1.

Introduction: Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal. Cathodic protection systems are used to protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments. Common applications are; steel water or fuel pipelines and storage tanks such as home water heaters; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and structures. 2. Cathodic protection history: The first reported practical use of cathodic protection is enerally credited to Sir Humphrey Davy in the 1820s. Davys advice was sought by the Royal Navy in investigating the corrosion of copper sheeting used for cladding the hulls of naval vessels. Davy found that he could preserve copper in seawater by the attachment of small quantities of iron, zinc or tin. The copper became, as Davy put it, cathodically protected. The most rapid development of cathodic-protection was made in the United States of America and by 1945, the method was well established to meet the requirements of the rapidly expanding oil and natural gas industry, which wanted to benefit from the advantages of using thin-walled steel pipes for underground transmission. In the United Kingdom, where lowpressure, thicker-walled castiron pipes were used extensively, very little cathodic protection was applied until the early 1950s. The increasing use of cathodic protection in modern times has arisen, in part, from the initial success of the method as used from 1952 onwards to protect about 1000 miles of wartime fuel-line network. (Uhlig, 1971 and Gummow, 2000).

3. Types of cathodic protection: There are two types of cathodic protection: sacrificial anode cathodic protection and impressed current cathodic protection.

3.1 Sacrificial anode system: Sacrificial anode protection is called "sacrificial" because the anode is thought of as "sacrificing" itself to protect the structure. This type of protection utilizes a galvanic cell consisting of an anode made from a more active metal than the structure, so this method is also called galvanic anode protection. The anode is attached to the structure, either directly or to permit measurement of the anode output current, through a test station. Magnesium and zinc are the most common galvanic anodes for underground use. In salt water, zinc anodes and aluminum alloy anodes are commonly used. In fresh water, magnesium is frequently used. For underground use, magnesium and zinc anodes are packaged in a backfill consisting of 75 % gypsum, 20 % bentomite and 5 % sodium sulfate. The purpose of the backfill is to absorb products of corrosion and to absorb water from the soil to keep the anodes active. Magnesium and zinc are also available in ribbons and extruded rods. Sacrificial anodes require no external power. The protective current comes form the electrochemical cell created by the connection of the anode material to the more noble or electrically positive metal of the structure (Kean, 2001 and Uhlig, 2000). The cathodic protection of a steel pipe with sacrificial anodes is illustrated in figure (1). Electrons are supplied to the steel pipe, via the electrical connection, and a corresponding amount of anode material goes into solution as metal ions, according to the laws of electrolysis. Some

anode material is lost by self-corrosion, and the anodes are not converted to electrical energy with 100 % efficiency (Davies, 2001). Sacrificial anodes must be located close to the structure being protected. Although almost any piece of zinc etc could provide cathodic protection over a short period of time, cathodic protection schemes are usually required to operate over periods of several years. Anodes can lose their activity and become passivated, developing a non-conducting film on their surfaces so that they no longer are able to supply current. This can be avoided by careful control of the concentrations of trace impurities in the anode materials, and by alloying. For zinc anodes the level of iron, for example, must be kept below 0.005 % for satisfactory long-term operation of the anodes. To prevent passivation of aluminum anodes alloying with, for example, indium has been found to be successful alloy with mercury is now disliked on environmental grounds (Faulkner and Menkes, 1983).

Fig.1 Principle of cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes (schematic) (Reberge, 1999)

3.1.1 Anode materials and performance characteristics: The composition of anode must be such as to produce the following properties: A sufficiently negative potential to ensure cathodic

protection in a particular environment. Ability to continue to corrode during use and not to develop a passive or protection film on the surface. High anode efficiency. There are some materials which can be used as sacrificial anodes such as (Shrier (2), 1976, Kenneth, 1985): 1. Zinc: High-duty zinc alloy are widely used for anodes in marine situations. Since the corrosion of zinc is comparatively low in seawater, the high efficiency 85 95 % of these alloys is maintained throughout the current density range. Iron is the major harmful impurity and should be maintained below about 0.0014 0.005 %, depending on the alloy used. Small addition of aluminum and silicon can be used to neutralize the effect of iron. 2. Aluminum: Aluminum depends for its corrosion-resistance on a protective oxide film. This film is detrimental to the use of aluminum as an anode material so the alloys used for sacrificial anodes include mercury or indium, which prevent the occurrence of the passive film on the anode material. Other elements are also added, e.g. zinc and tin to make the anode potential more negative. 3. Magnesium: Magnesium has the most negative electrode potential of the metals used for sacrificial anodes and is particularly useful in environment of high resistivity where its high current output per unit weight is useful. Magnesium is not widely used for seawater applications.

3.2. Design Calculations (Galvanic Anodes): Anode Life Expectancy (Galvanic Anodes): Cathodic protection systems are normally designed to perform for a 15 to 30 year life. In such eases the anodes are replaced frequently or an impressed current system is used (if possible). The general formula to calculate the life of a galvanic anode is:
Life(Years)=Constant Anode Weight(Kg) Efficiency Utilization Factor CurrentOutput (Amps)

The constants vary with the anode material and are based on the length of time in years that one kilogram of material would last when discharging one ampere. These constants are:
For Magnesium 0.052 For Zinc 0.0192 For Aluminum 0.0696

The efficiency for each of the anodes is 0.5 (50%) for magnesium, and 0.95 (95%) for zinc and aluminum. The utilization factor is based on the assumption that the anode has reached its useful life at .85 (85%) consumption. The number of anodes required for the system can be calculated by dividing the total anode weight to the weight of a single anode. It should be noted that the actual number of anodes used in a system may have to be increased to take into consideration other factors such as non-uniform current distribution and avoid current shielding effects due to the shape of the structure. Resistance to Earth-Water of Anode System : The resistance calculations are required for determining the anode current output of the system. The formulas that can be used are:
Rv 0.522 8L 2.3 log 1 L d

Rv

0.522 8L 2L 2.3 log 1 2.3 log 0.656 N L d s

where: Rv = Resistance of one vertical anode (ohm) Rs = Resistance of anode system (ohm) N = Number of anodes L = Length of each anode (m) p = Water/soil resistivity (ohm-m) d = Diameter of anode (m) s = Spacing of anodes (m) Where more than one anode is in the circuit then the resistance formula (Rs) is used. Current Output of the Anode System : The current output of the system can be calculated as follows: io = V( Driving Voltage ) Rs 3.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages: There are advantages and disadvantages to sacrificial and impressed current systems. The designer needs to assess the engineering and economic aspects of each in making the choice of the type of protection system to use. The following advantages are associated with sacrificial anode CP systems (Roberge, 1999 and Ted, 2004): No external power sources required. Ease of installation (and relatively low installation costs). Unlikely cathodic interference in other structures. Low-maintenance systems (assuming low current demand). System is essentially self-regulating. Relatively low risk of overprotection. Relatively uniform potential distributions.
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Unfortunately, these relatively simple systems also have some limitations such as Limited current and power output. High-resistivity environments or large structures may require excessive number of electrodes. Maximum resistivity of 6000 to 10,000 .cm is generally regarded as the limit, depending on coating quality. Anodes may have to be replaced frequently under high current demand. Anodes can increase structural weight if directly attached to a structure.

3.2 Impressed current system: Impressed current protection provides dc from a power source. The current is delivered to anodes made of a material having a very low or essentially inert dissolution rate. The anodes serve simply to introduce the protective current into the electro1yte (Uhlig, 2000). In contrast to the sacrificial anode systems, the anode consumption rate is usually much lower. Unless a consumable scrap anode is used, a negligible anode consumption rate is actually a key requirement for long system life. Impressed current systems typically are favored under highcurrent requirements and/or high-resistance electrolytes (Peabody, 2001). Figure (2) shows schematic diagram of impressed current system.

Fig.2 Principle of cathodic protection with impressed current (schematic) (Roberge, 1999)

3.2.1 Power sources: The most common power source for impressed current protection is the transformer rectifier. This unit, commonly called simply a rectifier, reduces incoming ac voltage and rectifies it to dc. There are also solidstate switchmode rectifiers that perform similar functions without the use of transformers. Rectifiers can be provided with constant voltage, constant current, or structure-to-electrolyte potential control. In areas where electrical power is not readily available, solar power and wind driven generators coupled with storage batteries are used. There is also some use of thermoelectric cells, in-line turbine generators (in gas or oil pipelines), and internal combustion engine driven generators (Willett, 2000).

3.2.2 Impressed current anodes: Impressed current anodes do not have to be less noble than the structure that they are protecting. Although scrap steel is occasionally used as anode material, these anodes are typically made from highly corrosion-resistant material to limit their consumption rate. After all, under conditions of anodic polarization, very high dissolution rates can potentially be encountered. Anode consumption rates depend on the level of the applied current density and also on the operating environment (electrolyte). For example, the dissolution rate of platinized titanium anodes is significantly higher when buried in soil compared with their use in seawater. Certain contaminants in seawater may increase the consumption rate of platinized anodes. The relationship between discharge current and anode consumption rate is not of the simple linear variety; the consumption rate can increase by a higher percentage for a certain percentage increase in current. (Shrier (2), 1976 and Peabody, 2001). A variety of materials are used for impressed current anodes. Among the oldest are high silicon, chromium bearing cast iron, graphite, and junk steel. Magnetite and lead-silver anodes are also used, with leadsilver being confined to use in sea water. Among newer materials are dimensionally stable anodes, socalled because the anode itself consists of a deposit on an inert substrate. This deposit may be consumed, but the anode shape tends to remain stable. Included in this category is platinized niobium or titanium and mixed-metal oxide titanium anodes. Underground impressed current anodes are usually backfilled in a carbonaceous material such as metallurgical or calcined petroleum coke. The purpose of the backfill is to increase the effective size of the anode, thus reducing its resistance to earth, and also to provide a uniform
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environment around the anode, increasing its life. Anode life is extended by the large coke backfill column since the current is discharged from the coke column as opposed to being discharged from only the anode. Another advantage to increasing the size of the anode is that the resultant reduction in anode current density reduces acidity in the vicinity of the anode (Uhlig, 2000). The properties of an "ideal" impressed current anode material must have the following (Roberge, 1999): Low consumption rate, irrespective of environment and reaction products. Low polarization levels, irrespective of the different anode reactions. High electrical conductivity and low resistance at the anodeelectrolyte interface. High reliability. High mechanical integrity to minimize mechanical damage during installation, maintenance, and service use. High resistance to abrasion and erosion. Ease of fabrication into different forms. Low cost, relative to the overall corrosion protection scheme. Some of the more common materials used as an auxiliary anodes for marine purpose are considered below (Shrier (2), 1976 and Kenneth, 1985): 1. Scrap steel and cast iron: These materials are cheap but bulky and have a limited durability as anode. They have largely been replaced for marine situations by other materials, although they may still be used to a limited extent for steel piling and jetties.

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2. Graphite: Graphite, particularly when impregnated with resin to reduce porosity, has been widely used in saline situations but it is brittle and may fracture in seawater if subjected to mechanical shock. It is not particularly resistant to the velocity affects of moving water, e.g. erosion and impingement. 3. High-silicon iron: High-silicon iron is usually denoted "HSI", these contain about 14.5 % Si and have been used for anodes in seawater. However, they tend to pit and small additions of molybdenum (3 %) or chromium (4-5 %) considerably improve their performance. The chromium-containing silicon iron (HSCI) is the preferred alloy for seawater use. 4. Lead alloys: A number of different lead alloys have been used for marine conditions, but the Pb-6Sb-1Ag is now generally used. This depends on the formation of a PbO2 film to provide the long-term performance achieved with anodes produced from such alloys. For seawater service, platinum-activated lead alloy anodes have proved to be successful. Small platinum wires are inserted into the surface and provide microelectrodes of Pt, which simulate the formation of a stable PbO2. 5. Platinized-type anode: Platinum has many of the requirements for an ideal anode material. It is one of the most noble metals and also tends to passivate by forming a thin electrically conductive film. These properties provide it with a long, virtually permanent life. It is, however, a very expensive material so is usually used in the form of an electro-deposited coating on titanium. Other methods of application of the platinum such as spraying and cladding are also employed. Titanium and niobium are also used in

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preference to titanium for some systems where high voltage is employed. Table (1) shows the properties of impressed current anodes. Table 1. Properties of impressed anodes (Shrier (2), 1994)
Consumption rate or Material operating current density Consumable: Scrap iron ca 9 kg/Ay Cheap; suitable for buried or immersed use Cast iron < 9 kg/Ay Cheap; buried or immersed use; carbon consumption Semi-consumable: Silicon cast iron (Fe-14Si-(3 Mo)) 5-50 A/m2 (in fresh water or soil) Graphite 2.5-10 A/m
2

Notes

skeleton

reduces

Buried

or

immersed (<1 kg/Ay);

use; Mo

consumption

reduces consumption in seawater Consumption rate very much less than steel or cast iron (<1 kg/Ay); chloride ions reduce consumption

Non-consumable: Lead alloys: 1. Pb-6sb-1Ag < 50-200 A/m2 (in seawater) 2. Pt-activated < 50-500 A/m2 (in seawater) Platinized Ti, Ta or Nb < 1000 A/m2 (consumption) Discontinuities in Pt coat protected by oxide film on subtrate; sensitive (100 Hz) AC ripple on DC. or negative current spikes causing electrode consumption; maximum operating subtrate: 9 V potential with Ti PbO2 film protective PbO2 film restrains consumption

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3.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of impressed current systems: The following advantage can be cited for impressed current systems (Roberge, 1999 and Ted, 2004): High current and power output range Ability to adjust (tune) the protection levels Large areas of protection Low number of anodes, even in high-resistivity

environments May even protect poorly coated structures While the disadvantages can be cited as follow: Relatively high risk of causing interference effects. Lower reliability and higher maintenance requirements. External power has to be supplied. Higher risk of overprotection damage. Risk of incorrect polarity connections (this has happened on occasion with much embarrassment to the parties

concerned). Running cost of external power consumption. More complex and less robust than sacrificial anode systems in certain applications.

3.2.4 Current requirements: It was indicated earlier that the cathodic current was a poor indicator of adequate protection. Whilst, to a first approximation the protection potential is a function of the metal, the current required for protection is a function of the environment and, more particularly, of the cathodic kinetics it entails.

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In short, the current demand for cathodic protection varies according to the aggressiveness of the corrosive environment. It is for this reason that cathodic protection finds its greatest application where the pH is close to neutral. The more acid environments entail a current output that rapidly becomes uneconomic. The more alkaline environments prove less aggressive to the structure and therefore often do not justify cathodic protection (Ashworth and Booker, 1986 and Shrier (2), 1994

3.2.5 Potential requirement: In practice, the structure-to-electrolyte potentials are measured using a standard reference electrode based on copper/copper sulphate, silver/silver chloride or pure zinc. The reference electrode should be very close to the surface whose potential is being measured. For steel in an aerobic electrolyte of nearly neutral pH a commonly accepted protection is -850 mV/Cu-CuSO4 (Ashworth and Booker, 1983 and Faulkner and Menkes, 1983). The reference electrode for making this measurement should be placed as close as possible to the protected structure to avoid and/or minimize an error caused by IR drop through the electrolyte. Table 2. Protective potential in sweater for available type of reference electrode (Trethewey and Chamberlain, 1996)
Reference electrode Calomel Ag/AgCl Cu/CuSO4 Zinc (mil-A-18001H) Electrolyte Saturated KCl Seawater Saturated CuSO4 seawater Protective potential in 20 cm seawater at 25o C, V -0.800 -0.800 -0.850 -0.240

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4. Selection of whether impressed current system or sacrificial anode system The following factors show whether to use impress current system or sacrificial anode system in cathodic protection (Kenneth, 1985): a. Size and geometry of project (impressed current method is usually used for large projects); b. Availability of the power supply; c. Possibility of the interface problems; d. Necessity for safety from spark hazards and accumulation of hydrogen in enclosed spaces; e. Replaceability of sacrificial anodes; f. Expected economic life of the system. 4.1 Typical basic appreciation of cathodic protection by sacrificial anodes: a. Estimate of total current requirements (control densities allowed, spare capacity, allowance of protective coatings and linings, assessment of environmental media); b. Resistivity of water, soil or other electrolyte solutions; c. Requirements for insulating flanges and bonding to foreign structures and assessment of extra current allowances; d. Selection of suitable anode metal (zinc, magnesium, aluminum, iron, mild-steel or other metals anodic to the protected structures for equipment) and its alloying composition; e. Requirements for introduction of current control to limit output within the optimum parameters; f.Selection of the suitable of anodes to provide optimum life; g. Selection of the suitable shape of anodes to secure optimum spread;

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h. Determination of the total number of anodes required; i. Anode spacing to give uniform current distribution; j. Selection of test-point localities; k. Attachment of anodes (sacrificial anodes should be conductively attached to the protected metal but their sacrificial mass should preferably be separated from the protected surfaces).

4.2 Typical basic appreciation of cathodic protection by impressed current cathodic control: a. Estimate of the local current requirements; b. Resistivity of water, soil or other electrolyte solutions; c. Requirements for insulating flanges and bonding to foreign structures and assessment of extra current allowances; d. Selection of suitable ground-bed locations (in low resistivity soil or media, reasonably near power supply, at points where there are no interface problems, where beds and cable are reasonably secure from interference or distribution); e. Decision on the type of anodes and the design of their attachment; f. Decision on whether the anodes (if elongated ones selected) should be installed vertically or horizontally; g. Decision on the voltage to be used; h. Determination of the optimum anode material; i. Optimum number and size of the anodes; j. Decision on anode spacing; k. Type and location of reference electrode; l. Location of controllers, power supply and transmission (cabling and installation); m. Potential hazards of marine and surface traffic;
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n. Wave action and soil instability; o. Weed fouling and microbiological effect. 5. Over protection: The main disadvantages of over protection are waste of electric power and increased consumption of auxiliary anodes. In the extreme, additional disadvantages result, if so much hydrogen is generated at the protected structure that blistering of organic coatings, hydrogen embrittlement of the steel (loss of ductility through absorption of hydrogen) or hydrogen cracking caused. Damage to steel by hydrogen absorption is particularly apt to occur in environments containing sulfides. In the case of amphoteric metals (e.g. aluminum, zinc, lead, tin) excess alkalies generated at the surface of over protected systems damage the metals by causing increased attack rather reduction of corrosion. In addition, the large currents associated with more negative potentials produce high local concentrations of hydroxyl ion, which may cause excessive chalking or damage any barrier coating such paint (Trethewey and Chamberlain, 1996; Wiliams, 1999; Batt and Robinson, 2004 and Farwest, 2006). 6. Controlled potential cathodic protection: A constant applied direct voltage is used in power-impressed cathodic protection systems and provides a relatively constant protective current. However, as conditions change, the required protective current may vary widely and the structure may be under or over protected much of the time. A recent innovation is the use of automatic potential control (APC) rectifiers. This employs control circuitry to maintain the structure potential constant with respect to a reference electrode permitting the

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current to vary continuously so suit the needs of the system (Francis, 1975 and Shrier (2), 1976). The surface was protected by a barrier coating or paint film, the currents observed would be much lower, if the protective coating is damaged, causing an increase of effective surface area, then the current density would fall, this would in a change of potential back towards the free corrosion potential (figure 2.4), together with a corresponding increase in corrosion rate. (Trethewey and Chamberlain, 1996). 7. Coating and cathodic protection Large structures, even in near-neutral pH environments, require a considerable current for cathodic protection. As a result structure coatings are an almost mandatory requirement when cathodic protection is contemplated. The coating then provides the major part of the protection and the cathodic protection provides the protection at the coating defects. A coating deteriorates chemically and mechanically during its lifetime. This leads to a progressive increase in both the number of defects and the current required to protect the steel as they occur (Roberge, 1999). The cost of cathodic protection falls as the surface is coated because less anode material is needed or less current demand. So the means of protecting steel structure. There is however, one important exception, the underwater steel work of the majority of offshore platforms used in the North Sea (and in the other areas of the world) is not protected by coatings. There are two reasons for this (Kenneth, 1985): These structures are almost all protected using sacrificial anodes and it is easer to design for a more less constant

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current demand than for an increasing current demand in these systems. The construction of the platform is made against a tight schedule; and weather conditions that prevented completion of coating would involve launching a platform with an incomplete coating and insufficient anodes to protect the new partially coated structure. The approximate costs and weight arising from the coated and uncoated options are shown in table (3). Table 3. Cost and weight variations due to coating submerged steel (notional deep water structure). Aluminum sacrificial cathodic protection system (Kenneth, 1985)
Parameter Anode net weight, kg Anode gross weight, kg Anode quantity (total) Budget price per anode, Budget installation price per anode, Budget coating cost per m2 (63000 m2), Total budget cost, Total estimated weight, ton Bare steel option value 230 292 5530 300 300 3,318,000 1615 Coated steel option value 115 157 5132 160 250 20 3,364,120 806 + paint weight

8. Time effect: the rate of dissolution increases with increasing time and this is normal case. But this increasing is not equally with time, where the dissolution rate in the first hour is more than second hour and so on. The reasons of that are attributed to continuous growth of the corrosion products layer with time, which affects the transport of oxygen to the metal surface and the activity of the surface and hence the corrosion rate.
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9. Temperature effect: The increase in the rate of dissolution with increasing seawater temperature (may be explained in terms of the following effects: 1. A temperature increase usually increases the reaction rate which is the corrosion rate and according to the Freundlich equation (Shrier (2), 1976):
Corrosion rate k C n O2

1.1

Where k is rate constant of reaction, CO2 (concentration of oxygen) and n is order of reaction. The rate constant (k) varying with temperature according to Arrhenius equation (Shrier (2), 1976):

k koe

RT

1.2

Where ko is constant, E is activation energy, R is universal gas constant and T is temperature. Then from this formula ( k koe
E RT

) indicates that the k is increased with increasing

temperature and then the corrosion rate which is leads to increasing the rate of zinc dissolutions. 2. Increasing seawater temperature leads to decreasing seawater viscosity with a consequent increase in oxygen diffusivity according to stokes-Einstein equation (Cussler, 1984 and Konsowa and El-Shazly, 2002):

D constant T

1.3

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Where is the seawater viscosity and D is the diffusivity of the dissolved oxygen. As a result of increasing the diffusivity of dissolved oxygen, the rate of mass transfer of dissolved oxygen to the cathode surface increases according to the following equation (Konsowa and El-Shazly, 2002):

J k d C O2

D CO d 2

1.4

With a consequence increase in the rate of zinc dissolution. Where kd is mass transfer coefficient and J is mole flux of oxygen. 3. The decreases in seawater viscosity with increasing temperature improve the seawater conductivity with a consequent increase in corrosion current and the rate of corrosion.

10. Flow rate effect: the dissolution rate of increases with increasing the flow rate. This may be attributed to the decrease in the thickness of hydrodynamic boundary layer and diffusion layer across which dissolved oxygen diffuses to the tube wall of steel with consequent increase in the rate of oxygen diffusion .but The flow rate of seawater may also caused erosion which combined with electrochemical attack.

11. pH effect: the rat of dissolution increases with decreasing of pH (particularly at range of pH 5 to 2). Within the range of about 5 to 12 the corrosion rate of steel, where it depends almost on how rapidly oxygen to the metal surface. Although it was expected that at very high of pH value (12), the

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dissolution rate of zinc is much reducing because the steel becomes increasingly passive in present of alkalies and dissolved oxygen, but the nature of electrolyte (seawater) prevent that where chloride ions depassivate iron even at high pH. Within the acidic region (pH<5) the ferrous oxide film (resulting from corrosion) is dissolved, the surface pH falls and steel is more direct contact with environment. The increased rate of reaction (corrosion) is then the sum of both an appreciable rate of hydrogen evolution and oxygen depolarization.

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References : Kean, R. L. (2001), "Corrosion servies", Eur. Ing. Uhlig, H. H. (1971), "Corrosion and corrosion control, an introduction to corrosion science and engineering", John-Wiley and Sons. Uhlig, H. H. (2000), "Corrosion handbook", edited by Winston R. R., 2nd edition, John-Wiley and Sons. Gummow, A. R. (2000), "Corrosion control municipal

infrastructure using cathodic protection", Published in "Material performance", 39 (2). Davies, K. G. (2003), "Cathodic protection in practice". (internet site: www.npl.co.uk) Faulkner, L. L and Menkes, S. B. (1983), "Corrosion and corrosion protection handbook", Marcel Dekker. Roberge, R. P. (1999), "Handbook of corrosion engineering". Shrier (2), L. L. (1976), "Corrosion 2, corrosion control", NewnesButterworth. Kenneth, A. C. (1985), "Marine and offshore corrosion", Butterworth and Co. Roberge, R. P. (1999), "Handbook of corrosion engineering". Ted, H. (2004), "Cathodic protection for port facilities", Matcor Inc. Clive, H. H., Mathew, R. S. and Steven, P. C. (2002), Zinc Link, 4 (2). Peabody. A. E. (2001), "Control of pipeline corrosion", 2nd edition. Whitten, D. P. (2000), "General chemistry", 6th edition.

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