Specifications of Digital Meters

Display Digits and Counts

Digits 3 1/2 3 3/4 4 1/2 4 3/4 4 4/5

Counts 2000 4000 20000 40000 50000

Specifications of Digital Meters The number of counts usually applies to the DC volts function. Fewer counts may be displayed on the same instrument for certain other functions. For instance, a 40000 count DMM may be limited to 4000 counts when measuring capacitance.

Accuracy represents the uncertainty of a given measurement. Accuracy is often expressed as:

(% Reading) + Offset or (% Reading) + (% Range) or (ppm of reading + ppm of range)

Problem:
Digital multimeter set to the 10 V range is expecting a 7 V signal. The accuracy specifications is (20 ppm of reading + 6 ppm of range). Determine accuracy of the digital multimeter under these conditions.

Solution
Accuracy = (ppm of reading + ppm of range) = (20 ppm of 7 V + 6 ppm of 10 V) = ((7 V(20/1,000,000) + (10 V(6/1,000,000)) = 200 V

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest change in an input signal that produces a change in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed in terms of bits, digits, or absolute units, which can be related to each other. Bits The resolution of general-purpose digitizers are expressed in bits. A 12-bit ADC can convert an analog input signal into 212 (4,096) distinct values. Digits Bits can be translated into digits of resolution: Digits of resolution = log10 (Number of LSB) A digital multimeter with a 12-bit ADC has a resolution of: log10 (4,096) = 3.61 digits

Resolution
Absolute Units The weight of a count, or the step size, is called the absolute unit of resolution. Absolute unit of resolution = total span/counts Absolute Units Resolution can be converted into Digits of resolution. Digits of resolution = log10 (total span/absolute unit of resolution)

Problem: A digital multimeter set to the 10 V range (20 V total span) with 200,000 available counts. Find out its absolute unit of resolution and digits of resolution. Solution: Absolute unit of resolution = 20.0 V/200,000 = 100 V The readout of this digital multimeter would display six digits. A change of the last digit would indicate a change of 100 V of the input signal. Digits of resolution = log10 (20.0 V / 100 x 10-6 V) Digits of resolution = 5.3 This digital multimeter could be called a 5 digit digital multimeter.

Sensitivity This is the smallest change of the measured signal that can be detected. It depends on both resolution and the lowest measurement range of the instrument. For example, the sensitivity of a 5-1/2-digit DMM on the 200mV range is 1V. (On a 200mV display reading 200,000, the last zero is the one microvolt digit.)

Speed and Settling Time Every meter has a settling time to give reading within specified error. The reading rates or measurement speeds of instruments are independent of the settling times. For high resolution meters, it may be necessary to allow time for input settling in order to achieve full rated accuracy. Average / True RMS Most DMMs give accurate RMS readings if the ac signal is a pure sine wave. They measure the average of the absolute value of AC signal and are calibrated to the RMS value for a sine wave. Quality DMMs display the true RMS (root mean square) value of input waveforms.

Waveform

Crest Factor1

Form Factor2

Actual Pk-Pk

Actual Peak

Actual RMS

TRMS AC+DC

TRMS AC Only 0 0.707 0.577 1.000 0.707

Avg Readi ng 0 0.707 0.555 1.111 0.707

Error For Avg.

DC Sine Triangle Square Sine+1 VDC Pulse* (25%) Pulse* (12.5%) Pulse* (6.25%)

n/a 1.414 1.732 1.000 2.829

n/a 1.110 1.155 1.000 1.731

n/a 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000

n/a 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.000

1.000 0.707 0.577 1.000 1.224

1.000 0.707 0.577 1.000 1.224

0% 0% -3.8% +11.1% -42.2%

2.000

1.202

1.000

1.000

0.500

0.500

0.433

0.416

-3.8%

2.833

1.453

1.000

1.000

0.353

0.353

0.331

0.243

-26.5%

4.000

1.923

1.000

1.000

0.250

0.250

0.242

0.130

-46.2%

*Positive going pulse between 0 and 1Volt, 1Ratio of peak to RMS, 2Ratio of RMS to average

Many TRMS DMMs are not capable of measuring the TRMS value of the combined AC+DC and errors may result if there is any DC superimposed on the AC voltage. A few DMMs offer the ability to select average, AC TRMS, or AC+DC TRMS thus allowing the user to choose the optimum mode for the desired measurement. True RMS conversion is normally performed by an expensive dedicated chip.

Input X2 Mean

RMS of Input

RMS Conversion Block Diagram

Input Log Amp. X2 Antilog

Averaging Filter

Log

Amp. X 0.5

Antilog

RMS of Input

One implementation approach of RMS Conversion

Crest Factor Crest factor is defined as the ratio of the peak or "crest" voltage to the RMS voltage. Crest factor should be considered when making AC voltage measurements of non-sinusoidal waveforms. This specification is important because it indicates the maximum peak value of an arbitrary waveform that the DMM can handle without overloading. The crest factor also affects the accuracy of the AC measurement. For example, given a certain DMM with an AC accuracy of 0.03% (this is always specified for sine waves), and has an additional error of 0.2% for crest factors between 1.414 and 5, then the total accuracy for measuring a triangular wave (crest factor = 1.73) is 0.03% + 0.2% = 0.23%.

Normal-Mode Rejection Ratio (NMRR) It describes the ability of the instrument to reject a normal (differential) signal, and it is given in dB by the following equation: NMRR = 20 log (Vmeasured / Vin) where Vin is voltage applied differentially to the instrument inputs, and Vmeasured is the value indicated by the DMM. The systems that do not have filters, the NMRR is 0 dB. This specification is useful only when making DC measurements.

Problem: 1 mV DC is measured by a DMM that specifies a NMRR of 130 dB at 50 Hz. and a normalmode interference (noise) of 100 mVrms.Find out the resulting measurement error. Solution:

Measurement Error = 10(-130/20) x 100 mV = 31.6 nV

which is 0.003 percent of the measured signal instead of the 10,000 percent error that the 100 mV interference implies.

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) It is a measure of the capability of an instrument to reject a signal that is common to both input leads.

The CMRR is defined by the following equation: CMRR = 20 log (Differential Gain / Common Mode Gain)

CMRR:
This specification is very important because it indicates how much of the common-mode signal will affect your measurement. CMRR is also frequency dependent. An equivalent equation to represent CMRR is as follows: CMRR = 20 log(Vinmeasured / VC) where Vinmeasured is the indicated value for an applied common-mode voltage VC.

Effective Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (ECMRR)

It is the sum of CMRR and NMRR at a given frequency. It is only valid for DC measurements. This specification is mostly useful at the power line frequencies, where most of the noise resides.

Zero or Offset All DC measurements are affected by residual offsets. Typically, offsets would be in mV, mA or m. It is very important that the effects of offsets are removed from the measurement, otherwise they introduce a fixed error (in terms of volts, amps or ohms) throughout the measurement range.

Frequency Response Frequency response is interpreted as the 3dB point A more meaningful measure of response is flatness. Flatness is a measure of the deviation from an assumed flat response over specific frequency bands and may be specified in ppm or %. Depending on the RMS conversion technique used, a DMMs AC response can suffer from low frequency problems as well as high frequency roll-off.

Input Resistance The parameter describes loading effect of the DMM on the test circuit. For DC voltage up to 20 V, the input resistance may be greater than 1012 . For AC voltage, the resistance is usually be lower - typically 1M in parallel with 150 pF capacitor. At high frequencies the input impedance reduces. Input Frequency 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz Input Resistance 1 M. 850 k. 160 k. 16 k.

Input Bias Current Sensitive DMM design seeks to minimize leakage current by component selection and careful circuit design. A small current of 10 pA flowing in a 1M resistance develops a voltage of 10 mV. A modern sensitive DMM is expected to have an input bias current of <50 pA.

Auto ranging

DMMs provide auto ranging facility. Input voltage is compared with the full scale of the next lower range. If the present reading is less than the full scale of the next lower range, the attenuation is reduced. Otherwise attenuation is increased.

Four-Wire Remote Sensing To measure a resistance with DMM, only two test leads are used. DMM outputs (sources) constant current through the output terminals, which flows through the unknown resistance, RU. The voltage across same two terminals is then sensed (measured) by the meter and reading displayed in ohms.
Rlead Voltage measuring circuit of DMM I=IO I=IO Rlead I=IO RU

IO

Two Wire Resistance Measurement

Rlead Voltage measuring circuit of DMM I=IO I=IO Rlead I=IO RU

IO

Neglecting DMM input resistance is normally very large. The measured voltage is given by the following equation. Vmeasured = I x ( RU + 2Rlead) Therefore, Rmeasured = (Vmeasured / I) = ( RU + 2Rlead) Error in measurement is 2Rlead.

4-Wire Remote Sensing

Source Voltage measuring circuit of DMM IO Source Sense Sense I=IO Rlead Rlead I=IO Rlead I=IO Rlead

I=0 I=0

RU

No current flows through the sense leads. DMM measures the voltage developed across the unknown resistor only. Therefore, Rmeasured = RU = Vmeasured / IO This more accurate method is recommended for measuring resistance below 100 ohms.

Environmental Specifications The environmental concerns for DMMs are 1. Temperature 2. Humidity 3. Altitude 4. Shock 5. Vibration.

Safety Ratings New DMMs must conform to an IEC 1010-1 standard. (International Electrotechnical Commission)

Additional Measurement Features

In addition to the basic voltage, current, and resistance measurement capabilities, modern DMMs may have many more functions. The common functions are: Autoranging, True rms AC voltage, Frequency, Capacitance, Diode and Continuity checking, Max/Min/Avg reading, Temperature via both thermocouples and resistance temperature devices (RTDs) and Interfacing ports Less common are readings in decibels, displaying the difference between two channels, data-logging, and power and LCR bridge measurements.

Steps in Selecting a DMM

Analyze the Device Under Test
What variables are to be tested?

Analyze the Test Environment

What are the hardware and software interface issues?

What is the range of signal values?

What are the noise problems?

What are the accuracy, resolution and sensitivity requirements?

What are throughput requirements?

the

What special DUT characteristics should be considered?

What many DUTs are to be tested?

What special features are necessary?

How cost effective is the solution?