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FREQUENCY METER USING 8051

A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology In Electrical And Electronic Engineering Submitted By A.PRATHIMA SARVANI N.SRAVANI S.UJWALA Under the guidance Mr.K.SATISH KUMAR, M.Tech Assistant Professor 07241A0210 07241A0218 07241A0222

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering & Technology (Affiliated to J.N.T.U Hyderabad) Bachupally, Kukatpally, Hyderabad-500072

ABSTRACT

The object of this project is to determine and display the frequency of the input power. This is done by using 8051 microcontroller. The circuit of our designed frequency meter includes 8051 microcontroller, Liquid Crystal Display(LCD),Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO) and variable power supply unit. The CRO is used to display the frequency waveform of the given input power. Based on the source code given to the 8051 microcontroller it detects the frequency value and displays that value with the help of the LCD employed. Depending on the power supply the value of the frequency on the LCD changes. Most frequency counters work by using a [counter] which accumulates the number of events occurring within a specific period of time. After a preset period (1 second, for example), the value in the counter is transferred to a display and the counter is reset to zero. If the event being measured repeats itself with sufficient stability and the frequency is considerably lower than that of the clock oscillator being used, the resolution of the measurement can be greatly improved by measuring the time required for an entire number of cycles, rather than counting the number of entire cycles observed for a pre-set duration. Frequency counters are commonly used in laboratories, factories, and field environments to provide direct frequency measurements of various devices. The most common applications for frequency counters are measurement and characterization of oscillator and transmitter frequencies.

S.NO

INDEX

PG.NO

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION Microcontroller


1.1 Introduction to AT89c51 Microcontroller 1.2 Features 1.2.1 Pin diagram 1.3 Memory Organization 1.3.1 Program memory 1.3.2 Data memory 1.4 Power-on RESET 1.5 Interrupts 1.5.1 External interrupts 1.6 Timer set up 1.6.1 timer/counter0 1.6.2 timer/counter1 1.7 Serial Port Set 1.8 Generating baud rates 1.9 Power supply 1.9.1 Dual supplies 1.9.2 Transformer 1.9.3 Rectifier 17 19 20 22 2 5 6 7 8 10 11 13 14 15 16 1

1.9.4 Regulator 1.10 Relay 1.11 RS-232

23 24 26

Chapter 2: liquid crystal display (LCD)


2.1 Introduction 2.2 Pin diagram 2.3 Pin description 2.4 Basic commands of LCD 29 29 31 32

Chapter 3: circuit description


3.1 Frequency meter 3.2 Block diagram 3.3 Source code 34 35 36

Chapter 4: Software
4.1 Overview of KEIL C cross Compiler 4.2 Proteus 4.3Simulator / Debugger 41 42 42

Result and Conclusio Bibliography

43 44

Chapter 1
MICROCONTROLLER
1.1 MICRO CONTROLLER INTRODUCTION
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. 1.2 Features Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles. Fully Static Operation: 0Hz to 24MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8- bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

1.2.1 Pin diagram:

Pin diagram of 8051

TIMER1
ONCHIP

COUNTER INPUTS

TIMER0

ONCHIP

INTERRUPT CONTROL

CPU

OSC

BUS CONTROL

4I/OPORTS

SERIL PORT

POP2P1P3

TXD

RXD

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of the AT89C core

For more information on the individual devices and features, refer to the Hardware Descriptions and Data Sheets of the specific device.

Figure 1.2: Oscillator Connection The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the P89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
XTAL2

NC

EXTERIOR OSCILLATOR SIGNAL

XTAL1

GND

Figure 1.3: External Clock Drive Configuration

1.3 MEMORY ORGANIZATION


1.1.1 Program Memory Figure 4 shows a map of the lower part of the program memory. After reset, the CPU begins execution from location 0000H. As shown in fig.4, each interrupt is assigned a fixed location in program memory. The interrupt causes the CPU to jump to that location, where it executes the service routine. External Interrupt 0, for example, is assigned to location 0003H. If External Interrupt 0 is used, its service routine must begin at location 0003H. If the interrupt is not used, its service location is available as general purpose.

(0033)H 002BH INTERRUPT LOCATIONS 0023H RESET 001BH 8bytes

Figure 1.4: Program Memory.

Program memory addresses are always 16 bits wide, even though the actual amount o program memory used may be less than 64Kbytes. External program execution sacrifices two of the 8-bit ports, P0 and P2, to the function of addressing the program memory.
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1.1.2 Data Memory


The right half of Figure 3 shows the internal and external data memory spaces available on Philips Flash microcontrollers. Fig.6 shows a hardware configuration for accessing up to 2K bytes of external RAM. In this case, the CPU executes from internal flash. Port0 serves as a multiplexed address/data bus to the RAM, and 3 lines of Port 2 are used to page the RAM. The CPU generates RD and WR signals as needed during external RAM accesses. You can assign up to 64K bytes of external data memory. External data memory addresses can be either 1 or 2bytes wide. One-byte addresses are often used in conjunction with one or more other I/O lines to page the RAM, as shown in Fig.6. Two-byte addresses can also be used, in which case the high address byte is emitted at Port2.

FFH Upper 128 80H 7FH Lower 128 00

ACCESSIBLE BY INDIRECT ADDRESSING ONLY ACCESSIBLE BY INDIRECT ADDRESSING AND DIRECT ADDRESSING

ACCESSIBLE BY DIRECT ADDRESSING ONLY

FFH

Special register function

Ports Status and control bits Timers Registers Stack pointer Accumulator (etc)

Figure 1.5: Internal Data Memory

Internal data memory addresses are always 1 byte wide, which implies an address space of only 256bytes. However, the addressing modes for internal RAM can in fact accommodate 384 bytes. Direct addresses higher than 7FH access one memory space and indirect addresses higher than 7FH access a different memory space. Thus, Figure.7 shows the Upper 128 and SFR space occupying the same block of addresses, 80H through FFH, although they are physically separate entities. Figure.8 shows how the lower 128 bytes of RAM are
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mapped. The lowest 32 bytes are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers. Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7. Two bits in the Program Status Word (PSW) select which register bank is in use..

Figure 1.6: The lower 128 bytes of Internal RAM The next 16 bytes above the register banks form a block of bit-addressable memory space. The microcontroller instruction set includes a wide selection of single-bit instructions, and these instructions can directly address the 128 bits in this area. These bit addresses are 00H through 7FH. All of the bytes in the Lower 128 can be accessed by either direct or indirect addressing.

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Special Function Register Map 8 Bytes F8 F0 E8 E0 D8 D0 C8 C0 B8 B0 A8 A0 98 90 88 80 FF F7 EF E7 DF D7 CF C7 BF B7 AF A7 9F 97 BF 87

B ACC PSW(1) T2C0N(1)( T2MOD(2) RCAP2L(2) IP(1) P3 IE(1) P2 SCON(1) PI TCON(1) PO RCAP2H(2) TL2(2) TH2(2)

SBUF TMOD(1) SP TLO DPL TLI DPH Bit Addressable THO TH1 PCON(1)

Notes: 1. SFRs converting mode or control bits 2. AT89C52only

1.4 Power-on Reset


The reset input is the RST pin, which is the input to a Schmitt Trigger. A reset is accomplished by holding the RST pin high for at least two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods), while the oscillator is running. The CPU responds by generating an internal reset. The external reset signal is asynchronous to the internal clock. The RST pin is sampled during State 5 Phase 2 of every machine cycle. The port pins will maintain their current activities for 19 oscillator periods after a logic 1 has been sampled at the RST pin; that is, for 19 to 31 oscillator periods after the external reset signal has been applied to the RST pin.

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The internal reset algorithm writes 0s to all the SFRs except the port latches, the Stack Pointer and SBUF. The port latches are initialized to FFH, the Stack Pointer to 07H, and SBUF is indeterminate. The internal RAM is not affected by reset. On power up the RAM content is indeterminate. REGISTER REST VALUE

------------------------------------------------------------------------PC ACC B PSW SP DPTR P0-P3 IP IE TMOD TCON TH0 TL0 TH1 0000H 00H 00H 00H 07H 0000H FFH XXX0000B 0XX0000B 00H 00H 00H 00H 00H
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SCON SBUF PCON (NMOS) PCON (CMOS)

00H Indeterminate 0XXXXXXXB 0XXX0000B

1.5 Interrupts
The AT89C51 provides 5 interrupt sources. The External Interrupts INT0 and INT1 can each be either level-activated or transition-activated, depending on bits IT0 and IT1 in Register TCON. The flags that actually generate these interrupts are bits IE0 and IE1 in TCON. When an external interrupt is generated, the flag that generated it is cleared by the hardware when the service routine is vectored to only if the interrupt was transition-activated. If the interrupt was level-activated, then the external requesting source is what controls the request flag, rather than the on-chip hardware. The Timer0 and Timer 1 Interrupts are generated by TF0 and TF1, which are set by a rollover in their respective Timer/Counter registers (except see Timer0 in Mode3). When a timer interrupt is generated, the flag that generated it is cleared by the on-chip hardware when the service routine is vectored to. The Serial Port Interrupt is generated by the logical OR of RI and TI. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service routine will normally have to determine whether it was RI or TI that generated the interrupt, and the bit will have to be cleared in software. All of the bits that generate interrupts can be set or cleared by software, with the same result as thought it had been set or cleared by hardware. This is, interrupts can be generated or pending interrupts can be canceled in software. The interrupt flags are sampled a S5P2 of every machine cycle. The samples are polled during the following machine cycle. If one of the flags was in a set condition at S5P2 of the
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preceding cycle, the polling cycle will find it and the interrupt system will generate an LCALL to the appropriate service routine, provided this hardware-generated LCALL is not blocked by any of the following conditions: 1. 2. 3. An interrupt of equal or higher priority level is already in progress. The current (polling) cycle is not the final cycle in the execution of the instruction in progress. The instruction in progress is RET1 or any write to the IE or IP registers. Note that a simple RET instruction would also have returned execution to the interrupted program, but it would have left the interrupt control system thinking an interrupt was still in progress, making future interrupts impossible. 1.5.1 External Interrupts The external sources can be programmed to be level-activated or transitionactivated by setting or clearing bit IT1 or IT0 in Register TCON. If ITx=0, external interrupt x is triggered by a detected low at the INTX pin. If ITx=1, external pin x is edge triggered. In this mode if successive samples of the INTX pin show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle, interrupt request flag IEx in TCON is set. Flag bit IEx then request the interrupt. Since the external interrupt pins are sampled once each machine cycle, an input high or low should hold for at least 12 oscillator periods to ensure sampling. If the external interrupt is transition-activated, the external source has to hold the request pin high for at least once cycle, and then hold it low for at least one cycle. This is done to ensure that transition is seen so that interrupt request flag IEx will be set. The CPU will automatically clear IEx when the service routine is called. To use any of the interrupts in the 89C51 Family, the following three steps must be taken. Set the EA (enable all) bit in the IE register to 1. 1. Set the corresponding individual interrupt enable bit in the IE register to 1. 2. Begin the interrupt service routine at the corresponding vector.
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Address of that interrupt. See Table below. Interrupt Source Vector Address

---------------------------------------------------------------IE0 TF0 IE1 TF1 RI & TI 0003H 000BH 0013H 001BH 0023H

In addition, for external interrupts, pins INT0 and INT1(P3.2 and P3.3) must be set to 1, and depending on whether the interrupt is to be level or transition activated, bits IT0 or IT1 in the TCON register may need to be set to 1. ITx=0 ITx=1 below: IE0 TF0 IE1 TF1R1 or T1 lowest priority highest priority level activated transition activated Priority within level is only to resolve

simultaneous requests of the same priority level. Form high to low, interrupt sources are listed

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1.6 Timer Set-Up The tables below give some values for TMOD which can be used to set up Timer 0 and Timer 1 in different modes. It is assumed that only one timer is being used at a time. If it is desired to run Timers 0 and 1 simultaneously, in any mode the value in the TMOD for timer 0 must be ORed with value shown for Timer 1. For example, if it is desired to run Timer 0 in mode 1 GATE (external control), and Timer 1 in mode 2 COUNTER, then value that must be loaded into TMOD is 69H (09H from the table for Timer0, ORed with 60H from the table for Timer 1). Moreover, it is assumed that the user, at this point, is not ready to turn the timers on and will do that at a different point in the program by setting bit TRx (in TCON) to 1. 1.6.1 TIMER/COUNTER 0 As a Timer: Mode Function TMOD (internal control) TMOD (external control)

0 1 2 3

13-bit Timer 16-bit Timer 8-bit Auto-Reload Two 8-bit Timers

00H 01H 02H 03H

08H 09H 0AH 0BH

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As a Counter: Mode Function TMOD (internal control) TMOD (external control)

0 1 2 3

13-bit Counter 16-bit Counter 8-bit Auto-Reload One 8-bit Counter

04H 05H 06H 07H

0CH 0DH 0EH 0FH

1.6.2TIMER/COUNTER 1 As a Timer: Mode Function TMOD (internal control) TMOD (external control)

0 1 2 3

13-bit Timer 16-bit Timer 8-bit Auto-Reload Does not run

00H 10H 20H 30H

80H 90H A0H B0H

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As a Counter Mode Function TMOD (internal control) TMOD (external control)

0 1 2 3

13-bit Counter 16-bit Counter 8-bit Auto-Reload Not available

40H 50H 60H ---

C0H D0H A0H ---

1.7 Serial Port Set-Up The serial port is full duplex, meaning it can transmit and receive simultaneously. It is also receive-buffered, meaning it can commence reception of a second byte before a previously received byte has been read form the register. (However, if the first byte still hasnt been read by the time reception of the second byte is complete, one of the bytes will be lost.) The serial port receive and transmit registers are both accessed at Special Function Register SBUF. Writing to SBUF loads the transmit register, and reading SBUF accesses a physically separate receive register. The serial port can operate in 4 modes: Mode 0: Serial data enters and exits through RxD. TxD outputs the shift clock. 8 bits are transmitted/received (LSB first). The baud rate is fixed at 1/12th oscillator frequency. Mode 1: 10 bits are transmitted (through TxD) or received (through RxD): a start bit (0), 8 data bits (LSB first), and a stop bit (1). On receive; the stop bit goes into RB8 in Special Function Register SCON. The baud rate is variable. Mode 2: 11 bits are transmitted (trough TxD) or received (through RxD): start bit (0), 8 data bits (LSB first), a programmable 9th data bit, and a stop bit (1). On transmit, the 9th data bit (TB is
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SCON) can be assigned the value of 0 or 1. Or, for example, the parity bit (P, in the PSW) could be moved into TB8. On receive; the 9th data bit goes into RB8 in Special Function Register SCON, while the stop bit is ignored. The baud rate is programmable to either 1/32 or 1/64th oscillator frequency. Mode 3: 11 bits are transmitted (through TxD) or received (through RxD): a start bit (0), 8 data bits (LSB first), a programmable 9th data bit, and a stop bit (1). In fact, Mode 3 is the same as Mode2 in all aspects except baud rate. The baud rate in Mode 3 is variable. Timer 1 Generated Commonly Used Baud Rages The values for the different modes of operation of the serial port are shown in the table below: MODE SCON SM2 Variation

0 1 2 3

10H 50H 90H D0H

Single Processor Environment (SM2 = 0)

0 1 2 3

Not Available Multiprocessor 70H B0H F0H Environment (SM2 =1) ------------20

1.8 GENERATING BAUD RATES Serial Port in Mode 0: Mode 0 has a fixed baud rate, which is 1/12th oscillator frequency. To run the serial port in this mode none of the Timer/Counters need to be set up. Only the SCON register needs to be defined. Baud Rate = Oscillator Frequency /12 Serial Port in Mode 1: Mode1 has a variable baud rate. The baud rate is generated by Timer 1. For this purpose, Timer 1 is used in mode2 (Auto-Reload). Baud Rate = (K x Osc.Freq) / (32 x 12 x [256 (TH1)]) If SMOD =0, then K=1. If SMOD =1, then K =2 (SMOD is in the PCON register). Most of the time the user knows the baud rate and needs to know the reload value for TH1. TH1 = 256 (K x Osc.Freq) / (384 x baud rate) TH1 must be an integer value. Rounding off TH1 to the nearest integer may not produce the desired baud rate. In this case, the user may have to choose another crystal frequency. Since the PCON register is not bit addressable, one way to set the bit is logical ORing the PCON register (i.e. ORL PCON, #80H). The address of PCON is 87H. Serial Port in Mode2: The baud rate is fixed in this mode and is 1/32 or 1/64 of the oscillator frequency, depending on the value of the SMOD bit in the PCON register.

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In this mode none of the Timers are used and the clock comes form the internal phase 2 clock. SMOD = 1, Baud Rate = 1/32 Osc.Freq. SMOD =0, Baud Rate = 1/64 Osc.Freq.

Circuit of 89C5RD2

1.9 Power supply


A power supply (sometimes called a power supply unit or PSU) is a device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

Types of Power Supply There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply:
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```````````````` Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:


Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a graph of their output:

Transformer only Transformer + Rectifier Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

1.9.1 Dual Supplies


Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

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Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

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Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

1.9.2 Transformer

Transformer circuit symbol

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Vs = secondary (output) voltage Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is = secondary (output) current

Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. Vp turns ratio = Vs = Ns Np
and

Figure 1.8:Transformer

power out = power in Vs Is = Vp Ip

1.9.3 Rectifier There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier
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can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC. Bridge rectifier A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses the entire AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

Output: full-wave varying DC


(using all the AC wave)

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1.9.4 Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulators ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary. Choosing a zener diode and resistor: 1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required 2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)

3. The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10% 4. The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current: Pz > Vz Imax 5. The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax 6. The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) Imax

1.10 Relay:
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier.

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In this this project we can use electromagnetic relay. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY

Figure 1.9: ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the armature and contacts are released. The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this, a diode is connected across the coil.
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The cathode of the diode is connected to the most positive end of the coil.

The spring sets (contacts) can be a mixture of n.o n.c and c.o. Look at the page on switches to see how they can be used in circuits. Various coil operating voltages (ac and dc) are available. The actual contact points on the spring sets are available for high current and low current operation. The REED RELAY has a much faster operation than the relays described above. 1.11: RS-232
RS232 DB9 pinout

In telecommunications, RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232) is a standard for serial binary single-ended data and control signals connecting between a DTE (Data Terminal
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Equipment) and a DCE (Data Circuit-terminating Equipment). It is commonly used in computer serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors. The RS232 standard describes a communication method where information is sent bit by bit on a physical channel. The information must be broken up in data words. The length of a data word is variable. On PC's a length between 5 and 8 bits can be selected. This length is the netto information length of each word. For proper transfer additional bits are added for synchronisation and error checking purposes. It is important, that the transmitter and receiver use the same number of bits. Otherwise, the data word may be misinterpreted, or not recognized at all. With synchronous communication, a clock or trigger signal must be present which indicates the beginning of each transfer. The absence of a clock signal makes an asynchronous communication channel cheaper to operate. Less lines are necessary in the cable. A disadvantage is, that the receiver can start at the wrong moment receiving the information. Resynchronization is then needed which costs time. All data received in the resynchronization period is lost. Another disadvantage is that extra bits are needed in the data stream to indicate the start and end of useful information. These extra bits take up bandwidth. Data bits are sent with a predefined frequency, the baud rate. Both the transmitter and receiver must be programmed to use the same bit frequency. After the first bit is received, the receiver calculates at which moments the other data bits will be received. It will check the line voltage levels at those moments. With RS232, the line voltage level can have two states. The on state is also known as mark, the off state as space. No other line states are possible. When the line is idle, it is kept in the mark state.

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Chapter-2 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY


2.1 INTRODUCTION
LCD is a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD displays utilize to sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. LCD technology has advanced very rapidly since its initial inception over a decade ago for use in laptop computers. Technical achievement has resulted in brighter displace, higher resolutions, reduce response times and cheaper manufacturing process.
The liquid crystals can be manipulated through an applied electric voltage so that light is allowed to pass or is blocked. By carefully controlling where and what wavelength (color) of light is allowed to pass, the LCD monitor is able to display images. A back light provides LCD monitors brightness. Just as there are many varieties of solids and liquids, there is also a variety of liquid crystal substances. Depending on the temperature and particular nature of a substance, liquid crystals can be in one of several distinct phases.

Over the years many improvements have been made to LCD to help enhance resolution, image, sharpness and response times. One of the latest such advancements is TFT or Thin Film Transistor. TFT-LCDs make use of a very thin transistor that is applied to glass during acts as switch allowing control of light at the pixel level, greatly enhancing image sharpness and resolution. This has been particularly important for improving LCDs ability to display small-sized fonts and image clearly. LCD interfacing with 8051 is a real-world application. In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs (seven segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs). This is due to following reasons: 1. The declining prices of LCDs. 2. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU to keep displaying the data. 3. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

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2.2 PIN DIAGRAM


Most of the LCD modules conform to a standard interface specification. A 14pin access is provided having eight data lines, three control lines and three power lines. The connections are laid out in one of the two common configurations, either two rows of seven pins, or a single row of 14 pins. One of the, pins are numbered on the LCDs print circuit board (PCB), but if not, it is quite easy to locate pin1. Since this pin is connected to ground, it often has a thicker PCB track, connected to it, and it is generally connected to metalwork at same point. G +5V -5V

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D0 D1

D2 D3 D4 D5

D6

D7

RS

R/W EN

Figure 2.1:PIN DIAGRAM OF LCD DISPLAY

2.3 PIN DESCRIPTIONS


Vcc, Vss and Vee While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground respectively, Vee is used for controlling LCD contrast.
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RS, register select There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as follows. a) If RS=0, the instruction command code register is selected, allowing the user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home, etc., b) If RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD. R/W, read/write R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read information from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing. EN, Enable The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high-to-low pulse must be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins. This pulse must be a minimum of 450ns wide. D0-D7 The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of the LCDs internal registers. To display letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers 0-9 to these pins while making RS=1. We also use RS=0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to receive information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W=1 and RS=0, as follows: if R/W=1, RS=0. When D7=1 (busy flag=1), the LCD is busy taking care of internal operations and will not accept any information.

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The pin descriptions are given in table below: PIN 1 2 3 SYMBOL Vss Vcc Vee I/O ---DESCRIPTION Ground +5V power supply Power supply to control contrast 4 RS I RS=0 to select command register RS=1 to select data register 5 R/W I R/W=0 for write R/W=1 for read 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 EN DB0 DB1 DB2 DB3 DB4 DB5 DB6 DB7 I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O Enable The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus

TABLE 8 : PIN DESCRIPTIONS OF LCD

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TABLE 9: INSTRUCTION SET OF LCD 2.4 BASIC COMMANDS OF LCD:


Set Cursor Move Direction: 04h Shift cursor to the left 06h Shift cursor to the right 80h force cursor to the beginning of the first line C0h force cursor to the beginning of second line 02h return home

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Enable Display/Cursor: 0Ch - Turn Display On, cursor off 0ah - Turn Cursor On, Display off 08h - Cursor off, Display off 0eh/0fh- display on, cursor blinking Shift Display: 18h 1Ch - Display Shift to left, right respectively Set Interface Length: 38h Initialize LCD as 2 lines, 5*7 matrix Reading Data back is used in this application, which requires data to be moved back and forth on the LCD. The "Busy Flag" is polled to determine whether the last instruction that has been sent has completed processing. Before we send commands or data to the LCD module, the Module must be initialized. For eight bit mode, this is done using the following series of operations: Wait more than 15 msecs after power is applied. Write 0x030 to LCD and wait 5 msecs for the instruction to complete Write 0x030 to LCD and wait 160 usecs for instruction to complete Write 0x030 AGAIN to LCD and wait 160 usecs or Poll the Busy Flag Set the Operating Characteristics of the LCD Write "Set Interface Length" Write 0x010 to turn off the Display Write 0x001 to Clear the Display Write "Set Cursor Move Direction" Setting Cursor Behaviour Bits Write "Enable Display/Cursor" & enable Display and Optional Cursor.

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CHAPTER 3 FREQUENCY METER


3.1INTRODUCTION
Frequency meter, device for measuring the repetitions per unit of time (customarily, a second) of a complete electromagnetic waveform. Various types of frequency meters are used. Many are instruments of the deflection type, ordinarily used for measuring low frequencies but capable of being used for frequencies as high as 900 Hz. These operate by balancing two opposing forces. Changes in the frequency to be measured cause a change in this balance that can be measured by the deflection of a pointer on a scale. Deflection-type meters are of two types, electrically resonant circuits and ratio meters. An example of a simple electrically resonant circuit is a moving-coil meter. In one version, this device possesses two coils tuned to different frequencies and connected at right angles to one another in such a way that the whole element, with attached pointer, can move. Frequencies in the middle of the meters range cause the currents in the two coils to be approximately equal and the pointer to indicate the midpoint of a scale. Changes in frequency cause an imbalance in the currents in the two coils, causing them and, in turn, the pointer to move. Another type of frequency meter, not of the deflection type, is the resonant-reed type, ordinarily used in ranges from 10 to 1,000 Hz, although special designs can operate at lower or higher frequencies. These work by means of specially tuned steel reeds that vibrate under the effect of electric current; only those reeds that are in resonance vibrate visibly, however.

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3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power Supply

PULSES OFCRO Micro Controller LCD

FREQUENCYMETER

The block diagram consists of Micro controller, LCD display, CRO, Power supply. In the hardware the micro controller is connected with help of the serial port. With the help of the microcontroller the number of pulses will be counted and displayed on the LCD display. The baud rate is set per the micro controller.

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3.3 SOURCE CODE


#include<reg51.h> sbit intr=P3^4; sfr ldata=0x90; sbit rs=P2^0; sbit rw=P2^1; sbit en=P2^2; void lcdcmd(char ); void delay(int); void lcddata(int); void lcddata1(char *value); void main() { int i,l,H,k; //char n; while(1) { TMOD=0x15; intr=1; TL0=0x00; TH0=0x00; TR0=1; for(i=0;i<28;i++)

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{ TL1=0x00; TH1=0x00; TR1=1; while(TF1==0); TR1=0; TF1=0;

} P0=TL0; l=TL0; H=TH0; k=l+H; //H=H*0xf0; lcdcmd(0x0E); delay(250); lcdcmd(0x01); delay(250); //lcdcmd(0x06); //delay(250); //lcdcmd(0x86); //delay(250); lcddata1("Frequecy="); delay(100); lcddata(k);
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//lcddata(H); delay(250);

} }

void lcdcmd(char value) { ldata = value; rs=0; rw=0; en=1; delay(2); en=0; } /*void lcddata(int value) { ldata=value; rs=1; rw=0; en=1; delay(2); en=0; }*/ void delay(int time)
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{ int i,j; for(i=0;i<time;i++) for(j=0;j<125;j++); }

void lcddata(int value) { int a[4],i,send=0,n=0; for(i=0;value!=0;i++) { send=value%10; value=value; a[i]=send; n++; } for(i=n-1;i>=0;i--) { ldata=a[i]+0x30; rs=1; en=1; delay(1); en=0; } return;
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} void lcddata1(char *name) { int i; for(i=0;name[i]!='\0';i++) { P1=name[i]; rs=1; rw=0; en=1; delay(1); en=0; } return; }

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CHAPTER4 SOFTWARE
4.1 Overview of KEIL Cross C Compiler It is possible to create the source files in a text editor such as Notepad, run the Compiler on each C source file, specifying a list of controls, run the Assembler on each Assembler source file, specifying another list of controls, run either the Library Manager or Linker (again specifying a list of controls) and finally running the Object-HEX Converter to convert the Linker output file to an Intel Hex File. Once that has been completed the Hex File can be downloaded to the target hardware and debugged. Alternatively KEIL can be used to create source files; automatically compile, link and covert using options set with an easy to use user interface and finally simulate or perform debugging on the hardware with access to C variables and memory. Unless you have to use the tolls on the command line, the choice is clear. KEIL Greatly simplifies the process of creating and testing an embedded application. 4.2 Simulator/Debugger The simulator/ debugger in KEIL can perform a very detailed simulation of a micro controller along with external signals. It is possible to view the precise execution time of a single assembly instruction, or a single line of C code, all the way up to the entire application, simply by entering the crystal frequency. A window can be opened for each peripheral on the device, showing the state of the peripheral. This enables quick trouble shooting of mis-configured peripherals. Breakpoints may be set on either assembly instructions or lines of C code, and execution may be stepped through one instruction or C line at a time. The contents of all the memory areas may be viewed along with ability to find specific variables. In addition the registers may be viewed allowing a detailed view of what the microcontroller is doing at any point in time. The Keil Software 8051 development tools listed below are the programs you use to compile your C code, assemble your assembler source files, link your program together, create

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HEX files, and debug your target program. one powerful environment.

Vision2 for Windows Integrated Development

Environment: combines Project Management, Source Code Editing, and Program Debugging in

C51 ANSI Optimizing C Cross Compiler: creates relocatable object modules from your C source code, A51 Macro Assembler: creates relocatable object modules from your 8051 assembler source code, BL51 Linker/Locator: combines relocatable object modules created by the compiler and assembler into the final absolute object module, LIB51 Library Manager: combines object modules into a library, which may be used by the linker, OH51 Object-HEX Converter: creates Intel HEX files from absolute object modules.

PROTEUS In Greek mythology, Proteus () is an early sea-god, one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea", whose name suggests the "first" (from Greek " " - protos, "first"), as protogonos () is the "primordial" or the "firstborn". He became the son of Poseidon in the Olympian theogony (Odyssey iv. 432), or of Nereus and Doris, or of Oceanus and a Naiad, and was made the herdsman of Poseidon's seals, the great bull seal at the center of the harem. He can foretell the future, but, in amytheme familiar from several cultures, will change his shape to avoid having to; he will answer only to someone who is capable of capturing him. From this feature of Proteus comes the adjective protean, with the general meaning of "versatile", "mutable", "capable of assuming many forms". "Protean" has positive connotations of flexibility, versatility and adaptability. The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek po-ro-te-u, written in Linear B syllabic script.

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Result and Conclusion

The designed frequency meter using 8051 displays the value of frequency of the waveforms given to the CRO from the power supply on the LCD. Depending on the input value given to the CRO the value of the frequency changes. In total, the complete system (including all the hardware components and software routines) is working as per the initial specifications and requirements of our project. Because of the creative nature of the design, and due to lack of time, some features could not be fine-tuned and are not working properly. So certain aspects of the system can be modified as operational experience is gained with it. As the users work with the system, they develop various new ideas for the development and enhancement of the project.

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BIBILOGRAPHY

NAME OF THE SITES:

1. 2. 3. 4.

WWW.MITEL.DATABOOK.COM WWW.ATMEL.DATABOOK.COM WWW.FRANKLIN.COM WWW.KEIL.COM

REFERENCES

1.

8051-MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED SYSTEM.

Mohd. Mazidi.

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