1638 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO.

4, APRIL 2013
A Twofold Daubechies-Wavelet-Based Module for
Fault Detection and Voltage Regulation in SEIGs for
Distributed Wind Power Generation
K. Lakshmi Varaha Iyer, Student Member, IEEE, Xiaomin Lu, Student Member, IEEE, Yasir Usama,
Vamsi Ramakrishnan, and Narayan C. Kar, Senior Member, IEEE
AbstractAs Canada and the world move rapidly toward in-
creased reliance on wind power generation, self-excited induction
generators (SEIGs) will play an important role in distributed
wind power generation (DWPG). Understanding the signicance
and prospects of SEIGs in DWPG, rst, this paper elucidates
the signicance of fault detection (FD) and voltage regulation
(VR) in the aforementioned application. A comprehensive analy-
sis of VR and faults on niche industrial 7.5-hp copper-rotor
SEIGand conventional 7.5-hp aluminum-rotor SEIGis performed
through numerical simulations, and the calculated results are
validated through experimental investigations. Second, a twofold
Daubechies-wavelet-transform-based module is designed for the
following: 1) FD and 2) VR, respectively. A discrete-wavelet-
transform-based algorithm is proposed and implemented on a
low-cost embedded system to provide an economical solution
for the aforementioned issues. Thereafter, the aforementioned
schemes are tested, and results are investigated.
Index TermsAluminum-rotor machine, copper-rotor ma-
chine, fault detection (FD), self-excited induction generator
(SEIG), voltage regulation (VR), wavelet transforms (WT).
I. INTRODUCTION
C
ANADAs centralized energy infrastructure is becom-
ing more challenging as the demand for clean, reliable,
and affordable electricity generation grows. North Americas
centralized grid system stressed to its limits [1] has become
vulnerable and increasingly brittle [2]. Overreliance on large,
polluting, and expensive generation and transmission is no
longer an option that Canadians would endorse. Rapidly,
centralized generation is being supplemented or replaced by
distributed generation (DG), a new way of thinking about
electricity generation, transmission, and distribution [3]. Wind
power is becoming increasingly popular and is the fastest
growing generation form because of its promising potential for
development. Distributed wind power generation (DWPG) has
Manuscript received May 2, 2011; revised December 8, 2011; accepted
January 15, 2012. Date of publication February 16, 2012; date of current
version November 22, 2012.
K. L. V. Iyer, X. Lu, and N. C. Kar are with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive
Research and Green Energy, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4,
Canada (e-mail: iyerl@uwindsor.ca; lu117@uwindsor.ca; nkar@uwindsor.ca).
Y. Usama is with the SNCLavalin, Toronto, ON M9B 6E2, Canada (e-mail:
yusama@uwindsor.ca).
V. Ramakrishnan is with Robert Bosch Engineering, Coimbatore 641035,
India (e-mail: vamsiramakrishnaish@gmail.com).
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIE.2012.2188258
become a growing market area, as people are trying to reduce
their dependence on the conventional power grid.
Case studies from [4] and [5] show some examples of
isolated wind farms in Canada. Ramea Island, about 10 km
off the south coast of Newfoundland, Canada, which is the
home to approximately 700 inhabitants, used one or more of
the three installed 925-kW diesel generators, with an average
fuel efciency of around 4 kWh/L, to meet its electricity re-
quirements. The latest island wind farminstalled there produces
around 10%13% of the 4.3 GWh consumed annually by the
community, thus reducing the amount of fuel purchased for
diesel generators. The Yukon Energy Corporation of Canada
installed a 150-kW wind energy generation system on Haeckel
Hill, a shoulder of Mt. Sumanik, at an altitude of 1430 m,
approximately 750 m above the valley oor where the terri-
torys capital, i.e., Whitehorse, is located. The Whitehorse grid,
which is isolated from Canadas national electrical grid, also
hosts 0.8-MW wind turbine capacity, provided at Haeckel Hill.
The rolling prairies of Alberta, between Calgary and Red Deer,
are one of the most productive agricultural areas in Western
Canada. A wheat farmer, who wanted independence from the
electric utility, purchased a 10-kW wind turbine to supply
all of his power requirements. The Trochu Wheat Farm was
already connected to a power grid, but the farmers goal was
a stand-alone system that would survive ination and have less
environmental impact in comparison to the coal used to produce
electricity for the grid. The farms wind energy system also
supplies power to a residence for a family of four, a machine
shop, a water well, and yard lights.
These wind turbines use permanent-magnet or self-excited
induction generators (SEIGs) to supply small demands ef-
fectively. An SEIG is an ideally suited electricity-generating
system for DWPG as it becomes tedious and highly expensive
to lay transmission lines over or under water, through mountain-
ous areas and across long distances. A stand-alone SEIG driven
by wind turbine is capable of supplying power to domestic,
industrial, and agricultural loads, particularly in the remote and
hilly areas where conventional grid supply is not available.
Installation of SEIG reduces the high maintenance and installa-
tion costs as large amounts of metal and raw material use can
be minimized and reduces the infrastructure and transmission
losses which occur when regular power grids or transmission
lines are installed. Self-excitation in induction machines with
capacitors at their stator terminals, although known for more
0278-0046/$31.00 2012 IEEE
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1639
than half a century, is still a subject of considerable attention.
Interest in this topic is primarily due to the application of SEIGs
in autonomous wind power generation. Over the years, SEIG
has emerged as an alternative to the conventional synchronous
generator for such applications [6].
Most of the SEIGs use less efcient aluminum rotors because
fabrication by pressure die casting is a well established and
economical method. Conventional wisdom states that copper
conductors are the most reliable and outperform their aluminum
counterparts, since the electrical conductivity of copper is 60%
more than aluminum. Recent developments in the die casting
process that produces copper rotors can easily increase the
motor efciency by up to 2.1% [7]. Air pollution would also
decrease as a direct result of reduced energy consumption. Use
of copper rotors can also reduce motor operating temperatures
by 5

C32

C [8]. As a general rule, for every 10

C increase
in the motor operating temperature, the insulation life of the
motor is halved. Therefore, these data indicate that the lifetime
of motors using copper rotors may be extended by 50%or more,
with proper maintenance.
The nameplate efciency of a practical in-service 15-hp
1800 r/min aluminum-rotor induction machine today is about
89.5%, which is below the 1997 Energy Policy Act standard of
91%. As demonstrated by many other researchers, the adoption
of copper rotors should bring efciencies to the 94%96%
range exceeding the requirements of todays premium ef-
ciency motor, nominally 93% [9]. In addition, analyses by
motor manufacturers have shown that copper rotors can be
employed to reduce overall manufacturing costs at a given
efciency or to reduce motor weight, depending on which
attribute the designer chooses to emphasize. The potential
energy savings achievable through the use of copper rotors is
substantial. The U.S. Department of Energy reports that motors
above 1/6 hp use about 60% of all electricity generated in the
United States and the medium-power motors (125 hp) are
the favored candidates for conversion to copper rotors [10].
In Canada alone, 1% increase in the motor electrical energy
efciency would save roughly $200 million and, as a result,
0.5 million barrels of oil annually. As Canada and the world
move rapidly toward increased dependence on wind power
generation, aluminum and copper can play an important role in
the rotor construction of SEIG [11]. Hence, both the aluminum-
and copper-rotor induction machines have been used here in the
investigations.
Major challenges in an SEIG are its poor voltage and fre-
quency regulation, since there is no separate dc excitation
system. As a load is applied, the reactive power supplied by
the capacitance of the parallel combination of the excitation
capacitance and the connected load must match the reactive
power demanded by the machine as dictated by the magnetizing
curve. In other words, the reactive power, required by the ma-
chine to maintain self-excitation, and the load must be provided
solely by the excitation capacitor. Consequently, as the load is
increased, there is a decrease in magnitude of the terminal volt-
age and frequency. Various techniques for improving voltage
regulation (VR) such as a switched capacitor scheme, electronic
load controllers, variable reactive power controllers, and other
solid-state controllers are reported in the literature [12][21],
which improve the performance of an SEIG signicantly but
involve complex and expensive control hardware.
Another challenge in DWPG systems using SEIGs is fault
detection (FD) in the system. Faults across the high-voltage
terminals of the generator lead to economic losses and power
outages. Forced outages are the primary concern of the remote-
area consumer for causing economic duress. The SEIG is
attractive for DWPG as the terminal voltages of the system
collapse during short-circuit faults, and hence, the excitation
of the machine is cut off driving the machine to just run
freely at the wind turbine rotor speed. This makes SEIG more
attractive for such power generation as the machine is fault
tolerant and the general consumer does not have to worry about
replacing or repairing the machine. However, it is necessary for
the fault to be detected and communicated to the operator in
order to resume operation after fault inspection and clearance.
Fault here cannot be detected using conventional schemes using
overvoltage sensors or overcurrent sensors as the voltage and
current collapse within a few cycles during a fault. Fast and
accurate FD will not only render immediate corrective action
but also protect sensitive equipment along the line and prevent
the domino effect. Thus, it is of vital importance to rapidly
detect and identify power system faults, assist the task of repair
and maintenance, and reduce the economic effects of power
interruption.
Understanding the signicance of FD and VR in distributed
wind DG system using an SEIG, this paper proposes an ex-
clusive dual-purpose wavelet-based FD and VR schemes. A
comprehensive investigation of the developed algorithm has
been performed through a developed computer program and
an experimental setup consisting of a low-end embedded sys-
tem. This economic solution can be implemented to achieve
preanalysis from the eld before deploying an outage team, if
necessary.
Section II of this paper elucidates the following: 1) the
developed analytical model of SEIG used in the investigations;
2) a quantitative performance analysis on both the conventional
aluminum-rotor machine and the niche copper-rotor machine to
study the machine behavior during load application and FD; and
3) hence the need for the developed exclusive twofold wavelet-
based module for FD and VR.
Sections III explains in length the step-by-step process in-
volved in designing the wavelet-based module along with the
calculated and experimental results captured at every step of the
design. The module designed in this section is implemented on
a low-cost embedded system and tested for FD and VR across
the stator terminals of the SEIG. Finally, experimental results
are investigated.
II. QUANTITATIVE PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ALSEIG
AND CUSEIG UNDER LOAD APPLICATION
AND FAULT INITIATION
A. Modeling of the SEIGs
The two-axis model of aluminum-rotor SEIG (ALSEIG) and
copper-rotor SEIG (CUSEIG) is developed using conventional
machine equations based on the dq stator reference frame
1640 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
theory ( = 0) in order to bring out the performance of the
SEIG under various loading conditions such as R and RL
loads. The dq-axis stator and rotor voltagecurrent equations
at no-load conditions can be expressed as shown in (1) at the
bottom of the page, and the excitation capacitor bank can be
written as in (2), where R
s
and L
s
are the stator resistance and
inductance; R
r
and L
r
are the rotor resistance and inductance;
L
m
is the magnetizing inductance; v
qs
, v
ds
and i
qs
, i
ds
are
the q- and d-axis components of the stator voltage and current,
respectively; i
qr
and i
dr
are the q- and d-axis components of the
rotor current; p is the differential operator; i
cq
and i
cd
are the
capacitor currents along the direct and quadrature axes;
r
is
the electrical rotor speed; is the speed of the reference frame;
and C is the value of capacitance
_
i
cq
i
cd
_
=C
_
p
p
_ _
v
qs
v
ds
_
(2)
p
_
i
lq
i
ld
_
=L
1
l
_
v
qs
v
ds
_
L
1
l
R
_
i
lq
i
ld
_
. (3)
The voltage and current equations of the machine under R and
RL loads incorporate (3), where i
lq
and i
ld
are the load currents
in q- and d-axis representations and R and L
l
are the resistance
and inductance of the load.
Saturation characteristics of the machines were measured at
their rated frequency and incorporated in the aforementioned
modeling by tting it with an arctangent continuous function as
given in [22] and shown in
X
m
= (arctan(i
m
) +) /i
m
. (4)
The coefcient is employed to make the estimated mag-
netizing reactance X
m
to match the measured reactance with
respect to the measured maximum magnetizing current I
m
.
The coefcients and determine the maximum value
and the initial value of the magnetization reactance, respec-
tively. The coefcient makes the ux linkages to be zero when
I
m
is equal to zero.
B. Validation of the Developed SEIG Model and
Illustration of the Need for VR
In order to validate the conventional two-axis model of
SEIGs developed in the previous part of this section and justify
the need for VR and FD in SEIGs, the performance of niche
7.5-hp CUSEIG and conventional 7.5-hp ALSEIG was elicited
through a developed computer program and an experimental
setup. The quantitative details obtained from these investi-
gations also facilitated in designing the developed wavelet-
based module. The machine equivalent circuit parameters,
TABLE I
INDUCTION GENERATOR DATA
Fig. 1. Experimental setup of the dc motor coupled SEIG system used in the
investigations.
resistances, and inductances determined from the standard no-
load, dc, and blocked-rotor tests are presented in Table I. The
output parameters of both the machines were calculated by em-
ploying the developed two-axis model and were experimentally
veried, for varying power factor loads. The measurements
were taken using a Tektronix 2024 digital storage oscilloscope
and a Fluke 434 power quality analyzer, after the machines
reached their rated speeds of 1 p.u., and the experimental setup
is as shown in Fig. 1.

v
qs
v
ds
0
0

R
s
+pL
s
L
s
pL
m
L
m
L
s
R
s
+pL
s
L
m
pL
m
pL
m
(
r
)L
m
R
r
+pL
r
(
r
)L
r
(
r
)L
m
pL
m
(
r
)L
r
R
r
+pL
r

i
qs
i
ds
i
qr
i
dr

(1)
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1641
Fig. 2. Calculated and measured results of ALSEIG under an RL load of
200 and 0.26 H after the machine reached a rated speed of 1 p.u. at
an excitation capacitance of 65 F. (a) Calculated phase voltage prole.
(b) Calculated stator current prole. (c) Measured phase voltage and stator
current proles. (d) Calculated and measured reactive power proles.
The calculated and measured terminal voltage, reactive
power, and stator current proles of both ALSEIG and CUSEIG
are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. The results shown
in Figs. 2 and 3 were elicited under a static RL load applied
across the stator terminals at around 62 and 82 s for ALSEIG
and CUSEIG, respectively, after their voltages had reached
steady state. From these gures, it can be observed that there
is a minimal variation in the measured and calculated results
obtained using the conventional two-axis model of SEIG. This
variation in reactive power waveforms can be explained as
elucidated in [23][25]. Results obtained using the developed
two-axis model can be improved to match the experimental
results by incorporating various ac conduction effects in the
rotors of both the machines. Also, a discrepancy in the vicinity
of 2.5% between the calculated and measured voltages can be
considered acceptable.
The voltage, current, and reactive power drop as seen from
Figs. 2 and 3 can be attributed to the distribution of reactive
Fig. 3. Calculated and measured results of CUSEIG under an RL load of
340 and 0. 44 H after the machine reached a rated speed of 1 p.u. at
an excitation capacitance of 39.6 F. (a) Calculated phase voltage prole.
(b) Calculated stator current prole. (c) Measured phase voltage and stator
current proles. (d) Calculated and measured reactive power proles.
power by the capacitors between the machine and the load.
Consequently, the reactive power available to the machine is
less than the open-circuit conditions. The terminal voltage drop
increases as the loading increases for both the machines. If the
connected load R is resistive, then the reactance X
c
of the
excitation capacitance C will dominate the parallel combina-
tion of the load R and X
c
as long as R is high. However,
as R approaches zero, the machine is loaded heavily and will
be driven to cut off. In case of an RL load, if the value of
the excitation capacitance C is small, then the load impedance
R +jX
l
will dominate the parallel combination of the load and
X
c
. The effect of X
c
will be diminished, driving the machine
to cut off. On the other hand, if R +jX
l
is very large, then X
c
dominates the parallel combination of the load and R +jX
l
.
If C is large, a further increase in C will result in reducing
the capacitive component in the circuit, driving the machine
to cut off.
The value of the magnetizing reactance plays an important
role for safe operation of the SEIG. Higher loading condition
1642 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
pushes the magnetizing reactance to the unsaturated region,
and hence, the voltage drop occurs. This is the reason why
the induction machine has the ability to protect itself from
overloading current. The study performed earlier calls the need
for VR in SEIGs.
C. Background Literature on VR Schemes in SEIGs
VR schemes can be largely classied into shunt com-
pensation and series compensation schemes. Each of the
aforementioned schemes can be further classied into clas-
sical, switching-device-based, and converter-based schemes.
Quispe et al. [26] and Haque [27] propose VRschemes employ-
ing switched controlled inductor and switched shunt capacitors,
respectively. Research studies performed in [28] and [29] use
the static reactive power compensator for VR. Converter-based
shunt compensation VR schemes like static synchronous com-
pensator based on voltage source converter and current-source-
converter-based shunt compensation are presented in [30][32].
Various converter-based, switching-device-based, and constant-
voltage-transformer-based series compensation schemes are
studied in [33][39].
As stated in [37], an electronic load controller is used as a VR
scheme in microhydro application; however, this method is not
economically viable for other applications involving inductive
loads and needing VR [34][37]. The static reactive power
compensators reported in [40] is understood to be a popular
VR scheme, but it pulls down its merits due to its expensive
sized capacitors and inductors and injection of harmonics into
the system. VR scheme based on a decoupled load controller is
designed for independent voltage and frequency regulation but
consists of a proportional integral (PI) controller whose design
tends to complicate the scheme. Moreover, the performance of
the PI controller greatly depends on the modeling of the system
and choice of proportional and integral gains; consequently,
variations such as resistance changes due to the temperature
may cause the controller to become inaccurate or unstable. In
addition, a step-down transformer is required to measure the
line voltage [31]. Understanding the need for VR from the
aforementioned investigations and keeping in mind the existing
expensive and complex controllers tried out, a simpler cost-
effective low-end dual-purpose wavelet-based VR scheme is
proposed in this paper.
A wavelet, which has energy concentrated in time, is well
suited to analyze the transient and nonstationary or time-
varying phenomena. Wavelet transform (WT) can be divided
into continuous WTs (CWTs) and discrete WTs (DWTs). A
DWT-based methodology is chosen here as it has excellent
signal compaction properties for a variety of real-world signals
while being computationally very efcient. The transient is
recognized within 1 ms, which allows the system to estimate
and respond to the changing load current, stator current, and
voltage instantly. In a DG, the central controller regulates
various power-generating devices simultaneously; therefore, it
involves multiple task management and complex calculations.
The developed wavelet-based transient detection unit is capable
of detecting load application independently, which signicantly
decreases the complexity of the controller.
Fig. 4. Short-circuit voltage and current proles of ALSEIG after fault
initiation at the stator terminals. (a) Measured stator voltage. (b) Measured load
current. (c) Measured stator current.
Since the proposed module is based on detection of changing
load and stator current transients, the VR scheme remains effec-
tive, regardless of changes in system parameters. Additionally,
any VR scheme previously discussed in this section can be
implemented using the same module, thus making it more
robust and exible than the PI controller. Current-acquisition
devices are generally integrated in a DWPG for monitoring and
control purposes; therefore, no additional sensors are needed
for the operation of this module, and hence, hardware cost is
decreased [41].
D. Exclusive Fault Analysis Across the
Stator Terminals of the SEIGs
Although short circuiting of an SEIG appears to instan-
taneously de-excite the stator winding, thus causing voltage
collapse across the stator terminals, there is a transient state
preceding the complete decay of voltage. Hence, a three-phase
short-circuit fault has been initiated across the stator terminals
of both the aluminum- and copper-rotor machines. Figs. 4 and 5
show the measured results that represent the transient behavior
of aluminum- and copper-rotor machines, respectively. In both
cases, the negative x-axis shows the prefault conditions. The
transients are observed on a Tektronix 2024 oscilloscope which
has a sampling rate of 2 Gsamples. Analyzing the aforemen-
tioned gures, the most observable phenomenon is the instant
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1643
Fig. 5. Short-circuit voltage and current proles of CUSEIG after fault
initiation at the stator terminals. (a) Measured stator voltage. (b) Measured load
current. (c) Measured stator current.
decay of voltage across the stator terminals on application of
the three-phase fault. Since the fault is symmetrical, we know
that it is sufcient to observe any one of the phasors during
the fault. Owing to the inductive nature of the machine, the
machine opposes the sudden change in current in the circuit,
but due to instant collapse of voltage, the current decays almost
completely in 0.07 s after the fault initiation. However, the
current does not completely decay until 0.1 s; hence, if the fault
is cleared within 0.1 s after its initiation, the prefault conditions
can be regained instantly. In case the fault is not cleared within
the stipulated time, the SEIG has to re-excite as it has lost its
residual magnetism. The re-excitation time does not equal the
previous no-load excitation time of the SEIG because of the
effects of fault on the residual magnetism of the SEIG which
play a pivotal role in the excitation time [42], [43].
The nature of the transients depends on factors such as
saturation level, excitation capacitances, discharge times, rotor
damping, instant of fault initiation, etc., in the system. As seen
in Figs. 4 and 5, although the decay time of the current in both
ALSEIG and CUSEIG appears to be more or less the same, the
nature of transients is observed to be different. Since the copper-
rotor machine has a steeper saturation curve than its aluminum
counterpart, decay of current takes relatively lesser time in the
copper-rotor machine.
E. Background Literature on FD Schemes in SEIGs
Conventional bus-bar fortication through relays is based
on phasor calculation methods and comparison of the phasor
against encoded settings. The accuracy of such methods abates
considerably when the following occurs: 1) The fault conditions
and system operating conditions differ from the predetermined
settings [44][48], and 2) the quantity of elements on the power
line increases, leading to complex power calculations. Fuzzy-
knowledge and articial-neural-network-based techniques for
FD reported in the literature [49][52] require the past system
data and expert knowledge of the eld engineers and, hence,
are system dependent. Traveling-wave-theory-based fault clas-
sication schemes were also employed [53] but are rather
computationally intensive. Since a fault is always associated
with high-frequency transients, WT has recently emerged as
a powerful tool for extracting vital information from voltage
and current signals and has been successfully applied to various
power system problems [54][57].
Selecting the lter and threshold wisely, it is possible to
integrate the VR function and FD function in the same unit
which is applicable for different operating conditions and sys-
tem parameters. FD unit is separate from the main controller
and other components of the entire system; hence, it will neither
be inuenced by malfunction of any other units nor increase
the computation time of the main controller. It improves the
safety and reliability while maintaining fast response. The
introduced DWT-based FD method cannot only detect fault but
also collect postfault data, therefore allowing engineers to have
certain understanding on what happens to the system before
they actually do tests. Fig. 6 shows the overall block diagram
of the developed twofold wavelet-based module integration to
the SEIG system used in this paper.
III. DESIGN AND TESTING OF WAVELET-BASED
MODULE FOR FD AND VR
A. Filtering and Sampling Unit
Current transformers connected to the three-phase power line
are used to acquire instantaneous current amplitude which is
later fed to the transient detection unit as a voltage signal.
Fig. 7 shows the waveforms captured through a Tektronix
digital oscilloscope during load application and fault initiation.
Extensive studies on the current pattern of the system show
that transients at the range of 410 kHz are dominant during
load perturbation, stator current variation, and fault inception
[56], [58], [59]. Hence, this range of frequency contains a lot of
information required to capture the transients. Thus, a second-
order multiple feedback (MFB) bandpass lter, as shown in
Fig. 8, is designed to remove unnecessary information from the
signal and retain the high-frequency information. The transfer
function of the MFB bandpass circuit is shown in
A(s) =

R
2
R
3
R
1
+R
3
C
m
s
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
1
+R
3
C
2

2
m
s
2
+
2R
2
R
3
R
1
+R
3
C
m
s + 1
(5)
where
m
is the midangular frequency of the lter.
1644 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
Fig. 6. Overall block diagram of the developed twofold wavelet-based module integration to the SEIG system used in this paper.
Fig. 7. Load application and short-circuit proles obtained through 1000 : 1
turn ratio current transformer. (a) Stator current and load current proles.
(b) Three-phase short-circuit prole.
Fig. 8. Second-order MFB bandpass lter.
The ltered signal is now sampled according to Shannons
theorem, which states that an -band-limited function can be
reconstructed completely from its values
(f(kT)|k Z) , T :=

(6)
sampled at the discrete points kT. All the harmonic components
occurring in f have a period length 2/. Thus, by requiring
Fig. 9. Measured high-frequency waveforms obtained as output voltages of
the bandpass lter stage during load application and fault initiation. (a) Load
application. (b) Three-phase short-circuit fault initiation.
T := /, one makes sure that any pure oscillation possible
present in f would be sampled at least twice per period.
Fig. 9 shows the sampled data obtained out of the MFB
lter as high-frequency waveforms during load application and
fault initiation. As seen from Fig. 9(a), the blue spike shows
the measured high-frequency transient waveform during load
application. It can also be observed that the changes in the load
and stator currents are indecipherable due to the high sampling
rate used in the measurement. Fig. 9(b) shows the short-circuit
high-frequency transients which change in a smaller time inter-
val than the waveforms in Fig. 7(b). The sampling frequency,
therefore, is chosen as 20 kHz for this paper [60].
B. Wavelet Decomposition Unit
The ltered and sampled data are passed through a discrete
wavelet decomposition block. The input signal is reltered to
differentiate various other high-frequency details in the system
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1645
and capture the information just required for VR and FD
through conditional threshold selection. This difference in the
input and output of this block is illustrated in Section III
through measured and calculated results.
1) Introduction to Wavelet Analysis: A wavelet is a mathe-
matical function used to divide a given function or continuous-
time signal into different scale components, assigning a
frequency range to each scale component. Wavelets not only
dissect signals into their component frequencies but also vary
the scale at which the component frequencies are analyzed.
A WT is the representation of a function by wavelets. The
wavelets are scaled and translated as copies (known as daugh-
ter wavelets) of a nite-length or fast-decaying oscillating
waveform (known as the mother wavelet) [61][64]. Un-
like the Fourier transform, WT does not need a single set of
basis function [63], [64]. Instead, WTs have an innite set
of possible basis functions. Thus, wavelet analysis provides
immediate access to information that can be obscured by
other timefrequency methods such as the Fourier analysis.
The proposed logic detects the transients at high speed with
relatively good accuracy which ts the purpose. The wavelet
does not depend on in-depth history like articial intelligence
techniques or expert knowledge which require large amount of
system data history for neural-network training or fuzzy rule
base formulation.
2) Implementation of the Wavelet Decomposition Unit: In
CWTs, we consider the family

a,b
(t) =
1

_
t b
a
_
(7)
where a is the scale factor, b denotes the shift factor, and

a,b
(t) is dened as the mother wavelet [62], [63]. To restrict
a and b to discrete values only, we choose a = a
(m/2)
0
and
b = nb
0
a
m
0
[61], where m and n range over Z and a
0
> 1 and
b
0
> 0 are xed; this corresponds to

m,n
(t) =a

m
2
0

_
t nb
0
a
m
a
m
0
_
= a

m
2

_
a
m
0
t nb
0
_
(8)
x(t) =

x,
m,n
,
m,n
(t). (9)
The discrete subset of the half-plane consists of all the
points (a
m
, na
m
b) with integers m and n belonging to a set
of integers. The corresponding mother wavelet is given in (8)
DWT(m, n) = 2

m
2

x(n)
_
t n2
m
2
m
_
. (10)
A sufcient condition for the reconstruction of any signal x
of nite energy is given by (9).
m,n
is the discrete mother
wavelet, respectively. The DWT is dened in (10). The discrete
wavelet is an orthonormal transform; the nth wavelet coefcient
W
n
is associated with a particular scale and with a particular
set of times. The DWT of a signal x[n] is dened as its inner
product with a family of functions
j,k
(t) and
j,k
(t) [61] as
shown hereinafter

j,k
(t) = 2
j/2
(2
j
t k)

j,k
(t) = 2
j/2
(2
j
t k)
_
. (11)
Fig. 10. n-level asymmetric lter bank analysis.
The functions (t) and (t) are scaling and wavelet functions,
respectively, which are discretized at level j (j = 1, 2 . . . , n)
and at translation k (k = 1, 2 . . . , t). For the implementation
of the DWT as shown in Fig. 10, only the coefcients of two
half-band lter, i.e., a low-pass h(k) and a high-pass g(k) =
(1)
k
h(1 k) lter, are required, which satisfy the con-
ditions in

j+1,0
(t) =

k
h[k]
j,k

j+1,0
(t) =

k
g[k]
j,k

. (12)
Hence, the corresponding DWT is as shown in
A
j+1,n
=

k
A
j,k
h
j
[k 2n]
D
j+1,n
=

k
A
j,k
g
j
[k 2n]

. (13)
A wavelet lter {h
l
: 0, 1, . . . , L 1} for an innite se-
quence with at most L nonzero values must satisfy the follow-
ing three basic properties [63]:
L1

l=0
h
l
= 0;
L1

l=0
h
2
l
= 1;
L1

l=0
h
l
h
l+2n
=

l=
h
l
h
l+2n
= 0;

(14)
for all the nonzero value n.
By imposing an appealing set of regularity conditions,
Daubechies (Db) came up with a useful class of wavelet lters;
all of which yield a DWT in accordance with the notion of dif-
ference of adjacent averages. Db wavelet is deemed most used
mother wavelet in power system studies due to its orthogonal
property, which is potent for localization and classication of
disturbances. In general, the Db wavelets are chosen to have the
highest number A of vanishing moments (this does not imply
the best smoothness), for a given support width N = 2A, and
among the 2A 1 possible solutions, the one is chosen whose
scaling lter has external phase [66].
In comparison to other orthogonal wavelets like Haar and
symlet, Db gives higher yield in terms of computation complex-
ity and lter response [67]. Haar wavelet is memory efcient
1646 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
Fig. 11. Scaling and wavelet functions of Db6, respectively. (a) Scaling
function. (b) Wavelet function.
and exactly reversible without edge effects [68]. However, as
the Haar window is only two element wide, any big change
between an even and an odd value is not reected in the
high-frequency coefcients. Thus, high-frequency change is not
detected by such lter. Symlet wavelet is more symmetrical
than the Db but is still not exactly symmetric.
Study shows that symlet wavelet takes roughly ve times
the computational time when compared with the computational
time of Db [69], thus rendering it useless for discrete data
ow with high frequency. Constraints such as computation
time, localization efciency, and classication are considered
during the selection of appropriate Db wavelet. Db orthogonal
wavelets Db2Db20 (even index number only) are commonly
used. The differences in lters mainly arise due to the length
of the lters that dene the wavelet and scaling functions.
A wavelet becomes smoother with the increase in coefcient
numbers. The beginning of the event, however, presented more
severe transition than the end of the event. This fact was only
observed in Db2 and Db6 wavelets that selected the beginning
and the end of the disturbance according to the value of the
wavelet coefcients. The wavelet coefcients relating to the
beginning of the event (less rapid transition) presented absolute
value greater than the wavelet coefcients of the end of the
event. Therefore, Db2 and Db6 wavelets were more selec-
tive [70], where, in comparison, Db6 showed proportionate
response at the beginning and end of the event. Thus, for the
purpose of all-round performance, Db6 was selected for this
study. Also, the use of DB6 wavelets allows less hardware
requirement as the nite-impulse-response (FIR) lter buffer
size is directly proportional to the order. The scaling and
wavelet functions of Db6 are as shown in Fig. 11.
The scaling function (t) and wavelet functions (t) are
discretized at level j. Depending on the level of details that
the system is tracking, the level of processing varies. Here,
considering both the computation complexity for real-time
processing and effectiveness of the lter for VR and FD, level 1
Fig. 12. FIR lter for wavelet decomposition.
TABLE II
HIGH-PASS FIR COEFFICIENTS
lter was used to obtain high-frequency details for the analysis.
Fig. 12 shows the implementation of Db 6 decomposition 11th-
order FIR high-pass lter; the high-frequency nite-impulse
coefcients of which are shown in Table II. High-frequency
details were checked for a specied threshold which produced
a high offset value when detected and digital low otherwise.
Digital normalized signal is obtained for the high-frequency
components to isolate the dominant details in order to analyze
the signal. This empirical threshold and offset method removes
undesirable transients caused by noise before moving the l-
tered data to the algorithm. High-frequency components were
then passed through a threshold tracker to identify the transient
zone. A digital output is then produced to provide a signal to
the wavelet decomposition unit.
C. Comparator and Decider Unit
Extensive theoretical and experimental investigations were
performed to obtain the thresholds for FD and VR under differ-
ent loading conditions, excitation capacitances, and speeds of
the rotor, for both ALSEIG and CUSEIG. According to [71],
the window of usable data is limited to 3 ms due to the current
transformer (CT) saturation during subtransient and transient
currents. The data obtained during this span of 3 ms were
collected for posttransient analysis along with the peak values
for each phase.
The high-frequency details of all three phases collected dur-
ing VR and FD, namely, HF
a
, HF
b
, and HF
c
, obtained after
wavelet decomposition, are continuously checked for signals
above threshold values (V R
Th
and FD
Th
) for each phase,
which is set according to the prior knowledge of system be-
havior and the empirical values. Hereafter, this block would
activate the respective VR block or FD block on conditional
threshold comparison through a control signal to perform VR
or FD. Shown in Fig. 13 is the descriptive illustration of the
comparator and decider block.
D. Hardware Development and Testing VR and FD
The VR block can have any type of control schemes
as stated in Section II. However, in order to validate this
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1647
Fig. 13. Comparator and decider unit.
wavelet-based transient detection scheme, a switched capacitor
scheme for VR has been illustrated in this paper. The proposed
VR scheme is applicable to almost any system as it is based
on the universal principle of change of capacitance to achieve
VR. The authors would like to reiterate that the system is
proposed only as a validation scheme for the modules transient
detection capabilities. Hence, a simple power switch has been
used to enable switching of the capacitors. This scheme can be
extended to static reactive power compensators, hybrid reactive
power compensators, thyristor switched capacitor and thyristor
controlled reactor, and other exible AC transmission systems.
controllers that enable continuous change of capacitance in-
stead of switching them in steps. However, this can be done
at the cost of control mechanisms for monitoring ring angle
delay.
The scheme proposed involves a low-power gate drive signal
from the 8-b master controller of the wavelet module which
triggers the power switch. The master unit of the wavelet is
capable of sending digital/analog output used for selecting
different values of capacitances to achieve different levels of
VR at different loads. The compensation capacitance value
determines the bit pattern of the masters output. The 5-V
gate trigger is enough to drive a power switch. In case of
hard-driven power switches, an amplier may be employed to
the system after a V I converter or an operational amplier
(op-amp) based on the requirement of a drive voltage or current.
The principle behind estimating the capacitance is the change in
reactive power requirement of the system calculated via current
and voltage monitoring done in the module as a part of transient
detection. The system can also be extended into a closed loop
by getting an error voltage which is used by comparing it with
a reference voltage.
The FD block receives the FD signal from the C&D block.
After FD, the digital signal Peripheral Interface Controller
(dsPIC) store the postfault data for 3 ms to ensure the oc-
currence of a permanent fault. The three dsPICs used for
transient detection are controlled by the master microcontroller
to regulate the overall system. At the same instant, a communi-
cation signal will be transmitted to the operator on successful
detection of the fault and collection of data. This is replicated
in this research through lighting a LED in each phase by a
signal emitted by the master controller. Also, the control signal
will be triggered to disconnect the system from the load, thus
protecting the entire system and ensuring safe operation.
The aforementioned scheme is implemented and tested
on a low-end embedded system. This system consists of
three dsPIC33F 16-b digital signal controllers (DSCs), with
40-MIPS capability and up to 80-MHz speed with a phase-
Fig. 14. Experimental results for VR. (a) Second-order MFB bandpass lter
output for load applied at negative half cycle of stator current signal. (b) Wavelet
decomposition output corresponding to (a). (c) Second-order MFB bandpass
lter output for load applied at positive half cycle of stator current signal.
(d) Wavelet decomposition output corresponding to (c).
locked loop. These chips have their own digital signal proces-
sor engine capable of conducting single-cycle multiplication
and accumulation. In order to ensure a stable system, the
transient detection unit traces stability for 250 consecutive
samples. The prototype was tested for VR where a static load
was applied across the stator terminals of the ALSEIG at
periodic intervals in order to test the robustness of module
under different conditions, initial excitation capacitances, and
different phase angles of stator current. Fig. 14 shows that
the trigger was applied at different phase angles, i.e., negative
and positive half cycles, and the module was efcient enough
to identify the transient and capture high-frequency transient
information at all instances. Although inherent system noise
is always present in any circuit, culminated by CT saturation
1648 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 60, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
Fig. 15. Calculated results for VR. (a) Second-order MFB bandpass l-
ter output for load applied at positive half cycle of stator current signal.
(b) Corresponding wavelet decomposition output.
and low-voltage processing circuit, the circuit employs NE5532
dual low-noise op-amps, which feature very low noise, high-
output-drive capability, high unity gain, and low distortion, and
the proposed scheme employs empirical threshold and offset
method to remove undesirable transients caused by noise before
moving the ltered data to the algorithm. Also, the dsPIC
chosen has a signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratio of 69.5 dB,
which means that the ratio between the amplitude of the original
signal and noise is more than 1000. Meanwhile, the 12-b analog
to digital converter capability of the microcontroller allows
accurate low-voltage data collection [72]. Fig. 14(a) and (c)
shows the experimental output data of the bandpass lter which
are sampled and stored in the dsPIC33F DSC. Corresponding
high-frequency details obtained from experiments are shown in
Fig. 14(b) and (d).
The entire VR test process explained earlier was also simu-
lated using a developed computer programfor the ALSEIG, and
the corresponding calculated results are shown in Fig. 15. The
transient or the high-frequency spike at 0.03 s is remarkably
distinguishable which enables to choose a specic threshold for
VR. Going a step further to show the VR achieved through this
module, ALSEIG was loaded at around 29 s after it reached
its steady state. The module detected the transient during load
application and enabled the power switch through the control
signal to switch the compensating capacitances and sustain the
original voltage.
The amount of capacitance needed to be switched was also
shown on the liquid crystal display used in the experimental
setup. Fig. 16 shows the measured results obtained from a
Fluke power quality analyzer, and the corresponding calculated
results are shown in Fig. 17. We can see from the experimental
results that a small transient is seen around 30 s during the
application of load, and then, the voltage stabilizes back to
its original value. Load was switched off at around 44 s, and
we see that the voltage increases for a few milliseconds and
decreases back to its pretransient level due to the switching of
new capacitance.
Fig. 16. Measured results for VR using switched capacitor scheme. (a) Stator
voltage and current proles on load application and removal. (b) Corresponding
load current prole.
Fig. 17. Calculated results for VR using switched capacitor scheme. (a) Stator
voltage and current proles on load application and removal. (b) Corresponding
load current prole.
Similarly, a three-phase short circuit was initiated at 0.05 s
across the stator terminals of the aluminum rotor machine with
an excitation capacitance of 65 F and a rotor speed of 1 p.u.,
and the transients obtained on all three phases from the stored
data in the master controller are shown in Fig. 18. The transients
were detected within 3 ms after the initiation.
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1649
Fig. 18. Experimental results for short-circuit fault initiation. (a) Second-
order MFB bandpass lter output for three-phase fault initiation. (b) Corre-
sponding wavelet decomposition unit output.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has elucidated issues such as VR and FD in
DWPG and conrmed the need for a robust and efcient
scheme to regulate the voltage and detect faults across the
power line. The research ndings presented in this paper can
be summarized as follows.
1) They illustrate the need for FD and VR in SEIGs through
investigations performed on two industrial 7.5-hp induc-
tion machines.
2) A dual-purpose wavelet-based transient detection module
is developed to perform FD and VR through conditional
threshold selection.
3) Robustness of the module was illustrated through calcu-
lated and experimental results during load application and
fault initiation.
Future work could be performed toward the development of
a novel VR scheme incorporating the wavelet-based module
integrated to a static synchronous compensator.
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K. Lakshmi Varaha Iyer (S10) received the
B.Tech. degree in electronics and communication
engineering from Shanmugha Arts Science Technol-
ogy and Research Academy University, Thanjavur,
India, in 2009 and the M.A.Sc. degree in electrical
and computer engineering from the University of
Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada, in 2011.
He is currently a Research Associate with the Cen-
tre for Hybrid Automotive Research and Green En-
ergy, University of Windsor. His research presently
focuses on the design and control of electric ma-
chines, condition monitoring, and grid integration of renewable energy systems.
Xiaomin Lu (S11) received the B.S. degree in en-
gineering from Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou,
China, in July 2010. She is currently working toward
the M.A.Sc. degree at the University of Windsor,
Windsor, ON, Canada.
Her research areas include development of
permanent-magnet synchronous machine drive and
condition monitoring for electric vehicle drivetrain
system and power system applications.
IYER et al.: TWOFOLD DAUBECHIES-WAVELET-BASED MODULE FOR FD AND VR IN SEIGs FOR DWPG 1651
Yasir Usama received the B.S. degree in applied
sciences from the University of Windsor, Windsor,
ON, Canada, in September 2009.
He was with Hydro One, Toronto, ON; Brighton
Beach Power Plant; and Canadian Salt Ojibway
Mine, Windsor. He is currently with SNCLavalin,
Toronto. He has been conducting research on the
development of embedded-technology-based power
system fault analysis. His research interest includes
articial intelligence implementation in wireless
communications and power systems.
Vamsi Ramakrishnan received the B.Tech. de-
gree in electrical and electronics engineering from
Shanmugha Arts Science Technology and Research
Academy University, Thanjavur, India in 2011.
He is currently working as a hybrid drivetrain
engineer at Robert Bosch Engineering, Coimbatore,
India. His research interests include modeling and
analysis of electric machines for wind power and
hybrid electric vehicle applications.
Narayan C. Kar (S95M00SM07) received the
B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technol-
ogy, Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 1992 and the M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Kitami
Institute of Technology, Kitami, Japan, in 1997 and
2000, respectively.
He is an Associate Professor with the Electrical
and Computer Engineering Department, University
of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada, where he holds
the Canada Research Chair position in hybrid drive-
train systems. His research presently focuses on the analysis, design, and
control of permanent-magnet synchronous, induction, and switched reluctance
machines for hybrid electric vehicle and wind power applications, testing and
performance analysis of batteries, and development of optimization techniques
for hybrid energy management system.