NOn Linear

SIMULATION BASED LAYOUT OF AUTOMOTIVE SPRING AND DAMPER CHARACTERISTICS
Submitted by Tan Chun Wei
Department of Mechanical Engineering
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering National University of Singapore
Session 2006/2007
AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics
SUMMARY
In the design of vehicle suspension, the characteristics of suspension spring and dampers play an important role in achieving the desired vehicle performance. Today, the current practice adopted in the automotive industry makes use of prototypes built up using available springs and dampers deemed suitable based on prior experience with similar vehicles. Professional test drivers then carried out road testing with these prototypes. The tuning and the final specification of the automotive suspension design hinge mainly on the subjective opinion of the test drivers, with priority placed on handling safety.
Within the thesis, a methodology is described for a transparent and concise way for laying out suspension springing and damping characteristics. The methodology is implemented in MATLAB. And a simulation prototype is developed for the evaluation of design variations in suspension springing and damping characteristics.
A suspension design cycle, with the inclusion of the simulation prototype within the design process, is described within the project. And an illustration is carried out on a given luxurious vehicle setting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to first express my gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Gerard Leng, National University of Singapore, for his unconditioned mentorship during the entire length of this project. Without his invaluable support and advice, this project would not have been possible at all.
Special thanks go to Mr Thomas Schirle from DaimlerChrysler AG, for trusting me and giving me a chance to work on this project. I wish to express my sincere appreciation to him for all his precious guidance and advice given.
I wish to thank my family who has been very supportive and understanding.
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Table of Contents
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...............................................................................................ii LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES .........................................................................................................vii Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................1 1.1 Objective of the project ..................................................................................2 1.2 Scope of the project........................................................................................3 1.3 Outline of the thesis........................................................................................4 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...........................................................................................5 2.1 Related work on investigation of suspension springing and damping characteristics .................................................................................................5 2.2 Conclusion from literature research ...............................................................7 Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation.......................................................................8 3.1 Brief introduction ...........................................................................................8 3.2 Drivability and suspension spring and damper ..............................................9 3.3 Ride and handling compromise....................................................................10 3.4 Influence of non-linear suspension spring and damper Characteristics .......11 3.4.1 Simulation run 1 ..................................................................................12 3.4.2 Simulation run 2 ..................................................................................16 Chapter 4: Project Methodology ....................................................................................19 4.1 MATLAB as simulation platform ................................................................19 4.2 Characteristics at the wheel Approach ......................................................19 4.3 Range of simulation model ..........................................................................21 4.3.1 Oscillation models...............................................................................22 4.3.2 CASCaDE ...........................................................................................24 4.4 Description of suspension spring and damper characteristics......................25 4.4.1 Description of suspension spring characteristics ................................25 4.4.2 Description of suspension damper characteristics...............................30 Chapter 5: Implementation.............................................................................................34 5.1 Overview ......................................................................................................34 5.2 Simulation prototype ....................................................................................35 5.2.1 Features ...............................................................................................36 5.3 Building of simulation model within MATLAB..........................................39 5.3.1 Component-based modeling................................................................39 5.3.2 State variables the key to simulation task ........................................41 5.3.3 Newtons equations of motion ............................................................42 5.3.4 Non-linear time-invariant system (NTI) .............................................42 5.3.5 Programming in MATLAB .................................................................44 5.3.6 Modeling of suspension springing and damping.................................46
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Chapter 6: Validation of simulation prototype...............................................................50 6.1 Validation Procedure....................................................................................50 6.1.1 Validation of CASCaDE PKW model ................................................50 6.1.2 Validation of oscillation models in MATLAB ...................................52 Chapter 7: Application ...................................................................................................55 Chapter 8: Conclusion....................................................................................................58 8.1 Thesis Conclusion ........................................................................................58 8.2 Future work ..................................................................................................59 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................60 APPENDICES................................................................................................................62 Appendix 1: Values assigned to simulation parameters.....................................62 Appendix 2: Achieving non-linear damper characteristics in hydraulic dampers ......................................................................................................................66 Appendix 3: Achieving non-linear springing using helical spring ....................68 Appendix 4: Assumptions in deriving oscillation models .................................71 Appendix 5: Concept of motion ratio.................................................................74 Appendix 6: Sample illustrations of result presentations...................................76 Appendix 7: Experimental setup ........................................................................78 Appendix 8: Validation data ..............................................................................80 Appendix 9: Illustration .....................................................................................84
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Project methodology Figure 2.1: Quarter car model, 2 DOF Figure 3.1: Illustration of a quarter car model driven with constant velocity over a cosine shaped bump. Figure 3.2: Spring characteristics Figure 3.3: Damper characteristics Figure 3.4: Sprung mass acceleration, simulation run 1 Figure 3.5: Dynamic wheel load, simulation run 1 Figure 3.6: Suspension travel, simulation run 1 Figure 3.7: Damper characteristics, lower linear damping Figure 3.8: Sprung mass acceleration, simulation run 2 Figure 3.9: Dynamic wheel load, simulation run 2 Figure 3.10: Suspension travel, simulation run 2 Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of the vehicle-suspension-ground system and vehicle drivability. Figure 4.2: Typical suspension spring characteristics, effective at wheel (front axle) Figure 4.3: Typical suspension spring characteristics, effective at wheel (rear axle) Figure 4.4: Typical suspension damper characteristics for the compression region Figure 4.5: Typical suspension damper characteristics for the rebound region Figure 4.6: Suspension damper characteristics, three damping zones Figure 4.7: Possible damper characteristics Figure 5.1: Schematic diagram of the simulation prototype structure Figure 5.2: Main simulation file Figure 5.3: M-file of a selected model-maneuver Figure 5.4: Components linked up to form the system Figure 5.5: Block representation of the component Figure 5.6: Quarter car model, at system level and at component level Figure 5.7: Couplings between components Figure 5.8: M-file for routine, mass01_start_model.m Figure 5.9: M-file for routine, mass01_def_mdata_stage2.m Figure 5.10: M-file for routine, mass01_compute_zcd.m Figure 5.11: Modeling of the suspension springing and damping Figure 5.12: Coulomb Friction Figure 5.13: Modeling of linkage friction Figure 5.14: Hydraulic damper with elastic rubber mount and friction Figure 5.15: Inverse damper characteristics. Figure A1.1: Illustration of the quarter car model driven with constant velocity over a cosine shaped bump. Figure A1.2: Spring characteristics, linear case Figure A1.3: Damper characteristics, linear case Figure A1.4: Spring characteristics, non-linear case Figure A1.5: Damper characteristics, non-linear case Figure A1.6: Damper characteristics, linear case, lower damper rate Figure A2.1: A basic hydraulic damper. Figure A2.2: Hydraulic resistances in shock absorber. Figure A3.1: Two auxiliary springs in the design of car suspension for progressive springing characteristics v
Figure A3.2: Helical spring with variable pitch Figure A3.3: Series arrangement of two springs Figure A3.4: A barrel springs Figure A5.1: An independent suspension with a coil spring and a damper mounted away from the vertical line of the wheel load Figure A6.1: Sample time plots Figure A6.2: Sample of a 3D animation screen capture Figure A6.3: Sample of an evaluation plot Figure A6.4: Sample of evaluation results Figure A7.1: Overview of vehicle setup Figure A7.2: Measurement equipment Figure A7.3: Sensor placed at drivers position Figure A7.4: Sensor placed at window Figure A7.5: Sensor placed over front axle Figure A7.6: Sensor placed over rear axle Figure A7.7: Sensor placed at wheel Figure A7.8: Sensor for measuring inbound and rebound movement Figure A9.1: Selected model - maneuver 1, oscillation model 1 and positive step input Figure A9.2: Selected model - maneuver 2, oscillation model 4, required roll flexibility and roll moment distribution Figure A9.3: Stage 1 of laying-out process Figure A9.4: Sprung mass vertical displacement in response to step-size 10mm, loading condition - fully loaded and empty Figure A9.5: Sprung mass vertical displacement in response to step-size 50mm and 70 mm, loading condition - full Figure A9.6: Sprung mass vertical displacement in response to step-size 50mm and 70 mm, loading condition full at damping value of 4000 Ns/m Figure A9.7: Roll angle versus lateral acceleration Figure A9.8: Wheel inbound movement Figure A9.9: Stage 2 of laying-out process Figure A9.10 Gain in lateral slip angle Figure A9.11: Vertical acceleration of the sprung mass Figure A9.12: Yaw velocity Figure A9.13: Pitch angle Figure A9.14: Vertical displacement of centre of gravity Figure A9.15: Wheel inbound movement
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Forces acting on the vehicle Table 4.1: Modelling aspects of the oscillation models Table 4.2: Spring description methods Table 4.3: Damper description method Table 6.1: Validation data at different bump heights Table 6.2: Oscillation models and validation plots Table 6.3: Error range and maximum percentage error Table 7.1: List of possible models, maneuvers and aspects for different suspension design purposes Table A1.1: Values assigned to simulation parameters Table A1.2: Values for spring characteristics description linear case Table A1.3: Values for damper characteristics description linear case Table A1.4: Values for spring characteristics description nonlinear case Table A1.5: Values for damper characteristics description nonlinear case Table A1.6: Values for damper characteristics description linear case Table A4.1: Assumptions made to derive the various oscillation models Table A8.1: Validation plots for oscillation models in MATLAB (bump height of 10mm and 50mm)
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Chapter 1: Introduction
In the design of automotive suspension, engineers seek for a good compromise among competing objectives of driving safety, driving fun and ride comfort. The spring and damper within suspension system play an important role in achieving the desirable vehicle performance. The suspension spring stores and releases energy temporarily, providing the vehicle body insulation against high acceleration peaks. The suspension damper modulates the energy dissipation, ensuring any induced oscillation to die off quickly.
Even though active and semi-active suspensions promise to provide improved ride quality and better handling performance of vehicle, other considerations which include high cost, complex implementation, increased power consumption, reliability and weight have restricted their use in todays automotive industry. Passive springs and dampers still hold on to their importance. Today, majority of the passenger cars produced still rely on passive spring and damper in the suspension system.
However, in deriving automotive suspension design and characteristics of passive suspension spring and damper, the practice in todays automotive industry remains very much a black art. Most vehicle designs are evolutionary. Hence, in determining automotive suspensions characteristics, the current practice adopted in the automotive industry makes use of prototypes built up using available springs and dampers deemed suitable based on prior experience with similar vehicles. Professional test drivers then carried out road testing with these prototypes. The tuning and the final specification of the automotive suspension design hinge mainly on the subjective opinion of the test
drivers. Among many of the design objectives, handling safety takes priority and ride comfort usually follows next.
Moreover, in the development of new vehicle concept such as hybrid vehicle and lightweight vehicle, previous knowledge may be lacking and available suspension design may not meet the requirements of the new vehicle concept.
Therefore, the task of establishing a transparent procedure for deriving suspension parameters remains challenging. And, a methodology to allow for quick assessment of design variations in suspension spring and damper characteristics for a given vehicle concept is desirable.
1.1 Objective of the project

The objective of the project is to develop a methodology for a clear and concise layout procedure of design variations of passive spring and damping characteristics, and implement the developed concept using MATLAB.
With the aid of simulation and a set of evaluation procedures, a reduced set of possible suspension spring and damper characteristics combinations is to be derived. The purpose is to reduce the tedious effort of prototype testing and cost involved for the large number of possible suspension spring and damper combinations.
1. Current Practice
2. Project Methodology
Simulation Tool
Different combinations of springs and dampers
Reduced number of springs and dampers combinations
Prototype testing
Figure 1.1: Project methodology
1.2 Scope of the project

The project involved an extensive research into the realm of automotive suspension spring and damper, their characteristics, and the influence they have on vehicle ride and handling.
The simulation set up within the project went through a meticulously planned design stage and was implemented within MATLAB.
It was consequential to learn MATLAB and CASCaDE as a requirement to build the simulation model for the project. MATLAB, a high-level technical computing language, is used to build up the simulation environment. CASCaDE, which is a vehicle dynamic simulation software developed by DaimlerChrylser AG Research and Technology, has to be mastered with a good understanding of how the vehicle model work, so as to integrate it within the MATLAB simulation environment.
Data structures for handling of components, models and maneuvers, evaluation numbers, plots went through the process of testing as standalone or partly interconnected modules, before the modules were integrated to form the simulation prototype.
Due to time constraint, design variations within this project are limited to steel spring and passive hydraulic damper. As a first prototype, the software development within the project will not take into consideration of user comfort. Misuse and extreme conditions will not be considered.
1.3 Outline of the thesis

Chapter 2 serves to summarize related works by researchers in the field of suspension. In Chapter 3, an overview is given on the theory related to this project. Chapter 4 describes the project methodology and Chapter 5 highlights the methodology implementation. Chapter 6 presents the validation of the simulation prototype. Chapter 7 proposes a design cycle for suspension springing and damping characteristics with the implemented simulation prototype. An illustration on the laying out process of the suspension springing and damping characteristics for a luxurious car configuration is attached in the appendix. Chapter 8 concludes the thesis. It includes a summary of work carried out for the thesis, and future recommendations.
Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter will present the findings from the literature survey carried out during the project and the relevant issues surrounding suspension spring and damper characteristics. A review of related work will be presented.
2.1 Related work on investigation of suspension springing and damping characteristics

In [1], Kushiro, Yasuda and Doi (2004) investigated first human sensitivity to pitch and bounce using human sensory evaluation with the aid of a 6 degrees-of-freedom (DOF) simulator. Human discomfort curves were derived for both pitch and bounce motion. They concluded that pitch motion was about 1.5 times more annoying than bounce under a low frequency at 1 Hz. Then, they attempted to minimize the mean square values of pitch and bounce velocities through the linear analysis of a 2 DOF system model passing over a bump input to derive at the frequency ratio and damping of the front and rear end for optimum ride comfort.
In [8], Fukushima, Hidaka and Iwata (1983) first examined, using measurement data, how vertical direction input affects suspension under various operating conditions and road surfaces. The operating range of the damper and the necessity of the damper force for each operating condition were evaluated. The body acceleration, tire-ground contact rate and load fluctuation rate of a 6 DOF system simulation model (including 1 engine and 2 passengers) were used to evaluate the optimum damping coefficient for the specifications of a sub-compact car.
In [4], Sugasawa, Kobayashi, Kakimoto, Shiraishi, Tateishi (1985) discussed on their work in developing an electronic controlled absorber system. However, prior to the development of the system, an analysis on the optimum damping forces for various conditions was done. And this analysis is of relevance to the project. Linear analysis was done on a 2 DOF oscillation quarter model and a 2 DOF roll and pitch model to investigate damping for different driving conditions. Evaluation criteria used include gain factors and load fluctuation. In this paper, it has been shown that optimum damping ratio is different for ride and road holding performance.
In [7], Woods and Jawad (1999) outlined a procedure for establishing suspension parameters. The considerations in establishing the suspension parameters were mentioned and a computational example was included in the paper. In deriving the damper specifications, the quarter car model was used.
In [5], Barak (1991) discussed on and highlighted the set of numbers includes typical design values, associated with ride and handling, used in passenger car suspension design.
In [14], Gill (2005) investigated the vertical dynamics of vehicle using a 1 DOF model for sprung mass and 1 DOF model for unsprung mass and a 2 DOF model for quarter car model in the section for vertical dynamics. He demonstrated how to do basic tuning of suspension with the oscillation models. In [2], [9], and [11], the fundamentals of damper operation were described. The behavior of the vehicle in response to frequency stimulus was presented. Analysis done was based on a simple linear system.
2.2 Conclusion from literature research

It has been acknowledged by Dixon (1999) that although a literature search review several thousand papers referring to damper or shock absorber in the context of vehicle, rather few of these are about the design and characteristics of the damper itself.
Indeed, most of the works came across during the literature research use linear spring and damper characteristics in their investigation. Only, Gill attempts to illustrate the influence of non-linear spring and damper characteristics using a 2 DOF model. Spring constant and damping ratio are the usual parameters of interest. A possible reason for that could be that the solution for the equation is well-established and usually within realistic range.
There is a shortage of work dealing with how design variations in spring and damper characteristics influence vehicle drivability. In all the work mentioned above, oscillation models were used for investigation of vehicle motion like pitch, heaving, and roll. In investigating heave, most common used is the 2 DOF quarter car model, as shown in figure 2.1.
Sprung mass
Spring rate
Damping rate
Unsprung mass Tire stiffness
Figure 2.1: Quarter car model, 2 DOF 7
Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation
A proper understanding of how suspension spring and damper affect vehicle dynamics is pre-requisite in developing the project methodology. In this chapter, we shall discuss the influence of suspension springing and damping characteristics on vehicle drivability.
3.1 Brief introduction

Vehicle dynamics is the study of the action of forces influencing the vehicle while it is being driven and the resultant movements of the vehicle. Forces acting on the vehicle can be classified into three category according to along which axis the force acts. Table 3.1 illustrates forces acting on the vehicle.
Table 3.1: Forces acting on the vehicle Forces Along the longitudinal axis Along the transversal axis Along the vertical axis Examples Motive force, braking force, friction force Centrifugal force, wind force, lateral force Wheel load, forces due to road unevenness
Movements resulting from these forces manifest as movements along and about the axes. Pitch is the angular motion about the transversal axis, roll is the angular motion about the longitudinal axis and yaw is the angular motion about the vertical axis.
These movements define the drivability of a vehicle. And many factors affect vehicle drivability. They include: i. the position of centre of gravity, the position of roll centre, roll axis, driving axis, ii. iii. iv. v. the type of drive and the mounting location of the engine, the wheel suspension geometry, suspension spring and dampers, And the wheel control systems like, Anti-Braking System, Traction-Control System, and Electronic Stability Program.
The focus of this project is on how suspension spring and dampers characteristics affect vehicle drivability. In the next section, the role of suspension spring and damper is discussed.
3.2 Drivability and suspension spring and damper

The suspension system forms the connection between the vehicle body and the wheels. Wheel movement is permitted in an essentially vertical direction, when subjected to irregular road surface.
When a vehicle is being driven fast along the road, the unevenness of the road surface can induce wheel movement in such a short time that the acceleration peak generated can be of a magnitude a few times that of the gravitational acceleration. One primary function of suspension spring and damper is to provide insulation to the car body against such high vertical acceleration to the vehicle body and modulating any induced
oscillation. The characteristics of suspension spring and damper play an important role in determining the driving smoothness.
Another important role of suspension spring and damper is to ensure wheel contact. Suspension spring and damper characteristics affect the attitude of the wheel in response to road inputs. It is crucial that tires have sufficient wheel grip and do not lose their road contact. In the instance of a highly uneven road, the wheels may lose road contact and, therefore, is no longer capable of transmitting any traction or braking forces, resulting in decreased driving safety.
Wheel load transmission, traction, braking, cornering and steering inputs may also result in undesirable car body or wheel movements, such as the pitching or roll of car body and wheel hop. However, by choosing the appropriate spring and damper characteristics, these undesirable movements could be minimized or eliminated.
3.3 Ride and handling compromise

On one hand, damping is desirable in diminishing body roll motion during rapid steering, in diminishing body pitch motion during acceleration or deceleration, and in reducing unsprung mass vibration for maintaining road contact. On the other hand, the absence of damping reduces ride harshness and improves ride comfort while driving on smooth road, because damper transmits shock when there is a sudden movement.
Suspension spring and damper should not be viewed separately. Referring to classical theory of vibration, by the definition of damping ratio in equation 3.1, damping is dependent on the vehicle mass and the spring stiffness.
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D=
b 2 mk
(3.1)
, where D is the dimensionless damping ratio, b is the damping rate in Ns/m, m is the mass in kg, and k is the spring rate in N/m. Therefore, to derive at the springing and damping characteristics will require a compromise between driving safety and driving comfort.
3.4 Influence of non-linear suspension spring and damper Characteristics

Though work came across during the literature research largely adopt linear treatment of spring and damper characteristics in most work, there is no requirement for suspension spring and damper to demonstrate to display linear characteristics. In actuality, the characteristics of actual spring and damper are usually non-linear.
Design variations in springing and damping characteristics discussed within this project hinge upon the non-linear characteristics of the force elements. Following Gills approach [14], the influence of non-linear characteristics of spring and damper is presented in this section. Figure 3.1 illustrates a simulation model set up within the project to show the effects of non-linear characteristics in the force elements.
mspr
vhorizontal
k1 c1
munspr k2 c2
Cosine shaped bump
h bump l bump
Figure 3.1: Illustration of a quarter car model driven with constant velocity over a cosine shaped bump.
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The equations of motion involved, Sprung mass:
mspr
Zc
&c = Fd + Fl + Fs m spr g m s pr & z
(3.2)
Fd
Fl
Fs
Unsprung mass: Fd Fl Fs Zw munspr

Ft
&w = Ft Fd Fl Fs munspr g muns pr & z
(3.3)
where mspr is the sprung mass in kg, munspr is the unsprung mass in kg, Ft is the vertical tire force in N, Fd is the damper force in N, Fl is the linkage friction in N and Fs is the spring force in N.
3.4.1 Simulation run 1

As shown in figure 3.1, the quarter car model was driven over a cosine bump with two sets of spring and damper characteristics. One set of spring and damper characteristics consisted of a linear spring characteristics within the operating range of -0.10m and 0.10m, and a linear damper characteristic. Since the springing and damping characteristics within the operating range was linear, simulation run based on this set of characteristics was termed, linear case. The other set of spring and damper characteristics consisted of a progressive spring characteristic within the operating
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range of -0.10m and 0.10m, based on constant natural frequency, and a piece-wise, continuous damper characteristic. Simulation run based on this set of characteristics was termed, nonlinear case.
The description methods for generating the above spring and damper characteristics will be elaborated further in section 4.4. The values of the parameters used for the simulation and the spring and damper characteristics descriptions are included in Appendix 1.
Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show the spring characteristics and damper characteristics respectively.
Spring Characteristics
linear non-linear
Figure 3.2: Spring characteristics
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Damper Characteristics
linear non-linear
Figure 3.3: Damper characteristics
Time plots Figures 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 show the simulation outcome for the sprung mass acceleration, dynamic wheel load, and suspension travel.
11m/s2
7.5m/s2
linear non-linear Figure 3.4: Sprung mass acceleration, simulation run 1
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wheel loses contact linear non-linear
Figure 3.5: Dynamic wheel load, simulation run 1
linear non-linear
Figure 3.6: Suspension travel, simulation run 1
From the graph of sprung mass acceleration (Figure 3.4), the maximum acceleration for the linear suspension spring and damper characteristics is at 11 m/s2. It is higher than that of the non-linear case, which is at 7.5 m/s2.
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From the graph of dynamic wheel load (Figure 3.5), dynamic wheel load is zero at about 0.3 s for the linear suspension spring and damper characteristics. That means that wheel loses contact with the ground.
From the graph of suspension travel (Figure 3.6), an increase in suspension travel is observed for the non-linear suspension spring and damper characteristics.
3.4.2 Simulation run 2

Investigation is further carried out with a lower damping rate in the linear case. Nonlinear damper characteristics remain unchanged. The spring characteristics for both cases are kept the same. Figure 3.7 shows the damper characteristics.
Damper characteristics
linear non-linear
Figure 3.7: Damper characteristics, lower linear damping
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Time plots
linear non-linear Figure 3.8: Sprung mass acceleration, simulation run 2
linear non-linear
Figure 3.9: Dynamic wheel load, simulation run 2
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linear non-linear
Figure 3.10: Suspension travel, simulation run 2 Lowering the damping rate for the linear case has the effect of reducing the maximum acceleration experienced by the sprung mass. Also, the dynamic wheel load does not reach zero. However, the time taken to reach steady state for the linear case in figure 3.8, 3.9 and 3.10 is increased as a result of the lowered damping, which is not desirable.
Non-linear suspension springing and damping characteristics have an influence on the vehicle drivability and performance. This provides the motivation for developing a methodology for laying out design variations in suspension spring and damper characteristics.
Appendix 2 and 3 shall illustrate how non-linear suspension spring and damper characteristics can be constructed.
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Chapter 4: Project Methodology

Within chapter 4, the project methodology will be described. To achieve the goal of laying out suspension springing and damping variations, a simulation prototype was developed on MATLAB platform. Within the project methodology, the range of simulation model set up is discussed. The methods for describing non-linearity in suspension springing and damping characteristics are included.
4.1 MATLAB as simulation platform

MATLAB is chosen to as our platform for the simulation prototype for the following reasons: fast implementation of vector and matrix operations, intuitive , robust and easy to use routine for all basic linear algebra easy visualization high flexibility which is based on m-files read by an interpreter huge built-in function libraries
4.2 Characteristics at the wheel Approach

In reality, depending on the suspension requirement and suspension geometry, suspension spring and damper characteristics are not always positioned exactly in the vertical working line. They could be displaced laterally or may be installed with an inclination angle within the suspension. Moreover, mounting of the suspension spring and damper are not necessarily between the suspension and the vehicle body. Suspension spring and damper may be mounted between two suspension links.
If the characteristics of suspension spring and damper are to be applied directly, suspension geometry has to be first established, so that the positions of suspension
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spring and damper are known. Given the large number of suspension designs available to date and, the numerous possible ways of design modification, it will not be sensible to come up with specific model for each suspension design variation. Moreover, it is not within the project objective to derive at spring and damper characteristics having restriction on suspension geometry in place.
Within this project, the approach taken is to use spring and damper characteristics effective at the wheel. In the simulation models set up within the simulation prototype, the suspension spring and damper are assumed to be positioned exactly in the vertical line of the wheel load. Hence, spring and damper characteristics are effective at wheel.
From the characteristics of spring and damper seen at wheel, the actual characteristics of suspension spring and damper can then be derived, by considering motion ratios. This is discussed more in-depth in appendix 4.
This approach will allow us to develop a methodology for suspension spring and damper characteristics design independent of the position of suspension spring and damper in the suspension system.
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4.3 Range of simulation model

A range of simulation models was incorporated into the simulation prototype for establishing vehicles performance.
In section 3.2, the roles of suspension spring and damper have been discussed. And the range of simulation models set up take into consideration the possible ways how suspension spring and suspension affect the vehicle drivability.
Figure 4.1 shows a schematic diagram of the vehicle-suspension-ground system and vehicle drivability.
Ground conditions
Acceleration\ Deceleration Steering System Surface irregularities Vehicle (suspension)
Handling
Directional Control Wheel motion
Ride
Carbody motion
Vehicle Drivability Aerodynamics Inputs
Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of the vehicle-suspension-ground system and vehicle drivability.
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In considering ride and handling safety, where vertical motions of car body and wheel are induced by surface irregularities, oscillation models of various degrees of freedom are available for the investigation of vertical dynamics.
In considering handling, where vehicle motions are induced due to steering input, acceleration and deceleration, lateral and longitudinal dynamics are involved. Thus, an available 3D simulation model, CASCaDE PKW, has been incorporated within the simulation prototype.
4.3.1 Oscillation models

Oscillation models setup in MATLAB serve the purpose for investigation on how suspension spring and damper characteristics affect vertical dynamics of vehicle. Table 4.1 shows the various modeling aspects to be set up.
In deriving all the oscillation models, the car body is assumed to rigid. Other assumptions made in deriving the respective oscillation models are found in appendix 5.
Oscillation models 1, 2, 3, and 4 serves the purpose of investigating the behavior of car body to road surface irregularities. For car body, motions of particular interest include heave, pitch and roll motion. And for wheel, it is the heave motion. Oscillation models 5, 6, and 7 include the effect of unsprung mass. And wheel vertical motion can be investigated. To consider rigid axle suspension, oscillation models 2 and 6 have been included.
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Table 4.1: Modelling aspects of the oscillation models 1 3 5 7
z x
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4.3.2 CASCaDE
CASCaDE, the abbreviation for Computer Aided Simulation of Car, Driver and Environment, is an umbrella term which encompasses vehicle dynamic simulation programs developed by DaimlerChrysler AGs Group Research and Advanced Engineering.
The 3-dimensional vehicle simulation model incorporated within the simulation prototype is the CASCaDE PKW Classic Model. It is integrated as a sub-system for computation consultation.
CASCaDE PKW Classic Model is a real time full 3D passenger car simulation model. It is a 5-mass simulation model with lookup-table suspension characteristics, power train, detailed tire models, and aerodynamics descriptions.
The purpose of integrating CASCaDE PKW Classic Model within the simulation prototype is for investigating handling characteristics of vehicle. Handling characteristics refers to the response of vehicle to steering inputs and environmental disturbance. CASCaDE can also be employed to investigate a vehicles response to wheel load transmission, traction, braking, and cornering which involve longitudinal dynamics and lateral dynamics
Motion related to handling behavior of a vehicle are longitudinal, lateral and yaw motions, even though bounce pitch and roll can also affect steering response.
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4.4 Description of suspension spring and damper characteristics

To allow for design variations of suspension springing and damping characteristics within the project, reference to actual suspension spring and damper characteristics has been made to derive at the suspension springing and damping description method.
4.4.1 Description of suspension spring characteristics

Figure 4.2 and 4.3 show typical spring characteristics effective at the wheel of a vehicle for front and rear axle respectively. These data have been obtained experimentally, by obtaining the force provided by the suspension spring at different wheel positions.
Figure 4.2: Typical suspension spring characteristics, effective at wheel (front axle)
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Figure 4.3: Typical suspension spring characteristics, effective at wheel (rear axle) A spring force is noted at zero spring deflection. This spring force is known as preload. Its magnitude is dependent on the mass and geometry of the vehicle.
Hard stops in the respective compression and rebound direction limit the maximum deflections achievable by automotive spring during compression and rebound.
For compression region, the spring characteristic is progressive. A linear spring will have the disadvantage of a decreasing natural frequency with increasing load. To ensure that a reasonable decrease in the natural frequency, and to make sure that the spring does not reach its working limit by hitting the hard stop, a progressive region is desirable. Current industrial practice largely relies on a constant natural frequency in describing the progressiveness.
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For the rebound region, the characteristic is observed to be largely linear till the point where the spring hard stop is met.
Table 4.2 illustrates the spring descriptions available within the simulation prototype, the necessary parameters required for each spring description and the governing equations in different operating region
Three spring descriptions are available within the project. One description uses the idea of a linear spring with hard end stops. Another description uses constant natural frequency to describe the spring progressive characteristics with hard end stops. The last description allows for progressive characteristics to be defined in the compression region and a linear characteristic to be defined in the rebound region. The progressiveness at the compression region could be adjusted by changing value of the exponential factor.
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Table 4.2: Spring description methods Spring description method 1
Parameters

Governing Equations Fs = kx
, where Fs is the spring force in N, k is the spring rate in N/m and x is the spring deflection in m. The spring rate can be derived, given the natural frequency and mass, be the following equation.
2 k = n m
Natural frequency Mass (KO -definition) Maximum positive spring deflection

1
Maximum negative spring deflection , where
n is the natural frequency in rad/s and m is the mass in kg.
Hard stop stiffness
Spring description method 2
Parameters

Governing Equations
Fs ( x ) = k ( x ) dx
,where Fs(x) is the function for spring force in N and k(x) is the function for spring rate in N/m.
Natural frequency Mass (KO -definition) Maximum positive spring deflection

1
k ( x) = m( x) n =
2
Maximum negative spring deflection
F ( x) n g
Hard stop stiffness
,where n is the natural frequency in rad/s, g is the gravitational acceleration in m/s2, and m is the equivalent mass in kg. The spring characteristics can be described by,
,where
1
F ( x) = F0 e F0
n 2 x
g
is the preload in N.
KO is the abbreviation for Konstruktion Lage. By KO-definition, it refers to the design stage during which car design joints are made.
28
Spring description method 3
Parameters

Governing Equations
The equations to describe the linear and constant natural frequency are same as above.
Natural frequency Mass (KO1-definition) Maximum positive spring deflection
The equation to describe the region affected by the exponential factor is,
Maximum negative spring deflection

n2x
g
Spring Force at maximum positive spring deflection (Maximum loading)
F(x) = F0e
(FMAX F0e g + (xMAX xp )f
n2xMAX
.(xMAX x)f
Spring Force at maximum negative spring deflection , where xp is the defined spring deflection point in m, xMAX is the maximum positive spring deflection in m, FMAX is the maximum loading at maximum point in N and f is the exponential factor(dimensionless).
Position of point separating linear and progressive zone
Position
of
point
in
progressive zone defining another progression
Exponential
factor
for
defining another progression
Hard stop stiffness
KO is the abbreviation for Konstruktion Lage. By KO-definition, it refers to the design stage during which car design joints are made.
29
4.4.2 Description of suspension damper characteristics

Figure 4.4 and 4.5 show typical damper characteristic of a vehicle suspension damper for compression region and rebound region respectively. These data have been obtained experimentally exciting the damper with a sinusoidal displacement signal. By varying the frequency in several steps for the displacement signal, different forcedisplacement curves are obtained. Peak values of the damper force are plotted with the corresponding velocity to obtain the characteristics curve for damper.
Figure 4.4: Typical suspension damper characteristics for the compression region
30
Figure 4.5: Typical suspension damper characteristics for the rebound region In automotive suspension damper, rebound damping is designed to be higher than compression damping. As wheels velocities derived from vehicle measurement in the compression direction is usually 2 to 3 times higher than that in the rebound direction, having such a damping characteristics keep forces on the vehicle symmetric and aid in stabilizing body motion. Typical ratio of compression damping to rebound damping is around 30/70 for passenger car. However, it could varies between 20/80 and 50/50.
It is common among industry practice to divide compressive and rebound damping into three distinct zones. Figure 4.6 illustrates the three zones of damping in compressive and rebound damping.
31
Figure 4.6: Suspension damper characteristics, three damping zones Compression and rebound velocity below the magnitude of about 0.1 m/s is associated with noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) which is characterized by small amplitude and frequency higher than 35 Hz. Therefore, high damping is undesirable and damping within this range is kept to minimum.
Compression and rebound velocity above the magnitude of 0.2 0.3 m/s is associated with ride. In this region, a digressive characteristic is desirable for passenger car subjected to infrequent motions involving high velocities.
The third region which lies between the two zones mentioned earlier. It is associated to handling. Within this region, the F-v curve displays progressive and linear characteristics.
Within the project, damper characteristics are described in the simulation prototype with the difference in compression and rebound damping, and the possible different damping zones in mind.
32
Table 4.3 shows how the damper characteristic is described and the parameters required describing the damper characteristics.
Table 4.3: Damper description method Damper description method Parameters

Damping rate for each defined region (up to 3 regions) Piston velocity defined region for each
Compression damping rebound damping ratio
to
Using the above damper description method, figure 4.7 shows some possible damper characteristics that can be described.
Figure 4.7: Possible damper characteristics
33
Chapter 5: Implementation
5.1 Overview
Implementation of the project methodology involves setting up of the simulation prototype within MATLAB environment. Tasks include: Setting up the simulation data structure for handling of components, models, maneuvers, evaluation numbers and defining plots. Building of simulation models within MATLAB Integrating and interconnecting of the programmed modules to form the first prototype Integrating CASCaDE into the simulation prototype Testing and improving of the programmed modules
A total of more than 12 000 lines of code were developed. About 160 functions were created in MATLAB.
34
5.2 Simulation prototype

Figure 5.1 shows the schematic diagram of the simulation prototype structure.
Model Parameters
Vehicle Parameters
Maneuver Parameters
Evaluation Method & Criteria
MATLAB file of a selected modelmaneuver
Data handling
Simulation model (Oscillation Models within MATLAB\ CASCaDE)
Simulation results
CASCaDE handling manoeuvre
Evaluation
Time Plots
3D animations
Evaluation results and plots
Figure 5.1: Schematic diagram of the simulation prototype structure
Selected simulation model, vehicle parameters, maneuver parameters and evaluation criteria and methods are grouped together into one MATLAB-file (M-file). This allows for different sets of selected model-maneuver to be defined in the simulation prototype. Within the M-file for a selected model-maneuver, it is possible to specify more than one set of vehicle data. Within the M-file, evaluation functions and criteria for the selected model-maneuver can be specified for post-processing of the simulation results. Figure 5.2 and 5.3 show the main simulation file and the M-file of a selected model-maneuver respectively.
35
5.2.1 Features
Features of the simulation prototype include: A range of simulation models described in Chapter 4 has been made available for investigation of design variations in spring and damper characteristics. Component-based modeling within MATLAB allows user-defined components and new model variations to be set up within simulation. Evaluation criteria can be set and used for comparison against simulation results Simulation results and evaluation plots are made available for easy visualization. Results and evaluation for different data sets can be plotted on a single plot for quick and easy comparison. Simulation prototype inherits the 3D animation capability of CASCaDE for better visualization of CASCaDE simulation of handling maneuvers.
In Appendix 6, some illustrations of the highlighted features are presented.
36
Sets of selected model-maneuver
Data handling
Simulation
Evaluation results and plots
Time plots 3D Animation
Figure 5.2: Main simulation file
37
Model Maneuver Vehicle configurations
Evaluation criteria Evaluation function
Figure 5.3: M-file of a selected model-maneuver
38
5.3 Building of simulation model within MATLAB
5.3.1 Component-based modeling

A system can be seen as a set of various components, as in figure 5.4, together, with certain inputs, by which the system is affected by the external environment, and, certain outputs, by which the system affects the external environment , and, certain couplings, by which the components interact with each other.
Figure 5.4: Components linked up to form the system
Each individual component can be seen as a block diagram as shown in figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: Block representation of the component The concept of component-based modelling which forms the basis of the setting up of the simulation models within MATLAB. To illustrate the concept of componentbased modeling, a simple quarter car model shown in figure 5.6 will be used. The
39
range of oscillation models developed within the project utilizes this same modeling concept.
Sprung mass Suspenison damper Vertical road excitation System level Component level Suspension spring
Figure 5.6: Quarter car model, at system level and at component level
Damper force
Sprung mass Sprung mass velocity
Sprung mass displacement Spring force Suspension spring
Suspenison damper Vertical road excitation
Rate of change of road height
Road height
Figure 5.7: Couplings between components
40
5.3.2 State variables the key to simulation task

The key to simulation task of building up the simulation models within MATLAB is to first identify the state of a system. The state of a system is defined to be the smallest set of variables such that the knowledge of these variables at t = t 0 together with the knowledge of the input t t 0 completely determines the behavior of the system for any time, t t 0 .
In constructing of the oscillation models, rigid body is assumed. A rigid body has 6 degrees of freedom. In mechanics, a degree of freedom leads to two states, a generalized position and a generalized velocity variable.
Hence each rigid body, carrying 12 states, can be represented by: 3 components of r 3 components of a 3 components of v 3 components of where r is the position of the centre of gravity in inertia frame, a is the Euler angles of the body-fixed frame with respect to the inertial frame, v is the velocity of the centre of gravity in inertial frame, and is the rotational velocity in the body fixed frame.
41
5.3.3 Newtons equations of motion

Newtons equations of motion govern the changes in the state variables. And these equations are:
&=v r &=F mv & = H (a) a & + J = T J
(5.1) (5.2) (5.3) (5.4)
where,
m is the mass of the rigid body,

J x Moment of Inertia, J = 0 0 0 Jy 0 0 0 , Jz
Euler angles, a = ,
cos cos Kinematic matrix of motion, H (a) = sin cos tan sin cos cos sin tan 0 0 1
Fx Input force acting on the centre of gravity, F = Fy , F z Tx Input torque in body fixed frame, T = T y , T z
5.3.4 Non-linear time-invariant system (NTI)

Due to non-linearity in suspension spring and damper characteristics, the oscillation systems are non-linear and time invariant (NTI). For NTI system, the system and its component has the following space state mathematical representation:
42
state equation : output equation : initial condition :
& = f ( z, u, p) z y = g(z,u,p) z(t 0 ) = z ( 0 )
(5.6) (5.7) (5.8)
where ,z is the state variable, u is the input, y is the output, and t 0 is time t = 0.
Considering equations of motion for rigid body written in part 5.2.1, Defining the state vector to be s= x
vx
vy
vz
z ]T
NTI state-space equations can be written as follow:
&=v, for r
&1 s 4 s s & 2 = s5 &3 s s6

&4 Fx s 1 s & 5 = m Fy F &6 s z
(5.9)
&=F, for mv
(5.10)
& = H ( a ) , for a &7 s10 ( s10 cos s9 s11 sin s9 ) / cos s8 s s & 8 = H ( s 7 , s8 , s9 ) s11 = s10 sin s9 + s11 cos s9 & s12 s12 ( s10 cos s9 s11 sin s9 ) tan s8 s9
(5.11)
& + J = T , for J
1 (T x + ( J y J z ) s11 s12 ) J &10 x s 1 s & 11 = J (T y + ( J z J x ) s10 s12 s y &12 1 (T z + ( J x J y ) s10 s11 Jz
(5.12)
43
5.3.5 Programming in MATLAB

Section 5.3.1 and 5.3.4 introduce the concept of component-based modeling and the mathematical description of a NTI system. This section shall give an illustration on the implementation within MATLAB. Figure 5.8 shows a M-file containing the routine for creating the sprung mass component used in figure 5.6.
Figure 5.8: M-file for routine, mass01_start_model.m
Within the routine, the data structure and the function handles of governing equations for component are defined. Figure 5.9 is the M-file of routine mass01_def_mdata stage2, which defines the model parameters. Figure 5.10 shows the M-file of the routine, mass01_compute_zcd, where Newtons equation of motion described in section 5.3.3 are used for governing the changes in the state variables.
44
Figure 5.9: M-file for routine, mass01_def_mdata_stage2.m
Equation of motion Figure 5.10: M-file for routine, mass01_compute_zcd.m Within the project, the other components are described in the similar manner. Using the coupling information contained in the model parameter file, the components are linked up. During the simulation process, the derivatives of the continuous state variables are collated for numerical integration. A range of integrators are available within MATLAB. Ode23tb, which is based on a backward differentiation formula (BDF) scheme, has been chosen. After deriving the state variables, using the mathematical description in section 5.3.4, the output of each component can be derived.
45
5.3.6 Modeling of suspension springing and damping
Figure 5.11 shows how the modeling of the suspension springing and damping is carried out in the project.
Damper rubber stop end stiffness
Damper Spring
Damper friction Linkage friction
Figure 5.11: Modeling of the suspension springing and damping In the modeling of suspension springing and damping for the oscillation models set up within MATLAB, apart from the influence of the spring and damper characteristics, the elastic mount, damper friction and suspension linkage friction has been included.
The introduction of coulomb friction via damper friction and linkage friction into modeling of suspension springing and damping results in severe non-linearity. Figure 5.12 shows a typical behavior of coulomb friction. The discontinuity at v =0 ms-1 results in an infinitely stiff system.
46
F(v)
Figure 5.12: Coulomb Friction In the following section, the strategies taken to overcome the problem of the severe non-linearity are being discussed.
5.3.5.1 Modeling of linkage friction

The approach to overcome the infinite slope of the coulomb friction characteristics is to use an inverse tangent curve to describe the coulomb friction. F(v) 90% maximum friction Ffr_max
-Ffr_max
Velocity at 90 % maximum friction
Figure 5.13: Modeling of linkage friction By considering oscillating motion of small amplitude of 0.01m and low frequency 0.5 Hz, it is desirable to attain a 90% maximum friction force at the maximum velocity of this oscillation motion, which is 0.0314ms-1.
47
Hence we arrived at the relation, 2 F fr _ max
F (v ) =
arctan(201.7v)
(5.13)
5.3.5.2 Modeling of hydraulic damper with elastic rubber mount and friction
An approach to modeling of the hydraulic damper with elastic rubber mount and friction, shown in figure 5.14, is to introduce a spurious mass between the spring and the damper. However, as the small mass is to be used, this leads to stiff system.
Within the project, the concept of an inverse characteristic of the damper is used to overcome the problem. xu, vu
Fs xdr, vdr Ff Fd
xl, vl
Figure 5.14: Hydraulic damper with elastic rubber mount and friction By first evaluating the spring force, if the spring force is less than the coulomb friction, damper force is zero and the damper rod does not move. If the spring force is greater than the coulomb friction, the velocity of the rod movement can be obtained using the inverse characteristics curve, since the damper force is the difference between spring force and coulomb friction.
48
Mathematically, a first order differential equation can be derived,
) & dr = v l + Fd 1 (Fs ( x u x dr )) v dr = x
(5.14)
) where Fd1 is the inverse function of the F-v curve formed by damper and coulomb
friction shown in figure 5.15. The gradient of the slope of the inverse characteristics at the origin is zero. Hence, it resolves the numerical problem posed by damper coulomb friction.
) Fd
Fd Ff v
) Fd1
Figure 5.15: Inverse damper characteristics.
49
Chapter 6: Validation of simulation prototype

Validation was carried out to ensure that the simulation prototype developed within this project produce results that conforms to reality within reasonable range. In the validation procedure described in this section, bumps of various heights are used.
6.1 Validation Procedure

Measurement data were first obtained for a real vehicle crossing over bump of height 10 mm, 30 mm, and 50 mm at 80 km/h. Appendix 7 shows the details of the vehicle setup used for the experiment purpose. Simulation was carried out under the above conditions using the full vehicle model, CASCaDE PKW, in the simulation prototype. Results produced were compared against the measurement data for validation of CASCaDE PKW model. Subsequent validation of oscillation models developed in MATLAB were done against CASCaDE PKW model, with consideration of the assumptions made in deriving the oscillation models in MATLAB (Appendix 4).
6.1.1 Validation of CASCaDE PKW model

Table 6.1 presents the validation of CASCaDE PKW model. The time plots of vertical acceleration of the car body at CG position and the inbound wheel velocity obtained from simulation were compared against the measurement data. The simulation result differed from the actual measurement by a percentage error of less than 2%. The close proximity of the simulation results and measurements forms the basis for validation of CASCaDE PKW model.
50
Table 6.1: Validation data at different bump heights Bump Height 10mm
sens.pos. vertical acceleration bump 10mm speed 80km/h 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.01 0.03 front left wheel inbound speed, bump 10mm speed 80km/h simulation measurement 0.001 roadheight [mm]
simulation measurement 0.01 roadheight [mm]
0.02
0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3

-0.03 0 [m/s] -0.01 -0.02 -0.04
[m/s2]
-0.4 -0.5
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 [t] 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
0.5
1 [t]
1.5
2.5
Bump Height 30mm

sens.pos. vertical acceleration bump 30mm speed 80km/h 1 simulation measurement 0.01 roadheight [mm]
front left wheel inbound speed, bump 30mm speed 80km/h 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 simulation measurement 0.001 roadheight [mm]
0.5
0 [m/s 2]
0 [m /s]
0 0.5 1 [t] 1.5 2 2.5
-0.02 -0.04 -0.06
-0.5
-1
-0.08 -0.1
-1.5
-0.12
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6 1.8 [t]
2.2
2.4
2.6
Bump Height 50mm

sens.pos. vertical acceleration bump 50mm speed 80km/h 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 simulation measurement 0.01 roadheight [mm]
front left wheel inbound speed, bump 50mm speed 80km/h 0.15 simulation measurement 0.001 roadheight [mm]
0.1
0.05
[m/s 2]
0 [m /s ] -0.05 -0.1 -0.15

0 0.5 1 [t] 1.5 2 2.5
-2.5
-0.2
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6 1.8 [t]
2.2
2.4
2.6
51
6.1.2 Validation of oscillation models in MATLAB

Having established that CASCaDE PKW model conforms close to reality, oscillation models developed in MATLAB were validated against CASCaDE PKW model. Table 6.2 presents the validation of Oscillation Model in MATLAB. The time plots of vertical acceleration of the car body traveling at 80km/h over bump height of 30mm are presented. The validation data for bump height of 10mm and 50mm are included in Appendix 8. Table 6.2: Oscillation models and validation plots Oscillation Model Validation plots
z y
2
52
Oscillation Model
Validation plots
z x
y
6
53
Oscillation Model
Validation plots
The oscillation models developed within MATLAB were capable of registering the acceleration peaks, with the following error range and maximum percentage error shown in table 6.3. Table 6.3: Error range and maximum percentage error Oscillation model 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Error range 0.001g - 0.03g 0.001g - 0.03g 0.001g - 0.02g 0.001g - 0.02g 0.005g - 0.05g 0.005g - 0.05g 0.002g - 0.06g Maximum % error 5 5 8 8 10 10 12
Some discrepancies were observed in the validation data. Higher frequency noise was observed for the case of CASCaDE PKW model. This was generated by steering, elasto-kinematics and wheel rotation within the more detailed CASCaDE PKW model. Oscillation models developed with consideration of the unsprung mass had a smoother appearance than those developed without consideration of the unsprung mass. The unsprung mass has the effect of smoothing the force transmitted to the sprung mass by its inertia.
54
Chapter 7: Application
In the planning of a new car model, product objectives are derived based on contributions from engineering, manufacturing, product planning, sales, and marketing, and styling. These objectives form the basis for establishing design specifications for all areas in the product development of a vehicle, including suspension design.
Response characteristics for a suspension design based on these design specifications can be derived and analyzed to see if the performance requirements are met by using the simulation prototype.
The inclusion of the simulation prototype allows for a wide range of simulation models for investigation of different suspension springing and damping performance. Table 7.1 shows a list of the possible combinations of models and maneuvers for different purposes in suspension design.
Figure 7.1 shows a proposed suspension design cycle, with the use of the simulation prototype integrated within the design process. Analysis can be done to see if performance requirement are met. If not, modifications to the design can be made until the requirements are fulfilled.
An illustration is included in appendix 9 to illustrate the application of the simulation prototype in the laying out process of design variations in suspension spring and damper characteristics for a luxurious car configuration.
55
Table 7.1: List of possible models, maneuvers and aspects for different suspension design purposes
Model Oscillation model 1 & 2 Maneuver Step input in positive or/and negative direction Sweep vertical input Oscillation model 2 Oscillation model 3 Uneven left-right input Step input in positive or/and negative direction Sweep vertical input Purpose Investigation displacement of vertical
Oscillation model 4
Oscillation model 5 & 6
Longitudinal acceleration/ deceleration at centre of gravity of sprung mass Step input in positive or/and negative direction Uneven left-right input Roll angle input Lateral force at centre of gravity position of sprung mass Step input in positive or/and negative direction Sweep vertical input
Investigation of vertical displacement amplification Investigation of roll angle Investigation of vertical displacement, pitch Investigation of vertical displacement amplification, pitch angle amplification Investigation of vertical displacement amplification, pitch angle amplification Investigation of vertical displacement, pitch Investigation of roll angle Estimation of anti-roll bar stiffness Investigation of roll angle Investigation of vertical displacement, wheel load, influence of unsprung mass Investigation of vertical displacement amplification, suspension space amplification, wheel load amplification Investigation of roll angle Investigation of vertical displacement, roll, pitch, wheel load Investigation of wheel space, roll and maximum lateral acceleration Investigation of yaw velocity, lateral acceleration, side slip angle, roll angle Investigation of roll angle amplification, side slip amplification, yaw amplification Investigation of roll angle amplification, side slip amplification, yaw amplification Investigation of wheel load distribution ratio, pitch Investigation of vertical displacement, vertical acceleration, wheel load Investigation of suspension property Investigation of roll
Oscillation model 6 Oscillation model 7
Uneven left-right input Random road input
CASCaDE PKW
constant steering angle gradient (zuziehen) Step steering angle (lenkwinkelsprung) Sweep steering (lenksweep) A sinusoidal (lenkeinsinus) angle input
input
steering
input
Braking (bremsen) Road bump (welle)
Lift test (hubtest) Roll test (wanktest)
56
Establish design specifications: Ride Frequency Roll Flexibility Roll Moment distribution
Spring design variations to give desired: Ride frequency
Spring design parameters
Damper design variations
Damper design parameters
Check on vertical dynamics of vehicle
discard
No
Roll rates due to suspension spring
Meet requirements
No
Viability of design
Yes
Yes Compute roll rates to give desired: Roll Flexibility Roll Moment distribution
Roll rates required by anti-roll bars
Suspension wheel kinematics and elastokinematics
Check on directional control and directional stability
discard
No
Meet requirements
No
Viability of design
Yes
Yes
Final suspension spring and damper characteristics Figure 7.1: Proposed design cycle for suspension spring and damper characteristics 57
Chapter 8: Conclusion
8.1 Thesis Conclusion

For this project, we have developed a methodology for laying out design variations in springing and damping characteristics. The purpose is to reduce the effort and cost involved in prototype testing.
Firstly, we considered the functions of suspension spring and dampers in vehicle system, and derived at the approach to describe the springing and damping characteristics and the range of design of simulation models within the methodology.
Next, the methodology was implemented in MATLAB. The implementation of the methodology required the setting up of data structure for handling of components, models, maneuvers, evaluation number and plots. Setting up the oscillation models within MATLAB required the development of mathematical models. And componentbased modeling concept was used.
Thirdly, with the simulation prototype setup, we performed a validation of the simulation prototype and proposed a design cycle to include the use of the simulation designing springing and damping characteristics. An illustration was done using a luxurious vehicle configuration to demonstrate the feasibility of the methodology.
A simulation prototype capable of handling sets of selected maneuvers and car configurations and displaying the results in comprehensive plots for quick assessment of springing and damping characteristics was developed within this project. 58
8.2 Future work

1. Within the project, the focus is to show the feasibility of the methodology. First simulation prototype is implemented without much consideration to user comfort. Future work can be done to improve the user comfort.
2.
Within the project, we consider only steel spring. Future work can be extended to hydro-pneumatic spring.
3.
An automatic optimization process may be implemented in the design process.
59
References
REFERENCES
[1] An analysis of pitch and bounce motion, requiring high performance of ride and comfort I. Kushiro, E. Yasuda and S. Doi Vehicle System Dynamics Supplement 41(2004) p 83 92
[2]
Automotive shock absorber: features, designs, applications P. Causemann Verl. Moderne Industrie 2000
[3]
Comparison of Different Mathematical Models of Oscillation Model M. Mitschke Proceedings of the 8th IAVSD Symposium 1983
[4]
Electronic Controlled Shock Absorber System Used as a Road Sensor Which Utilises Supersonic Waves F. Sugasawa, H. Kobayashi, T. Kakimoto, Y. Shiraishi and Y. Tateishi SAE Technical Paper Series, 851652, 1985
[5]
Magic Numbers in Design of Suspensions for Passenger Cars P. Barak SAE Technical Paper Series, 911921, 1991
[6]
Modern Automotive Technology R. Gscheidle Europa Lehrmittel 2006
[7]
Numerical Design of Racecar Suspension Parameters D. E. Woods, B. A. Jawad, 1999 SAE Technical Paper Series, 1999-01-2257, 1999
60
References
[8]
Optimum characteristics of automotive shock absorbers under various driving conditions and road surfaces N. Fukushima, K. Hidaka and K. Iwata International Journal if Vehicle Design, Vol. 4, no.5, 1983
[9]
Road Vehicle Suspension W. Matschinsky Professional Engineering Publishing 1998
[10]
Race Car Vehicle Dynamics W.F. Milliken, D.L. Milliken SAE International 1995
[11]
Shock Absorber Handbook J.C. Dixon SAE International 1998
[12]
Systemdynamik und Simulation M. Gipser, Fachhochschule Esslingen, 1999
[13]
Theory of Ground Vehicles J.Y. Wong John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2001
[14]
Vehicle Dynamics Lecture Notes G. Rill Fachhochschule Regensburg, 2005
61
Appendix 1
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Values assigned to simulation parameters
Table A1.1: Values assigned to simulation parameters Sprung mass, mspr 483.5kg Unsprung mass, munspr 39.5 kg Stiffness of damper rubber bung, k1 400 000 N/m Damper Friction, c1 25 N Linkage Friction, c2 150 N Tire stiffness, k2 176 000 N/m Height of cosine shaped bump, mspr 0.08 m Width of cosine shaped bump, munspr 2m Horizontal velocity, vhorizontal 50 km/ h
mspr k1 c1 munspr k2
vhorizontal
c2
Cosine shaped bump h bump
l bump
Figure A1.1: Illustration of the quarter car model driven with constant velocity over a cosine shaped bump.
62
Appendix 1
Spring Characteristics - linear case Table A1.2: Values for spring characteristics description linear case Spring description Description 1 Natural Frequency, Hz 1.2 Preload, N 4743 Maximum positive spring deflection, m 0.1 Maximum negative spring deflection, m -0.1 Hardstop stiffness, N/m 10000000
Figure A1.2: Spring characteristics, linear case Damper Characteristics - linear case Table A1.3: Values for damper characteristics description linear case Damper rate, Ns/m 3000
Figure A1.3: Damper characteristics, linear case
63
Appendix 1
Spring Characteristics - nonlinear case Table A1.4: Values for spring characteristics description nonlinear case Spring description Description 2 Natural Frequency, Hz 1.2 Preload, N 4743 Maximum positive spring deflection, m 0.1 Maximum negative spring deflection, m -0.1 Hardstop stiffness, N/m 10000000
Figure A1.4: Spring characteristics, non-linear case Damper Characteristics - nonlinear case Table A1.5: Values for damper characteristics description nonlinear case Compression: Rebound damping 1:2 Damper rate in region 0 0.2m/s, Ns/m 3000 Damper rate in region above 0.2m/s, Ns/m 600
Figure A1.5: Damper characteristics, non-linear case
64
Appendix 1
Damper Characteristics, lower damper rate Table A1.6: Values for damper characteristics description linear case Damper rate, Ns/m 1200
Figure A1.6: Damper characteristics, linear case, lower damper rate
65
Appendix 2
Appendix 2: Achieving non-linear damper characteristics in hydraulic dampers

Figure A2.1 shows the structure of a basic hydraulic damper.
Piston rod
Piston valve Bottom valve
Figure A2.1: A basic hydraulic damper. The damping principle behind hydraulic damper is the conversion of the differential pressure at the piston valve to force by the cross-section of the piston rod and piston ring surface.
In an ideal hydraulic damper, the equations that relates the damping force (Fd), the flow rate(Q), the rebound or compression velocity(v), and the surface area of
piston(A) are given by:
Fd = A.p v= Q A
66
Appendix 2
Figure A2.2 shows three possible ways hydraulic resistances could occur in shock absorber.
Laminar cross-section
Orifice
Pressure-limiting valve Fspring
2r
Q Static Dynamic
: pA = Fstatic : pA = Fstatic + Fdynamic
p =
8l Q r 4
p =
2 D A
2
Q2 2
Figure A2.2: Hydraulic resistances in shock absorber. Different damping characteristics can be achieved with various hydraulic resistance combinations.
67
Appendix 3
Appendix 3: Achieving non-linear springing using helical spring

Different strategies could be employed to achieve a non-linear springing characteristics using helical spring.
One approach is to include auxiliary springs in the design of car suspension. Figure A3.1 shows how two auxiliary springs could be included in the design of car suspension to achieve a progressive spring characteristics. By superimposing the characteristics of the primary helical spring and the characteristics of the two auxiliary rubber springs, a spring characteristics is attained.
Figure A3.1: Two auxiliary springs in the design of car suspension for progressive springing characteristics Another approach in achieving a progressive spring characteristics is to have a variable the pitch in the helical spring as shown in Figure A3.2.
68
Appendix 3
Figure A3.2: Helical spring with variable pitch
A progressive spring characteristics could also be achieved by having a series arrangement of two springs as shown in Figure A3.3. The effective spring rate follows the equation,
c res =
c1c 2 . (c1 + c 2 )
When one spring is coil-bound, the spring rate follows that of the other spring.
Figure A3.3: Series arrangement of two springs
69
Appendix 3
Another way to achieve the desired progressive spring characteristics is to have a barrel configuration with varying coil diameter, wire diameter and pitch. Figure A3.4 shows a barrel spring.
Figure A3.4: A barrel springs
70
Appendix 4
Appendix 4: Assumptions in deriving oscillation models

Table A4.1: Assumptions made to derive the various oscillation models Oscillation models Assumptions Car body is a rigid body
The unevenness of the left and right road track is the same. The construction of the vehicle is symmetrical around the longitudinal axis. The inertia along the lateral axis is given by, Jyy = ml1l2. The unsprung mass is much smaller than the corresponding sprung mass. Car body is a rigid body The construction of the vehicle is symmetrical around the longitudinal axis.
The inertia along the lateral axis is given by, Jyy = ml1l2. The unsprung mass is much smaller than the corresponding sprung mass.
71
Appendix 4
Oscillation models
Assumptions Car body is a rigid body
The unevenness of the left and right road track is the same. The construction of the vehicle is symmetrical around the longitudinal axis.
z x
The front and rear track widths are the same. The unsprung mass is much smaller than the corresponding sprung mass. Car body is a rigid body The unsprung mass is much smaller than the corresponding sprung mass.
72
Appendix 4
Oscillation models
Assumptions Car body is a rigid body
The unevenness of the left and right road track is the same. The construction of the vehicle is symmetrical around the longitudinal axis. The inertia along the lateral axis is given by, Jyy = ml1l2. Car body is a rigid body The construction of the vehicle is symmetrical around the longitudinal axis.
The inertia along the lateral axis is given by, Jyy = ml1l2.
Car body is a rigid body
73
Appendix 5
Appendix 5: Concept of motion ratio

The purpose of Appendix 5 is to relate the spring and damper characteristics derived at wheel to the characteristics of spring and damper itself. This can be done by the relative motion of the wheel, and suspension spring and damper.
Figure A5.1 shows an independent suspension with a coil spring and a damper mounted away from the vertical line of the wheel load.
Figure A5.1: An independent suspension with a coil spring and a damper mounted away from the vertical line of the wheel load
Considering a differential travel of the wheel carrier where the contact point A moves with a velocity vA, the lower joint of the spring will be compressed by velocity vf which acts along its axis.
The virtual power exerted by the wheel load can be derived as by FFAvAZ. And the power induced on the spring due to the velocity, vf, is given by FFvf. The two powers must balance each other, FFAvAZ. = FF vf.
74
Appendix 5
From the above, a motion ratio for the spring (spring ratio, iF) can be defined. It is given by, iF = FFA / FF = vf / vAz By multiplying of time differential, dt, to both the numerator and the denominator, the spring ratio can be written as the derivative of the spring travel and the wheel travel, iF = df / ds. Similarly, for damper, a motion ratio for the damper (damper ratio, iD) can be defined. It is given by, iD = FDA / FD = vD / vAz With the motion ratios known for a particular suspension geometry, and the spring and damper characteristics effective at wheel can be converted into the characteristics of the spring and damper itself.
75
Appendix 6
Appendix 6: Sample illustrations of result presentations
Figure A6.1: Sample time plots
Figure A6.2: Sample of a 3D animation screen capture
76
Appendix 6
Figure A6.3: Sample of an evaluation plot
Figure A6.4: Sample of evaluation results
77
Appendix 7
Appendix 7: Experimental setup

Figure A7.1 and A7.2 show the vehicle setup for experimental measurement.
Figure A7.1: Overview of vehicle setup
Figure A7.2: Measurement equipment
78
Appendix 7
Figure A7.3 to A7.8 shows the position where the different sensors are positioned.
Figure A7.3: Sensor placed at drivers position
Figure A7.4: Sensor placed at window
Figure A7.5: Sensor placed over front axle
Figure A7.6: Sensor placed over rear axle
Figure A7.7: Sensor placed at wheel
Figure A7.8: Sensor for measuring inbound and rebound movement
79
Appendix 8
Appendix 8: Validation data

Table A8.1: Validation plots for oscillation models in MATLAB (bump height of 10mm and 50mm) Oscillation Model bump height 10mm bump height 50mm
yy
80
Appendix 8
Oscillation Model
bump height 10mm
bump height 50mm
z x
81
Appendix 8
Oscillation Model
bump height 10mm
bump height 50mm
82
Appendix 8
Oscillation Model
bump height 10mm
bump height 50mm
83
Appendix 9
Appendix 9: Illustration
The objective of this illustration is not to present a perfect solution for deriving suspension springing and damping characteristics, but to show that the methodology developed within this project can be used in the design process of suspension springing and damping and design variations of suspension spring and damper characteristics can be laid out. In the illustration, a luxurious car configuration similar to Mercedes-Benz S- Class will be used.
A9.1 Selected Simulation model and maneuver

Simulation models available within the developed simulation prototype are the MATLAB oscillation models based on component-based modeling and CASCaDE PKW model.
Taking advantage of the available models within the built simulation prototype, a range of driving maneuvers can be performed. Generally, driving maneuvers can be classified into different categories. One way of classification is to group them into open-loop and close-loop maneuver. For an open-loop maneuver, the reaction of the vehicle system does not affect the input to the vehicle system. On contrary, for a close-loop maneuver, the input into the vehicle system is affected by the reaction of the vehicle system. The driver is part of the evaluated system. Hence, an objective evaluation on closed-loop maneuver is difficult. Within the illustration, open-looped maneuvers are used for investigation purposes.
Maneuvers can also be seen as dynamic or stationary. Stationary maneuver is characterized by the vehicle system reaching an eventual stable condition after the 84
Appendix 9
maneuver execution. On the other hand, upon execution of dynamic maneuvers, vehicle system is always experiencing changes.
With reference to section 4.3 and Table 4.1, the selected models and maneuver chosen for laying out the design variations of suspension spring and damper characteristics are: Model - maneuver 1: Oscillation Model 1, positive step
Figure A9.1: Selected model - maneuver 1, oscillation model 1 and positive step input
Each vehicle configuration is subjected to different levels of positive step input for different loading conditions. Both front and rear axle is investigated. The purpose is to investigate ride harshness. The behavior of the sprung mass is of interest. Model - maneuver 2: Oscillation Model 4, roll flexibility and roll moment distribution.
+
y
Figure A9.2: Selected model - maneuver 2, oscillation model 4, required roll flexibility and roll moment distribution
85
Appendix 9
Given the roll flexibility and the required roll moment distribution, the stiffness of the stabilizer bar for both the front and rear axle is estimated using this oscillation model.
Model - maneuver 3: CASCaDE, Zuziehen In zuziehen maneuver, vehicle is driven at a constant speed of 72 km/h and a constant steering gradient of 25 o/s is applied to the steering wheel. For this maneuver, maximum lateral acceleration of the vehicle, vehicles self steering response, and the remaining wheel space are of interest.
Model - maneuver 4: CASCaDE, Lenkwinkelsprung Lenkwinkelsprung maneuver aims to evaluate the vehicle response to a step steer angle input. The vehicle is allow to reach a constant velocity before a step steer angle of 85o input puts the vehicle system in a circular path. Building up of yaw velocity, lateral acceleration and roll are of concern in this maneuver.
Model - maneuver 5: CASCaDE, Lenksweep In Lenksweep maneuver, vehicle is driven forward at a speed of 72 km/h and a sweep steering input of 30o, in the frequency range of 0.2 to 2.8 Hz, is given to the vehicle. It aims to evaluate the dynamic handling of the vehicle response to changing steering input.
86
Appendix 9
A9.2 Design specifications

The design specifications of the luxurious car configuration are as below: Ride frequency: Roll flexibility: Roll moment distribution (front axle: rear axle): 0.8 Hz 5o of roll at 7ms-2 of lateral acceleration
60:40
A9.3Vehicle data
Table A9.1 show the vehicle parameters of the luxurious vehicle configuration at different loading conditions Loading Condition: KO Quantity Value Sprung mass 1913 Position of sprung masss [-1.5572, 0, 0.3259] CG w.r.t. reference point Moment of Inertia, Jxx 769 Moment of Inertia, Jyy 3928 Moment of Inertia, Jzz 4315 Loading Condition: Empty Quantity Value Sprung mass 1663 Position of sprung masss [-1.5244, 0, 0.3010] CG w.r.t. reference point Moment of Inertia, Jxx 768 Moment of Inertia, Jyy 3810 Moment of Inertia, Jzz 4314 Loading Condition: Fully loaded Quantity Value Sprung mass 2063 Position of sprung masss [-1.6680, 0, 0.3022] CG w.r.t. reference point Moment of Inertia, Jxx 769 Moment of Inertia, Jyy 4276 Moment of Inertia, Jzz 4315 Other vehicle parameters Quantity Wheel base Font axle track width Rear axle track width Damper rubber stiffness Value 3.081 1.4 1.4 1500000
Units kg m kgm2 kgm2 kgm2 Units kg m kgm2 kgm2 kgm2 Units kg m kgm2 kgm2 kgm2
Units m m m N/m 87
Appendix 9
Damper friction Tire stiffness Wheel radius Unsprung mass Driver position w.r.t reference point
25 176000 0.28 39.5 [-1.285, -0.340, 0.575]
N N/m m kg m
A9.3 Laying-out Process

The laying-out process presented here is divided into two stages. In the first stage, model - maneuver 1 and model - maneuver 2 are used first to derive at a plausible characteristics set. Main areas of concern are:1) car-body movement when vehicle is fully loaded 2) Wheel movement when a constant steering gradient of 25o/s is being added. In the second stage, another damping characteristics variation is introduced, with the compression to rebound damping ratio inversed. It would be of interest to see the differences in the response of vehicle with the additional configuration.
88
Appendix 9
A9.3.1 Stage 1 of laying-out process

Figure A9.3 shows stage 1 the laying-out process.
Desired Ride Frequency of 0.8 Hz Initial Spring and Damper Characteristics Design: Configuration 1, 2, 3
1
Oscillation 1, postive step at 10mm, 30mm, 50mm, 70mm step height for 3 different loading conditions: empty, KO, fully-loaded for front and rear axle
1 3 2
Observation & Design Modification 2 Observation & Design Modification 1
Spring and Damper Characteristics Design: Configuration 3, 4 Desired roll o angle of 5 -2 at 7 ms Desired roll moment distribution of 60:40 (front axle: rear axle)
3
Oscillation model 4 estimation of anti-roll bar values for front and rear axle
3
Stiffness of roll bar stiffness for front and rear axle
3
Zuziehen maneuver 72 km/h o steering input of 25 /s
4
Spring and Damper Characteristics Design : Configuration 4
Figure A9.3: Stage 1 of laying-out process
89
Appendix 9
Initial springing and damping characteristics Configuration 1 Spring Characteristics Front axle: Damper Characteristics Both axles:
Rear axle:
90
Appendix 9
Configuration 2
Spring Characteristics Front axle:
Damper Characteristics Both axles:
Rear axle:
91
Appendix 9
Configuration 3
Rear axle:
92
Appendix 9
Step 1 Observation For inbound step-size of 10mm and 30mm, configuration 3 demonstrates insufficient damping at the rear axle when it is fully loaded. Configuration 2 demonstrates insufficient damping at the rear axle when it is unloaded.
Fully loaded
Empty
Figure A9.4: Sprung mass vertical displacement in response to step-size 10mm, loading condition - fully loaded and empty b From definition of damping ratio, D = , increasing mass or increasing 2 mk stiffness reduces the amount of damping. For configuration 3, in the case of fully loaded condition, the higher effective spring stiffness in the compression region and the increased payload are the reasons for the under-damped condition. For configuration 2, in the case of empty condition, the higher effective spring stiffness in the rebound region explains for the insufficient damping experienced.
For inbound step-size of 50mm and 70mm, big excitation steps result in full inbound movement of wheel, and cause the hardstop to be hit for fully loaded 93
Appendix 9
situation in the rear axle. Under fully loaded condition, hardstop is being hit and car body is being thrown into air.
step size 50 mm
step size 70 mm Figure A9.5: Sprung mass vertical displacement in response to step-size 50mm and 70 mm, loading condition - full
94
Appendix 9
Design modification Using the same damper characteristics design, the damping rates used are increased to describe the damper characteristics. Average damping value for the region 0 0.2 ms-1 used are at 1000 Ns/m, 2000 Ns/m, 3000 Ns/m and 4000 Ns/m.
Vehicle sprung mass response to inbound 70 mm will be used for investigation in the next step for rear axle at three different loading conditions namely, empty, KO, and fully loaded.
Step 2 Observations
For fully loaded condition, it is seen previously that the hardstop limit is reached for configuration 1 and 2. Increasing the damping values has the effect of reducing the number of times the hardstop is being hit for configuration 1 and 2. Higher damping causes a slight lift in the car-body, thus reducing the spring deflection
95
Appendix 9
step size 50 mm
step size 70 mm Figure A9.6: Sprung mass vertical displacement in response to step-size 50mm and 70 mm, loading condition full at damping value of 4000 Ns/m
Configuration 3 has not reached the hard-stop limit under fully loaded. Stiffer spring rate at the compression region is needed to cope with payload.
96
Appendix 9
Design modifications Increased average damping value to 4000 Ns/m. Configuration 1 & 2 are not feasible, since they cannot cope with payload. Another configuration with stiffer spring rate at the compression and rebound region is added.
97
Appendix 9
Configuration 4
Rear axle:
98
Appendix 9
Step 3 Using oscillation model 4, the required roll-angle of 5o, which is to be achieved at the lateral acceleration of 7ms-2, is input into the model. The stiffness of the anti-roll bar for the front and rear axle is then calculated to be: Configuration Stiffness of Anti-roll bar (Front Axle)[ N/m] 3 4 2.5286e4 7118 Stiffness of Anti-roll bar (Rear Axle)[N/m] 1.4387e4 0
Step 4 The roll angle versus lateral acceleration shows that the method of using oscillation model 4 to derive the anti-roll bar stiffness give roll flexibility close to the desired value, as shown in figure A9.7.
Figure A9.7: Roll angle versus lateral acceleration
Configuration 3 shows wheel lift in the inner front wheel in the zuziehen, as shown in figure A9.8. Wheel lift is not desirable, as tire force can no longer be transmitted with wheel lift. Vehicle loses its directional stability. 99
Appendix 9
Configuration 4 still has wheel space left in the zuziehen maneuver. Stiffer spring at the rebound region prevent the front wheel from lifting.
Figure A9.8: Wheel inbound movement Spring and damper characteristics that satisfy the required vehicle performance up to design stage 1 is left with configuration 4, with anti roll bar stiffness of 7118 N/m at the front axle.
Further fine tuning of the compression region of the spring characteristics can be done with different starting point of the progressive region and with different progressive rates to look into the sprung mass behavior at fully loaded condition.
Further fine tuning of the rebound region of the spring characteristics can be done with different starting point of the rebound springing region and with different slopes for the rebound region using zuziehen maneuver to see if wheel lift occurs.
100
Appendix 9
A9.3.2 Stage 2 of laying-out process

Spring and Damper Configuration 4 Spring and Damper Configuration 5
Oscillation 1, step input of size 30mm
Lenkwinkelsprungma neuver 72 km/h steering input of 85o
Lenkwinkelsweep maneuver 72 km/h steering input of 30O frequency range of 0.2 to 2.8 Hz
Design Modification
Assessment
Spring and Damper Characteristics
Figure A9.9: Stage 2 of laying-out process
101
Appendix 9
Spring and Damper Configuration 5 The spring characteristic is the same as configuration 4. But the damper characteristic has a compression: rebound damping ratio of 2:1, instead of 1:2. Configuration 5 Spring Characteristics Front axle: Damper Characteristics Both axles:
Rear axle:
102
Appendix 9
Lenksweep maneuver Figure A9.10 shows the gain in lateral slip angle across the frequency range of 0.2 to 2.8 Hz of steering input of 30o.
Figure A9.10 Gain in lateral slip angle
From figure A9.10, a lower peak value is observed for the lateral slip angle gain with increased compression damping. This is desirable as less rear lateral slip will provide a more stable handling to the vehicle.
Step input of 30mm Figure A9.11 shows the vertical acceleration of the sprung mass. With increased compression damping in configuration 5, the maximum acceleration experienced by the sprung mass is also higher by about 2 times. Higher acceleration peak is not desirable, as they are often associated with human discomfort.
103
Appendix 9
Figure A9.11: Vertical acceleration of the sprung mass
Lenkwinkelsprung maneuver In lenkwinkelsprung maneuver, the transient responses due to the given step steer of 85o are of interest. Figure A9.12 A9.15 shows the time plot of the yaw velocity, pitch angle, roll angle, and the vertical displacement of the CG respectively.
Figure A9.12: Yaw velocity
104
Appendix 9
Figure A9.13: Pitch angle
Figure A9.14: Vertical displacement of centre of gravity
Figure A9.15: Wheel inbound movement
105
Appendix 9
Modifications of the springing and damping characteristics could be carried out further to tune the springing and damping characteristics to derive at the desirable transient responses.
A9.4 Conclusion
As mentioned in section 3.3 on the ride and handling compromise, in the tuning of suspension springing and damping characteristics, it is not possible to find a configuration that could have the best performance in both ride and handling safety.
However, a compromise could be reached by laying out the differences in the vehicle responses to different maneuvers. The assessment of the differences would allow the suspension designer to make modifications to the springing and damping characteristics and come to a compromise easier. In this illustration, we have shown that the implemented methodology has provided a clear and transparent way of laying-out of the design variations for assessment.
106

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SIMULATION BASED LAYOUT OF AUTOMOTIVE SPRING AND DAMPER CHARACTERISTICS

Submitted by Tan Chun Wei

Department of Mechanical Engineering

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

AM 27: Simulation Based Layout of Automotive Spring and Damper Characteristics

1.1 Objective of the project

Different combinations of springs and dampers

Reduced number of springs and dampers combinations

Figure 1.1: Project methodology

1.2 Scope of the project

1.3 Outline of the thesis

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Related work on investigation of suspension springing and damping characteristics

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.2 Conclusion from literature research

Unsprung mass Tire stiffness

Figure 2.1: Quarter car model, 2 DOF 7

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

3.1 Brief introduction

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

3.2 Drivability and suspension spring and damper

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

3.3 Ride and handling compromise

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

3.4 Influence of non-linear suspension spring and damper Characteristics

Cosine shaped bump

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

The equations of motion involved, Sprung mass:

Unsprung mass: Fd Fl Fs Zw munspr

&w = Ft Fd Fl Fs munspr g muns pr & z

3.4.1 Simulation run 1

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

Figure 3.2: Spring characteristics

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

Figure 3.3: Damper characteristics

linear non-linear Figure 3.4: Sprung mass acceleration, simulation run 1

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

wheel loses contact linear non-linear

Figure 3.5: Dynamic wheel load, simulation run 1

Figure 3.6: Suspension travel, simulation run 1

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

3.4.2 Simulation run 2

Figure 3.7: Damper characteristics, lower linear damping

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

linear non-linear Figure 3.8: Sprung mass acceleration, simulation run 2

Figure 3.9: Dynamic wheel load, simulation run 2

Chapter 3: Theory and Project Motivation

Chapter 4: Project Methodology

Chapter 4: Project Methodology

4.1 MATLAB as simulation platform

4.2 Characteristics at the wheel Approach

Chapter 4: Project Methodology

Chapter 4: Project Methodology

4.3 Range of simulation model

Acceleration\ Deceleration Steering System Surface irregularities Vehicle (suspension)