CHAPTER 1 1.1. GAS HANDLING FACILITIES 1.2.

OVERVIEW Gas handling facilities are equipments or tools used to separate natural gas, condensate, or oil and water form a gas producing well and thus condition these fluids for sales and disposal. These facilities have arrays of functions ranging from: Gas sweetening The removal of corrosive sulfur contents from natural gas Gas dehydration Treating of condensate, oil, or water after the initial separation from natural gas is achieved Gas processing Gas stabilization e.t.c. The facilities which comprise the gas handling equipment include: 1. Gas cabinets and distribution system: Vaporizers, gas cabinets, gas manifolds, mass flow controllers, valves, pressure sensors 2. Gas compressors and gas compressor systems: Used to separate gas through a process, enhance conditions for chemical reactions, provide inert gas for safety or control system, recover and recompress process gas, and maintain correct pressure levels by either adding or removing gas or vapors from a process system.

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3. Gas cylinders: They are used to store gases under high pressure. They can store flammable gases such as acetylene and inert gases such as helium. 4. Gas pressure regulators: Gas pressure regulators reduce the pressure of a gas, as it passes through a cylinder or process line, to another piece of equipment. Regulators are not flow control devices. They are used for control delivery pressure only. 5. Refrigeration compressor and air conditioning compressors: Refrigeration compressors and air conditioning compressors provides air conditioning, heat pumping and refrigeration for large-scale facilities and equipment. compressors. 6. Steamers and steam generators:Steamers and steam generators produce steam vapor for cleaning, oxidation, and other process functions. 1.3. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION Refrigeration compressors are sometimes called refrigerant

The well flow stream may require heating prior to initial heating. Since most of the gas well flow at a very high pressure, a choke is installed to oppose the flow. When the flow stream is choked, the gas expands and its temperature decreases. If the temperature gets low enough, hydrates (a solid crystalline-like "ice" matter) will form. This could lead to plugging, so the gas may have to be heated before it can be choked to separator pressure. Low-temperature exchange (LTX) units and indirect fired heaters are commonly used to keep the well stream from plugging with hydrates. It is also possible that cooling may be necessary. Some gas
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reservoirs may be very deep and very hot. If a substantial amount of gas and liquid is being produced from the well, the flowing temperature of the well could be very hot even after the choke. In this case, the gas may have to be cooled prior to compression, treating, or dehydration. Separation and further liquid handling might be possible at high temperatures, so the liquids are normally separated from the gas prior to cooling to reduce the load on the cooling equipment. Heat exchangers are used to cool the gas and also to cool or heat fluids for treating water from oil, regenerating glycol and other gas treating fluids, etc.

GAS TREATING

DEHYDRATIOIN

GAS PROCESSING

GAS SALES

WELLS COOLING

HEATING HP SEPARATION COMPRESSIOR

STABILIZATION

OIL SALES

Fig.1. Gas facility arrangement

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OIL AND WATER HANDLING

1.4.

GREEN HOUSE GASES/IMPURITIES OF GAS HANDLING FACILITIES

Acid gases, usually hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are impurities that are frequently found in natural gas and may have to be removed. Both can be very corrosive, with CO2 forming carbonic acid in the presence of water and H2S potentially causing hydrogen embrittlement of steel. In addition, H2S is extremely toxic at very low concentrations. Another common impurity of natural gas is methane and nitrogen. Since nitrogen has essentially no calorific value, it lowers the heating value of gas.

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CHAPTER 2 2.1. OIL HANDLING FACILITY 2.2. OVERVIEW The oil handling equipments comprise tools which are used to separate the well stream into three separate components/phases; oil, gas and water, from an oilproducing well. In the mechanical device called a separator, gas is flashed from the liquid and free water is separated from the oil. These steps remove enough light hydrocarbons to produce a stable crude oil with the volatility (vapor pressure) to meet sales criteria.

The tools or equipments that comprise the oil handling facility include: Pumps Pipes Valves Storage tank Chock Manifold Fittings LACT unit Flow line Petroleum hose .e.t.c.

2.3.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Usually, the operation is carried out in a separator. The separated gas is saturated with water vapor and must be dehydrated to an acceptable level (normally less than 7 Ib/MMscf). Usually this is done in a glycol dehydrator. Dry glycol is pumped to
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the large vertical contact tower where it strips the gas of its water vapor. The wet glycol then flows through a separator to the large horizontal reboiler where it is heated and the water boiled off as steam. Finally, the oil and emulsion from the separators must be treated to remove water and obtain only oil. The direct-fired heater-treaters that are used for removing water from the oil and emulsion being treated. These can be either horizontal or vertical in configuration and are distinguished by the fire tube, air intakes, and exhausts that are clearly visible. Treaters can be built without fire a tube, which makes them, look very much like separators. Oil treating can also be done by settling or in gun-barrel tanks, which have either external or internal gas boots

2.4.

GREEN HOUSE GAS/IMPURITIES PRESENT IN OIL HANDLING FACILITIES.

Contaminants such as H2S and CO2 may be present at levels higher than those acceptable to the gas purchaser. If this is the case, then additional equipment will be necessary to "sweeten" the gas, which results in the emission of water vapor.

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CHAPTER 3 3.1. GREEN HOUSE GASES A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. They are those gases that can absorb and emit infrared radiation. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are: water vapor carbon dioxide methane nitrous oxide

Ozone Carbon monoxide Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earth's surface would average about 33C colder than the present average of 14 C (57 F). Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (i.e., emissions produced by human activities) come from combustion of carbon based fuels, principally based on oil, and natural gas. In addition to the main greenhouse gases listed above, other greenhouse gases include: Sulfur hexafluoride hydrofluorocarbons

perfluorocarbons. These emissions can be classified as: Combustion emission Vented emission Fugitive emission
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3.2. POTENTIAL EMISSION SOURCES 3.2.1. STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES: Stationary combustion source are the largest sources of GHG emissions in oil and gas handling facilities. These stationary combustion sources at the oil and gas handling facilities includes: the heaters, boilers, combustion turbines, and similar devices. Combustions sources primarily emit CO2 but they also emit a small amount of NO2 and CH4. 3.2.2.FLARES: Flares are commonly used in refineries as safety devices to receive gases during periods of process upsets, equipment malfunctions, and unit start-up and shutdowns. Some flares may be used solely as control devices for regulatory purposes. Combustion of gas in a flare results in emissions of

predominately CO2, along with small amounts of CH4 and N2O. 3.2.3. STORAGE TANKS: Storage tanks will generally have negligible GHG emissions except when unstabilized crude oil is stored or a methane blanket is used in the storage tank. Unstabilized crude oil is crude oil that has not been stored at atmospheric conditions for prolonged periods of time (several days to a week) prior to being received at the refinery. Most crude oil deposits also include natural gas (i.e., CH4); some of the CH4 is dissolved in the crude oil at the pressure of the crude oil deposit. When crude oil is extracted, it is often stored temporarily at atmospheric conditions to either discharge or recover the dissolved gases. If the crude oil is transported under pressure (e.g., via a pipeline) either immediately or shortly after extraction, the dissolved gases will remain in the crude oil until it reaches the refinery. The dissolved gases will be subsequently released from this unstabilized crude oil when the crude oil is stored at atmospheric conditions at a storage tank at the refinery.

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3.2.4. COOLANTS: Chlorofluorocarbons, which are inert gases used as refrigerants, aerosols, foaming agents, and solvents, do not occur naturally but are industrially produced.

3.2.5. OTHER ANCILLARY SOURCES: Leaking equipment components (e.g. valves, pumps, seals, hatches and flanges) may, therefore, be a source of CH4 emissions. Similar to equipment leaks, some heat exchangers may develop leaks whereby gases being cooled can leak into the cooling water. Although these leaks are not direct releases to the atmosphere, light hydrocarbons that leak into the cooling water will generally be released to the atmosphere in cooling towers (for recirculated cooling water systems) or ponds/receiving waters (in once through systems). As several heat exchangers at a refinery cool gases that contain appreciable quantities of CH4 (e.g., a distillation columns overhead condenser), cooling towers may also be a source of CH4 emissions. 3.2.6. TREATMENT FACILITIES: The oil treatment facility (OTF) is designed to collect, separate, dehydrate and desalt oil-water blends coming from the wells. They consist of:

Slug Catchers Relief & Flare Systems Water Injection Systems Sweeteners Dehydrators NGL Recovery

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3.3. EFFECTS OF GREEN HOUSE GASES The emission of greenhouse gases is expected to induce an increase in the global mean temperature which, in terms of either magnitude or rate of change, would be unprecedented in mankind's entire history on earth. Present day global climate models predict a warming of 1.5 degrees to 4.5 degrees Celsius for a CO2 doubling within the next century. In contrast, the earth's temperature has risen only 0.5-0.7 degrees Celsius in the last century, and probably has not varied more than 1-2 degrees Celsius in the last ten thousand years, or 6-7 degrees Celsius in the last million years. The development of the human social and cultural infrastructure over the last 7,000 years has taken place entirely within an average global climate neither I degree warmer nor colder than the climate of today (NAS, 1983).

3.3.1. WATER VAPOR: Its contribution to the pressure increases as its concentration increases. Its partial pressure contribution to air pressure increases, lowering the partial pressure contribution of the other atmospheric gases (Dalton's Law). The total air pressure must remain constant. The presence of water vapor in the air naturally dilutes or displaces the other air components as its concentration increases. This can have an effect on respiration.

3.3.2. METHANE: Methane gas poisoning can lead to hydrogen sulfide poisoning, asphyxiation, and explosion and fire. Most importantly, it increases the earths temperature above normal. Its accumulation in the atmosphere results in the production of acid rain and death of plant and animal bodies.

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3.3.3. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE: The effects can vary depending on the duration and level of exposure. A low exposure can irritate the respiratory system, including the nose, lungs and throat. Exposure to hydrogen sulfide can also irritate the eyes. An exposed person may experience a burning sensation in the throat or lungs, runny eyes, coughing or shortness of breath. If these symptoms are prolonged, they can cause headaches, fatigue, inflammation of the eyes and weight loss. Moderate to high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can cause excitability, dizziness, nausea, shock, convulsions, coma and death. 3.3.4. CARBON MONOXIDE: this can prove fatal when inhaled, but really has greater danger as a combustible gas which is responsible for many of the accidental explosions that occur around combustion equipment (mainly, gas handling facilities). 3.3.5. NITROGEN OXIDE: This is very detrimental as it is an oxygen inhibitor. When it combines with oxygen, it forms nitrogen dioxide, an even more detrimental gas. Oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere when exposed to sunlight, reacts chemically with other gaseous compounds in the atmosphere such as volatile organic compounds through photosynthesis to form a brownish yellow cloud of gaseous compound of gases commonly referred to as smog. 3.3.6. CARBON (IV) OXIDE: this is the second most detrimental gas after water vapor as it has the potential to absorb infrared I.e. heat radiation from the sun. the more CO2 in the atmosphere, the more heat the atmosphere can absorb, which could contribute to the melting of the polar ice cap, corrosion and damage of oil and gas handling facilities, reduction in the value of oil as it increases its specific gravity and reduces its API gravity.
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CHAPTER 4 4.1. CONTROL METHODS IN OIL AND GAS HANDLING FACILITIES The most effective way of reducing the emissions from the oil and gas handling facilities is through energy efficiency (Energy use).

4.2. FUEL GAS SYSTEM: 4.2.1. COMPRESSORS 4.2.2. COMPRESSOR SELECTION Different types of compressors have different propensities to leak. Based on emission factors for natural gas compressors, reciprocating compressors generally have approximately one-half the fugitive emissions of centrifugal compressors (U.S. EPA, 1999). Rod packing (e.g. Static-Pac) can be used to reduce fugitive emissions from reciprocating compressors, and dry seal centrifugal compressors have lower emissions (i.e., are less likely to leak) than those with wet seals (U.S. EPA, 1999). Thus, the projected methane emissions from fuel gas compressors could be considered in the selection of the type of compressor and fugitive controls used.

4.2.3. USE OF SULFUR SCRUBBING SYSTEM Hydrogen sulfide in fuel gas is commonly removed by amine scrubbing. The scrubbing solution is typically regenerated by heating the scrubbing solution in a stripping column, typically using steam. The regeneration process can use significant energy, and the energy intensity (impacting CO2 emissions) of the different processes should be considered (in conjunction with the sulfur scrubbing efficiencies) in selecting scrubbing technology. Some fuel gas, such as fuel gas produced by coking units, contain a significant quantity of other reduced sulfur compounds, such as methyl mercaptan and carbon disulfide, that are not removed
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by conventional amine scrubbing. The impact of these other reduced sulfur compounds on the resulting sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from process heaters and other fuel gas combustion devices using coker-produced fuel gas should be considered for both energy efficiency (for GHG emission reductions) and total sulfur removal efficiency (for SO2 emission reductions). Alternatives to conventional amine scrubbing (which uses dimethylethylamine, DMEA), include the use of proprietary scrubbing systems, such as FLEXSORB, Selexol, and Rectisol, as well as using a mixture of solvents as in the Sulfinol process, additional conversion of sulfur compounds to H2S prior to scrubbing, or using a direct fuel gas scrubbing/sulfur recovery technology like LoCat or caustic scrubbers.

4.2.4. COMBINATION OF TECHNOLOGIES Improve emission controls on new or existing engines using a combination of techniques such as the following: Closed loop engine control Selective catalytic reduction (covered as a stand-alone technique in section 3.7) System-installed power supply (solar powered, battery powered) Ultra-low sulfur diesel Diesel particulate filter After burner, and/or Other new technologies Benefits of this medium includes the reduction in the emissions of : Oxides of nitrogen, Sulfur dioxide Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide.
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 Some PM2.5. As it is cost effective, it has a wide range of applications ranging from: Projects involving natural gas compression, Include control package as an option on new engines, Retrofit on existing engines.

4.5. STORAGE TANKS 4.5.1. VAPOR RECOVERY OR CONTROL FOR UNSTABILIZED CRUDE OIL TANKS Crude oil often contains methane and other light hydrocarbons that are dissolved in the crude oil because the crude oil is stored within the wells under pressure. When the crude oil is pumped from the wells and subsequently stored at atmospheric pressures, CH4 and other light hydrocarbons are released from the crude oil and emitted from the atmospheric storage tanks. Most refineries receive crude oil that has been stored for several days to several weeks at atmospheric pressures prior to receipt at the refinery. These stabilized crude oils have limited GHG emissions. If a refinery receives crude oil straight from a production well via pipeline without being stored for several days at atmospheric pressures, the crude oil may contain significant quantities of methane and light VOC. When this unstabilized crude oil is first stored at the refinery at atmospheric conditions, the methane and gaseous VOC will evolve from the crude oil. Common tank controls, such as floating roofs, are ineffective at reducing these emissions. If a refinery receives unstabilized crude oil, a fixed roof tank vented to a gas recovery system of control device could be considered to reduce the GHG (particularly CH4) emissions from these tanks. Also, heat is normally applied to these storage tanks in order to reduce viscosity of the emulsions and allow for coalescence in order to enhance separation.

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4.6.

STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES

4.6.1. TREATERS: 4.6.2. DRAFT CONTROL: This involves the use of excessive combustion air which reduces the efficiency of process heater burners. With this method, energy usage of the treater is reduced and nitrogen oxide (NOX) emission is reduced by 10-25%. Draft control is applicable to new or existing process heaters, and is cost effective for a wide range of process heaters (20 to 30 MMBtu/hr or greater).

4.6.3. POST-COMBUSTION SOLVENT CAPTURE: Post-combustion capture using solvent scrubbing, typically using

monoethanolamine (MEA) as the solvent, is a commercially mature technology. Solvent scrubbing has been used in the chemical industry for separation of CO2 in exhaust streams (Bosoaga, 2009).

4.6.4. USE OF AMMONIA AND MONOETHANOLAMINE SOLVENTS: These solvents are used in scrubbing CO2 greenhouse gas emissions. The MEA process is a traditional process for gas purification of removing CO. The CO2 removal efficiency and absorption capacity is high in both, but higher in ammonia. The maximum CO2 removal efficiency by NH3 solvent can achieve 99% and the CO2 absorption capacity can approach 1.20 kg CO2/kg NH3. On the other hand, the maximum CO2 removal efficiency and absorption capacity by MEA solvent are 94% and 0.40 kg CO2/kg MEA, respectively.

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4.7.

BOILERS:

4.7.1. OXYGEN FIRING IN CIRCULATING FLUDIZED BED BOILERS: Based on the Investigations carried out by ALSTOM Power Inc. it has been proved that several coal fired power plant configurations are designed to capture CO from effluent gas streams for use or sequestration. Burning fossil fuels in mixtures of oxygen and recirculated flue gas (made principally of CO) essentially eliminates the presence of atmospheric nitrogen in the flue gas. The resulting flue gas is comprised primarily of CO. Oxygen firing in utility scale Pulverized Coal (PC) fired boilers has been shown to be a more economical method for CO capture than amine scrubbing. Oxygen firing in Circulating Fluid Bed Boilers (CFB's) can be more economical than in PC or Stoker firing, because recirculated gas flow can be reduced significantly. These advanced/novel concepts require long development efforts. An economic analysis indicates that the proposed oxygen-firing technology in circulating fluidized boilers could be developed and deployed economically in the near future in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) applications or enhanced gas recovery (EGR), such as coal bed methane recovery. An application of this can be seen in the Greenfield US coal-fired electric generation power plants.

4.8.

FLOW LINES:

4.8.1. LEAK DETECTION AND REPAIR: LDAR programs have been used to reduce emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from petroleum pipelines in refineries for years. Leaks can be detected using organic vapor analyzers or specially designed cameras optical sensing technologies to identify leaks in natural gas lines, fuel gas lines, and other lines with high methane, CO2, nitrogen oxide, water vapor concentrations and repair the leaks as soon as possible. LDAR programs commonly achieve emission

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reduction efficiencies of 80 to 90 percent. This is most useful in barges whose spillage could be very devastating.

4.8.2. USE OF SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION Selective catalytic reduction works by injecting diesel exhaust fluid (DEF, a mixture of water and urea) into the exhaust. The DEF works with the heat of the exhaust and a catalytic converter to convert the oxides of nitrogen into nitrogen and water vapor. Commonly, a diesel particulate filter is included in the emission control package with selective catalytic reduction. This is used mainly, to curb the emissions of the oxides of nitrogen. Its only limited to cost and specification of application with no side effects and thus, proves optimum for the reduction of the green house gas (nitrogen oxide).

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4.9.

ANCILLARY SOURCES (HATCHES, VALVES, AND PUMPS):

4.9.1. PRESSURE SETTING: In order to minimize emissions and in addition to selecting appropriate hatches, seals, and valves relative to tank design, it is important to establish optimum pressure settings for this equipment. This is due to the face that reduction in pressure allows for an increased evolution of gases. Therefore, increasing the pressure optimally (because hydrocarbon will be released at designated pressure and temperature range), helps to curb and reduce the emissions of Methane, volatile organic compounds, hazardous air pollutants into our environment.

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CONCLUSION The above listed methods mechanical, thermal and chemical have proven very effective in diverse scenario in the oil and gas industry especially in the area of refining to curb these emissions as can be read and seen in the developed country due to factors such as cost, availability of highly trained professionals, insecurity and so on. Though effective, these mediums do not completely evade emissions of the green house gases from the oil and gas handling equipments; rather, they treat, recycle, or store these harmful wastes (oxygen firing in circulating fludized bed boilers, ) either for as an alternative source of energy or for disposal (use of ammonia). Most importantly, total maintenance should be carried out of the systems and facilities to avoid leaks of any kind (fluid or gas) as this is one most important source of emission especially in a confined vessel.

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REFERENCES 1. Green house gas emission and control, Nsakala ys Nsakala, Gregory N. Liljedahl, DOE Contract number: fe26-01NT41146, 15th may, 2003, USA

2. Abrahamson, D., 1989. "The importance of methane leakage in fossil fuel cycles." Proceedings, Workshop on Rising Concentrations of Methane and Implications for Policy, World Resources Institute,Washington, D.C., September 27, 1989.

3. Broecker, W. S., 1987. "Unpleasant surprises in the greenhouse?" Nature, 328, 123-126.

4. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyResearch Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, October, 2010. Available and emerging technologies for the reducing green house gas emission from the petroleum refinery industry.

5. EIA (Energy Information Administration). 2006. Refinery Capacity Report 2006. Prepared by the Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC. June 15.

6. U.S. DOE (Department of Energy). 2007. Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry. Prepared by Energetics, Inc., Columbia, MD. November 2007.
7. Emission reduction techniques for oil and gas Activities, US Forest

services, 2011.
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