Firing order in multi- cylinder engines:

In multi- cylinder engines; the expansion strokes for the different pistons must be arranged to give suitable distribution of force, in this way the engine runs more quietly and smaller the flywheel would be. The crank angle between any two explosions, ensuring the best uniformity if crankshaft rotation should be as follows: Four- stroke engines: = 720/ n Two- stroke engines: = 360/ n Where n is the number of cylinders. The firing order in the multi cylinder engine is thus usually adjusted as 1-2-4-3 or 1-3-4-2 and not as 1-2-3-4 as the sequence of engines. The reason for this is explained below:

Reason
1. The firing order is of more importance in multi- cylinder engines, because the Exhaust valves remain open for some interval of crank motion, so two exhaust valves of two adjacent cylinders may open simultaneously. This overlapping will cause the exhaust of one of the two adjacent cylinders to 'below- over' into the other in which the exhaust stroke is nearly completing, thus interfering with the evacuation of the latter. Blow- over can be minimized by using such a firing order that adjacent cylinders never fire in succession. 2. Firing order is the order in which the power strokes are produced in various cylinders of a multi cylinder engine. The firing order is essential to overcome the fluctuations produced due to the impulses of pistons during power strokes. In a four cylinder engine all the four cylinders does not have power stroke simultaneously and it produces vibrations so by arranging the power strokes alternately these vibrations are reduced. Apart from this the flywheel and vibration damper serves the same purpose. Generally the firing order for a four cylinder engine is 1-4-3-2 (or) 1-4-2-3.

Carburetion
The process of mixture preparation in an S.I. Engine is called carburetion. This air-fuel mixture is prepared outside cylinder in a device called carburettor. The carburettor atomizes the fuel and mixes air in different proportions for various load conditions. Functions The function of the carburettor is to measure out the correct proportions of liquid fuel and air for the particular engine conditions. It atomizes, vaporize and mix the fuel homogenously with air. It must supply correct amount of air-fuel mixture in correct proportion under all load conditions and speed of the engine. It must run the engine smoothly by supplying correct mixture strength.

Types of Carburettors
1. Fixed Choke Type 2. Constant Vacuum Type 3. Submerged Jet Carburettor.

1. Fixed Choke Carburettor

It is the most common and simplest type of carburettor being used in S.I. Engines. It has the simplest construction and working which is depicted below in the figure.

It is a float type carburettor in which a float along with a needle valve is used to control the amount of fuel in carburettor. Air enters from the venturi of a uniformly decreasing crosssection which creates a region of pressure less than atmospheric pressure. As a result of this pressure difference petrol is induced in the venture where it is mixed with air to form air-fuel mixture. In this case the air flow is controlled by a choke valve. The choke or throat has a constant area and the pressure changes with throttle opening and engine speed.

2. Constant Vacuum Type Carburettor

This type of carburettor is similar in function to that of fixed choke carburettor with a difference that the pressure at the throat, and thus the air velocity remains constant but the area of the throat is varied. Similarly the area of the petrol orifice or jet may also vary and this is achieved by means of a tapered needle attached to the piston. The needle moves in the orifice thus forming a discharge annulus for the petrol. It is shown in the figure below:

3. Submerged Jet Carburettor

With the elementary form of the carburettor described above the mixture would become richer as the air flow is increased and this must be corrected. In some carburettors this is done by fitting the main metering jet about 2.5 cm below the petrol level. This type of carburettor is known as submerged jet carburettor. The jet is situated at the bottom of a well, the sides of which are in communication with the atmosphere. The second object of this arrangement is to achieve atomization which is not obtained with elementary system described above. Air is drawn through the holes ion the well, the petrol is emulsified, and the pressure difference across the petrol column is not as great as in the elementary carburettor. On starting the petrol in the well is at the level of that in the float chamber. On opening the throttle this petrol, being subject to the low throat pressure, is drawn into the air. This continues with decreasing mixture richness as the holes in the central tube are progressively uncovered. Normal flow then takes place in the main jet.

Types of Carburettor Based On direction of flow

Up-draft Carburettors Down-draft Carburettors Side-draft carburettors

The figure shows updraft, downdraft and side-draft carburettors respectively.

Updraft Carburettors
This type is placed low in the engine and uses a gravity fed fuel supply. In other words, the tank is above the carburettor and the fuel falls to it. Even this carburettor uses gravity to receive the fuel from the tank, the air-fuel mixture must be forced upward into the engine. For special reasons of space and/or other considerations, some engines are fitted with updraft carburettors. These need fairly high velocities to carry the fuel droplets in suspension against the action of gravity.

Downdraft Carburettors
A downdraft carburettor is a one in which there is vertical venture tube with air flowing from top to bottom. This carburettor operates with lower air velocities and larger passages. This is because gravity assists the air-fuel mixture flow to the cylinder. The down draft carburettor can provide large volumes of fuel when needed for high speed and high power output.

Advantage It is best in that gravity assists in keeping the fuel droplets flowing in the same direction as the air flow. A long runner (passage between throttle and intake manifold) that allows more distance and time for evaporation and mixing is also good. Demerits Both of these concepts were acceptable in early automobiles, which had large engine components and on which a high hood was desirable for snob appeal. As automobiles were built lower and engine compartments smaller, compromising was necessary and carburettors were built with shorter barrels and runners. To further reduce engine compartment height, side draft carburettors were developed with air flowing horizontally.

Side-draft carburettors
In this type of carburettor the air-fuel mixture flows horizontally. Merits This carburettor has an advantage over downdraft carburettor that they are smaller and much compact in the size thus most suitable for modern S.I. Engines. Demerits These generally need higher flow velocities to keep the fuel droplets suspended in the air flow, and with higher velocities come greater pressure losses.

Problems Associated with the Carburettors

A problem sometimes encountered with carburettors is icing, which usually occurs on the throttle plate. Water vapour in the air will freeze when the air is cooled to low temperatures. Cooling occurs for two reasons: There is expansion cooling due to the pressure reduction experienced by the air as it flows through the carburettor, and there is evaporative cooling due to the just-added fuel droplets in the throat of the venturi. Fuel additives and heating the carburettor are two possible solutions to this problem. Another problem of carburettors is the splitting of the air flow around the throttle plate immediately after the fuel has been added. This makes it very difficult to get homogeneous mixing and is a major reason why the air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinders is often non-uniform. This problem is more serious with later short barrel, short runner carburettors. At conditions other than WOT, the major pressure drop in an intake system will be at the throttle plate of the carburettor. This may be as much as 90% of the total pressure drop, or greater. The flow may become choked (sonic velocity) at a partially closed throttle. When the throttle position is suddenly changed, it takes several engine revolutions to re-establish steady-state flow through the carburettor. A simple carburettor as described suffers from the fact that it provides the required air-fuel ratio only at one throttle position. At all other positions, the mixture is either leaner or richer depending upon whether the throttle is opened less or more.

Engine Lubricating System

The sides of a piston and the cylinder in the engine looks like this. The metal appears to be rough. When two pieces of this rough metal rub together the peaks on the surfaces will probably break or wear off. These broken off particles act like a sand paper. They cause or increase friction, which increase temperature. They also wear away metal surfaces. Roughness and dryness resist the movement of metal surfaces against one another. Friction is the term for this resistance to movement. Engine efficiency decreases as friction increases. Oil in the piston separates the two metal surfaces so that they do not rub together. In an I.C. Engine, oil is used to reduce friction between moving parts. It is also used to remove heat caused by the friction. Oil has other functions, too. We know that when two surfaces rub together, small bits of metal break off. These small bits are carried away by the oil. Because there is an open space between the piston and cylinder wall, combustion gases can leak between the piston and the cylinder wall. Since oil fills the space at this location, the oil prevents the leaking of gases past the piston. Thus the oil acts as a seal. Functions Decrease friction Remove small bits of metal Cool the engine by removing heat caused by the friction Prevent gas from leaking around the piston

Lubricating the Engine

There are three basic types of oil distribution systems used in engines: splash, oil pump or combination of both. Oil must be delivered to all the metal parts of the engine that rub against other parts. The lubricating system delivers the oil to these moving parts.

Splash Lubricating System

Here is an example of a splash lubricating system used on some small engines. When the engine is not operating, the oil collects at the bottom of the engine. Oil collects in the crankcase. Connected to the crankshaft is a dipper. As the crankshaft turns, the dipper dips into the oil in the crankcase. Since the crankshaft rotates very fast, the dipper moves through the oil with great force, splashing oil over the engine parts. The oil splashes against the walls of the cylinder. The dipper also splashes oil on the bearing and on the turning crankshaft. Some of the oil is splashed inside the piston and up to the tops of the connecting rod and its wrist pin. The oil is sent to the piston where it lubricates and seals the space between the piston and the cylinder wall. After lubricating the cylinder wall and bearings, the oil drips down to the crankcase again. Some of the oil from the dipper is splashed into grooves on the upper block. This oil lubricates the wall rocker arm parts and the camshaft before returning to the crankcase.

Oil Pump
In large industrial engines, since the splash system is not large enough to lubricate all the moving parts, a forced lubricating system is used. Because oil will not flow up by itself and oil pump forces the oil to circulate the whole length of this crankshaft has channels bored into it. These channels carry the oil into different engine parts. The pump forces oil through these channels. Some of the oil passes through channels in the crankshaft to the bearings which support the crankshaft. From the crankshaft, oil is forced up through the connecting rods to the wrist pin. The oil in the piston flows out of the piston and down the cylinder wall. The pump also forces oil through the channels to the top of the engine to lubricate the rocker arm parts and the valves. A typical oil pump is shown in the figure. It consists of rotating gears. The pump is driven by the camshaft. The inlet to the pump is connected to the strainer. Lubricating oil returning from the engine parts gathers in the crankcase. Heavy particles of dirt collect during circulation through the engine settle to the bottom of the crankcase. Therefore, the oil at the top of the crankcase is cleaner. A float on the strainer makes sure that only surface oil goes into the pump. Dirt, water and sludge on the bottom of the crankcase are prevented from getting into the oil pump by this floating strainer. Sometimes dirt, sand, and small metal particles remain in the circulating oil. The impurities are removed from the oil by oil filters. Many engines use a filter in the lubricating system through which all of the oil from the pump must go before going into the engine parts. This is called a full-flow system. When a bypass filter is used, only a small part of the lubricating oil passes through the filter each time the oil is circulated through the engine. All of the oil does not have to pass through the filter in this system. After engines have been in operation for a while oil filters may pick up enough impurities to fill them. Then these filters must be either cleaned or replaced. Some cleanable filters only have to have a handle on them turned every few hours to keep them clean. Lubricating oil, after continuous used, breaks down chemically into acids, tars and, sludge. The oil must be changed at regular intervals to keep the oil fresh. Oil treatment systems remove undesirable chemicals from the oil. But treating the lubricating oil, the number of oil changes needed is reduced. Oil Cooling In small engines enough heat escapes through the outside engine parts to cool the lubricating oil adequately. For example, the metal crankcase draws heat from the oil and the outside air removes heat from the crankcase. In larger systems, this arrangement cannot remove enough heat to keep the oil at a safe temperature.

This drawing shows an oil cooling system for a large engine. Excess heat from the oil is removed by an exchanger. Water flows through the heat exchanger and around the oil. This is a water cool system. Oil Pressure The lubrication system must build up enough pressure to force oil through engine parts. Excessively low pressure is undesirable. The engine may not get enough oil. On the other hand excessively high oil pressure also indicates trouble. A clogged filter causes oil pressure to increase. Oil that is too thick does not flow properly. Thus pressure in the system increases. The figure shows a simplified drawing of an oil-pressure safety valve or switch. This valve is operated by the oil pressure. Lubricating oil enters at the top of the valve. Oil pressure pushes down on the piston. A spring pushes up on the piston against the oil pressure pushing down. The piston is connected to a shutoff valve. The shutoff valve, as the name indicates, shuts off the fuel supply. As long as the oil pressure is high enough, it holds the shutoff valve open. If the oil pressure falls too low, the spring closes the shutoff valve. Closing the shutoff valve stops the engine by cutting off its fuel supply. Lubricating system usually has a gage on the instrument panel which indicates oil pressure.

Engine Cooling Systems

1. Air-Cooled Engines
Many small engines and some medium-sized engines are air cooled. This includes most small-engine tools and toys like lawn mowers, chain saws, model airplanes, etc. This allows both the weight and price of these engines to be kept low. Some motorcycles, automobiles, and aircraft have air-cooled engines, also benefitting from lower weight. Air-cooled engines rely on a flow of air across their external surfaces to remove the necessary heat to keep them from overheating. On vehicles like motorcycles and aircraft, the forward motion of the vehicle supplies the air flow across the surface. Deflectors and ductwork are often added to direct the flow to critical locations. The outer surfaces of the engine are made of good heatconducting metals and are finned to promote maximum heat transfer. Automobile engines usually have fans to increase the air-flow rate and direct it in the desired direction. Lawn mowers and chain saws rely on free convection from their finned surfaces. Some small engines

have exposed flywheels with air deflectors fastened to the surface. When the engine is in operation, these deflectors create air motion that increases heat transfer on the finned surfaces. It is more difficult to get uniform cooling of cylinders on air-cooled engines than on liquidcooled engines. The flow of liquid coolants can be better controlled and ducted to the hot spots where maximum cooling is needed. Liquid coolants also have better...thermal properties than air (e.g., higher convection coefficients, specific heats, etc). Cooling the front of an air cooled engine which faces the forward motion of the vehicle is often much easier and more efficient than cooling the back surface of the engine. This can result in temperature differences and thermal expansion problems. Advantages When compared with liquid-cooled engines, air-cooled engines have the following advantages: (1) Lighter weight, (2) Less costly, (3) No coolant system failures (e.g., water pump, hoses), (4) No engine freeze-ups (5) Faster engine warm up. Disadvantages Disadvantages of air-cooled engines are that they (1) Are less efficient, (2) Are noisier, with greater air flow requirements and no water jacket to dampen noise, and (3) Need a directed air flow and finned surfaces. Standard heat transfer equations for finned surfaces can be used to calculate the heat transfer off of these engine surfaces.

2. Water-Cooled Engines
The engine block of a water-cooled engine is surrounded with a water jacket through which coolant liquid flows (Fig). This allows for a much better control of heat removal at a cost of added weight and a need for a water pump. The cost, weight, and complexity of a liquid coolant system make this type of cooling very rue on small and/or low-cost engines.

The coolant system of a typical automobile engine is shown in Fig. above. Fluid enters the water jacket of the engine, usually at the bottom of the engine. It flows through the engine block, where it absorbs energy from the hot cylinder walls. The flow passages in the water jacket are designed to direct the flow around the outer surfaces of the cylinder walls and past any other surface that needs cooling. The flow is also directed through any other component that may need heating or cooling (e.g. heating of the intake manifold or cooling of the oil reservoir). The flow leaves the engine block containing a high specific enthalpy because of the energy it absorbed in engine cooling. Exit is usually at the top of the engine block. This complete process is illustrated below in the figure. Enthalpy must now be removed from the coolant flow so that the circulation loop can be closed and the coolant can again be used to cool the engine. This is done by the use of a heat exchanger in the flow loop called, for some unknown reason, a radiator.

Radiator The radiator is a honeycomb heat exchanger with hot coolant flowing from top to bottom exchanging energy with cooler air flowing from front to back, as shown in Figure. Air flow occurs because of the forward motion of the automobile, assisted by a fan located behind the radiator and either driven electrically or off the engine crankshaft. The cooled engine coolant exits the bottom of the radiator and reenters the water jacket of the engine, completing a closed loop. A

water pump that drives the flow of the coolant loop is usually located between the radiator exit and engine block entrance. This pump is either electric or mechanically driven off the engine. Some early automobiles had no water pump and relied on a natural convection thermal flow loop. Air leaving the automobile radiator is further used to cool the engine by being directed through the engine compartment and across the exterior surfaces of the engine. Because of the modern aerodynamic shape of automobiles and the great emphasis on cosmetics, it is much more difficult to duct cooling air through the radiator and engine compartment. Much greater efficiency is needed in rejecting energy with the modern radiator heat exchanger. Modern engines are designed to run hotter and thus can tolerate a lower cooling air-flow rate. Steady-state temperature of the air within the engine compartment of a modern automobile is on the order of 125C. To keep the coolant fluid temperature from dropping below some minimum value, and thus keeping the engine operating at a higher temperature and efficiency, a thermostat is installed in the coolant loop, usually at the engine flow entrance. Thermostat Thermostat is a thermally activated go-no go valve. When the thermostat is cold, it is closed and allows no fluid flow through the main circulation channel. As the engine warms up, the thermostat also warms up, and thermal expansion opens the flow passage and allows coolant circulation. The higher the temperature, the greater the flow passage opening, with the greater resulting coolant flow. The coolant temperature is, therefore, controlled fairly accurately by the opening and closing of the thermostat. Prevention of Vaporization of Coolant It is desirable for the coolant to remain mostly liquid throughout the flow loop. If boiling occurs, a small mass of liquid becomes a large volume of vapour, and steady-state mass flow becomes almost impossible to sustain. By using ethylene glycol in a pressurized system, high temperatures can be achieved without large scale boiling. Localized boiling in small hot spots does occur within the engine water jacket. This is good. The very hottest spots within the engine (either momentary or almost steady state) require the greatest heat removal and cooling. The phase change that is experienced when boiling occurs at these local hot spots absorbs a large amount of energy and supplies the necessary large cooling at these spots. The circulating convection flow carries the resulting vapour bubbles away from the hot spots back into the main stream of the coolant. Here they condense back into liquid due to the cooler fluid temperature, and bulk flow is not interrupted. As hot engine coolant leaves the engine block, it can be used to heat the passenger compartment of an automobile, when desired. This is done by routing a portion of the coolant flow through an auxiliary system that supplies the hot side of a small liquid-to-air heat exchanger. Outside or re-circulated air is heated as it passes through the other half of the heat exchanger and is ducted into the passenger compartment and/or onto the cold windows for defrosting. Various manual and automatic controls determine the flow rates of the air and coolant to supply the desired warming results.

Fuel Pump

Typical fuel pump operation is illustrated in the figure. The pumping element is a plunger which reciprocates ion a barrel. A hole is bored through the centre of the plunger for a short length. An angular groove is cut on the outside of the plunger and extends for only part of the way round the plunger. This groove and the central hole are connected by a hole drilled between them. Two ports are drilled in the barrel. The left-hand port is slightly higher than the right-hand port. The left-hand port is the main fuel supply and the right-hand port is the spill way. In figure the pump plunger has just descended and both ports are uncovered. Fuel has thus been sucked into the barrel and fills the space above the plunger, the central hole and the angular groove. In next figure the plunger is ascending. Both ports are now closed and the fuel oil above the plunger has now been compressed into the delivery top the injector. In figure high pressure fuel has been delivered to the injector and the plunger, still ascending, reaches the point where the top edge of the angular groove meets the spill way port. This port is in direct communication, via the angular groove and the central hole, with the oil above the plunger. The pressure of this oil immediately drops, so delivery to the engine is terminated. The plunger continues to rise, completing its stroke, but it will not deliver any further fuel to the engine. The distance from the top of the angular groove to the top of the plunger varies. This varying distance is used to control the engine. By rotating the plunger, anyone of these distances can be selected to match up with the spill way port. If a short distance is selected, a small quantity of fuel is delivered. If a long distance is selected a large quantity of fuel is delivered. The rotation of the plunger is controlled either by an arm or by a rack and pinion at the bottom of the plunger. A control rod actuates either the arm or the rack. The plunger reciprocation is constant in stroke and is usually cam operated. The plunger is usually forced-closed on to the cam surface using the spring. The engine is stopped by rotating the plunger as shown in figure. The plunger is now in such apposition that the angular groove meets the spill way port just before it covers the fuel port on the left. No pressure is build-up is possible for the remainder of the stroke because the oil above the plunger is at all time in contact with the spill way port, via the central whole and angular groove. Under these conditions no high pressure oil is delivered to the engine, so the engine stops. A complete pump unit to feed a four cylinder oil engine is illustrated in the figure.

It shows that each cylinder has its own pump and all pumps are enclosed in one pump unit. The operating cams are located on one cam shaft at the bottom of the pump unit. A supply fuel pump is mounted on the side to pump fuel from the main tank to the pump unit fuel gallery at the top. The control rod in this pump rotates lever on the bottom of the pump plunger. This controls the fuel quantity pumped to the engine cylinders. The engine is governed by a pneumatic governor fitted on the front of the pump unit. The pneumatic governor is connected to the engine intake and is controlled by intake depression. In the case of four stroke cycle engine, the camshaft of the pump is motored at half engine speed. In the two-stroke cycle engine the camshaft of the pump is motored at engine speed. The pump illustrated in figure is not the only possible multi-cylinder pump arrangement. Another arrangement is to have a pump with a single plunger and a delivery distribution system whereby the engine cylinders are separately fed with fuel at the correct time. The arrangement is called the distributor pump. Distributor pumps are commonly fitted on the smaller, high speed, motor vehicle diesel engines.

Fuel Injector Nozzle

Fuel injectors are nozzles that inject a spray of fuel into the intake air. They are normally controlled electronically, but mechanically controlled injectors which are cam actuated also exist. A metered amount of fuel is trapped in the nozzle end of the injector, and a high pressure is applied to it, usually by a mechanical compression process of some kind. At the proper time, the nozzle is opened and the fuel is sprayed into the surrounding air. Each cylinder of a diesel engine has an injector nozzle which protrudes into the combustion space of the cylinders. Like the spark plug, the injector nozzle is made gas-tight with the cylinder. A typical injector nozzle is shown in the figure below.

High pressure fuel passes into the injector at the fuel inlet. It passes down the injector body and reaches the needle valve seat. The pressure operates against the area of the spindle above the seat, so the valve needle is lifted against the action of the spring at the top of the injector. High pressure oil is then forced through very small holes into the engine cylinder. Because of the high pressure and the small whole size, the fuel is very finely atomised as it enters the engine cylinder. This greatly assists the rapid and successful burning of the fuel. The pressure is set by using the spring at the top of the injector nozzle. A small amount of fuel leaks between the body of the injector and the needle-valve stem. This provides the necessary lubrication. Eventually the fuel will find its way out of the top of the injector through a leak off pipe; it will return to the lain supply.

Types of fuel injectors

Various kinds of fuel injectors are available. Most operate by trapping a small amount of fuel behind the nozzle orifice. The nozzle is closed by a needle valve held against its seat by a spring or magnetic force. On lower pressure nozzles, injection is initiated by increasing pressure and pushing opens the valve, allowing flow to occur. On high-pressure nozzles, flow is initiated by lifting the valve needle off its seat by action of an electric solenoid. Spray duration, and sometimes pressure, is generally controlled electronically. Some systems add air to the fuel in front of the injectors, and the actual injection consists of an air-fuel mixture. This greatly enhances the evaporation and mixing processes after injection. Modern experimental two-stroke cycle automobile engines use this process to assure proper mixing in the very short time available between injection and combustion. Some fuel injection systems, including most very early ones, consist of throttle body injection. This consists of one or more injectors mounted near the inlet of the intake manifold, usually just downstream of the throttle plate. This injector or set of injectors supplies fuel for all cylinders, allowing the distribution to be controlled by the intake manifold. This is simpler technology than multipoint injection and a fair amount cheaper to manufacture. Fewer injectors are needed and coarser nozzles can be used, as there is longer flow duration to evaporate and mix the larger fuel droplets. A greater variation in cylinder-to-cylinder AF can be expected. Controls are simpler, with some injectors giving a continuous spray under some operating conditions. Throttle response time is slower with throttle body injection than with port injection. Some SI and all CI engine fuel injection systems have the injectors mounted in the cylinder head and inject directly into the combustion chamber. This gives very constant fuel input cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder. Modern experimental two-

stroke cycle automobile engines use this system to avoid losing fuel out of the exhaust system during scavenging and valve overlap. This type of system requires very precise injectors giving extremely fine droplets of fuel. Fuel is added during the compression stroke, which allows an extremely short period of time for evaporation and mixing, less than 0.008 second at 3000 RPM. High turbulence and swirl are also important.

The fuel injection types used in newer cars include: * Single-point or throttle body injection (TBI) * Port or multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) * Sequential fuel injection (SFI) * Direct injection Single-point or throttle body injection (TBI) The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply replaces the carburettor with one or two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle body, which is the throat of the engines air intake manifold. For some automakers, single-point injection was a stepping stone to the more complex multi-point system. Though not as precise as the systems that have followed, TBI meters fuel better than a carburettor and are less expensive and easier to service. Port or multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) Multi-point fuel injection devotes a separate injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside its intake port, which is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Shooting the fuel vapour this close to the intake port almost ensures that it will be drawn completely into the cylinder. The main advantage is that MPFI meters fuel more precisely than do TBI designs, better achieving the desired air/fuel ratio and improving all related aspects. Also, it virtually eliminates the possibility that fuel will condense or collect in the intake manifold. With TBI and carburettors, the intake manifold must be designed to conduct the engines heat, a measure to vaporize liquid fuel. This is unnecessary on engines equipped with MPFI, so the intake manifold can be formed from lighter-weight material, even plastic. Incremental fuel economy improvements result. Also, where conventional metal intake manifolds must be located atop the engine to conduct heat, those used in MPFI can be placed more creatively, granting engineers design flexibility. Sequential fuel injection (SFI) Sequential fuel injection, also called sequential port fuel injection (SPFI) or timed injection, is a type of multi-port injection. Though basic MPFI employs multiple injectors, they all spray their fuel at the same time or in groups. As a result, the fuel may hang around a port for as long as 150 milliseconds when the engine is idling. This may not seem like much, but its enough of a shortcoming that engineers addressed it: Sequential fuel injection triggers each injector nozzle independently. Timed like spark plugs, they spray the fuel immediately before or as their intake valve opens. It seems a minor step, but efficiency and emissions improvements come in very small doses.

 Direct injection direct injection takes the fuel injection concept about as far as it can go, injecting fuel directly into the combustion chambers, past the valves. More common in diesel engines, direct injection is starting to pop up in gasoline engine designs, sometimes called DIG for direct injection gasoline. Again, fuel metering is even more precise than in the other injection schemes, and the direct injection gives engineers yet another variable to influence precisely how combustion occurs in the cylinders. The science of engine design scrutinizes how the fuel/air mixture swirls around in the cylinders and how the explosion travels from the ignition point. Things such as the shape of cylinders and pistons; port and spark plug locations; timing, duration and intensity of the spark; and number of spark plugs per cylinder (more than one is possible) all affect how evenly and completely fuel combusts in a gasoline engine. Direct injection is another tool in that discipline, one that can be used in lowemissions lean-burn engines.

Engine Transmission System

Engine Transmission System can be of following types: Front Wheel Drive Rear Wheel Drive Four wheel Drive Two wheel Drive

Rear Wheel Drive (Driving through a propeller shaft)

In a front-engine rear-wheel drive car, power is transmitted from the engine through the clutch and the gearbox to the rear axle by means of a tubular propeller shaft. The rear axle must be able to move up and down on the suspension according to variations of the road surface. The movement causes the angle of the propeller shaft, and the distance between the gearbox and the rear axle, to change constantly. To allow for the constant movement, splines on the front end of the propeller shaft slide in and out of the gearbox as the distance changes; the shaft also has universal joints at each end, and sometimes in the middle. The universal joints allow the propeller shaft to be flexible, while constantly transmitting power. The last part of the transmission is the final drive, which incorporates the differential and is sometimes called the differential. The differential has three functions: 1. to turn the direction of drive through 90 degrees to the rear wheels 2. To allow either rear wheel to turn faster than the other when cornering 3. To effect a final gear reduction a pinion gear inside the differential is driven by the propeller shaft and has its gears bevelled cut at an angle. It meshes with a bevelled crown wheel so that the two gears form a 90 degree angle.

The crown wheel usually has about four times as many teeth as the pinion gear, causing the wheels to turn at a quarter the propeller-shaft speed. The drive is transmitted from the differential to the rear wheels by means of half shafts, or drive shafts. At the differential end of each half shaft, a bevelled pinion gear is connected to the crown wheel by means of an intermediate set of bevel pinions.

Rear engine driving rear wheels

Some cars, such as VW Beetles and smaller Fiats, have rear-mounted engines and gearboxes, driving the rear wheels. Power is transmitted through the clutch to the gearbox, passing to the wheels through drive shafts. The layout is similar to some front wheel-drive cars, except that no allowance need be made for steering movement of the wheels. Sometimes the shafts are connected to the flanges at the gearbox by `doughnut' couplings. The shafts and flanges are bolted on either side of the couplings, and drive is transmitted through the flexible rubber.

Advantages The standard design has a series of advantages on passenger cars and estate cars: There is hardly any restriction on engine length, making it particularly suitable for more powerful vehicles (in other words for engines with 812 cylinders) Under full load most of the vehicle mass is on the driven rear axle (important for estate cars and trailers A long exhaust system with good silencing and catalytic converter configuration. Simple and varied front axle designs are possible irrespective of drive forces. More even tyre wears thanks to function distribution of steering/drive. Uncomplicated gear shift mechanism. Good cooling because the engine and radiator are at the front; a power-saving fan can be fitted.

Front Wheel Drive

Front-wheel-drive cars use the same transmission principles as rear-wheel drive cars, but the mechanical components vary in design according to the engine and gearbox layout. Transverse engines are normally mounted directly above the gearbox, and power is

transmitted through the clutch to the gearbox by a train of gears. In-line engines are mated directly to the gearbox, and drive passes through the clutch in the normal manner. In both cases, drive passes from the gearbox to a final-drive unit. In a transverse-mounted engine, the final-drive unit is usually located in the gearbox. In an in-line engine, it is usually mounted between the engine and the gearbox. Power is taken from the final-drive unit to the wheels by short drive shafts. To cope with suspension and steering movement in the wheels, the drive shafts use a highly developed type of universal joint called a constant-velocity (CV) joint. A CV joint uses grooves with steel ball bearings in them instead of the `spider' found in a universal joint, and transmits power at a constant speed, regardless of the angle and the distance between the final-drive unit and the wheels. Some cars, such as earlier Minis, also have drive-shaft couplings which are 'spider' joints, and do the same job as universal joints in rear-wheel-drive cars, allowing up-and-down movement of the suspension. They are usually made of rubber bonded to metal. Advantages there is load on the steered and driven wheels; good road-holding, especially on wet roads and in wintry conditions the car is pulled and not pushed simple rear axle design good engine cooling (radiator in front), and an electric fan can be fitted; exhaust system with long path (important on cars with catalytic converters)

Four Wheel Drive

In four-wheel drives, either all the wheels of a passenger car or commercial vehicle are continuously in other words permanently driven, or one of the two axles is always linked to the engine and the other can be selected manually or automatically. This is made possible by what is known as the centre differential lock. If a middle differential is used to distribute the driving torque between the front and rear axles, the torque distribution can be established on the basis of the axleload ratios, the design philosophy of the vehicle and the desired handling characteristics. That is why Audi choose a 50%:50% distribution for the V8 Quattro and Mercedes-Benz choose a 50%:50% distribution for M class off-road vehicles, whereas Mercedes-Benz transmits only 35% of the torque to the front axle and as much as 65% to the rear axle in vehicles belonging to the E class.

Two Wheel Drive

Two-wheel drive (2WD) describes vehicles with a drive train that allows two wheels to receive power from the engine simultaneously.

Spark Timing
Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of the system is the distributor. The distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the engine's drive, a set of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is the ignition coil, the spark plugs and wires linking the distributor to the spark plugs and ignition coil.

The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical system using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current to an induction coil (known as the ignition coil). The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings sharing a common magnetic corethe primary and secondary windings. An alternating current in the primary induces alternating magnetic field in the coil's core. Because the ignition coil's secondary has far more windings than the primary, the coil is a step-up transformer which induces a much higher voltage across the secondary windings. For an ignition coil, one end of windings of both the primary and secondary are connected together. This common point is connected to the battery (usually through a current-limiting ballast resistor). The other end of the primary is connected to the points within the distributor. The other end of the secondary is connected, via the distributor cap and rotor, to the spark plugs. The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact breaker) closed. A steady charge flows from the battery, through the current-limiting resistor, through the coil primary, across the closed breaker points and finally back to the battery. This steady current produces a magnetic field within the coil's core. This magnetic field forms the energy reservoir that will be used to drive the ignition spark. As the engine turns, so does the cam inside the distributor. The points ride on the cam so that as the engine turns and reaches the top of the engine's compression cycle, a high point in the cam causes the breaker points to open. This breaks the primary winding's circuit and abruptly stops the current through the breaker points. Without the steady current through the points, the magnetic field generated in the coil immediately and rapidly collapses. This change in the magnetic field induces a high voltage in the coil's secondary windings. At the same time, current exits the coil's primary winding and begins to charge up the capacitor ("condenser") that lies across the now-open breaker points. This capacitor and the coils primary windings form an oscillating LC circuit. This LC circuit produces a damped, oscillating current which bounces energy between the capacitors electric field and the ignition

coils magnetic field. The oscillating current in the coils primary, which produces an oscillating magnetic field in the coil, extends the high voltage pulse at the output of the secondary windings. This high voltage thus continues beyond the time of the initial field collapse pulse. The oscillation continues until the circuits energy is consumed. The ignition coil's secondary windings are connected to the distributor cap. A turning rotor, located on top of the breaker cam within the distributor cap, sequentially connects the coil's secondary windings to one of the several wires leading to each cylinder's spark plug. The extremely high voltage from the coil's secondary - often higher than 1000 voltscauses a spark to form across the gap of the spark plug. This, in turn, ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture within the engine. It is the creation of this spark which consumes the energy that was stored in the ignition coils magnetic field.

What is the difference between Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition?

Spark ignition uses petrol as the fuel, but Compression ignition uses diesel. SI works on Otto cycle while CI works on diesel cycle. SI is used in petrol engines while CI is used in diesel engines. CI has more efficient than SI. CI produces more noise than SI when it works. CI produces more hydrocarbons at the exhaust stroke of the engine than SI engines. SI engine has a spark plug, but CI does not have one. SI air-fuel mixture enters into the combustion chamber, but in CI, air and fuel enter separately in to the combustion chamber. CI has higher compression ratio than SI. SI is more harmful due to the pre-detonation things than CI. In SI spark plug is timed to start combustion at the ideal moment, usually some degrees before the piston reaches the top (TDC or Top Dead Centre). The burning mixture then drives the piston down for the power stroke. But in the CI fuel is injected (sprayed) into the cylinder at the ideal moment - this too is usually some degrees before TDC, and the red-hot air in there then starts the fuel burning. This then drives the piston down for the power stroke. SI is limited in maximum compression ratio (the amount the air or mixture is compressed as the piston rises in the cylinder), or it can start to behave like CI (Dieseling). CI uses the highest compression ratio possible to improve ignition - and - improve efficiency too. The expansion ratio is the inverse of the compression ratio, and the

more that the burning gas is allowed to expand whilst doing work, the better the efficiency. CI is also an 'excess air' cycle, potentially. A full cylinder of air is compressed each time, and the amount of fuel injected is varied to change power - this is beyond the lean burn that can be achieved with SI.