in the German cement industry M. Schneider, V. Hoenig and H. Hoppe 2000 The European IPPC Directive (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control)
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The European IPPC Directive (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) was adopted in 1996. The core of this directive is the Best Available Techniques (BAT) to be used for protection of the environment which, after adoption of the directive into national law, must be taken into account by licensing authorities when specifying emission limits. The cement industry is one of the first branches of industry for which a BAT document has been prepared. However, the BAT associated emission levels described in it cannot, in the view of the cement industry, be regarded as generally applicable. The BAT emission levels for dust and SO2 are, in the opinion of the German cement industry, to be regarded as realistic for appropriate layouts, but the data for nitrogen oxides are not acceptable. Investigations by the Research Institute of the Cement Industry have shown that a BAT 3 associated emission level of 200 to 500 mg/m for NOx regardless of the particular plant technology is not justifiable. ZKG International 53.1 (2000): 1-11.
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Title Author Publication year Source Environmentally friendly concrete Part 1: Environmental problems associated with concrete and their measures (in Japanese) K. Kawai 1998 Civil Engineering Journal 39.11 (1998): 66-70.
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Title Author Publication year Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations A. Wilson 1993 Cement and concrete are key components of both commercial and residential construction in North America. The cement and concrete industries are huge. There are approximately 210 cement plants in the U.S. and 4,000 to 5,000 ready mix plants (where cement is mixed with aggregate and water to produce concrete). The Portland Cement Association estimates that U.S. cement consumption has averaged between 75 and 90 million tons per year during the last decade, and projects that consumption will exceed 100 million tons per year by 1997. Worldwide, cement production totaled 1.25 billion tons in 1991, according to the U.S. Bureau of Mines. What does this mean in terms of the environment? Are these products good or bad? As builders and designers, should we be looking for alternatives or embracing concrete over competing materials? As with most building issues, the answers are not clear-cut. Concrete and other cementitious materials have both environmental advantages and disadvantages. This article takes a look at how these materials are made, then reviews a number of environmental considerations relating to their production, use, and eventual disposal. Environmental Building News 2.2 Mar.-Apr. 1993. <http://www.buildinggreen.com/features/cem/cementconc.html>
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Title Author Publication year Assessment for Environmental Impact of Concrete -
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When 1 ton of cement is produced, it is said that 865 kg of carbon dioxide is generated including effects of fuel. Considering this fact in the world wide level, the cement industry will produce carbon dioxide near 1 trillion ton a year. We cannot ignore this impact on environments. In addition to cement product, the production of aggregates also destroys environments. On the other hand, using byproducts such as blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume, and so on plays a role in reducing the impact on environments. Even though the production of concrete greatly influences environments, concrete is needed for creating infrastructures. The important matter is how we make "environmentally friendly concrete" considering its environmental impact. Using an LCA (Life Cycle Analysis/Life Cycle Assessment) technique, we're developing a method for optimization of the select material and mix proportion of concrete, which has enough quality and minimizes the environmental impact. . Concrete Engineering Lab, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Hiroshima. <http://concrete.cee.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/research_e.html>
Life Cycle of Cement and Concrete

15.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Concrete Communications Conference '99 British Cement Association 1999 Proceedings of the 9th BCA Annual Conference on Higher Education and the Concrete Industry held in Cardiff. Contains 44 refereed papers covering sustainability and whole life cycle; concrete technology; deterioration and durability; repair and strengthening. British Cement Association
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Environmental Resource Guide 1996 The American Institute of Architects 1996 Flow chart of the Portland cement life cycle. Table of impacts and stressors. Description of life cycle and impacts. The American Institute of Architects. 7, 11-12, 15-17.
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Use of Alternative Fuels

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Title Author Publication year Tire Burning and NOx Reductions M.S. May III and L.J. Walters Jr. 1999 Since the enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 by Congress, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has a renewed interest in the regulation of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) generated by fuel combustion in boilers such as those used in the generation of electricity and industrial processes such as the manufacture of Portland cement (Walters et al, 1999). On Dec. 28, 1998, EPA promulgated a final rule to require 22 states and the District of Columbia to submit state-implementation-plans revisions relating to emissions of NOx. On the same date, EPA signed a notification of intention to promulgate federal implementation plans (FIPs) to reduce the regional transport of ozone if a state within the Northeastern Ozone transport Region fails to promulgate an acceptable revision. The proposed FIP for the cement industry will require either the operation of an indirect-coal-firing system with a low-NOx burner or burning of tire-derived fuel during the ozone season (typically the summer months). PSM International, Inc. has conducted an investigation of each of these applications to determine whether there is a reduction of NOx correlated with the application. Cement Americas Aug. 1999: 9-13.
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Title Author Publication year Environment Agency LCA Backs Use of Waste Fuel in Cement Kilns Environmental Data Services 1999 Disposal of industrial wastes in cement kilns as secondary liquid fuel (SLF) is a better environmental option than high-temperature incineration, according to a life-cycle analysis (LCA) carried out for the Environment Agency. The study backs the cement industry's claim that SLF does not undermine solvent recycling - but suggests that some waste streams should be excluded from SLF blends. The ENDS Report Aug. 1999: No. 295.
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Title Author Publication year Allocation of Environmental Loading on the Industrial Cluster Related to Cement and Concrete K. Amano and J. Hosokawa 2000 This study analyzes the energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission during the life cycle of processing cement or concrete where large amounts of waste by-products are effectively utilized. Two different energy and CO2 allocation methods were compared, one based on net weight and the other based on economic value. Comparison of the energy and CO2 units required per ton of cement showed almost no deviations over an eight-year period. The results further demonstrated that economic allocation values were approximately 80% of net weight allocation values. These comparisons suggest that it is possible to present an evaluation method that promotes effective utilization of waste and industrial by-products. th Proceedings of the 4 International Conference on Ecobalance, Tskuba, Japan. 2000. 495-496.
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Title Author Publication year Environmental Benefits of Using Alternative Fuels in Cement Production: A Life Cycle Approach Cembureau 1999 In this report LCA techniques are used to examine two related topics: (1) The production of cement by the use of two different types of fuel: coal, and nonfossil fuels made from waste. (2) The management of waste by two different routes: utilization in cement kilns, and disposal or reuse by other operations. The environmental benefits of utilizing waste materials in cement kilns is examined under three headings: climate change and carbon dioxide reductions; disposal versus recovery in cement kilns; recycling versus recovery in cement kilns. Information under the last two headings is based on studies carried out by TNO (The Netherlands) and the Fraunhofer Institute (Germany). Brussels, Belgium: Cembureau, 1999. <http://www.cembureau.be/Documents/Publications/Env%20Benefits%20of% 20using%20Alternative%20Fuels%20in%20cement%20Production%20%20Life-Cycle%20Approach%20-%20CEMBUREAU%20Brochure.pdf>
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Primary Materials Processing D. Richards and G. Pearson, Editors 1998 Description of hazardous waste disposal in cement kilns in Japan and the U.S. The Ecology of Industry: Sectors and Linkages. National Academy of Engineering. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998. <http://books.nap.edu/books/0309063558/html/31.html#pagetop>
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Title Author Publication year Waste Processing in a Wet-Cement Kiln and a Specialized Combustion Plant Comparison of Environmental Impacts J.A. Zeevalkink, P.G. Eggels and W.F.M. Hesseling 1996 The objective of this study is to compare: the environmental impact of waste processing in a cement kiln (CDO) to the environmental impact of waste incineration in a Specialized Waste Combustion (SWC) plant. The environmental impacts are calculated based on methods derived from the Life Cycle Analysis methodology. The environmental impacts of final solid waste disposal (disposal of the incineration residues) are not defined in detail in the LCA method. Therefore, final solid waste is treated as a specialcategory memorandum item and cannot be compared or included directly with the other environmental effects. Four types of wastes served as examples for the method and the results. Process data for all wastes in the cement kiln is based on the wet-cement process at Ciments dObourg (CDO). Process data for the SWC plant, in the case of sewage sludge, is derived from the impact study of a fluid bed incinerator in operation in The Netherlands. Process data for the other wastes in the SWC has been derived from public data on a Dutch combustion plant for hazardous wastes. Apeldoorn: TNO, 1996.
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Use of Alternative Raw Materials 23.

Title Author Publication year Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of Cement Manufacturing Using Recycled Materials Japan Cement Association LCA WG and S. Sano, Taiheiyo Cement Co. Ltd. 2000 Based on the operation data of 26 cement plants in Japan, the inventory analysis of Portland cement from mining to the transportation of cement to service stations was carried out. The environmental contribution of utilizing wastes and by- products was also estimated. It was concluded that recycling activities of the cement industry are quite effective for decreasing the environmental loads in addition to increasing the life span of landfills and natural resources. th Proceedings of the 4 International Conference on Ecobalance, Tskuba, Japan. 2000. 497-500.
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Title Author Publication year Making Concrete Greener with Fly Ash V. M. Malhotra 1999 Environmental issues will play a leading role in the sustainable development st of the cement and concrete industry in the 21 century. The World Earth Summits in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, and Kyoto, Japan in 1997, have made in abundantly clear that unchecked increased emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere is no longer environmentally and socially acceptable for overall sustainable development. The primary greenhouse gas emissions discussed in the deliberation of the above conferences are the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide (NOx) and methane (CH4) are of serious concern, but the amount involved is relatively small compared with that of CO2. As a consequence, the developed countries are considering regulations and mandatory quotas on the mission of these gases, and the main thrust is to stabilize these emissions to the 1990 level by the year 2010. As the manufacture of Portland cement contributes significantly to the CO2 emissions, this article discusses the increased use of large volumes of fly ash and other supplementary cementing materials in the construction industry and its role in reducing these emissions. American Concrete Institutes Concrete International. Reprint from Portland Cement Association. May, 1999.
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LCA Methodology for Cement and Concrete 25.

Title Author Publication year Report on Life Cycle Briefing on Portland Cement, Concrete and Related Products E. Lindeijer and B. Krutwagen 1999
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This briefing is one of four briefings performed for the USA Portland Cement Association. The Portland Cement Association (PCA) is developing a work plan for the life cycle inventory (LCI) and life cycle assessment (LCA) of Portland cement, concrete, and concrete structures/products. This work plan will assist PCA and its members in developing appropriate research projects, work plans, data collection efforts, and other activities necessary to continue the Portland cement/concrete industrys current LCI/LCA efforts. A compilation of the briefings will be sent to the members of the Association for review and discussion by the Portland cement and concrete industries as part of the life cycle strategic plan preparation. The aim of these briefings is to: 1) Provide a cursory analysis of the LCI/LCA needs that the industry must fill to develop an LCA that meets international standards (SETAC, ISO); 2) Describe the opportunities or challenges that exist for the Portland cement/concrete industry form a life cycle viewpoint; 3) Recommend international and North American LCA models available for use in the construction and cement and concrete sector, and their advantages and disadvantages; 4) Describe the international and North American status of life cycle assessments in other industries and markets. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2244.
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Report on Briefing Paper to Support Strategic Use of Life Cycle Assessment by the Portland Cement Association Sylvatica 1999 This Briefing Paper provides a discussion of issues related to the use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) by the Portland Cement Association (PCA). The paper follows the format and content suggestions of the PCA: six sections, each addressing a specific issue. A short bibliography is also provided. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2245.
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Title Author Publication year Report on LCA Briefing for the Portland Cement Association Roy F. Weston Inc. and Five Winds International 1999 Based on information provided by the PCA regarding their status and interest in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and the authors understanding of LCA and the cement sector, this Briefing has been prepared according to the requested format, emphasizing three areas: 1. Suggested actions for the publication or release of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data (Section 5), 2. Guidance on models for LCIs and LCAs and interpretation (Section 2), and 3. A strategic plan for the PCA and its member companies to move forward in positioning of cement products environmentally. It is critical that the industry understand the opportunities and threats for cement in a variety of applications and markets, before LCA data is released. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2246.
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Report on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Briefing Paper Franklin Associates 1999 This analysis is a discussion of issues relating to the use of LCA by the
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This analysis is a discussion of issues relating to the use of LCA by the Portland Cement Association (PCA), and related industries. The real purpose of this paper is to help sort out the strategic direction which PCA should consider for LCA. As specified, this paper is developed in six sections. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2243.
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Title Author Publication year Life Cycle Analysis with Ill-Defined Data and its Application to Building Products J-L. Chevalier and J-F. Le Tno 1996 In contradiction with the flow accuracy requirement of the classical LCA model, most LCA data cannot be represented by an accurate value because they loose realism in the process. It is particularly true with building products data. Intervals are introduced to model such data, thus allowing LCA calculations to get rid of flow accuracy. Thus, interval calculation techniques for LCA are developed and the benefits from a replacement of classical LCA algorithms with these techniques are analyzed. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 1.2. (1996): 90-96.
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30.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Cembureau LCI Format for Cement Cembureau 1999 Use of this document restricted to Cembureau members. Brussels, Belgium: Cembureau. 1999. <http://www.cembureau.be>
31.
Title Author Publication year Material Life Cycle Assessment in China N. Zuoren, D. Xianghua, L. Guiqi and Z. Tieyong 2001 From the very beginning, the research of Material Life Cycle Assessment (MLCA) has been an important part of the eco-materials research in China, and large numbers of researchers have been focusing their efforts on it. From 1998, and supported by the National High-tech Program-863 Projects, the study of some typical materials has been put into practice. Thus far, the first phase of the project has been finished smoothly. The practical MLCA methods have been developed, and the manufacturing technologies and processes of the steel and iron, aluminum, cement, ceramic, polymer and construction coatings have been assessed. The relevant assessment software has been developed. Reference systems are being set up for evaluation by studying typical materials. In this paper, the main achievements are reviewed. Some other developments of MLCA in China are also introduced. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 6.1 (2001): 47-48
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Title Author Publication year Ecomaterials Development in China T.Y. Zuo and Z.R. Nie 2000
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From the last century, environment problems had greatly influenced the world. The materials industry has a strong impact on a global scale from the resource and energy consumption as well as pollutant discharges. For sustainable development, ecomaterials has been developed in order to obtain favorable performance of materials and to protect ecological environment as well. China has been developing its economy with the speed that it never experienced before and has achieved the progresses that attract world wide attention. By its huge population, Chinas natural resource per person is only half to the world average level. Facing to the pressure from huge population, resource and energy shortage, ecologically environment deterioration, Chinese firmly chose the route of sustainable development of society and economy. Chinas materials circles have been pondering over ecological and environmental problems throughout the process of the materials design, fabrication, application, discarding and recycling. With the guidance and support of the government, our materials researchers are now carefully drawing up the materials sustainable development plan that is suitable for Chinas situation and carrying out extensive studies on the ecomaterials science research and development of ecomaterials. Conference of Metallurgists. Environment Conscious Materials Ecomaterials Proceedings. H. Mostaghaci (Ed.) Ottawa, Canada: Met Soc. Aug. 20-23, 2000.
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Title Author Publication year Progress of Ecomaterials Research in Japan K. Halada 2000 This report is an overview of the research and development of ECOMATERIALs, which was proposed in early 90s in Japan. The progress of the concept and the development of Ecomaterials through three meetings of International Ecomaterials Conference and three meetings of International Conference on EcoBalance are highlighted. Approaches of ecomaterial and of environmental benign materials are categorized into three groups. Strategic direction for further development towards the sustainable society is also mentioned. And new national research project named Barrier-free processing for design for environment is introduced. Conference of Metallurgists. Environment Conscious Materials Ecomaterials Proceedings. H. Mostaghaci (Ed.) Ottawa, Canada: Met Soc. Aug. 20-23, 2000.
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34.
Title Author Publication year The Life Cycle Assessment of Cement Processes D. Xianghua, N. Zuorn, Z. Tieyong, C. Suping and L. Mingzhang 2000 The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology has been used widely in product and process improvement. But there are still lots of practical difficulties, and the improvement assessment has been the least developed part of the ISO standard. In this paper, a new methodological approach was developed. Since the approach compared environmental impact parameters of actual industrial flow with that of Standard Flow, we called it the Standard Flow Comparing. Applied the new method to LCA, the most significant and the most outdated environmental issues could be identified definitely. Hence, it could be an aid to the selection of process development project. In order to explore the feasibility of the new approach, a process flow of cement in China was analyzed, and the reliability of assessing result was discussed. th Proceedings of the 4 International Conference on Ecobalance, Tskuba, Japan. 2000. 501-504.
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Environmental Life Cycle Assessment Environmental Council of Concrete Organizations 1997 Discusses the use of life cycle assessment on concrete products. Skokie, Illinois: ECCO. 1997. <http://www.ecco.org/pdfs/EV17.pdf>
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Title Author Publication year LCA of Cement and Concrete Main Report M. Vold and A. Ronning 1995 This project was initiated by the Nordic cement industry represented by Finncement AB (Finland), Cementa AB (Sweden) and Norcem A/S (Norway). The project is financed by Nordisk Industrifond and participating companies. The project was carried out by ST, Oestfold Research Foundation. The following purposes were defined for this project:
Abstract
To carry out a complete quantitative analysis (life cycle assessment) of input and output material and of energy and resource flows related to 1000 kg cement and 1m3 concrete through case studies from 6 different production plants. To establish a model describing the life cycle of cement and concrete. This model will be used in the other sub-projects. To identify the most important emissions from the two product systems. To identify where in the processes the most critical emissions occur.
The results from the evaluation show that the main environmental impacts from the cement production are: BUWAL: emissions of CO2, NOx, Hg and SO2 CML: emissions of CO2, NOx and SO2 and consumption of fossil fuel EPS: emissions of CO2 and consumption of fossil fuel With respect to the total emissions in the Nordic countries in 1993, the abovementioned emission/use of fossil fuel are in the size of 0.5-2%. In these numbers the total emission from the cement production in 1993 from all the six factories, are included. Fredrikstad: ST, 1995
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Title Author Publication year Environmentally Conscious Approaches in Portland Cement Manufacturing in the US and Japan H. Haft, R. Nash and S. Kurokawa 2000
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This paper is a summary of information collected by a questionnaire and by personal interviews from the U.S. and Japanese management view of environmentally conscious cement manufacturing. 84 American and 35 Japanese cement plants are included in this study. American cement manufacturers are using one of the four types of cementmanufacturing process kilns, or a combination of them in their production facilities. Overall, as of December 31,1998,198 cement kilns are utilized in the 118 cement plants throughout the U.S. Among these cement kilns 67 are wet, 66 are long dry, 36 are preheater (SP), and 29 are precalciner (NSP). Japanese cement manufacturers stopped using the wet manufacturing process in the late 1970s and stopped using the long dry process in 1977. These traditional cement-manufacturing processes were replaced with newer manufacturing technologies (SP and NSP). It was found in this study that: Although the conversion costs from wet and long-dry to SP/NSP manufacturing processes are huge, the Japanese cement industry accomplished significant achievements in conservation of raw materials and energy along with the pollution and labor reduction that paid off the investments and made industry more profitable. The U.S. cement industry should complete this conversion process too. As it was experienced, in the long run, the cost savings obtained from the raw materials, energy, labor, and pollution reduction will not only compensate for the capital costs, but also will yield more profit for the industry. th Proceedings of the 4 International Conference on Ecobalance, Tskuba, Japan. 2000. 505-508.
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Title Author Publication year Environmental Impact Assessment in Uganda:Hima Cement Rehabilitation Project F. Takashi and M. Minoru 1999 This project is improving the properties of cement-based composite materials to reduce the globally environmental burden caused by concrete. This is the improvement from concrete to ecomaterial. An ecomaterialization of concrete is basically to minimize the decomposition of limestone, CaCO3, which is one of the raw materials for cement manufacture. Several practical ways to ecomaterialize concrete are as follows: Replacing cement with industrial byproducts such as blast-furnace slag (iron mills), fly-ash (coal-fueled power plants), and the like, which react chemically with water as binder like cement. Reducing sectional areas of structural members by highly strengthening concrete . Extending life-time of structures by making concrete highly durable. Reusing and recycling concrete that has completed its service life. <http://www.tuat.ac.jp/~kozo/eng_fujii.html>
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Title Author Publication year Sustainable Development: Changing Patterns of Energy Consumption in the European Cement Industry Cembureau -
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One of the areas for action identified by the United Nations Environmental Programme in relation to Sustainable Development is to change consumption patterns in order to preserve non-renewable resources. The European cement industry is a significant consumer of energy. Energy represents around 30% of total production cost of cement; it takes 60 to 130 kilograms of fuel oil or an equivalent fuelling amount (depending on the cement type and the process used) plus 110 kWh of electricity to produce one metric tonne of cement, and, in the 24 European countries which make up the membership of CEMBUREAU the European Cement Association some 252 million tones of cement are produced every year. Quite naturally, the European cement industry has, over the last 20 years, significantly reduced energy consumption through technological change and investment. Primary energy requirements equivalent to approximately 11 million metric tones per year of coal have thus been saved since the 1970s through some 30% reduction in the specific energy consumption for the production of clinker (a key intermediate product in the cement making process). Now, the cement industry is close to the limit of what can be achieved through such rationalization. The European cement industry has therefore looked for new forms of energy that would combine economic efficiency and the need to preserve non-renewable resources. The use of waste as an alternative to primary fossil fuels is proving an interesting solution. It combines economic advantages with environmental improvement whilst providing a service to society. Cembureau
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LCA /LCI of Cement

40.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source LCI/LCA of Cement STO, Stiftelsen stfoldforskning 1998 Nordic Project on Implementation of Environmental Labelling type III in the Business Sector (NIMBUS) Report from the pilot study on Environmental Product Declaration. Fredrikstad, Norway: STO. 1998.
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Title Author Publication year Abstract Source LCI/LCA of Cement MPRI, Environmental Relevant Product Information Validated information about the environmental aspects of a building materials building products or building element based on LCA. Arnhem, The Netherlands: Foundation MPRI.
42.
Title Author Publication year Source Raw Material Balances, Energy Profiles and Environmental Unit Factor Estimates for Cement and Structural Concrete Products CANMET & Radian Canada Inc 1993 Athena Sustainable Materials Institute
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Title Author Publication year Source Cement and Structural Concrete Products: Life Cycle Inventory Update George J. Venta, Venta, Glaser and Associates with Wayne B. Trusty, ATHENA. 2000 Athena Sustainable Materials Institute
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Title Author Publication year Source Die kologische Standortbestimmung des in sterreichischen Werken hergestellten Bindemittels Zement Dr. P. Tuschl, Dr. H-M. Knoflacher and A. Medwedeff 1995 Vereinigung der sterreichischen Zementindustrie
LCA of Concrete Buildings/Building Components

45.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement Concrete M. Nisbet, M. Van Geem, J. Gajda and M. Marceau 2000 The Portland Cement Association (PCA) is developing Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and life Cycle Assessment (LCA) data for use in evaluating environmental aspects of concrete products. The work is being conducted according to recognized guidelines with a clear definition of the system boundaries, data sources, process steps and functional units. This report presents data on the LCIs of eleven Portland cement concrete mixes. The ultimate goal of the LCA is to have a complete and accurate information base that can be used to compare Portland cement concrete with competing construction products. The objective of the LCI stage of the work is to develop accurate and representative input and emission data for a specified range of concrete products. The data will be available for incorporation in existing and future LCA models designed to compare alternative construction materials or improving processes. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2137.
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Title Author Publication year Report on The Portland Cement Associations environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Concrete M.G. Van Geem and M. Nisbet 1998
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The Portland Cement Association (PCA) is in the process of developing an environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Portland cement concrete. The objective of the LCA project is to provide an accurate set of data to be used in comparing concrete with competing construction materials. The data will allow individual cement and concrete product manufacturers to conduct Life Cycle Inventories (LCI) of their specific operations. The project is being conducted in a number of discrete phases starting with an LCI of cement and specific concrete products. The next phase, planned for 1998, is the development of LCIs for a range of concrete structures. The project will be advanced to the impact assessment stage when the methodology is more fully developed and more information becomes available. Abstract Cement, a fine gray powder, is the essential bonding agent that, in the presence of water, binds the aggregates in concrete into a rock-hard material. Cement constitutes only 10 to 15 percent of concretes total mass by weight. Using cement LCI data incorrectly as concrete LCI data is a serious error that will negatively affect the construction industry. This paper briefly reviews the manufacturing processes for cement and concrete, selection of system boundaries and data sources. It outlines use of basic input/output models of the manufacturing processes to facilitate updating of the LCIs as new information becomes available. The models can also be used by individual producers to conduct LCIs of their specific operations. LCI data, normalized per ton of Portland cement, were generated and used as input in developing an LCI for a range of selected concrete products. This paper presents preliminary results. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2186.
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47.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement and Concrete M. Nisbet and M. Van Geem 1997 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic method for compiling and examining the inputs and outputs of energy and materials and the environmental impacts directly attributable to the manufacture and functioning of a product or service system throughout its life cycle. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) is a systematic inventory of the inputs and outputs of energy and materials and emissions directly attributable to the manufacturing and functioning of a product throughout its life cycle. The Portland Cement Association (PCA) is developing LCI and LCA data for use in evaluating environmental aspects of concrete products, and for comparing concrete with competing building materials. The data is being collected according to recognized guidelines with a clear definition of: the system boundaries, data sources and quality, process steps and product use. The Journal of World Cement 28.4 Apr. 1997: 100-3. <http://selectnet.co.nz/cgi-bin/phpengine/ccalib/lib.php3?subj=Environment>
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48.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Environmental impact of concrete analyzed Cementa LCA result of asphalt and concrete sewer pipe. Cementa
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49.
Title Publication year Cleaner Technology Solutions in the Life Cycle of Concrete Products (TESCOP) Project. 2000 The main purpose with the project is to develop and implement cleaner technologies in the life cycle of selected concrete products. In order to determine the areas where the effect of cleaner technologies is largest, some methodologies (life cycle assessments and political scenarios) and a software programme will be developed and used. Participants: DTI - Danish Technological Insitute - Taastrup (DK) Italcementi - Bergamo (IT) Premix - Athens (GR) Volker Stevin - Woerden (NL) Danish Concrete Elements Association - Cophenaghen (DK) Aalborg Portland - Aalborg (DK) Alteren - Tessaloniki (GR) Intron - Geldermanseln (NL) Conphoebus - Catania (IT) Contento Trade - Campoformido (IT) Aug. 2000. <http://www.tescop.com/>
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50.
Title Author Publication year Source Jmfrande livscykelanalys av betongpannor, tegelpannor och takplt. (Comparative life cycle assessment of concrete tiles, clay tiles and tin roof) M. Erlandsson and . Jnsson 1993 Institutionen fr Byggnadsmaterial, Kungliga tekniska hgskolan och Avdelningen fr Teknisk miljplanerin.
51.
Title Author Publication year Source Livscykelanalys Betongelement (in Swedish) M. berg 1999 Cementa
52.
Title Author Publication year Source koinventare und Wirkungsbilanzen von Baumaterialien (in German) T. Weibel and A. Stritz 1995 Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule Zrich
53.
Title Author Publication year Baustoff-kobilanzen Wirkungsabschtzung und Auswertung in der SteineErden-Industrie (LCA of Construction Materials Impact Assessment and Interpretation in the Construction Industry) (in German and English) Bundesverband Baustoffe Steine + Erden e.V. 1999
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Abstract
The term "sustainable constructing" and the method how to assess it, still need to be further clarified. An approach considering just the single building material covers only partial aspects. This just leads to an apparent ecological assessment of construction materials, for it is the assessment of building components and buildings alone that provides adequate assertions. Hence the question arises as to how to analyse ecological aspects in the construction industry in a comprehensive and objective manner. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an appropriate tool for supporting environment orientated studies. With this method a variety of environmental effects can be covered taking into consideration the entire life cycle of a product. A correct application of the method provides quality results which are highly accepted following the standardised and co-ordinated procedures. Frankfurt, Germany: Bundesverband Baustoffe Steine + Erden e.V. 1999.
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54.
Title Author Publication year Source Baustoff-kobilanzen Leitfaden zur Erstellung Sachbilanzen in Betrieben der Steine-Erden-Industrie (in German) Bundesverband Baustoffe Steine + Erden e.V. 1997 Frankfurt, Germany: Bundesverband Baustoffe Steine + Erden e.V. 1997.
55.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source kologische Bilanzierung von Baustoffen und Gebuden Wege zu einer ganzheitlichen Bilanzierung (in German) P. Eyerer and H.W. Reinhardt 2000 Life cycle assessment of buildings and building materials. Birkhuser: Bau Praxis. 2000.
56.
Title Author Publication year Energy Use in Residential Housing: A Comparison of Insulating Concrete Form and Wood Frame Walls J. Gajda and M. Van Geem 2000 A typical 228-square-meter (2,450-square-foot) house with a contemporary design was modeled for energy consumption in five locations. Locations were selected to represent a range of climates across the United States. Energy simulation software utilizing the DOE 2.1E calculation engine was used to perform the modeling. In each location, three variations of the house were modeled. The first variation utilized conventional wood framed exterior walls constructed with typical materials. The second variation utilized insulating concrete forms (ICF) walls. The third variation had non-mass exterior walls that met minimum energy code requirements. For all variations, all other assemblies such as the roof, floors, windows, and interior partitions were identical. In all locations, the house variations were insulated to meet the minimum levels required in the 1998 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC). Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2415.
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57.
Title Author Publication year Energy Use in Residential Housing: A Comparison of Concrete Masonry and Wood Frame Walls J. Gajda and M. Van Geem 2000
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Abstract
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A typical 228-square-meter (2,450-square-foot) residential house with a contemporary design was modeled for energy consumption in five locations. Locations were selected to represent a range of climates across the United States. Energy simulation software utilizing the DOE 2.1E calculation engine was used to perform the modeling. In each location, three variations of the house were modeled. The first variation utilized conventional wood framed exterior walls constructed with typical materials. The second variation utilized medium-weight concrete masonry unit (CMU) walls. The third variation had non-mass exterior walls that met minimum energy code requirements. For all variations, all other assemblies such as the roof, floors, windows, and interior partitions were identical. In all locations, the house variations were insulated to meet the minimum levels required in the 1998 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC). Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2429.
58.
Title Author Publication year Energy Use in Residential Housing: A Comparison of Lightweight Concrete Masonry and Wood Frame Walls DRAFT J. Gajda and M. Van Geem 2000 A typical 228-square-meter (2,450-square-foot) residential house with a contemporary design was modeled for energy consumption in five locations. Locations were selected to represent a range of climates across the United States. Energy simulation software utilizing the DOE 2.1E calculation engine was used to perform the modeling. In each location, three variations of the house were modeled. The first variation utilized conventional wood framed exterior walls constructed with typical materials. The second variation utilized lightweight concrete masonry unit (CMU) walls. Lightweight CMU utilizes expanded aggregate*, rather than traditional mined or quarried aggregate. The third variation had non-mass exterior walls that met minimum energy code requirements. For all variations, all other assemblies such as the roof, floors, windows, and interior partitions were identical. In all locations, the house variations were insulated to meet the minimum levels required in the 1998 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC). Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2439.
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59.
Title Author Publication year Stadium Australia energy use and the role of concrete M. Janssen, B. Buckland and Z. Peshos 1999 Buildings and associated services are responsible for consuming large amounts of energy. A study in the US indicated that the construction, use and disposal of buildings are responsible for approximately 42% of the total energy used in the US and 40% of the atmospheric emissions. Approximately 80% of Australia's greenhouse emissions are attributed to fossil fuel energy use. This includes energy used in stationary applications such as electricity in buildings. Measures to reduce building energy consumption have often focused on use of the building at the expense of other parts of the building's life, including material manufacture, construction, maintenance, demolition and final disposal. General issues on the energy efficient design of buildings are also discussed. It is not the intention of this paper to conduct a comparison of building materials and only the results from the Stadium Australia Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are considered. Concrete in Australia 25.1, Mar.-May 1999. <http://www.engaust.com.au/magazines/cia/0399coverstory.html>
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60.
Title Author Publication year LCA of Concrete and Steel Building Frames . Jnsson, T. Bjrklund and A.-M. Tillman 1998 The effects on the external environment of seven concrete and steel building frames representative of present-day building technology in Sweden were analyzed using LCA methodology. Objects of the study included frame construction and supplementary materials. Several-storey offices and dwellings were studied. The functional unit was defined as one average m2 of floor area during the lifetime of the building. Inventory data were elaborated for concrete and steel production, the building site, service life, demolition and final disposal. Parameters included were raw material use, energy use, emissions to air, emissions to water and waste generation. The inventory results were presented and evaluated as such, in addition to an interpretation by using three quantitative impact assessment methods. Parameters that weighed heavily were use of fossil fuels, CO2, electricity, SOx, NOx, alloy materials and waste, depending on what assessment method was used. Over the life cycle, building production from cradle to gate accounted for about the same contribution to total environmental loads as maintenance and replacement of heat losses through external walls during service life, whereas demolition and final disposal accounted for a considerably lower contribution. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 3.4 (1998): 216-224. See also: LCA of Building Frame Structures. Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle of Concrete and Steel Frames. Technical Environmental Planning, Report 1996:8, Gteborg: Chalmers University of Technology, 1996. J. Anderson. LCA of Building Frame Structures. Summary. Swedish Institute of Steel Construction. 1996. <http://www.algonet.se/~sbi/miljo/rap1873.htm>
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61.
Title Author Publication year Life cycle assessment of building products. Case studies and methodology . Jnsson 1998 The main objectives of this thesis were to demonstrate how Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) may be applied to building products, to describe what methodological LCA issues are specific to building products, to work out solutions to some of these issues and to relate LCA to other environmental assessment methods that may be applied to building products. First, in a literature study, the state of the art in the field of environmental assessment of building products is described, and the five articles constituting the thesis are put into context. Paper I is an LCA case study of the flooring materials linoleum, vinyl flooring and solid wood flooring. The scenarios describe a situation in Sweden, and the study is confined to domestic floorings. In paper II, LCA is applied to more complex building structures, by studying concrete and steel structural frames in multi-storey buildings from a life cycle perspective. In paper III the results of the LCA study on floorings are put together with the results of a study on indoor air Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from the same flooring types in order to assess the importance of use-related emissions from building materials from a life cycle perspective. Paper IV is partly based on paper III and presents a methodological comparison of the approaches of LCA, measurements of emissions from building products during use, and indoor climate assessment. The prerequisites for including indoor climate issues as an impact category in LCA of building products are examined. Finally, paper V is a methodological comparative study of six selected approaches for environmental assessment that may be applied to building products, using flooring as an example.
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PhD Thesis. Gteborg: Chalmers University of Technology, 1998. See also: Life -Cycle Assessement (LCA) of building frames with T. Bjrklund and A-M. Tillman. Conference proceeding, Second International Conference CIB TG8 Buildings and Environment. Paris, France. 1997. Life-Cycle Assessement (LCA) of building frames Applications of Environmental Data and Declarations for Building Materials, Nordic Workshop. SBI report 306. Hrsholm: Danish Building Research Institute and Nordic Council of Ministers, 1998.
62.
Title Author Publication year LCA of building frame structures. Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle of Wooden and Concrete Frames T. Bjrklund and A.-M. Tillman 1997 The principal aims and objective of this study was to assess and compare the environmental impact of structural concrete and wooden frames in dwelling and warehouse buildings over the entire life cycle by using the method of LCA (Life-Cycle Assessment) as an assessment tool. The study was delimited by the following main conditions: Representative segments of a multiple story dwelling frame and warehouse frame structure were studied. The chosen frame designs had to be representative for present day building technology in Sweden as well as being designed according to the Swedish code of building standards. Both horizontal and vertical construction elements were included. The inventory results of the frames were valuated with three quantitative impact assessment methods; the EPS method, the Environmental theme method and the Ecoscarcity method. It was found that there were no great difference between the frame alternatives over the complete life cycle from an environmental point of view granted that the demolition material is recovered as low grade products during the demolition phase. When looking at the manufacturing phase, the wooden frame generally was rated a little lower than the concrete frames for dwellings. It was not possible to rate the warehouse frame since they (during the project) were found not to be functionally comparable. Technical Environmental Planning, Report 1997:2. Gteborg: Chalmers University of Technology, 1997. See also Life Cycle Assessment of Wooden and Concrete Frames. 8th Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe - Interfaces in Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology. Bordeaux, France.
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63.
Title Author Publication year Source The Life-Cycle Costs of New Construction Materials M. Ehlen 1997 Journal of Infrastructure Systems 3.4. (1997): 129-133.
64.
Title Author Publication year Source Life Cycle Analysis of Structural Concrete and Gypsum Building Products ATHENA Building Materials Project W. Trusty, J. Meil and G. Venta 1997 Proceedings: IBAUSIL, 13th International Conference on Building Materials. Weimar, Germany. Sept. 11, 1997.
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Title Author Publication year Life Cycle Assessment of a Concrete Sewage Pipe H. Lundstrm, G. lund and T. Rydberg 1996 Within the framework of a project concerning Environmentally Sound Concrete, a life-cycle assessment of a concrete waste pipe has been carried out by Chalmers Industiteknik. The methodology used was Screening LCA, which has been described in the Nordic Guidelines for Product life cycle assessment. The same method has been used in the other studies within the concrete project. In particular three issues turn out to be key issues, i.e. subsystems or components within the studied system which either are major contributors to the impact or which may be particularly interesting regarding improvement potential. These three particular key issues are: Energy consumption and emissions by cement production. Transport and management of left-over clay, gravel and sand after refilling of excavation shaft. Production of waste (reject) in the production of pipes. Nitrogen oxides appear as a major pollutant, giving significant contributions to several impact categories. Nordic Project on Sustainable Concrete Technology. Chalmers industriteknik Ekologik.
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LCA of Concrete Roads and Bridges

66.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Life Cycle Embodied Energy and Global Warming Emissions for Concrete and Asphalt Roadways Athena Institute, John Emery Geotechnical Limited, Venta Glaser and Associates and JAN Consultants 1998 The study developed estimates of embodied energy use and global warming potential for the construction and maintenance of concrete and asphalt secondary highways, major highways, and major urban freeways. Athena Institute for Sustainable Materials
67.
Title Author Publication year Effect of Pavement Surface Type on Fuel Consumption Centre for Surface Transportation Technology, National Research Council Canada. 2000
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The report deals with the operating side of concrete versus asphalt roads. The NRC measured heavy truck fuel consumption on a variety of highway pavement structures and under a variety of test conditions to determine the dependence of fuel use on a number of variables: pavement structure, pavement roughness, vehicle configuration, vehicle speed, vehicle load and ambient temperature. The study, conducted by the Centre for Surface Transportation Technology, confirms findings by other organizations that trucks operating on concrete roads experience substantial fuel savings and related reduced emissions compared to those operating on asphalt roads. On average, the study found fuel savings ranging up to 11%, with the most substantial fuel savings recorded for the heaviest and fastest truck test conditions on 400-series concrete and asphalt highways. In addition to reflecting Canadian weather conditions, with trucks configured for Canada and driven over typical Canadian roads, the NRC study attempted to hold all other test input variables constant while changing the structure of the road. This meant developing new methods of testing. NRC recommends further study to explain inconsistencies in some of the results for certain pavement conditions. Ottawa, Canada: National Research Council Canada, 2000.
68.
Title Author Publication year Impact of Pavement Type on County Road Systems J. K. Cable 1996 A study of three representative counties of equal size and approximately equal paved mileage in Iowa was conducted to evaluate the pavement selection policies employed by each government. The sample counties utilized asphaltic concrete, Portland cement concrete, or combination of the two surface types to meet paved system needs. Visual distress surveys were conducted in each county to measure the current condition of each mile of paved roadway. The results were compared using the MICRO PAVER pavement management system to develop pavement condition index values for each mile of paved surface. Historical pavement mileage, maintenance costs, and construction cost data was collected in each county by surface type for the period of 1955 through 1993. The results of this study indicate that the decision to use Portland cement concrete as the surface of choice for new pavement construction and whitetopping of existing pavements resulted in improved performance. The data indicate that this decision results in decreased unit construction and maintenance costs when placed on an annual cost basis over the life of the pavement. Information provided in this report provides the local engineer with one way of evaluating the life cycle costs associated with future decision on pavement type selection and the value of considering whitetopping as a rehabilitation method of choice. Portland Cement Association.
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69.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Value Engineering Assessment of Concrete and Asphalt Pavement W. Roudebush 2000
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Sustainable development is dependent on environmental life cycle assessment of built environment alternatives. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. How would you assess whether a built environment alternative is toward sustainable development? One methodology that can be used to make such an assessment is called Environmental Value Engineering. Using this methodology, environmental impacts of dissimilar built environmental alternatives can be compared using one system of units denoted EMERGY. The purposes of this article are threefold: First, to present environmental value engineering as an environmental life cycle assessment (ELCA) methodology; second, to describe the environmental value engineering methodology used on a research project to conduct an ELCA of concrete and asphalt highway pavement systems for the Portland Cement Association, Through Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc. of Skokie, Illinois; and third, to present the results of the research project. The methodology compared the environmental impacts in terms of EMERGY for subsystems of both highway pavement system alternatives over a life cycle consisting of the following 10 phases: natural resource formation, natural resource exploration and extraction, material production, design, component production, construction, use, demolition, natural resource recycling, and disposal. EMERGY is defined as all the available energy that was used in the work of making a product, including environmental impacts related to inputs of environment, fuel energy, goods, and services, and expressed in units of one type of energy. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2088a.
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70.
Title Author Publication year Practice, Performance and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of Concrete Pavement in Jordan 1999 Built to serve the heavy truck traffic between Iraq and the port of Aqaba, an evaluation after 5 years of service showed that the pavement condition is still good without major damage. The study concluded that: Rigid pavement outperformed flexible pavement when exposed to high temperatures. Most frequent distress was joint sealant adhesion failure indicating that sealant performance is affected by horizontal movement caused by temperature variation more than by vertical deflection caused by truck loading. Indian Concrete Journal Nov. 1999: 687-692.
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71.
Title Author Publication year Estimation of Environmental Implications of Construction Material and Designs Using Life Cycle Assessment Techniques (Bridges and Pavement) A. Horvath 1997
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The concepts of sustainable development and "environmental friendliness" have lately become very important to government and industry. Increasing public and regulatory pressures have inspired varying degrees of activity. The construction industry has paid particular attention to the ecological impacts of new facilities, energy use of buildings, asbestos contamination and removal, indoor air quality, and several other important environmental issues. Yet many impacts relative to constructed facilities' life cycle (planning, design, construction, occupancy/operation, and demolition) have not been systematically and comprehensively studied. Engineers and architects, as well as owners, planners, operators and other construction professionals should understand the environmental and energy implications of construction materials, processes and alternative facility designs because their everyday decisions carry substantial social implications. The objective of this thesis is to provide information, metrics and analysis tools related to the environmental implications of construction materials and alternative design choices in construction. In particular, this thesis compares in three case studies the environmental effects of asphalt and reinforced cement concrete pavements, steel and reinforced concrete bridge girders, and wood and light-gauge steel framing for residential applications. Systems-level analysis is performed using Life-Cycle Assessment/Analysis (LCA) techniques. A primary tool used in the analysis is the Economic Input-Output LCA (EIO-LCA) method developed by Carnegie Mellon University's Green Design Initiative research group. Additional data and information, primarily for the use and disposal life cycle stages, have been collected from literature. The inputs of material production quantified include the use of fuel, electricity, ores and fertilizers, and the environmental emissions (outputs) quantified include toxic chemical releases, ozone depletion potential, conventional air pollutant emissions, and hazardous waste generation and management. Thesis. Carnegie Mellon University, USA.
72.
Title Author Publication year A Comparison of Six Environmental Impacts of Portland Cement Concrete and Asphalt Cement Concrete Pavements J. Gajda and M. Van Geem 1997 The current era is characterized by increased concerns about the environment. This trend is evidenced by the governmental, industrial, and consumer concerns for ozone depletion, solid and liquid waste disposal, pollutants, and rain forest depletion. This has led to an increase in marketing of the environmentally friendly aspects of products. This report summarizes a literature survey, investigation, and comparison of six specific topics relating to the environmental impact of Portland cement concrete and asphalt cement concrete pavements. These areas include (1) the effects of the pavement color on the microclimate, (2) artificial lighting requirements of the pavements at night, (3) the effect of pavements on vehicle fuel consumption, (4) inclusion of waste and recycled materials in pavements, (5) the potential to recycle pavement at the end of its useful life, and (6) costs during construction, maintenance, and reconstruction. Situation where either pavement type provides an advantage to the environment are highlighted, and if available, quantifiable data are presented. Portland Cement Association. R&D Serial No. 2068.
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73.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Pavement Cost and Quality R. Packard 1994 When it comes time to build or rebuild a road or street, the owner-agency
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When it comes time to build or rebuild a road or street, the owner-agency needs answers to several questions: what type of pavement; initial cost and cost of upkeep; quality of service; how long will it last? This consumers report summarizes recent information and references on these topics. Concrete International Aug. 1994.
74.
Title Author Publication year LCA of composite bridges (in Swedish) Swedish Institute of Steel Construction This study has been made with the purpose to evaluate environmental parameters for common steel and concrete composite bridge types during their lifetime. These life cycle assessments include the influence on the outdoor environment from these bridge projects within all main processes from cradle to grave. The study has been executed according to accessible guidelines in the ISO 14040 series and the Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. The study includes one box girder bridge in eight spans with a concrete slab (Swedish Road Administration number Y1130), and one I-girder bridge with concrete slab (Y1429). All substructures were made from reinforced concrete. The bridge dimensions are 492x13 meters and 60x7,5 m. Both bridges were built over water in ngermanland in central Sweden by middle 1990's. All main components and materials have been analyzed from the manufacturing stage and construction to the stages of utilization and decommissioning. The studied unit is one square meter trafficable bridge surface, and the functional demands are fulfilled according to the bridge code BRO 94 and additional codes. The studied time period for the use of the bridges were chosen to be 50 years. The environmental impact is bigger from the shorter I-girder bridge than for 2 the long box girder bridge, depending on more material per m . The traffic stands for 80-90% out of the emissions and energy use from the Y1130 bridge. Bridge Y1429 is some more environmentally affecting than its traffic. (SBI) Report 183:1 <http://www.algonet.se/~sbi/miljo/rap1831e.htm>
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75.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Adaption of Concrete Environmental Impact of Concrete and Asphalt Pavements T. Hkkinen and K. Mkel 1996 The object of the study has been to asses the environmental impact of concrete and asphalt road pavements. The assessment is based on the estimation of service life of road pavements and the environmental burdens caused by their production, use and disposal. Also taken into account is the influence of the pavement on fuel consumption by traffic, noise, lighting requirements and dust formation. The functional unit studied is 1 km of pavement of the Tampere motor way assuming passage of 20 000 vehicles per day. The time scale is 50 years.
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The significance of pavement materials, paving, maintenance and lighting is low compared with the environmental burdens caused by traffic during 50 years. With respect to the effect of material properties of pavement on fuel consumption, it was assumed that the influence on fuel consumption related to the surface texture is the same for both pavements, the difference in Emodulus does not influence the fuel consumption for the heavy vehicles and that the measured differences in rolling resistance have no influence on fuel consumption. However, any difference in fuel consumption of traffic due to pavement materials would significantly affect the result. For example, a roughly 0.1-0.5% decrease in fuel consumption of traffic due to properties of concrete pavement would bring savings in emissions of the same order of magnitude as those from all the other parts of the life cycle of concrete roads. Espoo: Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT), 1996.
76.
Title Author Publication year Sustainable Product Development in Cement and Concrete Industry T. Johnsen and M. Vold 1996 This report presents the result of phase three of a Nordic project on sustainable concrete technology. The project was initiated by the Nordic cement industry through the auspices of Finncement AB (Finland), Cementa AB (Sweden) and Norcem A/S (Norway). The project was financed by Nordic Industrial Fund, TEKES and the participating companies. Its purpose was to implement methods from Environmentally Sound Product Development (ESPD) into the cement and concrete industries. The methodology is based on the NEP-project (Nordic project on environmentally sound product development) as presented by Hanssen (1995). Central elements in this project were: Integrated product development Customer focused product development (QFD) Life cycle cost (LCC) Life cycle assessment (LCA) By integrating the environment aspect in the product planning and development into the whole process, it should be possible to find solutions that meet both environmental and economical customer demands. Fredrikstad: ST, 1996.
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APPENDIX B: LCA Annotated Bibliography Alternative Products

HEADINGS
Steel Asphalt Wood Other
Steel
1.
Title Author Publication year LCA of Steel and Electricity Production L. Wibberley, J. Nunn, A. Cottrell, M. Searles, A. Urfer and P. Scaife 1999 In the present study, the life cycle is defined as the system to produce either 1 tonne of cast steel or 1 GJ of electricity (the functional units). All energy values are reported as gross or higher energy values. The study has focused on obtaining realistic inventory values, and as the methodology for impact assessment is still in its infancy, only limited examination of the environmental effects was performed. This consisted of aggregating each stressor (e.g., CO2, SOx, and resource consumption) into an impact category (e.g., Greenhouse gas emissions, acidification, and resource depletion). Note that a full impact assessment is not essential for ranking the environmental credentials of a given energy technology combination, nor to identifying major areas for improvement. System boundaries were made as wide as possible, up to the production of the first common product for each technology. This included the provision of 3rd party goods and services, waste management and the production of byproducts. Decommissioning, and repairs and maintenance was excluded from the present analysis, as preliminary calculations showed the effects to be insignificant (ie less than 1% overall impact).Due to the range of alternative and emerging technologies considered, some case studies were based on hypothetical installations at specific locations, both for data compatibility and to ensure that the study was carried out in an appropriate context. The analysis was performed for all goods and services involved in each case study. All case studies apply to the Australian situation. -
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2.
Title Author Publication year Materials-LCA for Ecomaterials-Design K. Halada 2000 This paper describes the estimation of environmental load of metals and alloys to establish Materials-LCA, which should be utilized to materials design for ECOMATERIALS. Emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx are estimated by using emission coefficients and unit requirement of fuels in order to accomplish the consistency of data. Indicators for recyclability and for depletion of resources are proposed. Environmental load data are arranged to each type or kind of alloys. National Research Institute for Metals. <http://www.nrim.go.jp:8080/ecomat/people/halada/conf_chi/conf_chi.htm>
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Title Author Publication year Influence of Life Cycle Allocation and Valuation on LCA Results W. Trinius and M. Borg 1999 The generation of environmental information regarding products used in the building sector is of growing importance. A question addressed in this study is to what extent presented Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) results of a building material are depending on the choice of methods for life cycle allocation. The effect this methodology choice has on the generated results is shown for a case study of steel. The study is entirely carried out on the material level, meaning that environmental loads to be associated with the building, in which the steel is used, are disregarded. Having the intention of generating a scenario where the anticipated influence on the results is large, and intending to discuss the matter at hand of a material that is frequently used in the building sector and that is hence compared to material alternatives on the material level has led us to the choice of steel for this case study. The presented comparison of results shows that the environmental loads associated with the material steel depend to a large extent on the applied method for life cycle allocation. The relative importance for the generated results is demonstrated by a comparison with the influence on result caused by the application of some chosen valuation methods. Within the spread of results generated by the application of a life cycle allocation method, the influence of the choice of valuation method is clear, but the choice of allocation method has in this case study shown to be more apparent. KTH Building Materials. <http://www.ce.kth.se/bim/leas/vol1/a3/LEASART_03_1999.HTM>
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Title Author Publication year Environmental Impact Assessment of Steel Bridges J. Widman 1998 The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction has made LCA's on steel and concrete composite road bridges in order to detect important environmental impact parameters and to find areas where improvements are necessary. Two of the most common bridge types were studied. Combustion engines in vehicles contribute to a big share of the airborne emissions, such as CO2 and NOx. In spite of the small amounts, alloys as Molybdenum contributes to most of the environmental burden from the materials according to one assessment method. This put steel in a less favorable position when comparing LCA results with other materials. The concrete in steel bridges contributes to almost 50% out of the environmental impact and the fact that steel bridges need less material than concrete bridges, shows that steel bridges are good environmental choices. Three assessment methods have been used to get multi-comparable and objective assessment results. The use of the bridge (traffic) is the most polluting part during the life cycle. The study has resulted in a report, SBI Report 183:1. The 2nd World Steel Conference on Steel in Construction in San Sebastian, Spain SBI Report 210:4. The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction. <http://www.sbi.se/miljo/rap2104.htm>
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Title Author Publication year Build for the Environment - Build in Steel J. Anderson and J. Widman 1996 Steel manufacturers are steel recyclers. Steel can be recycled an infinite number of times. This year about 720 million tons of steel will be produced. Almost 100 percent out of the steel products can be recycled or reused into new steel products. The recyclability of this valuable commodity, results in preservation of the limited resources on the Earth and keeps steel out of the nation's dwindling landfills. Magnetic separation makes steel the easiest and most economical material to remove from the solid waste. Therefore, steel recycling leads to direct profitability for the companies, the nation and the environment. The world population grows faster, we consume more products and services, and produce more waste, pollution and poisons. The threat to the global ecological system is very large and it is an every man's problem. We must act responsible in our everyday life, to see how we can save energy, minimise pollution and minimise the consumption of non-renewable resources. Up to now, most of the debate in Sweden has been about composting, waste sorting, glass return systems or which detergent to use. Every man's responsibility has been focused on the everyday consumer products. Of course, that is important, but we cannot forget one of the largest endconsumers of material and energy: the construction industry. The decisions taken by architects, engineers, clients and others in the construction industry, have important and long-lasting effects on the environment and the ecology. We have just been taking a few steps on the way to the responsibility we have. The main reason can not be found in lack of will, but a severe lack of information. The Nordic Steel & Mining Review.
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Source
6.
Title Author Publication year LCA of a Light-Gauge Steel Framed Apartment Building J. Widman 1998 The aim of this project was to study a housing projects effect on the external environment in a life-cycle perspective. The life-cycle assessment was performed according to the guidelines presented in Nordic Guidelines on LifeCycle Assessments and includes all stages from cradle to grave. The analyzed objects are two identical seven story buildings erected during 1996 and 1997 in Hasselby outside Stockholm. The houses are built according to light-gauge steel framing method with complementary load bearing system of steel columns and beams. Light-gauge steel framing is in this report defined as usage of three main materials; lightweight steel studs, mineral wool and gypsum plasterboards. SBI Report 187:11 The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction. <http://www.sbi.se/miljo/rap18711e.htm>
Subject
Source
7.
Title Author Publication year Abstract LCA of Steel and Concrete Composite Bridges J. Widman This study has been made with the purpose to evaluate environmental parameters for common steel and concrete composite bridge types during their lifetime. These life cycle assessments include the influence on the
B-3
Abstract
Source
This study has been made with the purpose to evaluate environmental parameters for common steel and concrete composite bridge types during their lifetime. These life cycle assessments include the influence on the outdoor environment from these bridge projects within all main processes from cradle to grave. The study has been executed according to accessible guidelines in the ISO 14040 series and the Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. SBI Report 183:1 (in Swedish). The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction. < http://www.sbi.se/miljo/rap1831e.htm> A Study of Inventories for Automobile LCA (3) - Iron and Steel Production (In Japanese) A. Funazaki and K. Taneda 2001 Japanese Automobile Research Institute, Research Journal 23.2 <http://www.jari.or.jp/en/act/past/232.html>
8.
Title Author Publication year Source
9.
Title Author Publication year The Use of LCA for the Environmental Evaluation of the Recycling of Galvanized Steel C. Viklund-White 1999 The goal for this project was to build and spread knowledge about the use of LCA in the metallurgical industry, as well as to evaluate the use of LCA within the metallurgical industry in general, particularly for the management of waste- and by-products. For this, the assessment of the recycling of zinc coated scrap to an electric arc furnace was considered as a suitable case study. Zinc can be recovered directly from the scrap by de-zincing or from the dust generated in the furnace when the scrap is remelted. A number of hypothetical process routes involving dezincing as well as four different dust treatment processes were constructed. The environmental effects of the various process routes were studied by using LCA methods. The processes were evaluated on the basis of greenhouse and acidification potential as well as consumption of zinc resources. The results showed that while recycling of zinc saves natural resources, the potential effect on climate changes and acidification does not necessarily decrease. The two latter impact categories are tightly connected to the consumption of energy in the processes. The major part of the energy in the production of zinc from primary as well as secondary raw materials is consumed in the reduction of ZnO to zinc. The energy saving potential is thus relatively small. Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering / Process Metallurgy. Lulea University of Technology.
Abstract
Source
10.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Impact of Steel Structures K. Rty The aim of the study was to increase awareness of the environmental impacts of steel construction and to generate additional information for designers to serve as the basis for material and product selections The results of the study promote identification of the environmental impacts of different product groups as well as the development of products that cause fewer negative impacts on the environment. The results can also be exploited in product development, marketing and improvement of manufacturing processes.
Abstract
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Abstract
Source
The environmental impacts of steel construction over the life cycle of steel structures were examined in the study. The environmental impacts of steel manufacture are presented on the basis of information provided by Rautaruukki Oyj's Raahe steel mill. The information from the Raahe mill is representative of normal annual production. The products or semi-products selected for individual studies were hot-rolled steel plate, unprofiled and profiled hot-rolled steel sheet, galvanized and/or factory-painted steel sheet, a painted pipe profile and a welded I-beam. The product-specific analyses were carried out in accordance with the basic principles of ISO 14040 and ISO 14041. The environmental impacts of the products' manufacture, use and final disposal are presented in the same way as in the RT environmental reports. Tersrakenneyhdistys (Steel Structure Association) <http://www.kolumbus.fi/finnmappartners/rym/eng/descriptions-afg.htm>
11.
Title Author Publication year Environmental Load Database of Non-ferrous Metals K. Ijima, K. Halada and K. Yagi The inventory database for materials LCA is constructed in the field of nonferrous metals. CO2, SOx, NOx, emissions per 1 ton production of Cu, Zn, Pb, Al sheet, wrought copper wire, and mined ore were approximately calculated, and arranged in the database. These data were applied to estimate the emissions of any alloys with arbitrary composition. The database can be accessed on the internet National Research Institute for Metals. <http://www.nrim.go.jp:8080/ecomat/ecosheet/ecosheet.htm >
Abstract
Source
Asphalt
12.
Title Author Publication year Source Environmental Adaptation of Concrete: Environmental Impact of Concrete and Asphalt Pavements T. Hkkinen and K. Mkel 1996 Espoo: Technical Research Centre of Finland. <http://www.eic.es/biblio/bibacv.htm>
13.
Title Author Publication year Source Rubber-Asphalt Pavements in the State of Washington K. Anderson and N. Jackson. 1992 Technical Paper, WA-RD 268.1. Washington: State Department of Transportation. <http://students.washington.edu/mvogt/tires/biblio.html>
Wood
14.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Environmental Properties of Timber Forest & Wood Products Research & Development Corporation Timber has a long and distinguished history as a building material - having been used for centuries for framing, lining, cladding, flooring and roofing in
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Abstract
Source
Timber has a long and distinguished history as a building material - having been used for centuries for framing, lining, cladding, flooring and roofing in both domestic and industrial constructions, as well as for bridges, wharves, railway sleepers and so on. In relatively recent times, a range of alternative materials (steel, aluminum, concrete, etc) has been successfully introduced into the construction industry. New timber products (such as particleboard and glulam to name but two) have also been developed. As a result, consumers now have a range of building materials from which to choose. In making their choice, they take into consideration a number of factors. FWPRDC. <http://www.fwprdc.org.au/publications/online/epotbrochure/title.htm> Energy Consumption, Environmental Impacts, and Maintenance Guide of a Wooden House (Marjala Eco-House) K. Nousiainen and P. Leppnen Visualization of environmental impact assessment by the Marjala Eco-house and comparative examples. Methods based on life cycle analysis. Lipertek Ltd and VTT Building Technology. <http://www.kolumbus.fi/finnmappartners/rym/eng/descriptions-afg.htm>
15.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source
16.
Title Author Publication year Life-Sys Wood : Consistent Life Cycle Analysis of Wood Based Products K. Richter 1998 The objectives of this research are: to gain information on the life cycle analysis of specific wood products and wood raw material by means of product definition, scoping studies, inventory analysis and initial impact assessment. 6 different wood products will be analysed and equivalent nonwood products will be included for comparison from literature sources. The research aims to compare different methodologies and combine the life-cycle analyses from the different partners into a consistent approach from all partners. Further, a knowledge based system will be designed and tested to allow future comparison between products. So far, an active network within the wood product LCA partners has been developed. Based on background literature and new information, all product process trees have been constructed containing five areas with numerous background levels where the detailed information is stored. The collection and exchange of data has been standardized by a Data Input Module. So far, most data for the products have been screened, updated and is available for further assessment. For common processes referring to all products, e.g., energy production, transports, disposal processes, a standardized data set has been developed using national input data from the partner countries and allowing a consistent use of these data based on the specific national situations. The coming actions in the last project phase are the developing of the knowledge based system, the checking of the LCA and KBS data and the dissemination Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA), Dubendorf.
Abstract
Source
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17.
Title Author Publication year Subject Source Environmental Properties of Timber W. Tubman & Associates, Townsville 2001 Comparison of some common building material on a LCA basis. Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation. <http://oak.arch.utas.edu.au/environment/env_prop/env_prop.html>
18.
Title Author Publication year Wood Products Life-Cycle Analysis Study: Assessment of Life-Cycle Analysis of Building Materials Forintek Canada Corp., in association with: JKM Associates, Morrison Hershfield Limited, Wayne B. Trusty & Associates Limited Prepared for: Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada 1999 The evidence from Athena Institute studies and other work is that wood products offer a significant greenhouse gas (GHG) advantage over other materials in structural applications, an advantage that can be gained without trading off for other negative environmental effects. This may also be true of wood used in other applications such as cladding and window frames, but the evidence is not yet as convincing for these applications. Moreover, the GHG effects of wood are currently being significantly understated by Athena and others because the full carbon cycle is not being adequately addressed. <http://www.nccp.ca/html/tables/pdf/Life-cycle_Analysis.pdf>
Abstract
Source
19.
Title Author Publication year Source A Life Cycle Analysis of Solid Wood and Steel Cladding J.K. Meil 1998 Athena' Sustainable Materials Institute.
20.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Assessing Environmental Impacts of Wood Used as a Raw Material in North America D.R. Augood, Battelle Memorial Institute 1997 This chapter discusses features of the methodologies used assess the environmental impacts of using wood as raw material in North America. Wood in Our Future: The Role of Life-Cycle Analysis: Proceedings of a Symposium. Chapter 3, 27-35 <http://books.nap.edu/books/0309057450/html/27.html#pagetop> Life Cycle Assessment for Forestry and Wood Products J.J. Todd and R.K. Higham 1996 Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation and the Tasmanian Forest Research Council
21.
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Other
22.
Title Author Publication year Source Life Cycle Analysis of Structural Concrete and Gypsum Building ProductsATHENA: Building Materials Project W. B. Trusty, J. K. Meil and G. Venta 1997 Proceedings: IBAUSIL, 13th International Conference on Building Materials, Weimar, Germany.
23.
Life Cycle Analysis of Gypsum Wallboard and Associated Products G. Venta, W. B. Trusty and J. K. Meil 1997 Proceedings: 5th International Conference on FGD and Synthetic Gypsum, Toronto, Canada.
24.
Title Author Publication year Application of Environmental Data and Declarations for Building Material E. Christophersen 1998 The building sector uses large amounts of materials for construction of buildings and large amounts of fossil fuels for heating buildings both causing great environmental impacts. This leads to development of methods for environmental design and assessment of buildings. These methods are based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) and can be used to point out processes and phases with important environmental impacts. Environmental data for materials are very important in LCA of buildings, but the requirements to data depend on the application of LCA. LCA can be used internally to develop new products or externally to document environmental effects from products. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate the environmental performance of building elements in a concrete panel building and in a multi-storey wooden building using available data and existing methods for the inventory analysis and the impact assessment. Danish Building Research Institute. <http://www.sbi.dk/udgivelser/appetitvaekkere/sbi-rapport_306/index.htm>
Abstract
Source
25.
Title Author Publication year Abstract Source Life Cycle Inventory and Life Cycle Impact of Masonry Products M. Romu, Optiroc Ltd Life cycle inventories of masonry products (lime bricks, clay bricks, insulating concrete blocks, and mortar) and a preliminary life cycle assessment of masonry structures. <http://www.kolumbus.fi/finnmappartners/rym/eng/descriptions-afg.htm>
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APPENDIX C: LCA Software and Databases

There are more than 30 LCA or LCA-type software tools available. Some are more applicable for use by the cement industry. A survey was conducted to evaluate the availability and relevance of these tools, and to produce a subset that can be suggested as useful. The absence of a specific tool from the suggested list should not be perceived as a negative recommendation. The software and database survey considered several sources including web pages of software vendors and LCA resources, literature, prior reviews of software, and professional contacts. However, these tools present a broad range of capabilities related to LCA. The capabilities are based on the intended user(s) of the tools: product designers, LCA practitioners, environmental managers, process engineers, and downstream users such as planners, architects, and builders. And the type of LCA being performed, i.e.: screening LCA vs. full LCA. The difference between the latter includes the amount of primary data collected. For example, with todays software tools and databases, a practitioner can complete a quick study in less than a day, using secondary data as a rough estimate of the system they are studying. This type of study, however, does not provide robust enough results to be used for applications that involve greater business risk, such as investing in new technologies or communicating product benefits to the marketplace. Table 1 below provides a record of all tools that were considered in this review, compiled from a variety of sources (De Caluwe, Ecosite, Gloria, Jensen et. al, Jonbrink et. al, Wilgenbush).
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Tool
DQA
Database
LCIA
Athena Y Y Y Y N N Y N N Y N
14040 Guidelines
BEES
Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, USA NIST, USEPA
Boustead Consulting, UK
Statistical Analysis
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Table C-1. Eco-Tools & Databases Summary
Name
Vendor
Comments
Building & construction focused. Some relevant data. Building & construction focused. Relevant data. Decreasing relevance, standard LCIA parameters SPINE DB LCI Tool, US/UK data. Only literature data
Boustead Model v4.2 Build-It EcoLab v5.1.2 EcoManager EcoAssessor EDIP LCV Tool ENVEST Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N Y N N Y N N N N N Y N Y Y N Y Y N N N N N Y N
IKP, University of Stuttgart Nordic Port AB, Sweden Franklin Associates, USA PIRA, UK Institute for Product Devt., Denmark BRE, United Kingdom Sponsored by UK Department of Energy, Transport & Regions
GaBi 3v2 GEMIS Y
Y Y
Y Y Y
Y N N
Y Y N
Y N Y
Y N N
Idemat
IKP Uni. Stuttgart/PE, Germany Oko-Institut (Institute for Applied Ecology), Germany TU Delft, Netherlands
JEMAI-LCA
JEMAI, Japan
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y N
LCAdvantage
Battelle/DOE, USA
Used with BRE Environmental Profiles database listed below Uses Eco-Points based on equivalencies to compare building design options. Released in June 2000 as design tool. Strong DB Emission modeling software w/ LC perspective. Used to select & compare individual materials or processes designer oriented. No comparisons b/w products, Japan specific, only available in Japanese. Weak database, US only
Table C-1. Eco-Tools & Databases Summary
Tool
DQA
Database
LCIA
LCAid
DPWS Environmental Services, NSW, Australia
14040 Guidelines
Y*
LCAiT
Chalmers Ind. (CIT), Sweden
Life Cycle Explorer NIRE LCA2 PEMS 4.6 REGIS Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N Y N N Y Y N Y Y Y Y
United States
Y N Y N N Y N Y Y
Statistical Analysis
Name
Vendor
Comments
*limited to EI 95, waste, waste & energy mostly Australian data can import 3D CAD drawing for bldg assess. can import Boustead data, plans for SimaPro, strong bldg mat LCI dbase Primarily LCI tool, forest products data, Impact assessment ability must be purchased separately. Prototype used to assess window design options Public data only. Limited to linear equations, LCI Tool, US/UK data
REPAQ SimaPro Spine
NIRE, Japan Pira International, UK Sinum AG EcoPerformance Systems, Switzerland Franklin Associates, USA Pre Consulatants, Netherlands CPM, Sweden
(WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )
TEAM Umberto
Ecobilan/Ecobalance/PWC, Europe/USA IFEU, Germany
Data tool, no calculation, just storage and facilitation of data collection Strong DB. Data from literature, strong materials flow accounting.
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The most useful tools to the cement industry and individual cement companies are those which contain readily available, high quality databases, comply with the ISO 14040 series of LCA standards and can be used to fulfill the full LCA methodology; from LCI to LCIA and Interpretation. However, it is important that the cement industry understand that tools focusing on evaluating downstream applications of products (not traditional LCA tools) can and do have an impact on how the marketplace views cement in its various applications; these tools will be discussed below.
Suggested LCA Tools for the Cement Industry

There are five LCA tools that can be positively suggested for use by the cement industry, listed in Table C-2. Table C-2. LCA Tools Suitable for the Cement Industry
14040 Guidelines Statistical Analysis Database LCIA DQA Tool
Name
Vendor
More Info
GaBi 3v2 LCAiT 4.0 NIRE LCA2 SimaPro 4.0 TEAM 3.0
IKP Uni. Stuttgart/PE, Germany Chalmers Ind. (CIT), Sweden NIRE, Japan Pre Consulatants, Netherlands Ecobilan/Ecobalance/ PWC, Europe/USA
a a a a a a a a a a
a a
a a
http://www.gabi-software.com http://www.lcait.com http://www.nire.go.jp
a a a
a a
a a
http://www.pre.nl http://www.ecobilan.com
GaBi 3v2
GaBi is designed and supported in Germany by the PE Product Engineering GmBH and IKP, University of Stuttgart, and by the PE Group and its network across the globe. The tool is designed to allow the user full LCA capability as well as Life Cycle Costing ability. The tool is transparent and allows the user to use predefined datasets and impact assessment methodologies, or input new or customized versions (Ecodesign Navigator, Lee). It is available in German, English and Japanese and is used worldwide by over 300 users in many industries.41
Strengths
GaBi allows the user to perform non-liner process modeling. The software also supports recycling loops and allocation. There are several functions allowing the user to not only perform impact assessment but interpretation as well. The data sets provided in the databases are fully documented according to ISO TR 14049 and are hyperlinked to individual datasets using HTML files which allow the user to trace data sets all the way back to raw materials.41 The way the software was designed and the extensive databases, it can be used to not only perform full LCAs, but quick screening LCAs. Its structure also enables it to be used to support facility or product-based ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems, greenhouse gas inventories, and process optimization.
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Weaknesses
GaBi is a complex tool designed for the LCA practitioner. 41 It is highly focused on the automotive and electronics industries.
LCAiT 4.0
LCAiT was developed in Sweden by CIT Ekologik. It is used heavily in the Nordic Countries as well as some Asian countries.42
Strengths
This software contains a reporting function designed to output LCA results in the form of a report compliant with the guidelines set out in the ISO 14040 series of standards. 42 It can be used for screening level LCAs or full LCAs.43
Weaknesses
The software is primarily based on performing LCI and therefore contains less functionality for LCIA or Interpretation.44 The software does not contain any features for interpretation. In addition, the database is mostly focused on the needs of the packaging and paper industry in the Nordic countries.
NIRE LCA2
This tool is currently under development by NIRE in Japan. The tool cannot yet perform LCAs compliant with the ISO 14040 standards, but the developers intend to make that possible in the next few years.43 They are currently cooperating with various research institutes around the world, including IKP at the University of Stuttgart, Germany, CML in Leiden, Holland and the Swiss EMPA in order to ensure their tool will be comparable to other standard LCA tools.41
Strengths
Its strong Japanese focus and intentions to utilize the JEMAI database make this an excellent tool for use in Japan. This tool will probably become the reference tool for Japanese companies.
Weaknesses
Still being developed and not yet compliant with ISO 14040.43 The database is also still limited and the software is only available in Japanese.
SimaPro 4.0
SimaPro is developed and maintained by the Dutch Pre Consultants. It is widely used around the world and has increased functionality from previous versions.
Strengths
SimaPro is relatively easy to use and offers the ability to calculate recycling and allocation scenarios.43 The software provides European specific LCIA methods as well as the ability to enter in others.
Weaknesses
The software does not include the ability to perform interpretation functions based on non-linear process modeling. In addition, there is no data quality analysis function.42 The database does not include documentation for individual data sets.
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TEAM 3.0
TEAM software is developed and maintained by ECOBILAN SA, now owned and operated by PriceWaterhouseCoopers. It is used widely by a variety of industries in countries around the world. It can be used to perform both screening and full LCAs and is a transparent yet complex software tool. 43
Strengths
TEAM has a strong database and customer base. It provides the ability to calculate non-linear processes, recycling loops and allocation scenarios. The LCIA component is flexible and provides several impact assessment methods. 43
Weaknesses
Datasets in the database are not individually documented. The use of different normalization methods is not available.
Summary
In general, each of these software tools would be applicable and useful to cement companies. While some are weaker in the variety of functions they offer, others have weaker databases, or databases only useful to a particular country or region. Many of the software providers offer additional databases or datasets at an additional price to compensate for gaps in the standard software databases.
Important Downstream LCA-based software tools

There are currently many life cycle based tools being used by planners, designers and architects to evaluate downstream applications of cement products in comparison with others. These tools, in most cases, do not allow the user to perform the LCI component using primary data. Instead, they are based on allowing non-LCA experts the ability to compare generic product or processes using databases provided with the software. Many of the tools in this genre originated with the intention of allowing product designers, architects, builders, etc., the ability to make quick decisions during the design process. For the purposes of this project, we have identified three of these tools that provide the user with the ability to compare products containing cement to alternatives using a life cycle approach (see Table 3). It should be recognized that none of these tools are capable of performing and LCA compliant with the ISO 14040 standards. It is important that cement companies understand and are aware of their use, however, in order to ensure that cement is being accurately represented in these tools. This is important to the cement industrys progress toward sustainable development, because customers are using these tools to judge the environmental benefits of cement applications.
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Table C-3. Important Downstream Tools

14040 Guidelines Statistical Analysis Database
Name
Vendor
LCIA
DQA
Tool
More Info
BEES
NIST, USEPA
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov /oae/software/bees.ht ml http://www.ikpgabi.unistuttgart.de/ http://www.bre.co.uk/s ustainable/envest.html
Build-It
IKP, University of Stuttgart
a a
a a
ENVEST
BRE, United Kingdom Sponsored by UK Department of Energy, Transport & Regions
BEES 2.0 Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability

The BEES tool was created by NIST, US Environmental Protection Agency. The software was designed with the intention of providing a powerful technique for balancing the environmental and economic performance of building products. Its database is based on United States information and is suited to use in North America. The software was designed to allow the user to be in compliance with the ISO 14040 standards.
Strengths
Convenient, easy-to-use tool. Allows user to evaluate environmental impacts as well as costs using life-cycle perspective..42
Weaknesses
Limited to North American data. Data quality is questionable.
Build-It
Build-It was designed and is maintained by the Department of Life Cycle Engineering at the University of Stuttgart, Germany. This is a tool designed for the planner, or builder and is used to compare various construction scenarios/products and offers the ability to compare complete buildings. The software focuses on Germany. The tool is a currently a prototype, but is in use currently in Germany and will be available publicly at the end of this year. Essentially the tool is a user-interface built on a database that contains an LCI of building components in Germany; it eliminates the need for the user to perform and LCI. The Build-It database includes information on all relevant building products with German boundary conditions. The data categories for evaluation of options include: primary energy (renewable, non renewable), lower heating value, GWP, ODP, AP, NP, POCP, and waste (4 categories).41
Strengths
Build-It is very easy to use, based on predefined construction options, defined in the user interface for walls, floors, roofs, etc. Calculation of the use phase is defined according to the current German standard, and includes different heating systems. Different decision schemes are included, and can be modified by the user.
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Weaknesses
Currently the tool is available only in German, however and English version is planned. 41
ENVEST
ENVEST is a tool designed and maintained by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the United Kingdom. It is a tool designed to allow the user, typically an architect, a quick and easy method for assessing different design alternatives of buildings using EcoPoints. The tool assesses the life-cycle environmental impacts of proposed building designs. This provide the user with a detailed evaluation of the impact of materials for the whole building and an assessment of operational energy impacts for different components, plan layouts, ventilation systems and lighting options.41
Strengths
Configured for rapid and easy use.41 The UK data provided is maintained and updated by BRE using its Environmental Profiles (see description below) database collected with the help of both private and public stakeholders.
Weaknesses
Methodological choices for recycling are already included in the database, thus their influence is not transparent. 41 Only contains UK data.
Databases
Databases are fundamental to both the quality of an LCA and saving time in LCA studies. There are many stand-alone databases around the world currently containing data sets related to cement. In some cases the databases are sold with an LCA software tool, but for the purposes of this section, we will only provide information on the database component. Table C-4 gives a brief description of a selection of those currently available for use and applicable to the cement industry. Table C-4. Relevant Databases
Name IVAM LCAdata 3.0. Athena Vendor IVAM Environmental Research Athena Institute, Canada Comments Very strong DB More Info Use http://www.ivamb Nordic v.uva.nl/uk/index Countries .htm Used alone or w/ Athena software http://www.athen Canada tool listed in appendix. Currently asmi.ca/index.ht Canadian based looking at ml collaboration w/ BRE and with US NREL Public database project. Japan
JEMAI
BEES
Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, US EPA
http://www.bfrl.ni North st.gov/oae/softw America are/bees.html
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Table C-4. Relevant Databases

Name Vendor Comments More Info Use BRE BRE & DETR, United Environment Kingdom al Profiles http://collaborate United UK Industry LCI database, used .bre.co.uk/envpr Kingdom by BRE for many different LCA ofiles/ tools Also contains upstream data from IVAM, SimaPro, BUWAL, and SBI Danish Building Inst.
References
De Caluwe, Nils. Ecotools Manual A Comprehensive Review of Design for Environment Tools. Manchester: Manchester Metropolitan University, Design for the Environment Research group, DFE/TR33, 1997. Ecodesign Navigator. Design for the Environment Decision Support Project. 1998. Manchester Metropolitan University. http://sun1.mpce.stu.mmu.ac.uk/pages/projects/ dfe/deeds/ecodnavi/toolbox/analyse/lcabased/lcabased.html> Ecosite. EcoSite Software Back Information. Ecosite. 13 Aug 2001 <http://www.ecosite.co.uk/depart/backinfo/softconb.html> Gloria, T. LCA Software. Life Cycle Assessment Links. 2000. <http://www.lifecycle.org/LCA_soft.htm> Jensen, A.A., L. Hoffmann and A. Schmidt. List of commericially available life cycle assessment tools. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) A Guide to Approaches, Experiences and Information Sources. 1998. European Environment Agency. <http://service.eea.eu.int/envirowindows/lca/tab43.htm> Jonbrink, A. K., C. Wolf-Watz, M. Erixon, P. Olsson and E. Walln. LCA Software Survey. Mlndal, Sweden: IVF Research Publication 00824, 2000. Kreissig, Johannes. IKP, University of Stuttgart, Germany. Personal Communication. Apr 2001. Lee, Kun. Anjou University, Korea. Personal Communication. 2000-2001. Wilgenbush, Brian. LCA Software- Internal Report. Atlanta: Interface Research Corporation, 2000.
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APPENDIX D: Users Guide to Understanding an LCA Study

Introduction
This guide is intended to help the user identify the important elements of an LCA study. An LCA will include a life cycle inventory, an evaluation of the inputs and outputs of a product (or service) throughout its life cycle, and an interpretation of these results. An LCA may also include impact assessment, in which inputs and outputs are assigned to impact categories and used to produce category indicators (e.g., resource use or global warming potential). The study may also include life cycle interpretation, in which conclusions are drawn about the most important impacts. The life cycle is generally considered to run from cradle (raw material extraction from earth) to grave (final disposition or recycling), but an LCA can define a narrower portion of the life cycle for examination. The study may be on a single product or it may compare two or more products to each other.
Instructions
1. Become familiar with the definitions below. These terms are common in LCA studies and are used in the checklist. 2. Review the LCA study and fill in the checklist. Check each element that is found in the study. Use the Comment column to describe the element or to list a page reference. Refer to the example checklist.
Definitions
Allocation Partitioning the input and output flows of a unit process to the product system under study. Comparative Assertion Environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product that performs the same function. Data Quality Characteristic of data that bears on their ability to satisfy stated requirements. Functional Unit Quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit in a life cycle assessment study. Life Cycle Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation of natural resources to the final disposal. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle.
D-1
Practitioner Individual or group that conducts a life cycle assessment. Product System Collection of materially and energetically connected unit processes which performs one or more defined functions; can also include service systems. System Boundary Interface between a product system and the environment or other product systems. Transparency Open, comprehensive and understandable presentation of information. Unit Processes Smallest portion of a product system for which data are collected when performing a life cycle assessment.
Title of LCA:
Elements of the LCA General aspects Does the study indicate: The LCA commissioner The practitioner of the LCA (internal or external) The date of report That the study has been conducted according to the requirements of this International Standard Definition of goal and scope Does the goal clearly state: The purpose of the study The intended audience Does the scope clearly describe: The product system to be studied The functions of the product system, or, in the case of comparative studies, the systems The functional unit The product system boundaries The criteria for selecting system boundaries Allocation procedures, if necessary Types of impact and methodology of impact assessment, and subsequent interpretation to be used Data requirements Assumptions Limitations 3 Comment
D-2
Initial data quality requirements Type of critical review and who will conduct it, if any Are the goal and scope clearly defined and consistent with the intended application? Life cycle inventory Are the data collection and calculation procedures given? Do the data include the following information: Name Amount Unit Do the data quality requirements address: Time-related coverage (when data originated) Geographical coverage (where data originates from) Technology coverage (in use when this data was collected) Sources of the data and their representativeness Data precision and completeness Uncertainty of the information Life cycle impact assessment (required for a comparative study) Does the impact assessment include: The methodology The results Life cycle interpretation (optional) Does the interpretation include: Assumptions and limitations associated with the interpretation of results, both methodology and data related The results Data quality assessment Critical review (required for a comparative study) Does the critical review provide: Name and affiliation of reviewers Critical review reports Responses to recommendations Comparison studies Are systems compared using the same functional unit and methodology? Are the systems clearly described and any differences between the systems reported? Overall Are all aspects of the study transparent?
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Main Findings of the Study:
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Example Checklist
Title of LCA: LCA of Building Frame Structures Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle
of Concrete and Steel Frames

Elements of the LCA General aspects Does the study indicate: The LCA commissioner The practitioner of the LCA (internal or external) The date of report That the study has been conducted according to the requirements of this International Standard Definition of goal and scope Does the goal clearly state: The purpose of the study 3 Comment Cement industry of Sweden, Norway and Finland T. Bjrklund, . Jnsson and A.-M. Tillman (Chalmers University of Technology) October 1996 Note: ISO LCA standards were still in development at the time of this LCA; it was largely structured according to the SETAC guidelines Cement companies in Sweden, Norway and Finland wish to improve the environmental performance of their products; also Chalmers is developing LCA method for building materials (from preface) Seven types of building frame, made of steel and concrete. Based on Swedish building standards One average horizontal square meter of floor area. See p. 7 for full description See p. 7 for full explanations Given in supplementary text In the impact assessment section; no interpretation conducted
3 3 3
The intended audience Does the scope clearly describe: The product system to be studied The functions of the product system, or, in the case of comparative studies, the systems The functional unit The product system boundaries The criteria for selecting system boundaries Allocation procedures, if necessary Types of impact and methodology of impact assessment, and subsequent interpretation to be used Data requirements Assumptions Limitations Initial data quality requirements Type of critical review and who will conduct it, if any
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
Listed throughout Listed throughout Representatives on the cement, concrete and steel industries in Sweden, Finland and Norway
D-5
Are the goal and scope clearly defined and consistent with the intended application? Life cycle inventory Are the data collection and calculation procedures given? Do the data include the following information: Name Amount Unit Do the data quality requirements address: Time-related coverage (when data originated) Geographical coverage (where data originates from) Technology coverage (in use when this data was collected) Sources of the data and their representativeness Data precision and completeness
See p. 10
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1993/1994/1995 Swedish average data; for calculations where an exact site was necessary, rebro was used Current average technology Individual sources for each dataset; representativeness not indicated Data gaps: construction, demolition, disposal
Uncertainty of the information Life cycle impact assessment (required for a comparative study) Does the impact assessment include: 3 The methodology EPS, Environmental Theme and Ecological Scarcity 3 The results See main findings below Life cycle interpretation (optional) Does the interpretation include: N/A Assumptions and limitations associated with the interpretation of results, both methodology and data related The results Data quality assessment Critical review (required for a comparative study) Does the critical review provide: 3 Name and affiliation of reviewers See p. 11 Critical review reports Responses to recommendations Comparison studies 3 Are systems compared using the same functional unit and methodology?
D-6
Are the systems clearly described and any differences between the systems reported?
(1) Office concrete in situ frame (2) Dwelling concrete in situ frame (3) Office concrete precast frame (4) Dwelling concrete precast frame (5) Office steel/concrete frame (6) Dwelling steel/concrete frame (7) Dwelling steel/steel frame See p. 4 for full descriptions.
Overall 3 Are all aspects of the study transparent? Main Findings of the Study: The steel frame (7) used the least raw materials The steel/concrete office frame (5) used the least energy over its life cycle Examination of which frame produces the least emissions was indeterminate; performance varied depending on which emission was studied Of the concrete frames, the in situ frames (1 and 2) use the most materials and produce the most demolition waste The steel frame (7) produces the most waste over its life cycle, especially compared to the precast concrete frames (3 and 4) Life cycle energy use did not differ very much between the seven frames
References
ISO 14040:1997(E), Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and framework. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. First edition, 1997. ISO 14041:1998(E), Environment management Life cycle assessment Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. First edition, 1998.
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APPENDIX E: Case Study Taiheiyos use of LCA for Technology Evaluation

Company: Taiheiyo Cement Corporation Location: Tokyo, Japan For More Information: Yoshito Izumi, yoshito_izumi@taiheiyo-cement.co.jp http://www.taiheiyo-cement.co.jp/english/env2000/10.html Web link: http://www.taiheiyo-cement.co.jp/english/env2000/index8.html
Overview
Taiheiyo Cement Corporation has successfully utilized LCA for a variety of valuable applications, including a variety of decision-making efforts internally and for communication efforts to external parties. The company uses LCA to continually monitor its contributions to greenhouse gases (CO2 emissions), depletion of mineral resources, use of energy resources, and shortage of final landfill sites (amount of waste used). Internally, the company has used LCA results to evaluate: Thermal recycling of waste plastic materials, Alternative Fuel Resources (AFR), Ecocement production, and, Recycling processes for incinerator ash from urban waste. Externally, the company uses LCA results to communicate the contribution of their activities towards sustainability to stakeholders. Additionally, Taiheiyo uses this approach to demonstrate the environmental benefits of cement compared to alternatives and has augmented the environmental information with social benefits analyses to help justify their continued presence in the industry in Japan.
Context
Taiheiyo Cement Corporation has committed itself to a business philosophy based on the industrial ecology concept of Zero Emissions. The company recognizes that while the production of cement consumes a significant amount of energy generating substantial volumes of emissions, such as CO2, it can also produce significant environmental benefits to society by utilizing municipal and industrial waste as resources for its processes and products. There is a restricted amount of landfill space available in Japan, thus there is a potential for cement companies to bolster their image in the marketplace by utilizing waste. Taiheiyos 10 cement plants in Japan currently accept waste materials from 190 companies in 22 industries. The company uses these wastes as both fuel for its processes and alternative raw materials in its cement products. In order to more aggressively pursue the zero emissions philosophy the company developed an Environmental Action Plan for the fiscal year 2000. In an effort to increase communication and transparency with stakeholders, the company published the action plan in its Environmental Report. The Action Plan contains two objectives in particular which are related to the use of LCA to pursue its philosophy. The first objective is, Assess the environmental impact of each project of recycling and environmental business. The second is, Assess the environmental impact in development of new products and processes and introduction of new facilities, etc. (Environmental Report 2000) To support both of these objectives the company committed to establishing and disseminating an LCA method in parallel with a national project to develop a highly reliable LCA database and LCA methodology. This
E-1
national project involves the participation of 56 experts from industry, government and academia and 23 industry associations including Japan Cement Association. Taiheiyo does not directly participate in the project but does as a representative of the cement association. Also in 2000, the company established a working group to develop an environmental accounting system to determine the costs and total effects of environmental conservation efforts. The results of this new system would be calculated using the results of the LCA studies and used as both managerial information and to communicate the benefits of the companies activities to stakeholders. The actions associated with this effort included: reporting costs according to the guidelines set out by the Japan Environment Agency, developing aggregate result calculation system and in-house guidelines, and establishing the system to assess the environmental conservation costs and total effects of utilizing waste.
Actions
At Taiheiyo LCA is used as an input to calculating the environmental and economic costs of using waste and by-products in cement production processes. In 2000, the company completed LCA profiles for three types of their most common products: Portland Cement (PC) production of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) utilizing some waste and by-product as alternative fuels and raw materials Average of all kinds of cement including blended cements Virgin Portland Cement (VPC) OPC without using any waste or by-product as alternative fuel or raw material The life cycle boundaries included mining of resources, to the gate of shipping the cement, to use. The impacts were measured using the following indicators: Global Warming (CO2 emissions) Depletion of mineral resources Depletion of energy resources Shortage of final landfill sites. The results of the profiles are shown in Tables E-4 and Figures E-4 below, excerpts from Taiheiyos 2000 Environmental Report.
Figure E-1. Global Warming
Figure E-2. Depletion of Mineral Resources (Amount of natural minerals used)
E-2
Table E-1. Global warming

VPC Mining of raw material Transportation Production In-house power generation Decarboxylation SS transportation Total Difference with VPC 2.8 0.7 283.8 61.2 480.7 4.5 833.7 PC 2.5 2.0 243.6 60.9 461.2 4.5 774.7 -59.0 Average of all kinds of cements 3.7 2.3 225.5 57.5 426.4 4.5 719.9 -113.8 kg-CO2/ t-cement Unit
Table E-2. Depletion of energy resources

VPC Coal Crude oil Total Difference with VPC 98.9 18.4 31.2 PC 82.2 19.4 30.0 -1.2 Average of all kinds of cements 77.4 18.3 28.3 -2.9 Unit kg/t-cement kg-crude oil equivalent /t-cement
Table E-3. Depletion of mineral resources

VPC Limestone Clay Silica stone Gypsum Iron material Total Difference with VPC 1191.72 235.6 20.6 31.1 20.2 1499.2 PC 1144.6 79.6 75.4 3.6 0 1303.2 -196.0 Average of all kinds of cements 1058.4 73.6 69.7 3.4 0 1205.1 -294.1 Unit
kg/t-cement
Table E-4. Shortage of landfill sites

VPC PC Average of all kinds of cements Unit Recycled by-112.8 -188.1 products Wet-kg/t-cement Shortage of landfills 0 -91.3 -84.4 (recycled waste) Note: Production of PC in FY1999: 22.48 million tons, Production of all kinds of cements in FY1999 F24.3 million tons, VPC: Virgin cement, PC: Ordinary Portland cement
Figure E-3. Depletion of Energy Resources
Figure E-4. Shortage of Final Landfills

E-3
The LCA results show that as a result of using wastes and by-product materials, the company reduced its burden in the following categories: CO2 Energy Resources Mining Resources 2.77 million tons or 14% per ton of cement 70 000 tons heavy oil equivalent or 9% per ton of cement 7.14 million tons or 20% decrease per ton of cement.
Using the results of the three LCA profiles, the company wanted to communicate the benefits of using waste to produce cement in terms of social benefits to the public and to develop results more meaningful to internal decision-making. To do so, the company calculated an environmental conservation effect and converted it into economic terms. As part of this initiative, Taiheiyo participates in the Japanese Environment Agencys Environmental Accounting Study Group for Administrators. Using the methodological guidelines of the Japanese Environment Agency Guidelines (2000) the company calculates the environmental conservation costs as the reduction of social costs.
Outcomes
The Environmental Conservation Effect calculation is based on the avoided burdens of utilizing waste that would otherwise end up in landfills in Japan. The effect is calculated using a presumed effect based on applying market prices to the environmental conservation effects totaled by the ton. The result is an estimate of the economic effect gained by reducing environmental burdens of society. Using these calculations, Taiheiyo created an economic effect equivalent to 41.5 billion yen in 1999 (see Table 5 below for details). This result is based on the companys use of approximately 6.2 million tons of waste and by-products as alternative raw materials and fuels in the production of 24.3 million tons of cement in 1999. Approximately three-quarters of the effect can be accounted for by the increased social benefit of reducing the amount of waste going to landfill.
E-4
Table E-5. Economic Effects of Environmental Conservation Efforts

Impact Inventory Inventory reduction per 1 ton of cement All Difference VPC kinds of [A] (Kg) cements (Kg) (Kg) 833.7 31.2 719.9 28.3 113.8 2.9 Market value of the inventory [B] (yen/ton) (Evaluation base) 818 18,400 Carbon tax (assumed) Import price of crude oil Purchasing price (assumed) Cost for landfill (Metropolitan area) Cement production [C] (1,000t) 2,430 2,430 Economic effect [A] [B] [C] (Billion yen) 2.26 1.30
Global warming Depletion of energy resources Depletion of mineral resources Shortage of final landfills Total
CO2 Crude oil
Natural resources
1,499.2
1,205.1
294.1
1,000
2,430
7.14
Waste
0.0 2,364.1
84.4 2,037.7
-84.4 326.4
15,000
2,430
30.76
Source: 2000 Taiheiyo Corporate Environmental Report These results show that the company not only significantly reduces the amount of waste that must go to landfill, but also show a valuable reduction in the use of mineral resources and the production of CO2. In economic terms, the reduction of costs that society would have otherwise paid is significant. This calculation of social cost is a valuable method for the company to bolster its corporate image with stakeholders and also to show the benefits of cement in comparison to alternatives. The company also found the results of the LCA studies useful for the promotion of an Ecocement Project, the promotion of the technology for incineration ash recycling, and for evaluating new technologies. In the future, the company plans to use LCA for the evaluation of new investments in facilities and technologies, assessment of new business opportunities, and the development of more environmentally friendly cement products.
Lessons Learned
In general, Taiheiyo found LCA is a very useful tool. Specifically, the company found it useful for determining the social contribution of the use of waste for cement production. Additionally, the company found LCA is useful to aid in internal decision-making regarding new technologies and investments and for continuously monitoring their contribution to environmental issues such as climate change. As a result of their LCA efforts, Taiheiyo is able to use LCA to quantify their activities using indicators to measure their progress toward sustainable development goals in a meaningful way. Overall, LCA is one of the most important tools in achieving Taiheiyos goal of becoming a zero emissions company. Other cement companies could use LCA in the same way as Taiheiyo to contribute to several initiatives related to sustainable development. These include benchmarking and monitoring progress toward a more sustainable future, monitoring contributions to global warming, assessing new technologies, participating in industry-wide environmental/sustainability reporting, Type III Eco-Labeling, and communicating with stakeholders.
E-5
References
Taiheiyo. Environmental Report 2000. Taiheiyo Cement Corporation. May 2000. <http://www.taiheiyo-cement.co.jp/english/env2000/index.html>. Izumi, Yoshito. Personal Communications. May 2001.
E-6
APPENDIX F: Case Study Norcems Use of LCA to Communicate Environmental Performance

Company: Location: For More Information: Norcem (Heidelberger Zement) Norway Mr. Erik Stoltenberg-Hansson, Chief Chemist, Norcem R&D erik.stoltenberg-h@norcem.no
Overview
Norcem is a cement producer located in Norway, part of the Northern Europe Region of Heidelberger Zement. Norcem has used life cycle assessment (LCA) to their advantage in a number of different applications. From 1994-1997 they participated in a Nordic cement and concrete project that aimed to establish the impacts of cement and concrete life cycle and identify opportunities for improvement. The project was carried out through several LCA studies of concrete products. In 1998, while Norcem was part of the Scancem group, Scancem used a life cycle approach in their environmental report. The report highlighted the importance of the use phase in the cement life cycle, and showed how LCA had been used to target improvements in operations. Recently Norcem has been involved in a program to create environmental product declarations for different sectors. The declarations use life cycle data and a standard format so that consumers can compare different products to each other. In addition to these activities Norcem has used LCA internally to track data that is required for their certification to the European Eco Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS) and ISO 14001. The use of LCA in all of these ways has been beneficial both for Norcem and their customers.
Context
Since the development of life cycle assessment methodologies, the Nordic countries, as well as the Netherlands, have been among the leaders in the use of LCA. The high level of activity in this region, among industry and academia, contributes to a greater overall push for LCA data in all major industries, such as oil and gas, plastic and wood (Stoltenberg-Hansson). An LCA study considers all of the inputs to a product, so the requirements for LCA data have extended to raw materials such as cement. One company that has responded to this push is Norcem, a cement producer in Norway. Norcem formerly belonged to the Scancem group, an international group of companies who produce cement, concrete and a range of mineral-based building materials (The Scancem Group). In 1999 Scancem was purchased by Heidelberger Zement, and Norcem became part of Heidelbergers Northern Europe Region (Stoltenberg-Hansson). Through this change in ownership Norcem has maintained its LCA activities (Stoltenberg-Hansson). The company belongs to a national group of industrial LCA users, and has employed LCA in a number of different ways (Stoltenberg-Hansson).
Nordic Cement and Concrete Project

From 1994 to 1997 Norcem participated in a large Nordic research project, Environmental Adaption of Concrete (Stoltenberg-Hansson). Cementa of Sweden and Finncement of Finland
F-1
also sponsored the project, and additional funding was provided by the Nordic Industry Fund. The project was conducted by ST Oestfold Research Foundation of Norway, Chalmers Technical University of Sweden and VTT of Finland. The main goals of the project were: To increase the knowledge about todays product system for the production of cement and concrete To compare the environmental and health impacts of concrete products with different competing product systems To generate options for product system improvement within a life cycle context These goals were pursued through the following activities: Case studies of six cement plants, including cement and concrete production; an LCA software program was developed as part of this process LCA studies of concrete and asphalt roads, and concrete, steel and wood building frames Investigation of methods for making environmental improvements to the cement-concrete product system The project allowed all the parties involved to gain a deeper understanding of the environmental loads that are associated with the production of cement. Through case studies of six cement plants, a complete life cycle model for cement and concrete was developed. The model considered all input and output flows (resources, energy and emissions) for 1000 kg of cement and 1m3 of concrete. Three different assessment methods were used to identify the most important impacts (Table 1). This assessment traced the main impacts for both cement and concrete to the clinker burning process during the production of cement. Table F-1. Main Impacts of Cement Production (Vold and Ronning 1)
Assessment Method BUWAL Main Impacts Emissions of CO2 Emissions of NOx Emissions of mercury Emissions of SO2 Emissions of CO2 Emissions of NOx Emissions of SO2 Consumption of fossil fuels Emissions of CO2 Consumption of fossil fuels
CML
EPS
The model was used in four subsequent projects to conduct life cycle assessments on: concrete and asphalt roads; concrete and steel building frames; concrete and wood building frames; and a concrete bridge. The LCA of asphalt and concrete pavements found that both asphalt and concrete could emerge as the more advantageous material depending on which evaluation method was used. The study did note that even a small reduction of fuel consumption, 0.1-0.5%, on concrete roads would result in emission reductions comparable to the amount of emissions produced in all other life cycle stages (Hkkinen and Mkel, 3).
F-2
In each of the assessments of concrete building frames compared to steel and wood, it was found that there was little difference in the environmental impact. These complex studies were conducted using LCAiT, and Bjrkland states that a more sophisticated tool is needed (1996 iii, 1997 iii). The fourth project utilized a case study on a bridge to create criteria for sustainable product development in the cement and concrete industry (Johsen and Vold). The case study was carried out at Norcems cement plant in Brevik. The primary considerations in developing the methodology were: Main environmental and health impacts Main customers requirements Life cycle costs As part of this project Norcem used life cycle assessment, life cycle costing and customer focused product development to examine different aspects of their operations. Using these methodologies they made decisions about what types of fuel to use (fossil fuels vs. hazardous waste) and what mode of transportation to use for the final product. At the concrete level, these methods were also used to decide which kind of cement to use and which type of aggregates to mix them with (Stoltenberg-Hansson). The Nordic Cement and Concrete project led to a better understanding of the impacts associated with cement manufacture and use. It also disseminated knowledge of LCA methods and tools among the cement and concrete industry.
Environmental Reporting
In 1998, when Norcem was still owned by the Scancem group, Scancem produced an environmental report for its group companies that used the life cycle as a basis for evaluating their products. They recognized that a life cycle perspective is necessary to clarify how a product impacts the environment during its entire lifetime (Scancem Environmental Report). The report first identified one important aspect about cement, and building materials in general: the use phase will have the most impact in the life cycle. The energy required to heat a building over its lifetime greatly out weighs the other impacts associated with building materials. Although Scancem naturally focused on its own operations, they recognized the potential impacts and advantages that their product contributes through its use. With the prominence of the use phase established, the report concentrated on the stages of the life cycle over which Scancem had the most influence. It described the life cycle of cement from raw material extraction up to transportation of the final product. They used the CML method to determine the areas of greatest concern in this life cycle. According to this assessment the most environmentally significant aspects are: Emissions of carbon dioxide Emissions of nitrogen oxides Emissions of sulphur dioxide Dust Fossil fuel consumption Electricity consumption
F-3
Scancem used the results of the LCA to direct improvements in operations and products. One area that was identified by the LCA work was the use of alternative fuels to replace fossil fuels. Cement kilns are highly suited to the use of alternative fuels, such as tires and hazardous waste, due to the high temperatures involved. In the Cement Nordic companies (now Heidelberger Zement Northern Europe region) alternative fuels made up about 10% of fuel consumption in 1998. In 2000 Norcem used 26% alternative fuels, and they aim to increase this to 50-60% (Stoltenberg-Hansson). Further down the life cycle, there is an effort to maximize the use of sea transport of the final product, as it is the mode of transportation with the least impact (Scancem Environmental Report).
Environmental Product Declaration

Currently Norcem is involved in an initiative to implement Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) across sectors in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The project wqa supported with funding from governments and industry federations. The aim of the project is to establish a label that conforms to the upcoming ISO 14025 standard, Environmental declarations and labels type III. A type III label is third party certified and gives specific, quantified data about the environmental performance of a product. Data for the labels are being collected according to ISO 14040, the standard for LCA. This type of label is already in use in various industries in Sweden (EPD). In the Swedish scheme there are common requirements for products in the same category, but EPDs from different product categories can differ a great deal. This new EPD is being created so that it may be applied universally to any product, from oil and gas to furniture (Stoltenberg-Hansson). A common format will allow customers to compare products much more easily. The proposed label would include a list of materials in the product, an outline of the product life cycle, and summaries of resource use, energy consumption, emissions and environmental impacts, and end of life treatment. It will provide a concise package of information, rather than pages of text, so that it is easy for the user to read and understand (Stoltenberg-Hansson). Norcem is involved because they feel that this program will be mutually beneficial for consumers and the company.
Outcomes
Norcems initial impetus to conduct an LCA study on their product was a desire to fully understand the impacts of their product. They are now fully aware of the environmental consequences not only of the production process, but resource use, transportation and product use. Knowledge of negative impacts has allowed them to assess alternate technologies and make process improvements. LCA has been helpful for plant and company level environmental management. The Norcem plants in Brevik and Kjpsvik are certified to the European Eco Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS), and the company as a whole is certified to ISO 14001 (Certification). The life cycle data that have been collected feed into the data requirements for these standards (Stoltenberg-Hansson). The use of LCA has also brought to light positive implications of using cement and concrete products. The advantages of cement and concrete are used by Norcem as a powerful marketing tool, which is particularly effective in a society that is very environmentally aware. Norcem also
F-4
aids their customers, both direct (concrete producers) and indirect (concrete users), in conducting their own LCA studies, and thus creates a strong connection to their customers (Stoltenberg-Hansson).
Lessons Learned
We gain by being open. Erik Stoltenberg-Hansson, Norcem Norcem has been open and transparent in their use of LCA. They have made use of it in both internal applications (technology assessment, certification) and external applications (reporting, labelling). Norcem has changed their approach to LCA. In previous years they have participated in projects that involved comparative studies of concrete and other products. However, this type of comparison must be done very carefully, ensuring that all parties involved are represented. Norcem is now moving toward environmental labeling with life cycle data, so that customers can make their own comparisons (Stoltenberg-Hansson). The companies of the Northern and Western Europe regions of Heidelberger have been the most active in LCA work, but other Heidelberger companies are becoming more active in this area (Stoltenberg-Hansson). Heidelberger is also involved in Cembureaus European initiative to compile life cycle data. This initiative is expected to further spread awareness and use of LCA in the cement industry.
References
Bjrkland, T. and A.-M. Tillman. LCA of Building Frame Structures Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle of Wooden and Concrete Frames. Gteburg: Chalmers University of Technology, 1997. Bjrkland, T., . Jnsson and A.-M. Tillman. LCA of Building Frame Structures Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle of Concrete and Steel Frames. Gteburg: Chalmers University of Technology, 1996. Certification. Norcem. 13 Aug 2001 <http://www.norcem.no/> EPD. Swedish Environmental Management Council. 2000. <http://www.environdec.com/eng/> Hkkinen, T. and K. Mkel. Environmental Adaption of Concrete Environmental Impact of Concrete and Asphalt Pavements. Espoo: VTT, 1996. Johnsen, T., and M. Vold. Sustainable Product Development in Cement and Concrete Industry. Fredrikstad: STO, 1996. Scancem Environmental Report. Scancem. 1998. <http://www.scancem.com/environ/eng98.pdf> Stoltenberg-Hansson, Erik. Personal Communication. 5 Jul 2001.
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Stoltenberg-Hansson, Erik. Personal Communication. 25 Jun 2001. Stoltenberg-Hannson, Erik. Personal Communication. 15 Jun 2001. The Scancem Group. Scancem. 1999. <http://www.scancem.com/group/index.htm> Vold, M. and A. Rnning. LCA of Cement and Concrete Main Report. Fredrikstad: ST, 1995.
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Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry

by Steven B. Young, Shannon Turnbull, Andrea Russell Five Winds International

An Independent Study Commissioned by:

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Value to the cement industry

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Resource extraction Resource (e.g., limestone quarry) E i

Materials Materials production plant) P (e.g., d cement i

Product manufacture Product (e.g., fconcrete M i structure)

Product Use (e.g., bridge 50 year life) U

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

2. State of LCA Practice

1) Goal and Scope

2) Life Cycle Inventory

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Step 1: Goal and Scope

Step 2. Life Cycle Inventory

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Step 3: Impact Assessment

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Value of a Product Approach

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Ability to See Trade-offs

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

3. LCA and Cement

LCA to analyze cement applications

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Use of LCA for other areas of assessment in the cement industry

Experience in Australia with LCA of Building Materials

Sydney Summer Olympic Games

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Canadian LCA Work on Concrete Roads

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

LCA Experience in the USA

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

4. Tools for LCA

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Suggested LCA-Analysis Tools for the Cement Industry

Other LCA-related Software Tools

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Table 4-2. Important LCA-related Software Tools (compare to Table 4-1)

http://www.bre.co.uk/s ustainable/ envest.html

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Table 4-3. Relevant Databases

Use Nordic Countries Canada and USA

BRE Environmental Profiles

USA government in support of environmentally preferable purchasing

http://collaborate.bre.co. uk/ envprofiles/

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Cement and Eco-efficiency

( WHAT LCA CAN TELL US ABOUT THE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

Appropriate use of cement

Meeting Market and Societal Expectations for LCA

Cement contributes to the sustainability objectives of society

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )