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21.

5 RLC Series Circuits

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Example 21.3 Continued

(c) We set the two reactances equal (XL = XC) and solve for C: 1 w L = wC 1 1 C = 2 = 2 6 4p (90.9 10 Hz)2 0.56 106 H w L = 5.5 pF

Discussion We can check by calculating the reactance of the capacitor:


1 1 XC = = = 320 wC 2p 90.9 106 Hz 5.5 1012 F In Section 21.6 we study tuning circuits in more detail.

Practice Problem 21.3 Reactance and rms Current


Find the inductive reactance and the rms current for a 3.00-mH inductor when it is connected to an ac source of 10.0 mV (rms) at a frequency of 60.0 kHz.

21.5

RLC SERIES CIRCUITS

Figure 21.8a shows an RLC series circuit. Kirchhoffs junction rule tells us that the instantaneous current through each element is the same, since there are no junctions. The loop rule requires the sum of the instantaneous voltage drops across the three elements to equal the applied ac voltage: (t) = vL(t) + vR(t) + vC(t) (21-11)

The three voltages are sinusoidal functions of time with the same frequency but different phase constants. Suppose that we choose to write the current with a phase constant of zero. The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current, so it also has a phase constant of zero (see Fig. 21.8b). The voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90, so it has a phase constant of +p /2. The voltage across the capacitor lags the current by 90, so it has a phase constant of p /2.
p p (t) = m sin (w t + f) = VL sin w t + + VR sin w t + VC sin w t 2 2

(21-12)

We could simplify this sum using trigonometric identities, but there is an easier method. We can represent each sinusoidal voltage by a vector-like object called a phasor. The magnitude of the phasor represents the amplitude of the voltage; the angle of the phasor represents the phase constant of the voltage. We can then add phasors the same way we add vectors. (See Problem 49 for insight into why the phasor method works.) Although we draw them like vectors and add like vectors, they are not vectors in the usual sense. A phasor is not a quantity with a direction in space, like real vectors such as acceleration, momentum, or magnetic eld.

i L vR vC vL (t) R 0 vR

vL vC t i

C
1 T 4 1 T 2 3 T 4

T (b)

(a)

Figure 21.8 (a) An RLC series circuit. (b) The voltages across the circuit elements and the current as functions of time. The current is in phase with vR, leads vC by 90, and lags vL by 90.

782

Chapter 21

Alternating Current

VL

VR VC (a)

Figure 21.9a shows three phasors representing the voltages vL(t), vR(t), and vC(t). An angle counterclockwise from the +x-axis represents a positive phase constant. First we add the phasors representing vL(t) and vC(t), which are in opposite directions. Then we add the sum of these two to the phasor that represents vR(t) (Fig. 21.9b). The vector sum represents (t). The amplitude of (t) is the length of the sum; from the Pythagorean theorem,
2 m = VR + (VL VC)2

(21-13)

m VL VC f VR (b)

Each of the voltage amplitudes on the right side of Eq. (21-13) can be rewritten as the amplitude of the current times a reactance or resistance: m = (IR)2 + (IXL IXC)2 Factoring out the current yields
2 m = I R2 + (XL XC)

Figure 21.9 (a) Phasor representation of the voltages. (b) The phase angle f between the source emf and the voltage across the resistor (which is in phase with the current).

Thus, the amplitude of the ac source voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the current. The constant of proportionality is called the impedance Z of the circuit. m = IZ
2 Z = R2 + (X L XC)

(21-14a) (21-14b)

Impedance is measured in ohms. From Fig. 21.9b, the source voltage (t) leads vR(t)and the current i(t)by a phase angle f where VL VC IXL IXC XL XC = = tan f = (21-15) V IR R R We have assumed XL > XC in Figs. 21.8 and 21.9. If XL < XC, the phase angle f is negative, which means that the source voltage lags the current. Figure 21.9b also implies that VR = IR = R cos f = m IZ Z (21-16)

If one or two of the elements R, L, and C are not present in a circuit, the foregoing analysis is still valid. Since there is no potential difference across a missing element, we simply set the resistance or reactance of the missing element(s) to zero. For instance, since an inductor is made by coiling a long length of wire, it usually has an appreciable resistance. We can model a real inductor as an ideal inductor in series with a resistor. The impedance of the inductor is found by setting XC = 0 in Eq. (21-14b).

Example 21.4
An RLC Series Circuit
In an RLC circuit, the following three elements are connected in series: a resistor of 40.0 , a 22.0-mH inductor, and a 0.400-F capacitor. The ac source has a peak voltage of 0.100 V and an angular frequency of 1.00 104 rad/s. (a) Find the amplitude of the current. (b) Find the phase angle between the current and the ac source. Which leads? (c) Find the peak voltages across each of the circuit elements. nding the reactances of the inductor and capacitor, we can nd the impedance and then solve for the amplitude of the current. The reactances also enable us to calculate the phase constant f. If f is positive, the source voltage leads the current; if f is negative, the source voltage lags the current. The peak voltage across any element is equal to the peak current times the reactance or resistance of that element.

Strategy The impedance is the ratio of the source voltage amplitude to the amplitude of the current. By

Continued on next page

21.5 RLC Series Circuits

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Example 21.4 Continued

Solution

(a) The inductive reactance is


XL 220 R 40.0 30 R = 40.0 f Z = 50

XL = w L = 1.00 104 rad/s 22.0 103 H = 220 The capacitive reactance is 1 1 XC = = = 250 4 1.00 10 rad/s 0.400 106 F wC Then the impedance of the circuit is = Z = R2 + X2 (40.0 )2 + ( 30 )2 = 50 For a source voltage amplitude V = 0.100 V, the amplitude of the current is V 0.100 V I = = = 2.0 mA Z 50 (b) The phase angle f is XL XC 1 30 f = tan1 = tan = 0.64 rad = 37 R 40.0 Since XL < XC, the phase angle f is negative, which means that the source voltage lags the current. (c) The voltage amplitude across the inductor is VL = IXL = 2.0 mA 220 = 440 mV For the capacitor and resistor, VC = IXC = 2.0 mA 250 = 500 mV and VR = IR = 2.0 mA 40.0 = 80 mV

XC 250

Figure 21.10
A phasor diagram used to nd impedance and phase angle. (The lengths of the phasors are not to scale.)

Note that the sum of the voltage amplitudes across the three circuit elements is not the same as the source voltage amplitude: 100 mV 440 mV + 80 mV + 500 mV The voltage amplitudes across the inductor and capacitor are each larger than the source voltage amplitude. The voltage amplitudes are maximum values; since the voltages are not in phase with each other, they do not attain their maximum values at the same instant of time. What is true is that the sum of the instantaneous potential differences across the three elements at any given time is equal to the instantaneous source voltage at the same time [Eq. (21-12)].

Discussion Since the voltage phasors in Fig. 21.9 are each proportional to I, we can divide each by I to form a phasor diagram where the phasors represent reactances or resistances (Fig. 21.10). Such a phasor diagram can be used to nd the impedance of the circuit and the phase constant, instead of using Eqs. (21-14b) and (21-15).

Practice Problem 21.4 Instantaneous Voltages


If the current in this same circuit is written as i(t) = I sin w t, what would be the corresponding expressions for vC(t), vL(t), vR(t), and (t)? (The main task is to get the phase constants correct.) Using these expressions, show that at t = 80.0 s, vC(t) + vL(t) + vR(t) = (t). (The loop rule is true at any time t; we just verify it at one particular time.)

Power Factor
No power is dissipated in an ideal capacitor or an ideal inductor; the power is dissipated only in the resistance of the circuit (including the resistances of the wires of the circuit and the windings of the inductor): Pav = IrmsVR,rms We want to rewrite the average power in terms of the rms source voltage. VR,rms IrmsR R = = Z Irm rms sZ From Eq. (21-16), R/Z = cos f . Therefore, VR,rms = rms cos f and Pav = Irmsrms cos f (21-17) (21-4)

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Chapter 21

Alternating Current

The factor cos f in Eq. (21-17) is called the power factor. When there is only resistance and no reactance in the circuit, f = 0 and cos f = 1; then Pav = Irmsrms. When there is only capacitance or inductance in the circuit, f = 90 and cos f = 0, so that Pav = 0. Many electrical devices contain appreciable inductance or capacitance; the load they present to the source voltage is not purely a resistance. In particular, any device with a transformer has some inductance due to the windings. The label on an electrical device sometimes includes a quantity with units of VA and a smaller quantity with units of W. The former is the product Irmsrms; the latter is the average power consumed.

Example 21.5
Laptop Power Supply
A power supply for a laptop computer is labeled as follows: 45 W AC Adapter. AC input: 1.0 A max, 120 V, 60.0 Hz. A simplied circuit model for the power supply is a resistor R and an ideal inductor L in series with an ideal ac emf. The inductor represents primarily the inductance of the windings of the transformer; the resistor represents primarily the load presented by the laptop computer. Find the values of L and R when the power supply draws the maximum rms current of 1.0 A.
VL m

f VR

Figure 21.12
Phasor addition of the voltages across the inductor and resistor.

The phase angle is f = cos1 0.375 = 68.0. From the phasor diagram of Fig. 21.12, VL IXL XL tan f = = = VR IR R

Strategy First we sketch the circuit (Fig. 21.11). The next step is to identify the quantities given in the problem, taking care to distinguish rms quantities from amplitudes and average power from Irmsrms. Since power is dissipated in the resistor but not in the inductor, we can nd the resistance from the average power. Then we can use the power factor to nd L. We assume no capacitance in the circuit, which means we can set XC = 0.

L R

Solving for XL, XL = R tan f = (45 ) tan 68.0 = 111.4 = w L Now we can solve for L: XL 111.4 L = = = 0.30 H w 2p 60.0 Hz

Figure 21.11
A circuit diagram for the power supply.

Discussion

Check: cos f should be equal to R/Z.

45 R R = = 0.375 = 2 2 2 Z 1.4 )2 R + XL (45 ) + (11 which agrees with cos f = 0.375.

Solution The problem tells us that the maximum rms current is Irms = 1.0 A. The rms source voltage is rms = 120 V. The frequency is f = 60.0 Hz. The average power is 45 W when the power supply draws 1.0 A rms; the average power is smaller when the current drawn is smaller. Then rmsIrms = 120 V 1.0 A = 120 VA Note that the average power is less than Irmsrms; it can never be greater than Irmsrms since cos f 1. Since power is dissipated only in the resistor,
Pav = I r2 msR The resistance is therefore Pav 45 W R = 2 = = 45 Ir ms (1.0 A)2 The ratio of the average power to Irmsrms gives the power factor: rmsIrms cos f 45 W = cos f = = 0.375 rmsIrms 120 VA

Practice Problem 21.5 A More Typical Current Draw


The adapter rarely draws the maximum rms current of 1.0 A. Suppose that, more typically, the adapter draws an rms current of 0.25 A. What is the average power? Use the same simplied circuit model with the same value of L but a different value of R. [Hint: Begin by nding the 2 impedance Z = R2 + X L.]

21.6

Resonance in an RLC Circuit

785

PHYSICS AT HOME Find an electrical device that has a label with two numerical ratings, one in VA and one in W. The windings of a transformer have signicant inductance, so try something with an external transformer (inside the power supply) or an internal transformer (such as a desktop computer).The windings of motors also have inductance, so something with a motor is also a good choice. Calculate the power factor for the device. Now nd a device that has little reactance compared to its resistance, such as a heater or a lightbulb. Why is there no numerical rating in VA?

21.6

RESONANCE IN AN RLC CIRCUIT

Suppose an RLC circuit is connected to an ac source with a xed amplitude but variable frequency. The impedance depends on frequency, so the amplitude of the current depends on frequency. Figure 21.13 shows three graphs (called resonance curves) of the amplitude of the current I = m/Z as a function of angular frequency for a circuit with L = 1.0 H, C = 1.0 F, and m = 100 V. Three different resistors were used: 200 , 500 , and 1000 . The shape of these graphs is determined by the frequency dependence of the inductive and capacitive reactances (Fig. 21.14). At low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor XC = 1/(w C) is much greater than either R or XL, so Z XC. At high frequencies, the reactance of the inductor XL = w L is much greater than either R or XC, so Z XL. At extreme frequencies, either high or low, the impedance is larger and the amplitude of the current is therefore small. The impedance of the circuit is
2 Z = R2 + (XL XC)

(21-14b)

0.6 0.5 0.4 I (A) 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 R2 = 500 R3 = 1000

R1 = 200

Figure 21.13 The amplitude


of the current I as a function of angular frequency w for three different resistances in a series RLC circuit. The widths of each peak at half-maximum current are indicated. The horizontal scale is logarithmic.

125

250

500

1000 (w 0)

2000

4000

8000 w (rad/s)

X, R XC XL

Figure 21.14 Frequency


R w0 w

dependence of the inductive and capacitive reactances and of the resistance as a function of frequency.

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