Cognitive and Motivational Effects of Computer-based Simulations on the Learning of the Human Respiratory System: A Study from the

Dual Coding Perspective

Toh Seong Chong, Ph. D Center for Instructional Technology and Multimedia University of Science Malaysia e-mail: tohsc@usm.my

paper presented at the Regional Symposium of Science and Technology Education, Penang, Malaysia March 30 April, 2000 at Copthorne Orchid Hotel, Tg. Bungah. Organized by the Association for Science and Mathematics Education Penang (ASMEP), USM and IOSTE

Abstract
This study examined the cognitive and motivational effects of two multimedia presentation modes on factual information, concept learning and problem-solving performance of science learners. 156 Form One students from six Malaysian schools interacted with a series of

multimedia presentations, presented in the form of animated graphics and text coupled with redundant audio narration of the content presented in two different modes. The first mode was a concurrent mode, in which animated graphics and textual information were presented concurrently with redundant audio narration. In the second consecutive mode, textual

information and redundant audio narration were first presented followed by animated graphics. The instructional materials comprised of two multimedia presentation courseware in CD-ROMs, entitled "The Human Respiratory System" and presented in two presentation modes. The independent variables were the two modes of instructional presentation. The moderator

variables were the spatial abilities, the verbal abilities, the cognitive styles and the trait anxiety

levels of the students. The dependent variable was the learning gain of the learners in the category of factual information, concept learning and problem solving. At the same time, reported motivational effects of the two presentation modes were examined. Students who received the concurrent mode of multimedia presentation obtained a higher gain score compared to students who received the consecutive mode. Students with high spatial ability obtained a higher gain score compared to students with low spatial ability in both the treatment groups. No significant differences were found in gain score between high and low verbal ability students in both the treatment groups. Field independent students obtained higher significant gain score compared to field dependant students. There was also significant difference in learning gain score amongst the low, medium and high trait-anxiety students in both the presentation modes with medium anxiety students obtaining the highest gain score. The conclusion of this study was supportive of the positive value of the contiguity effect in science learning.

The field of instructional technology has witnessed tremendous growth in

research and development of interactive multimedia learning environment especially computer-based environments (Jonassen, 1991, Rieber, 1996). Researchers and developers are endeavouring to find innovative ways to exploit the interactive potential of the learning environments afforded by computers while remaining consistent with psychological and philosophical beliefs about how people are motivated to learn (Abdul Rahim, 1996; Hannafin, 1992). However, in spite of advances in educational technology, the field of educational psychology lacks a corresponding research-based theory on how to design computer-based instruction using words and pictures (Mayer & Sims, 1994). In the past decade, there has been a growing number of research studies showing that students of all ages show a wide spectrum of misconceptions regarding science or other areas of knowledge. Examples of those that are esoteric include concepts such as human respiration, photosynthesis, gene, mutation, species, nutrition and excretion (Navok, 1976). Given the research concerns discussed in the preceding sections, the purpose of this study was to investigate the cognitive and motivational effects of different modes of multimedia presentation on the topic entitled The Human Respiratory System, on Malaysian students of different aptitudes. In particular, the goal of the present study was to identify the role of the students spatial and verbal ability in learning from words and pictures in a multimedia environment. This study also attempted to find out how the cognitive styles and anxiety levels of learners affect their learning in a multimedia environment. Moreover, the relation between motivational effects of different presentation modes is a matter of concern in this research. Research Questions
2

The research questions in this study were divided into two parts, namely the cognitive study and the motivational study. For the cognitive study, the research questions were:(1) Was there a difference in learning gain (as measured by posttest score minus pretest score) between the two multimedia presentation modes (i.e. animated graphics and textual information concurrently with redundant audio narration (concurrent mode, CONCM) and textual information and redundant audio narration followed consecutively by animated graphics (consecutive mode, CONSM) ? Did students who exhibited different verbal and spatial abilities have different gain scores when exposed to these two multimedia presentation modes? What were the interaction effects of the students verbal and spatial abilities with the treatment provided, related to the gain score? Did students who exhibited different cognitive styles and trait anxiety levels have different gain scores when exposed to these two multimedia presentation modes? What were the interaction effects of the students cognitive styles and anxiety levels with the treatment provided, related to the gain score?

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

In the second part of the study, focusing on the motivational effect, the research question was:(1) Was there a difference in motivational score (as measured using the Keller Instructional Materials Motivation Survey, IMMS) between the two multimedia presentation modes?

Conceptual framework The theoretical underpinnings of this research were based on the following theories and models. They were the information processing model (Gagn , Briggs & Wager, 1992), the propostional representation model as expounded by Pylyshyn (1981), and the model of motivation (Keller, 1983). The first underlying theory base for this prescriptive model for the design of multimedia presentation came from "the Model of Information Processing Theory of Learning and Memory" by Gagn , Briggs & Wager (1992). This model gave a broader perspective of the human mind as an information processor linked to the sensory memory, short-term memory and long term memory. The propositional representation theory (Pylyshyn, 1981) suggested a process where visual information was transformed into a semantic form. A proposition was the smallest, single information unit, corresponding generally to an idea. Incoming visually based information from the environment was converted into propositions as the information was passed from short-term to long-term memory.

When retrieved, the propositions were transformed back into visual information. This was analogous to how a computer stored information about a graphic in memory on a disk. Propostionists explained empirical evidence of the superiority of pictures over words on the basis of increased elaboration (Anderson, 1978; Kosslyn, 1980, Pylyshyn, 1981). In other words, people provided with pictures just naturally spent more time and effort processing pictures. People processed and rehearsed pictures more fully than words and sentences. This rehearsal resulted in more propositional information, as well as more durable traces between the propositions stored in long-term memory, when visual representations were provided than when information was given only in verbal form. Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation described four motivational influences and their resulting effects on individual motivation (Keller, 1983). "ARCS" (Keller, 1983) was an acronym which refers to four areas of motivational influence in the model: attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. This model offered a systematic approach to the design of instructional materials to be motivating. The ARCS Model of Motivation and the corresponding strategies for motivational design were derived from Keller's theories of motivation, performance and instructional influence (Keller,1992). Designing for Meaningful Learning An important condition in learning in whatever area is that it must be meaningful. Mayer (1993) argued that for meaningful learning, three cognitive conditions must be met: paying attention to relevant information, building internal connections and building external connections. First , the learner must select the conceptual information from the text, such as the cause-and-effect events. Second, the learner must organise the information into a coherent structure, such as a chain of causes and effects in which one event serves as the cause of the next. Third, the learner must integrate this information within a familiar context, such as relating it to a concrete model of a pump or to some physical principles of air pressure. Mayer (1993) further argued that when these cognitive conditions are met, students will build a learning outcome containing conceptual information that supports problem-solving transfer; when the first condition is not met, the result is no learning. When the first condition is met but the second and/or the third conditions are not met, the result is rote learning. When all the three conditions are met, meaningful learning takes place. Contiguity Effect The term contiguous means neighbouring, touching or near. What happens when visual and verbal explanations are presented in a co-

ordinated fashion or near each other, versus when visual and verbal explanations are presented separately? According to the propositional representation theory ( Pylyshyn, 1973, 1981), visual information is transformed into a semantic form. Pylyshyn, further argued that incoming visually based information from the environment was converted into propositions as the information was passed from short to long term memory. When retrieved, the propositions are transformed back into visual information. Propositionists explain empirical evidence of the superiority of pictures over words on the basis of increased elaboration (Pylyshyn, 1973, 1981). That is, people provided with pictures just naturally spend more time and effort processing pictures. People process and rehearse pictures more fully than words and sentences. The rehearsal results in more propositional information as well as more durable traces between the propositions stored in longterm memory, when visual representations are provided than when information is given only in verbal (Rieber, 1994). Motivation and The Instructional Process Motivation is a research topic that has tremendous importance to educators, scientists and philosophers because it concerns the question of why people do the things they do. In the education scenario, there is great deal of concern with the how questions: how to teach and how do people learn. As a matter of fact, great strides has been made by educational researchers with the how questions by developing and validating theories of learning and instruction. In contrast, there has not been as much progress in answering the why questions which are the motivational ones (Abdul Rahim, 1996; Keller, 1987a). This Model of Motivation, Learning and Instructional Influence provided the basis for the development of the motivational designs that became known as the ARCS Model (Keller, 1987a). In creating the motivational design model, elements such as motives, values, expectancies, and management of outcomes or consequences by using feedback, rewards and punishments and intrinsic reactions or cognitive evaluation of the outcomes are incorporated into the model. In addition, the model also incorporated environmental influences in the form of strategies and prescriptions that pertained to these factors. Field Dependency as a Cognitive Style Field dependency refers to a person's ability to experience and interpret the learning environment in terms of global versus analytical continuum (Witkin & Goodenough, 1977). It is one of the most important cognitive styles the learners bring to the learning situation. For example, learning from text and pictures depends on the learners cognitive styles. The cognitive style of interest in the present study is the extent to which a learner is field dependent or independent. The primary researcher in the area has been Witkin (1954) and his colleagues. Their studies found evidence to indicate that the cognitive style of field dependents/independents manifests itself through the learners symbolic mental representations of experiences in the learning situation, thus
5

affecting the learners thinking and problem solving abilities. In general, the field independent cognitive style can be characterised as an analytic perceiver of stimulus information. This may be interpreted to indicate that the field independent is able to perceive relevant items as discrete from their background. When perceiving a complex visual, for example, the field independent person can identify the important figure from the background information. During problem solving activities, the field independent can restructure elements of the problem (Witkin, 1954). When experiencing a chaotic visual stimuli, the field independent is able to impose a structure or organisation on the visual information which would tend to facilitate memory and recall (Tulving,1968). The field dependent on the other hand can be characterised as a global thinker. The field dependent tends to confuse the figure and ground relationship of a visual precept. This occurrence makes it difficult for the field dependent to separate the relevant item in the precept from the irrelevant background. The figure-ground confusion experienced by the field dependent is especially acute when perceiving a relatively complex stimulus. Problems that require learners to restructure the problem elements are difficult for the field dependents due to their perception of the stimulus field. For the field dependents a chaotic stimulus situation tends to remain chaotic, because they attempt to remember the entire stimulus precept. While the internal variables of interest in the present study was the cognitive style of field dependents/independents, the external variable of interest is the different modes of presentation of the courseware.

METHODOLOGY
Research Design The experimental study was divided into two parts. The first part of the experiment was to find the cognitive effects of the two instructional treatment modes on students with different spatial and verbal abilities, cognitive styles and anxiety levels. The second part of the experiment was to find the motivational effects of the two treatment groups on the learners. A 2 x 2 quasi-experimental factorial design was used. First, the presentation modes (concurrent mode versus consecutive mode) were crossed with the spatial abilities of the learners. This was repeated with verbal abilities, cognitive styles and anxiety levels. In the second part of this study, the motivational effects of the two treatment groups (concurrent versus consecutive mode) on learners were studied. Again a quasi-experimental design was used.
Subjects

Subjects consisted of Form One students chosen randomly from six Malaysian schools. The average age of these students was 13 years old. The students were chosen such that as far as possible they were
6

representative of the typical Malaysian school children population of that age. For each school, two intact classes were chosen. The students have not yet been exposed to this topic on respiration. This topic was part of the requirement of the Form One science syllabus. Subjects were predominantly from the lower middle to middle socio-economic backgrounds. A total of 156 students participated in this experimental study. Independent and Dependent Variables In the first part of the study involving cognitive effects, the independent variables were the two modes instructional presentation (concurrent/consecutive). The moderator variables were the spatial abilities (low/high), the verbal abilities (low/high), the cognitive styles (FD/FI) and the anxiety levels (low/medium/high). The dependent variable was the gain score as measured by the posttest score minus the pretest score. In the second part of the study involving motivational effects, the independent variables were the instructional modes. The dependent variable was the motivational score as measured by the Keller Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987b). Instruments There are seven instruments in this study. They were the pre-test questions, the post-test questions, the Cattell "Culture Fair" Intelligence Test, the Keller Instructional Materials Motivation Survey and the Group Embedded Figures Test. the Trait- Anxiety Tests, Verbal Ability Test and the Spatial Ability Test. The following sections will describe the validity and reliability of each instrument. Treatment The subjects were randomly assigned into any one of the two instructional modes. The first mode is the concurrent mode (CONCM). In this mode, animated graphics and textual information on the Human Respiratory System was presented concurrently with redundant audio narration In the second mode, the consecutive mode (CONSM), verbal information and redundant audio narration was presented first followed by animated graphics consecutively.

RESULTS
Cognitive Effects of Presentation Modes Students who received the concurrent mode of multimedia presentation obtained a significantly higher gain score (as measured by posttest minus pretest) compared to students who received the consecutive mode.

Students who interacted with the multimedia presentation presented in the concurrent mode obtained a higher mean gain score (7.96) as measured by the posttest minus the pretest, compared to students who interacted with the multimedia presentation presented in the consecutive mode (mean gain score = 5.98). In the concurrent mode, learners with high spatial ability obtained higher gain score (8.43) compared to the low spatial ability learners (gain score = 7.39). In the consecutive mode, learners with higher spatial ability obtained high gain score (6.90) compared to the low spatial ability learners (gain score = 5.17). Learners with high spatial ability consistently obtained higher gain scores in both presentation modes compared to the low spatial ability learners. In the concurrent mode, learners with high verbal ability obtained higher gain score (8.36) compared to low verbal ability learners (gain score = 7.64). In the consecutive presentation mode, learners with high verbal ability obtained gain score (6.90) compared to low verbal ability learners (gain score = 5.10). It was also found that learners with high verbal ability consistently obtained higher gain scores in both presentation modes compared to the low verbal ability learners. In the concurrent mode, field independent learners obtained a higher gain score (9.27) compared to field dependent learners (gain score = 7.02). In the consecutive mode, field independent learners obtained a higher gain score (6.64) compared to field dependent learners (gain score = 5.16). Overall, field independent learners obtained a higher mean gain score (7.90) compared to the field dependent learners who obtained a mean gain score of 6.26. Thus field independent learners obtained higher gain scores in both presentation modes compared to the field dependent learners. As for the next independent variable, the anxiety levels of the learners, in the case of the concurrent mode of presentation , medium anxiety learners obtained the highest gain score (8.61) compared to the low anxiety learners (mean gain score = 7.75) and high anxiety learners ( mean gain score = 7.33). In the case of the consecutive mode of presentation, medium anxiety learners still obtained the highest gain score (7.33) compared to the low anxiety learners (mean gain score = 4.94) and high anxiety learners (mean gain score = 5.25). The overall effect was that medium anxiety learners obtained higher mean gain score (7.98) compared to low anxiety learners (mean gain score = 6.51) and high anxiety learners (mean gain score = 6.21). Motivational Effects of Presentation Modes The motivational scores of the learners when exposed either to the concurrent or consecutive mode of presentation were shown in Table 4.4. Learners obtained higher motivational scores when exposed to the concurrent mode (mean motivational score = 136) compared to the consecutive mode (mean motivational score = 129.85).

Presentation Mode and Spatial Ability 1. Students with high spatial ability obtained a significantly higher gain score compared to students with low spatial ability in both the treatment groups.

Presentation Mode and Verbal Ability 2. Students with high verbal ability obtained a higher gain score compared to students with low verbal ability in both the treatment groups. However, this difference did not reach the level of significance of 0.05.

Presentation Mode and Field Dependency There were significant main effects due to presentation modes and field dependency of the learners as shown in the ANCOVA analysis in Table 4.7. For the main effects of presentation modes, significance difference, F (1, 140) = 28.462 p < 0 .05, MSe = 180.785, was detected. Table 4.4 indicated that learners in the concurrent mode achieved a higher gain score (mean = 7.96) compared to learners in the consecutive mode (mean = 5.98). For the main effects of field dependency, significant difference ( F (1, 140) = 7.532, p < 0 .05, MSe = 47.843), was detected. As shown in Table 4.4, in the concurrent mode, field independent learners obtained a higher mean gain score (9.27) compared to the field dependent learners (mean gain score = 7.02). The same was true in the consecutive presentation mode, where field independent learners obtained a higher mean gain score (6.64) compared to field dependent learners (mean gain score = 5.16). Presentation Mode and Anxiety Level of the Learners 3. Field independent students obtained a significantly higher gain score compared to field dependent students in both the treatment groups.

Presentation Modes and Motivational Score 4. There were significant differences in motivational preference between participants in the two modes - students showed higher motivation when presented with the concurrent mode.

Interaction Effects 5. No significant interaction effects were found between the presentation mode and the spatial ability of the students. Nevertheless, students with high spatial ability performed significantly better for each presentation mode compared to students with low spatial ability. No significant interactive effects were found in the gain scores between presentation mode and the verbal ability of the students.
9

6.

7.

No significant interactive effects were found in the gain scores between presentation mode and the field dependency of the students. No significant interactive effects were found in the gain score between presentation mode and the anxiety levels of the students.

8.

Discussion The results of this study were supportive of the positive value of the contiguity effect. As stated in hypothesis one, in a multimedia environment, students presented with the concurrent mode will obtain significantly higher gain score than students presented with the consecutive mode. This hypothesis was supported from results of the present study. Hence these findings provide a solid replication of the contiguity effect: students were better able to transfer what they had learnt about the human respiratory system when visual and textual explanations were presented concurrently than when visual and verbal explanations were presented separately. There are three possible explanations of this outcome. Firstly, carefully designed animated graphics and textual information presented concurrently in this study had fulfilled the gestalt principles of visual perception, namely prgnanz (or good gestalt), proximity, continuity and closure. Secondly, multimedia presentations in the concurrent mode had fulfilled the three cognitive conditions for meaningful learning: paying attention to relevant information, building internal connections and building external connections. The animated graphics and textual information presented concurrently enabled the learners to focus on the scientific concepts presented. When the three conditions were met, students would be able to build a learning outcome containing conceptual information that supported problem-solving transfer. Thirdly, multimedia presentations in this study were compelling in nature. The intense and demanding interactivity built into the multimedia instructional materials offered sufficient cues to enable the learners to reflect on the principles being modelled by the presentation. It was possible that the concurrent mode of presentation of this study provided these cues. Another focus of this study was on whether the contiguity effect was dependent on the spatial ability of the learners. The results from this study supported the prediction that in a multimedia presentations, students with high spatial ability obtained a better gain score compared to students with low spatial ability in both the concurrent mode as well as the consecutive mode. Overall, high spatial ability learners obtained higher gain scores than low spatial ability learners irrespective of the treatment groups. However, the results also indicated that high spatial ability students who received the concurrent mode of presentation of animation and narration obtained higher gain score than high spatial ability students who received the consecutive presentation. Also, consistent with predictions, low spatial ability students who received the concurrent

10

presentation of animation and narration obtained higher gain score than low spatial ability students who received the consecutive mode of presentation. These results were consistent with the study by Mayer and Sims (1994). There were several possible explanations to this finding. Firstly, it meant that the contiguity effect was stronger for high spatial ability students but weaker for low spatial ability students. This could be interpreted within the context of the dual-coding theory. Low spatial ability students must devote a large amount of cognitive effort to build a visual representation of the system, whereas for the high spatial ability students, building a visual representation of animation was relatively easier. Secondly, given that cognitive resources in the working memory were limited, high spatial ability students were more able to allocate sufficient cognitive resources to build referential connections than low spatial ability students. This study found no significant difference in gain score between high and low verbal ability students in both the treatment groups. The results were not consistent with previous research which supported the concept that high verbal ability students should outperform low verbal ability students (Benard, 1990). The rationale for this prediction is that high verbal ability learners are more able than low verbal ability learners to generate mental images as they read text or listen to narration so they are more likely to have verbal and visual representations in short-term memory at the same time. There are several possible explanations for this inconsistent outcome. First, it is possible that the learners did not attend to the textual information sufficiently. That is, although textual information provided for additional cognitive processing, the learners did not fully utilise the potential. Reasons for this are debatable. One probable explanation concerns the nature of the lesson content. The lesson material may have proved to be too difficult and complex for the age group concerned. If the lesson material were inappropriate for students because of their complexity, then the inclusion of additional instruction would have been less meaningful. This study found significant differences in gain score between field dependent learners and field independent learners in both the concurrent and the consecutive mode of presentation. This was expected. As the concurrent mode was better structured in terms of providing students with a framework for organising knowledge, the field dependent learners would find it more helpful to learn from the concurrent mode than from the consecutive mode of presentation. The study found that there were significant differences in gain score between learners of different anxiety levels. In both the concurrent mode and the consecutive mode group, students of low and high anxiety levels did not obtain gain score as high as those in the medium anxiety level. This finding was consistent with the study conducted by Toh, Abdul Rahim and Ng (1997). A possible explanation for this finding is that for optimal learning, instruction must match the anxiety level of the learners. It is possible that in this study, students with low anxiety might find the
11

instructions unchallenging and did not attend to the instructions sufficiently. On the other hand, it is possible the students with high anxiety levels might find the instructions too demanding and subsequently lost confidence. The study found significant differences in motivational preference between participants in the two modes - students showed higher motivation when presented with the concurrent mode. This finding was consistent with previous studies on motivation and design of instruction conducted by Abdul Rahim (1990), Rieber (1991a) and Goh (1996) . There are several possible explanations of this finding. First, it is possible that using multimedia presentations with concurrent text and animated graphics and narration as a method of instruction did enhance the motivation of the students in the four areas of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. Second, placing the text contigually with the animation would cue the learners attention to the learning task. Third, motivation to learn is affected by personal factors (attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction) and environmental factors (such as the instructional mode). The environment inputs can mitigate personal input inadequacies in the learners motivational status. Implications of the Study The results have practical as well as theoretical implications. On the practical side, this study signals the value of instructional materials that maximise the learners chances of building connections between words and pictures. The results show the importance of having a well coordinated presentation of animated graphics, textual information and audio narration. Secondly, the study suggests that for multimedia presentation to be effective, the information presented in each mode must be congruent. That is, dual coding of text and graphics for example, is affected by the degree to which the graphics and text reflect redundant information. So if the two modalities are supportive of one idea or are congruent, then there will be meaningful learning. Thirdly, the findings of this research suggest the value of incorporating motivational design elements in multimedia presentations. This study shows that designing instruction to be motivating can be a systematic process; it is not totally an art, or an intuitive process. The use of systematic process of audience motivation analysis, and motivational design, development and evaluation can lead predictably to more motivating instruction. Fourthly, the findings of this research suggest that although the use of animated graphics with concurrent text has proven to be a generally powerful effect in many contexts, accurately predicting when they will be effective is difficult. The difference between these results and the hypothesised effects provides a testimony to the complicated interplay of

12

instructional events which leads to learning. As previously suggested, instruction can be evaluated based on the interrelationships between the nature of the learner, the learning activities, the learning materials and the nature of the testing environment to measure the learning outcomes. It is implied that these four pedagogical variables are strongly interdependent. Conclusion Firstly, this study showed that concurrent multimedia presentation mode of textual information with animated graphics was more effective than the consecutive multimedia presentation mode because the former provided more guidance to the learners cognitive processes. Moreover, the effect of the concurrent multimedia presentation mode was stronger for high spatial ability, high verbal ability, field independent and medium anxiety learners. The textual information presented concurrently with animated graphics served as signals that helped the learners select relevant visual and verbal information and helped learners to build cause-and-effect relations. Secondly, this study found that students showed higher motivation when presented with the concurrent multimedia presentation mode. Students presented with the concurrent multimedia presentation mode perceived more relevance in this mode and this was reflected in a higher motivational preference. Some of the limitations of the study were described and several recommendations for future research were suggested. These include replicating the study in other cultural settings and increasing the sample size. Other recommendations include isolating the critical attributes of the verbal and animation components to make it more sensitive to learning. In conclusion, the results of this study point to a simple yet powerful means of facilitating referential processing in multimedia presentations. The use of suitable text and narration coupled with appropriate animated graphics presented concurrently appeared to be an effective way to guide students to focus on the important principles in multimedia presentation. In addition, presentation in this mode had a high motivational appeal. REFERENCES Abdul Rahim Mohd Saad (1996). Paradigm Shift or Paradigm Evolution: The Role of Educational Technology towards Excellence in Education. Public Professorial Address, University of Science Malaysia. Anderson, J. R. (1978). Arguments concerning representations for mental imagery. Psychological Review, 85(4), 249-277. Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press.

13

Cronbach, L, J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitude and instructional methods: A handbook for research on interactions. New York: Irvington. Gagn , R. M., Briggs, L.J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design. Harcourt Brace Javanovich College Publishers. Gupta, A., & Sharma, S. (1986). The effect of trait anxiety, intelligence and psychological stress on problem solving. Personality Study and Group Behaviour, 6(2), 9 22. Hannafin, M. J. (1992) Emerging technologies, ISD, and learning environments: Critical perspectives. Educational Technology Research &Development, 40 (1), 49-63. Head, L. Q., & Lindsay, J. D. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 419-442 Jonassen, D. (1991). Hypertext as Instructional Design. Educational Technology Research & Development, 39(1)83-92. Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed., Instructional-Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current Status (p. 383-434). Keller, J. M. (1987a) Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2 - 10. Keller, J. M. (1987b). Instructional Materials Motivational Survey. Florida State University, Tallahassee. Keller, J. M. (1992). Enhancing the Motivation to Learn: Origins and Applications of the ARCS Model. Report from the Institute for Education Research, Tohoku Gakuin University, Sendai, Japan. Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Mayer, R. E. (1989). Systematic thinking fostered by illustrations in scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 240-246. Mayer, R. E. (1993). Problem-Solving Principles. In Fleming, M & Levie, W. (Eds). Instructional Message Design. (pp. 253-282). Educational Technology Publications, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1992). The instructive animation. Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401. Mayer, R. E., & Sims, V. K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words ? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.

14

Navok, J. D. (1976). Understanding the learning process and the effectiveness of teaching methods in the classroom, laboratory and field. Science Education, 60, 493-512. Ng, S. N. (1977) School anxiety and achievement. Journal Pendidikan, VII, 79-83. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Pylyshyn, Z. (1973). What the minds eye tells the minds brain: A critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin, 80 (1), 1-24. Pylyshyn, Z. (1981). The imagery debate: Analogue media versus tacit knowledge. Psychological Review, 88 16-45. Rieber, L. (1994). Computers, graphics and learning. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. Rieber, L. (1996). Seriously Considering Play: Designing Interactive Learning Environments Based on the Blending of Microworlds, Simulations, and Games. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 44. (2),42-58. Spielberger, C. D. (1972) Anxiety as an emotional state. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.) Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research. New York: Academic Press, pp. 23-49. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R., & Lushene, R. E. (1983) Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press. Tulving, E. (1968). Theoretical Issues in Free Recall. In T. R. Dixon & Dl L. Horton, (Eds.). Verbal Behavior and General Behavior Theory. Englewood Cliffs. N. J., Prentice-Hall. Witkin, H. A. (1954). Personality through perception: An experimental and clinical study. New York: Harper. Witkin, H. A., & Goodenough, D. R. (1977). Field dependence revisited (RB-7716). Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, December, 1977. Witkin, H. A., & Goodenough, D. R. (1981). Cognitive Styles: Essence and Origin. New York: International Universities Press.

15