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JO ANNA ILVESA RO
Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Oulu Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu
OULU 2001
JOANNA ILVESARO
Academic Dissertation to be presented with the assent of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, for public discussion in the Auditorium L101 of the Department of Medical Biochemistry, on April 20th, 2001, at 12 noon.
O U L U N YL I O PI STO, O U L U 2 0 0 1
ISBN 951-42-5935-1
(URL: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514259351/)
ALSO AVAILABLE IN PRINTED FORMAT ISBN 951-42-5934-3 ISSN 0355-3221 (URL: http://herkules.oulu.fi/issn03553221/) OULU UNIVERSITY PRESS OULU 2001
Abstract
Bone resorbing osteoclasts require tight attachment of their plasma membrane to the bone surface in order to retain the specific microenvironment and thus to be able to dissolve the bone matrix underneath. Cadherins are transmembrane glycoproteins usually mediating homophilic calciumdependent cell-cell adhesion. In the present work we have studied the effects of the cadherin CAR sequence HAV-containing hexapeptide AHAVSE on osteoclasts. The primary attachment of osteoclasts to bone surface is not affected by the peptide, suggesting that it is not mediated by cadherins. Treatment of osteoclast cultures with AHAVSE decreased the number of resorption pits and the total resorbed area. Furthermore, we show rapid inactivation of osteoclasts with AHAVSE, which is seen as a decrease in the percentage of osteoclasts with actin rings. Pan-cadherin antibodies localized cadherin-like molecule in the sealing zone area of osteoclasts. These results suggest that cadherin-like molecules may mediate the tight attachment of osteoclasts in the sealing zone area and that the decrease of resorption in AHAVSE-treated osteoclast cultures is due to prevention of sealing zone formation. We studied the polarity of mesenchymal osteoblasts using osteosarcoma cell line UMR-108 and endosteal osteoblasts in situ in bone tissue cultures. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy revealed that the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV G) was targeted to the culture mediumfacing surface. In endosteal osteoblasts, VSV G protein was found in the surface facing the bone marrow and circulation. On the contrary, Influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) was localized to the bone substrate-facing surface of the UMR-108 cells. Electron microscopy showed that VSV particles were budding from the culture medium-facing surface, whereas Influenza viruses budded from the bone substrate-facing plasma membrane. These findings suggest the bone attaching plasma membrane of osteoblasts is apical, and the circulation or bone marrow facing plasma membrane is basolateral in nature. Gap junctions often mediate communication between different cells and cell types. In the present work, we demonstrate that rat osteoclasts show connexin-43 staining localizing in the plasma membrane of the cells in cell-cell contacts and over the basolateral membrane of osteoclasts. The effects of heptanol and Gap 27, known gap- junctional inhibitors, were studied using the well-characterized pit formation assay. The inhibitors decreased the number and activity of osteoclasts, suggesting a defect in the fusion of mononuclear osteoclast precursors to multinucleated mature osteoclasts. Furthermore, the total resorbed area and the number of resorption pits also decreased in the cultures. These results suggest that gap-junctional connexin-43 plays a functional role in osteoclasts, and that the blocking of gap junctions decreases both the number and the activity of osteoclasts.
To my husband Vesa
Acknowledgments
This work was carried out at the Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, during the years 1995-2001. It is my great pleasure to thank the following persons, who have taken part of this work and thus made it possible: I owe my deepest thanks to my mentor Professor Juha Tuukkanen, DDS, Ph.D. His encouragement, support, sense of humour and enthusiastic attitude towards research and life in general have been inspiring and guiding me during these years and have been more than I could have ever asked for. I thank my first teacher and supervisor Professor H. Kalervo Vnnen, M.D., Ph.D., for introducing me to the research world and especially to the world of bone. I wish to express my appreciation to Professor Hannu Rajaniemi, M.D., Ph.D., for kindly providing me the surroundings, thus making it possible for me to work in the Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology. I also thank Professor Juha Peltonen, M.D., Ph.D., for his interest towards my research. I am grateful to Professor Karl-Erik kerman, M.D., Ph.D., for his critical appraisal of this thesis. Also, I am in debt to Docent Antero Salminen, Ph.D. for carefully reviewing the thesis and for teaching me during my first years in the University of Jyvskyl and for once sending me to Oulu. The expertise of my co-authors, Doctors Pivi Lakkakorpi, Kalervo Metsikk and Pasi Tavi is most sincerely acknowledged. My humble thanks are due to the whole staff of Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, and, in particularly the present and former Bone Heads for the stimulating working atmosphere. Especially Anita Kapanen, Jussi Halleen and Teuvo Hentunen are warmly acknowledged for fun times in and outside laboratory. I also wish to thank Sari Annunen, Allan Haimakainen, Minna Orrevetelinen, Eero Oja and Marja Vlimki for their skilful technical assistance. I owe my loving thanks to my best girlfriend and colleague Anne Tuomisto for the special bond we two share - there is nobody quite like her. I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents for always encouraging me to aim as high as I possibly wanted and for always telling me that if I wanted to achieve something, I could do it, if I just put my heart into it. My husband Vesa, deserves my warmest thanks. I thank him for his love
and his never-ending optimism and encouragement during hard times. Vesas 24-hour ITsupport is also warmly acknowledged. I am priviliged to have him as my husband. This research was financially supported by Biocenter Oulu, Oulu University Scholarship Foundation and the Finnish Cultural Foundation.
Joanna Ilvesaro
Abbreviations
ALP BL BMU BRU BSA CAR CA-II CT Cx-43 DAB DMEM DMSO F-actin FBS FCS FITC FSD HAV Hepes KDa M-CSF M NCP OCIF ODF OPG OPGL PBS PFA PTH Alkaline Phosphatase Basolateral Bone multicellular unit Bone remodeling unit Bovine serum albumin Cell adhesion recognition Carbonic anhydrase II Calcitonin Connexin-43 3,3 diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride Dulbeccos modified Eagles medium Dimethyl sulfoxide Filamentous actin Fetal bovine serum Fetal calf serum Fluorescein isothiocyanate Functional secretory domain Histidine-alanine-valine N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N-(2-ethanesulphonic acid) Kilodalton Macrophage colony-stimulating factor -6 Micromolar, 10 g/mol Non-collagen protein Osteoclastogenesis inhibitory factor Osteoclast differentiation factor Osteoprotegerin Osteoprotegerin ligand Phosphate-buffered saline Paraformaldehyde Parathyroid hormone
RANK RANKL RB RGD SZ TRANCE TRANCER TRAP TRITC SDS SDS-PAGE TEM VNR VSV WGA
Receptor activator for NF-B Receptor activator for NF-B ligand Ruffled border Arginine-glycine-aspartic acid Sealing zone TNF-related activator-induced cytokine TNF-related activator-induced cytokine receptor Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase Tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate Sodium dodecyl sulfate SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Transmission electron microscopy Vitronectin receptor Vesicular stomatitis virus Wheat germ agglutin
II
III IV
Contents
Abstract Dedication Acknowledgements Abbrevations List of original articles 1. Introduction 2.1 Structure and function of bone tissue ..................................................................... 15 2.1.1 Bone matrix components................................................................................. 16 2.1.2 Bone cells........................................................................................................ 17 2.2 Cellular mechanisms of bone resorption ................................................................ 20 2.2.1 Osteoclastic membrane domains ..................................................................... 23 2.2.2 Attachment of osteoclasts to bone matrix........................................................ 24 2.2.3 Cadherins ........................................................................................................ 25 2.2.4 Degradation of the mineral and organic matrix............................................... 27 2.2.5 Regulation of osteoclastic bone resorption ..................................................... 28 2.2.6 Disorders of bone modeling and remodeling .................................................. 29 2.3 Cell polarity ........................................................................................................... 30 2.4 Communication between bone cells....................................................................... 31 2.4.1 Gap junctions .................................................................................................. 31 4.1 Reagents (I-IV) ...................................................................................................... 35 4.1.1 Antibodies (I-IV)............................................................................................. 35 4.2 Cell culture (I-IV) .................................................................................................. 36 4.2.1 Isolation and culture of osteoclasts (I, III-IV)................................................. 36 4.2.2 Cell line (II)..................................................................................................... 36 4.2.3 Tissue culture (II) ............................................................................................ 36 4.3 Fluorescence and microscope techniques (I-IV) .................................................... 37 4.3.1 Light microscopy (I, III-IV) ............................................................................ 37 4.3.2 Conventional fluorescence microscopy (I, III-IV) .......................................... 37 4.3.3 Confocal laser scanning microscopy (I-IV) .................................................... 38 4.3.4 Immunoelectron microscopy (II) .................................................................... 38 4.3.5 Digital image analysis (I -IV).......................................................................... 38
4.4 Viral infections (II)................................................................................................. 39 4.4.1 Metabolic labeling (II) .................................................................................... 39 4.4.2 Cell surface biotinylation (II) .......................................................................... 39 4.5 Statistical analysis (I, III-IV).................................................................................. 39 5.1 Cadherin localization in osteoclasts (I) .................................................................. 40 5.2 Effects of HAV-containing peptide (I).................................................................... 40 5.2.1 Primary attachment of osteoclasts to bone surface.......................................... 40 5.2.2 Osteoclastic bone resorption ........................................................................... 41 5.2.3 Activity of osteoclasts ..................................................................................... 41 5.3 Polarity of osteoblasts (II)...................................................................................... 41 5.3.1 Immunofluorescence data ............................................................................... 41 5.3.2 Electron microscopy data ................................................................................ 42 5.3.3 Biochemical data............................................................................................. 42 5.4 Gap junctions in osteoclasts (III and IV)................................................................ 43 5.4.1 Connexin-43 localization in osteoclasts (III) .................................................. 43 5.4.2 Effects of gap-junctional inhibitors heptanol and Gap 27 ............................... 43 6.1 Methodological aspects.......................................................................................... 45 6.2 Cadherins and attachment of osteoclasts to bone ................................................... 46 6.3 Polarity of osteoblasts ............................................................................................ 48 6.4 Gap junctions in osteoclasts ................................................................................... 49
1 Introduction
Bone tissue has three major functions in the body: it offers mechanical support to the body, it protects major vital organs and it maintains calcium and phosphate homeostasis. Bone also provides the environment for hematopoiesis, which takes place in the marrow of long bones in adults. Bone is also a dynamic tissue, which remodels and repairs itself throughout life. In normal bone tissue the formation and resorption of bone are well balanced so that when old bone is resorbed by osteoclasts, similar amount of new bone is formed by osteoblasts. Excessive bone resorption results in net bone loss, whereas decreased bone resorption, or excess bone formation, results in increased bone mass. Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease leading to decreased bone mass and increased susceptibility to fractures. At the cellular level, osteoporosis is characterized by extensive bone resorption, which leads to disturbance in the bone microarchitecture, which in turn increases the probability of fracturing. Osteoporosis typically affects women after menopause, when serum estrogen levels decrease. The clinical complications of osteoporosis, fractures occur most often in the spine, femoral neck and at the wrist. The two cell types primarily involved in bone turnover are the bone-forming osteoblasts and bone-resorbing osteoclasts. Solving of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of bone formation and resorption is important because of the increasing rate of osteoporosis in the aging population. The experimental part of this thesis work was carried out to clarify some cell biological questions concerning different bone cells. Special interested was focused on the attachment of osteoclasts to bone surface, the polarization of the osteoblasts and the communication between osteoclasts and osteoblasts. All of these are interesting biological questions, but they might also appear to be useful targets for therapy of metabolic skeletal disorders.
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formative phase of the remodeling sequence fails to keep the pace with resorptive activity and skeletal mass, including the connectivity of trabecular bone, decreases. This reduces skeletal strength and increases the risk of fracture over time, depending on the magnitude by which resorption and formation are uncoupled.
17
osteocalcin in serum have proved to be valuable as markers of bone turnover in metabolic diseases (Price et al. 1980). A number of proteins in bone appear to be associated with the life cycle and function of osteoblasts (Ripamonti et al. 1992). These proteins may be bone morphogenetic factors or growth factors, such as TGF- and insulin-like growth factors, osteoblast secretion products that can stimulate osteoblast cell growth in an autocrine or paracrine fashion (Canalis et al. 1988, Hauschka et al. 1986, Hauschka et al. 1988, Robey et al. 1987). Other bone cell products may be associated with the growth or differentiation of osteoblasts in an indirect or as yet unidentified fashion. The most abundant NCP produced by osteoblasts is osteonectin, a phosphorylated glycoprotein accounting 2% of the total protein of developing bone in most animal species. 2+ Osteonectin has high affinity for binding Ca and hydroxyapatite and it also binds to collagen (Termine et al. 1981) and thrombospondin (Clezardin et al. 1988). The importance of the role of bone tissue as an ion reservoir can be appreciated from the fact that about 99% of the body calcium, about 85% phosphorous, and from 40-60% of the body sodium and magnesium are associated with the bone crystals. These consequently serve as the major source for the transport of these ions to and from the extracellular fluids. Rapid responses to calcium excesses and deficiencies in the body are crucial for a number of processes, including the regulation of muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, cell membrane permeability and blood coagulation. Indeed, the most abundant inorganic components of the bone matrix are phosphate and carbonate salts of calcium, with traces of calcium and magnesium fluorides (Levy 1894). The mineral is in the form of hydroxyapatite, a crystalline lattice in which the principal components are calcium and phosphate ions (DeJong 1926). With the mineral phase, the otherwise soft, pliable organic matrix now becomes relatively hard, rigid material which possesses the necessary mechanical properties that permit it to withstand the forces, stresses, and strains. The composite arrangement of bone tissue yields a material that is very strong for its weight and much stronger than either component would be alone.
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cuboidal, strongly alkaline phosphatase-positive cells lining the bone matrix at sites of active bone production. Osteoblasts can also be recognized by their ability to synthesize a number of phenotype-specific or -associated macromolecules, including the bone matrix proteins, such as osteocalcin, bone sialoprotein and osteopontin, proteoglycans, certain hormone receptors, and cytokines and growth factors. The precise physiological role of alkaline phosphatase is unknown, but it has been hypothesized to be involved in the mineralization process (Wennberg et al. 2000). After the completion of bone formation a small portion (10-20%) of osteoblasts incorporate themselves within the newly formed extracellular matrix; these cells trapped inside the matrix, which are considered the most mature form of osteoblastic lineage are osteocytes. Osteocytes are smaller than osteoblasts and they have lost many of their cytoplasmic organelles. Osteocyte cell bodies are found in lacunae inside the bone matrix and they have multiple long cytoplasmic processes extending through canaliculi by which they communicate with each other and possibly with other surface bone cells, such as osteoblasts and maybe even osteoclasts (Bonewald 1999, Doty 1981, Menton et al. 1984). The canaliculi are small tunnels in the bone, measuring about 1-2 m in diameter. Although the functions of this most abundant cell type of bone, osteocyte, are poorly understood, some evidence is gathering that osteocytes sense the mechanical stress to bone and therefore can participate in the bone remodeling process (Burger et al. 1999, Mikuni-Takagaki 1999). In the adult skeleton, the majority of bone surfaces that are not being remodeled (i.e. undergoing resorption or formation), are covered by flat, thin, elongated bone lining cells, which are thought to represent the inactive form of osteoblast in terms of matrix production. Bone lining cells detach from the surface of bone when osteoclasts start the resorbing of bone.
2.1.2.2 Osteoclasts
Osteoclasts, first named by Klliker (Klliker 1873), are multinucleated cells differentiating from haemopoietic cells. It is generally accepted that osteoclasts are formed by the fusion of mononuclear precursors derived from haemopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, rather than incomplete cell divisions (Chambers 1989, Gthling et al. 1976, Kahn et al. 1975, Suda et al. 1992, Walker 1973a, Walker 1975b, Walker 1975a). They share a common stem cell with monocyte-macrophage lineage cells (Ash et al. 1980, Kerby et al. 1992). The differentiation of osteoclast precursors into mature multinucleated osteoclasts requires different factors including hormonal and local stimuli (Athanasou et al. 1988, Feldman et al. 1980, Walker 1975a, Zheng et al. 1991) and living bone and bone cells have been shown to play a critical role in osteoclast development (Hagenaars et al. 1989). Osteoblastic or bone marrow stromal cells are also required for osteoclast differentiation. One of the factors produced by these cells that support osteoclast formation is macrophage colony-stimulating factor, M-CSF (WiktorJedrzejczak et al. 1990, Yoshida et al. 1990). Receptor activator for NF-B ligand (RANKL, also known as TRANCE, ODF and OPGL) is the vital signal (Suda et al. 1992) through which osteoblastic/stromal cells stimulate osteoclast formation and resorption via
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a receptor RANK (TRANCER) located in osteoclasts (Lacey et al. 1998, Tsuda et al. 1997, Wong et al. 1997a, Wong et al. 1997b, Yasuda et al. 1998a, Yasuda et al. 1998b). Osteoblasts also secrete protein that strongly inhibits osteoclast formation called osteoprotegerin (OPG, also known as OCIF), which acts as a decoy receptor for the RANKL thus inhibiting the true connection between osteoclasts and osteoblasts via RANK and RANKL (Fig.1).
OPG Decoy receptor, soluble TRANCE, RANKL, osteoblasts TRANCER, RANK, osteoclasts STIMULATION INHIBITION
OPG PTH 1,25(OH)2D3 M-CSF PGE2 PGE2, 1,25(OH)2D3
Fig. 1. Regulation of osteoclast formation and resorption by TRANCE/OPG. Osteoblasts express in their plasma membrane TRANCE. Osteoclast precursors in turn have a receptor for TRANCE, called TRANCER, by which osteoblastic or stromal cells can stimulate precursor differentiation into mature osteoclasts. Through this receptor osteoblastic cells can also stimulate mature osteoclastic bone resorption. Osteoblasts also secrete a soluble protein called OPG, which acts as a decoy receptor for TRANCE, thus blocking the stimulating effect of TRANCE to osteoclasts or their precursors.
Osteoclasts are responsible for dissolving both the mineral and organic bone matrix (Blair et al. 1986). Osteoclasts represent terminally differentiated cells expressing a unique polarized morphology with specialized membrane areas and several membrane and cytoplasmic markers, such as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) (Anderson et al. 1979), carbonic anhydrase II (Vnnen et al. 1983), calcitonin receptor (Warshafsky et al. 1985) and vitronectin receptor (Davies et al. 1989). Multinucleated osteoclasts usually contain less than 10 nuclei, but they may contain up to 100 nuclei being between 10 and 100 m in diameter (Gthling et al. 1976). This makes them relatively easy to identify by light microscopy. They are highly vacuolated when in active
20
state, and also contain many mitochondria, indicating a high metabolic rate (Mundy 1990).
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resorbing surface is the appearance of a scalloped erosion, also called an eroded surface or Howships or resorption lacuna. In cancellous bone, osteoclasts resorb saucer-shaped cavities some 50 m in depth towards its center. In cortical bone, the osteoclasts drill through the matrix in a direction that is parallel with the long axis of the bone, creating a tunnel about 2,5 mm long and 200 m in diameter (Eriksen 1986). The resorption phase takes about two-three weeks (Baron et al. 1984). Once the osteoclasts have resorbed most of the mineral and organic matrix, there is a reversal phase, which lasts from 7-14 days and heralds the switchover from destruction to repair. During the reversal phase macrophages may appear on the resorption surface (Raisz 1988). The roles of these macrophages are not known, but it has been suggested that they complete the task of bone resorption. Alternatively, they might produce factors that help initiate osteoblastic bone formation (Raisz 1988). If the fate of osteoclasts at the reversal site is apoptosis, the function of macrophages could be related to destruction of osteoclast corpses. This has been shown to occur with other cells (Arends et al. 1991). It is during the reversal phase that the coupling of bone resorption to formation takes place. The mechanism by which osteoblasts are summoned into the resorption lacuna is uncertain, but it is probable that a number of paracrine factors produced in or around the remodeling site are involved. These coupling factors could be elaborated by cells involved in the activation of resorption (lining cells) or by osteoclasts themselves or some other cell types present in the resorption lacunae. The factors could also be released from the bone matrix during the resorption phase (Mundy et al. 1987). Osteoclasts are highly motile and actively migrating cells, so that after completion of one resorption lacuna, they can move along the bone surface to another site and restart the resorption phase (Kanehisa et al. 1988). Formation of new bone begins after the short reversal phase. Bone formation is a twostage process beginning with the deposition of osteoid, an organic matrix consisting primarily of type I collagen and various other components. In normal adult bone, osteoid is laid down in discrete lamellae about 3 m thick. The second stage in bone formation is mineralization of the organic matrix, which occurs after a delay of about 20 days called the mineralization lag time. Two general theories exist for how calcification is initiated in skeletal tissue, not necessarily excluding one another: the nucleation theory and the matrix vesicle theory (Anderson 1984, Anderson 1989, Williams et al. 1991). The nucleation theory holds that the type I collagen fibril is the major site of crystal nucleation where calcium phosphate crystals are deposited in the hole regions of these fibrils. Originally it was believed that the initiation of bone mineralization is mainly an extracellular, biochemical process where the presence of collagens, certain glycosaminoglycans or lipids could trigger the initiation of calcification (Baylink et al. 1972, Irving 1958, Shuttleworth et al. 1972, Spector et al. 1972, Wuthier 1968, Wuthier 1969). The first line of evidence that cellular activity might be needed for the mineralization of bone arose out of the finding that mitochondria accumulate calcium (Engstrom et al. 1964). Later it was shown that mitochondria of bone-forming cells might produce a local rise in the levels of mineral ions, and also a matrix, which was capable of being mineralized (Shapiro et al. 1969). The mitochondria of columnar and hypertrophic zones of growth plate cells were found out to contain more enzymes associated with calcification (alkaline phosphatase, alkaline pyrophosphatase, lysozyme and lactate dehydrogenase) than did those of the resting zone (Arsenis 1972). The matrix vesicles
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theory states that bone-forming cells produce small 100-200 nm in diameter organelles that have been observed in mineralizing tissues and cell cultures, often in contact with the initial mineral crystals (Anderson 1984, Anderson 1995, Schwartz et al. 1987). These vesicles have high alkaline phosphatase, alkaline pyrophosphatase and ATPase content, but hardly any acid phosphatase, and are thus not lysosomal origin (Ali et al. 1970). Plausible evidence has been demonstrated to support the matrix vesicle theory, showing that membrane bound vesicles bud from the long processes of osteoblastic cells and that 2+ the mineralization is induced by the release of Ca -containing vesicles (RingbomAnderson et al. 1994). However, later it has been speculated that the two mechanisms for bone mineralization are not alternative but parallel; one is predominant in both calcified cartilage and primitive woven bone, the other in lamellar bone (Gorski 1998, Termine 1993). Calcified cartilage and woven bone seem to mineralize via matrix vesicles (Bonucci 1971), membrane-bound bodies that exocytose from the plasma membrane and migrate to the loose extracellular matrix space. The lipid-rich inner membrane of these vesicles becomes the nidus for hydroxyapatite crystal formation and, eventually, crystallization proceeds to the point of obliteration of the vesicle membrane producing a spherulite of clustered, tiny, crystals. These spherulites conglomerate until a continuous mineralized mass is achieved throughout the matrix space. The driving force for the mineral cascade, once initiated, seems to be the mineral crystals themselves that are first associated with the matrix vesicle membrane. The rate of mineralization in both woven bone and in lamellar bone seems to depend on the presence of inhibitor molecules (e.g. pyrophosphate and acidic NCPs), which in solution seem to regulate the kinetics of the mineralization process (Termine et al. 1980). The cell buds off organelles capable of mineral accumulation and then synthesizes proteins that can control the rate at which crystallization proceeds. The extracellular matrix in non-fetal and more abundant lamellar bone is tightly packed with well-aligned collagen fibrils that are decorated with complexed NCPs (e.g. fibronectin and osteonectin). Either because there simply is insufficient space for them or for developmental reasons, matrix vesicles are rarely, if ever, seen in lamellar bone. Instead, mineralization proceeds in association with the heteropolymeric matrix fibrils themselves. Somewhat more mineral seems to be associated with aligned gap or hole regions of the fibers, which have more room for inorganic ions than rest of the fibril structure. Other loci for the bone mineral appear to be between collagen fibrils in a brick and mortar fashion (Weiner et al. 1986). It is unknown whether the driving force for mineralization is the bone collagen itself or its associated NCPs. There is no doubt that in mature calcified bone collagen and the inorganic phase are strongly bound (Irving 1973). After the mineralization process is triggered, the mineral content of the matrix increases rapidly over the first few days to 75% of the final mineral content (primary mineralization), but it takes from 3 months up to a year for the matrix to reach its maximum mineral content (secondary mineralization) (Amprino et al. 1952). The principal component of the mature mineral phase is hydroxyapatite.
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2
BL
3
FSD BL SZ RB SZ
SZ RB
SZ
Fig. 2. Osteoclastic membrane domains. 1) When an osteoclast is not resorbing bone, it shows no signs of polarized membrane domains. 2) Once the osteoclast starts the resorbing, it quickly polarizes its membrane into distinct domains. Ruffled border (RB) is a membrane domain facing the bone surface, where the actual resorption takes place. Sealing zone (SZ) forms a tight contact to the bone, sealing the proteolytic enzymes and acid into the forming resorption lacuna. Basolateral membrane (BL) faces towards the bone marrow. 3) When the osteoclast is actively resorbing bone, a fourth domain arises into the basolateral membrane, the functional secretory domain (FSD), which acts as a route of osteoclasts to exocytose the resorbed material.
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25
Osteoclasts can attach to and migrate on bone surface in vitro without performing bone resorption. The attachment of these non-resorbing osteoclasts is referred as primary attachment, and it is thought to be mediated by integrins, which allow the cells to attach to the matrix by many simultaneous but weak bonds. This enables the cells to move along the bone surface (Vnnen et al. 1995). Expression of vitronectin receptor has also been detected in mononucleated tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) positive cells during in vitro osteoclastogenesis in culture, and RGD-containing disintegrins, such as echistatin, inhibited the formation of multinucleated TRAP-positive cells. This observation suggests that v3 may play a role in osteoclast differentiation in vitro, possibly by interfering with the migration of osteoclast precursors for their fusion (Tanaka et al. 1991).
2.2.3 Cadherins
Cadherins are a family of structurally and functionally related molecules that usually mediate homophilic, calcium-dependent cell-cell interactions, and are predominantly localized at adherent junctions of epithelial cells (Boller et al. 1985, Geiger et al. 1992, Takeichi et al. 1988, Takeichi 1991). The demonstrated role of cadherins in mediating cell interactions, coupled with the complex spatio-temporal patterns of cadherin expression during embryonic development, suggest that cadherins play a critical role in embryogenesis and morphogenesis (Grunwald 1993, Takeichi 1991). The classical cadherins are represented by a group of highly conserved integral membrane proteins initially identified biochemically, immunochemically and functionally about 20 years ago. These classical N-, E- and P-cadherins, along with the more recently found R, B and EP-cadherins, posses similar structural and functional domains, which include sites for adhesive recognition, calcium binding, membrane integration, cytoskeletal interactions, and post-translational processing such as glycosylation, phosphorylation and proteolysis (Geiger et al. 1992, Grunwald 1993, Kemler 1992) (Fig. 3). Cadherins are protected by 2+ 2+ Ca against proteolysis but they are readily degraded if Ca is absent (Grunwald et al. 1981, Takeichi 1977).
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Calciumbinding site
Glycosylation sites
Phosphorylation sites
NH2 - EC1
EC2
EC3
EC4
TM
CYTO - COOH
Catenins
Fig. 3. Structural organization of cadherins. Indicated are the five extracellular (EC1-EC5), transmembrane (TM), and cytoplasmic (CYTO) domains. The extracellular domains include multiple glycosylation sites, a proteolytic cleavage site near the cell membrane and functionally critical calcium-binding and adhesion recognition sites. The cytoplasmic domain includes sites for interaction with catenin cytoskeletal proteins. The cadherins and catenins both contain phosphorylation sites that regulate their function in intercellular junctions.
Different cadherins are similar in their overall primary structure: they have a single transmembrane domain that divides the molecules into the amino-terminal extracellular and the carboxy-terminal cytoplasmic domain. The most highly conserved region of cadherins is the cytoplasmic domain, and the second most conserved region is around the amino-terminal portion. Cadherins contain a common cell adhesion recognition (CAR) sequence HAV (His-Ala-Val) residing in the outermost region of the extracellular domain (Blaschuk et al. 1990a). HAV motifs have also been identified in Influenza virus hemagglutinins which are integral membrane proteins mediating attachment and fusion of the virus with the epithelia of the mammalian and avian upper respiratory tract (Blaschuk et al. 1990b). The HAV sequence is also found in fibroblast growth factor receptors and the deletion of this region completely abolishes fibroblast growth factor function (Byers et al. 1992). Cadherins have generally been associated with homotypic cell interactions among solid tissues. Interestingly, it has been suggested that cadherins may also be involved in heterotypic or even heterophilic interactions (Cepek et al. 1994, Tang et al. 1993). Moreover, a recent study has shown that cadherins can interact with collagen type I (Mbalaviele et al. 1996) and hence could act as cell-matrix adhesion molecules. Cadherins associate with the cytoskeleton of cells via proteins called catenins. This protein family has at least three major classes, , and , which interact with the cadherins (Knudsen et al. 1992, Ozawa et al. 1990). Even though cadherins have essential roles in embryogenesis, many mature tissues also continue to express cadherins. Cadherins may thus be partly responsible for maintaining tissue integrity. Indeed,
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reduction of E-cadherin expression is positively correlated with progression of various cancers and increased cellular invasiveness (Umbas et al. 1992). It seems that E-cadherin could have tumor suppressor function. E-cadherin is expressed in osteoblasts (Babich et al. 1994) and a new cadherin called OB-cadherin has also been cloned from osteoblasts (Okazaki et al. 1994). E-cadherin has been suggested to be expressed in osteoclasts and to take part in the fusion of mononuclear osteoclast precursors to multinucleated mature osteoclasts. It has also been shown that the fusion of osteoclast precursors into multinucleated osteoclasts can be inhibited using a peptide containing the HAV sequence (Mbalaviele et al. 1995). It is, therefore, possible that since the HAV sequence inhibits osteoclast formation, the fusion of mononuclear osteoclast precursors mediated by E-cadherin may also involve cytoplasmic signaling events, as recently proposed (Cowin 1994).
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1997). The degradation products, both organic and inorganic, are endocytosed to the resorbing osteoclast, transported through the cell in large vesicles, and finally released into the extracellular space through the FSD. This enables that osteoclasts can remove large amounts of degradation products via transcytosis without detaching from the bone surface and loosing the tight attachment of the sealing zone to the bone surface. This further supports the osteoclastic penetration deeper into the bone. The transcytosis route provides a possibility for osteoclasts to further process the endocytosed degradation products intracellularly during their passage through the cell. The bone-specific enzyme TRAP is located in cytoplasmic vesicles, which fuse to the transcytotic vesicles and participates in destroying the endocytosed material in the transcytotic route (Halleen et al. 1999).
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sexual dimorphism of the skeleton in mineral homeostasis during reproduction and bone balance in adults. Estradiol and progesterone are the principal circulating sex steroids in females but also function in males (Landers et al. 1992). Sex steroids are essential for maintenance of normal bone volume and estrogen deficiency is an important risk factor for osteoporosis. Ovariectomy leads to a deficit in ash weight and bone mineral density in adult rats and monkeys (Jayo et al. 1990, Kalu et al. 1991, Lindsay et al. 1978) and it is generally believed that treatment with estrogen of ovariectomized rats prevents the increase of bone resorption (Anderson et al. 1970, Turner et al. 1988, Wronski et al. 1988).
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menopause, the rate of osteoclastic bone loss increases as much as 10-fold, the annual rate being about 2-3% in Caucasian women (Lindsay et al. 1980, Smith et al. 1975). Numerous investigations have been performed to study the therapeutic approaches treating osteoporosis (Rodan et al. 2000).
31
32
Extracellular
E1
E2
Gap 27
Membrane
M1
M2
M3
M4
Cytoplasm
NH2
COOH
Fig. 4. Connexin structure. The cylinders represent transmembrane domains (M1-M4). The loops between the first and second, as well as third and fourth, transmembrane domains are predicted to be extracellular (E1 and E2, respectively).
Connexin channels participate in the regulation of signaling between developing and differentiated cell types. The gap-junctional channels have an apparent selectivity based principally on molecular size, allowing the movement of molecules smaller than 1000 Da, such as cAMP, but preventing the movement of proteins and nucleic acids. Small informational molecules, such as certain morphogens could be directly transmitted between cells via gap junctions, which is important in, for instance, embryogenesis for regulating the events between cells (Warner et al. 1984). A spectrum of drugs has been shown to inhibit gap-junctional communication with varying degrees of efficacy and specificity. These include for instance volatile anesthetics such as halothane (Nedergaard 1994), the straight-chain alcohols heptanol and octanol (Donahue et al. 1995a, Nedergaard 1994), anandamide (Venance et al. 1995) and glycerrhetinic acid (Davidson et al. 1995). Although a variety of drugs have been used to block gap-junctional communication, the specificity of the blockers remains to be solved. Bone cells mediate signals to each other through the communicating gap junctions, which are found connecting adjacent osteoblasts together, between osteoblasts and overlying cells or osteocytes (Akisaka et al. 1990, Jeansonne et al. 1979, Jones 1974, Stanka 1975, Weinger et al. 1974, Yellowley et al. 2000). Osteocyte nutrition probably takes place across the gap junctions between the cytoplasmic extensions of neighboring osteocytes. Connexin-43 (Cx43) is widely expressed in different tissues, including brain, heart, kidney, smooth muscle, ovary, and some epithelia, and it is actually the most abundant connexin (Goodenough et al. 1996, Musil et al. 1990). Cx45 and Cx46 have been identified in bone, but Cx43 is the predominant gap junction protein expressed in bone (Donahue et al. 1995b, Vander et al. 1996).
33
On cell contact, connexons from neighboring cells may form gap junctions in a matter of minutes or even seconds, suggesting that connexons pre-exist in the plasma membrane (Rook et al. 1990). Gap-junctional communication would thus be an excellent method for bone cells to rapidly propagate locally generated signals throughout the skeletal tissue, as has been shown to happen in osteoblasts (Civitelli et al. 1993). A dependable means of communication is utterly important for correct coupling of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The capability to exchange nutrients and regulatory molecules from one cell - or one cell type - to another throughout the skeletal environment may represent an efficient means of coordinating the action of a variety of cells in a highly complex tissue.
Homomeric Homotypic
Heteromeric Homotypic
Homomeric Heterotypic
Heteromeric Heterotypic
Fig. 5. Possible arrangements of connexons to form gap junction channels. Connexons consist of six subunits, connexins. A connexon may be homomeric, when it is composed of six identical connexin subunits or heteromeric, when it has more than one species of connexins. Connexons associate end to end to form a double membrane gap junction channel. The channel may be homotypic, if connexons are identical or heterotypic, when the two connexons are different.
36
mg/ml stock, diluted 1:800, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) was used to visualize nuclei (I, III-IV).
37
glutamine, 100 IU of penicillin/ml, 100 g of streptomycin/ml and 7-10% heatinactivated fetal calf serum (FCS). After removing the epiphyseal cartilages the diaphyses, bones were bisected with a scalpel blade. The loose bone marrow was gently removed by injecting culture media over it with a pipette. The bones were cultured overnight at +37C (5% CO2, 95% air).
38
39
5 Results
5.1 Cadherin localization in osteoclasts (I)
To localize cadherins in osteoclasts we stained the cells with different cadherin or cadherin-related antibodies. E-cadherin and -catenin antibodies were first tried in immunofluorescence staining of osteoclasts. Neither of the antibodies gave positive staining in osteoclasts even though MDCK-cells as a positive control showed similar staining patterns as described earlier. We could distinguish osteoclasts from the other cells in the cell culture by visualizing the nuclei with Hoechst stain. On the contrary, pan-cadherin antibody reacted with osteoclasts forming a ring-like structure localized in the sealing zone area. Some staining can also be seen in the cytoplasm. Double immunofluorescence staining of pan-cadherin with F-actin revealed that pan-cadherin antibodies co-localized with the actin ring in the sealing zone area. Pancadherin staining was also seen in between the vinculin double-rings, partly overlapping with them.
41
away. Similar amounts of TRAP-positive multinucleated cells were seen in AHAVSEtreated, VASAEH-treated and non-treated control cultures. Thus, the cadherin CAR sequence-containing peptide AHAVSE had no effect on the primary attachment of osteoclasts to bone slices.
42
In endosteal osteoblasts, the VSV G protein localization was investigated using both unpermeabilized and Triton-permeabilized cells. In unpermeabilized cells, the VSV G protein was localized to the bone marrow facing plasma membrane. To prove that the VSV G antibodies truly localize to the marrow facing membrane, the cells were permeabilized with Triton. Antibodies against VSV G protein still localized to bone marrow facing plasma membrane, but as expected, they could also be seen in the Golgi complex. Double staining of VSV G protein and VSV matrix protein were also performed to distinguish the cells outlines. At the bone marrow or circulation side in the bone tissue cultures, the G protein immunolabeling had frequently an intense area towards circulation. In Triton-permeabilized osteocytes, the VSV G protein localized apart from the Golgi complex, at the plasma membrane in a nonpolarized manner, although in osteocyte processes extruded into the bone canaliculi, the ends of the processes probably communicating with neighboring cell processes showed somewhat condensed staining. In Influenza-infected UMR-108 cells the Influenza nuclear protein was used as a marker for the nucleus, as shown earlier (Stein et al. 1993). The Influenza hemagglutinin was sorted to the bone substrate-facing surface of UMR-108 cells. The hemagglutinin antibody localized between the nucleus and bone, which was different and opposite to the VSV G protein localization. Influenza HA was also found in the Golgi complex of permeabilized cells.
43
biotinylated. This indicates, that Influenza HA was hidden in the bone facing plasma membrane, which was not available for biotin binding. On the contrary, VSV G protein was 55% biotinylated and thus found in the streptavidin eluate. This indicates that most of the VSV G protein was at the medium facing surface available for biotinylation. Even though the results are clear, they indicate that polarity is not achieved in all of the UMR108 cells.
5.4.2 Effects of gap-junctional inhibitors heptanol and Gap 27 5.4.2.1 Number and Activity of Osteoclasts
Since osteoclasts express gap-junctional Cx-43, we wanted to test whether the addition of gap-junctional inhibitors, either heptanol or Gap 27, affects the number or activity of osteoclasts. A significant decrease in the number of TRAP-positive cells could be seen in the heptanol-treated (3 mM) and Gap 27-treated (500 M) cultures compared to controls. The numbers of both mononuclear and multinucleated TRAP-positive cells were significantly decreased both in the heptanol-treated and in the Gap 27-treated cultures. We could see no difference in the number or morphology of other cell types in the inhibitor-treated bone cell cultures, only the TRAP-positive cells seemed to be affected. The ratio of mononuclear to multinucleated TRAP-positive cells was altered in both inhibitor-treated groups. The control cultures contained approximately one to two times the number of mononuclear than multinucleated TRAP-positive cells, whereas in inhibitor-treated cultures the number of mononuclear TRAP-positive cells was three to four times greater than that of multinucleated TRAP-positive cells. The results of the Gap 27-treated bone cells were almost identical with heptanol-treated bone cells.
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To find out why the number of TRAP-positive cells is decreased in the heptanoltreated bone cell cultures, we studied the nuclei of the cells. We could see numerous apoptotic osteoclasts in the inhibitor-treated bone cells cultures, whereas in control cultures we could not see nearly any apoptotic osteoclasts, but the cells looked absolutely healthy with intact nuclei. To reveal whether heptanol has an effect on the activity of the remaining osteoclasts, we counted how many of the TRAP-positive cells had actin rings. The activity of heptanol-treated osteoclasts was half of that of the controls. The activity of Gap 27treated osteoclasts was dramatically decreased when compared to control osteoclasts. Interestingly, the Gap 27 seemed to act as even more potent inhibitor of the activity.
6 Discussion
6.1 Methodological aspects
We chose to use the pit formation assay as the research setting in our studies concerning osteoclasts. This assay, originally introduced by Boyde et al.(Boyde et al. 1984) and Chambers et al. (Chambers et al. 1984), enables the studying of resorption mechanism of isolated, mature osteoclasts. The setting mimics the situation in vivo: osteoclasts can resorb their natural target, mineralized bone. In addition, the events of the resorption cycle of isolated osteoclasts on bone slices are well characterized (Karhukorpi 1991, Lakkakorpi et al. 1991a, Lakkakorpi et al. 1993). Regarding to the cellular events taking place at the BMU in vivo, the pit formation assay is however, biased; bone resorption by osteoclasts is not followed by bone formation by osteoblasts. This may be due to the preparation and pretreatment of bone slices resulting in inactivation of proteins and cytokines, normally liberated via resorption and which are required for the cross-talk between osteoclasts and osteoblasts. This method delimits our studies to monitoring mature osteoclasts, and we thus miss the complicated maturation process of osteoclast precursors, at least during short period culture (Chambers et al. 1984). The effect of the agents used in this thesis work, cadherin CAR-sequence containing peptide AHAVSE or the two gap-junctional inhibitors, are results from the direct effects of these agents on osteoclasts and not of the complex cellular interactions occurring in vivo. However, we may safely conclude that some of the communication between osteoclasts and other bone cells occur in the pit formation assay since several cell types are present in this culture method. Different cellular mechanisms operate in osteoclasts cultured on glass, when compared to those cultured on bone slices. No special structural features of active osteoclasts, like ruffled border or sealing zone can be seen on artificial surfaces, thus the attachment of osteoclasts to glass may also be different from bone (Lakkakorpi et al. 1993). This is why we cultured the cells on bone slices instead of glass. When studying the polarity of osteoblasts we chose to use an osteoblast-like cell line UMR-108 cultured on bone slices, which are similar to UMR-106 cells that have been widely used as a model for osteoblastic cells (Koutsilieris et al. 1987, Matsumoto et al.
46
1985, Partridge et al. 1996). We then confirmed the results using endosteal osteoblast culture to study the osteoblastic cells in situ.
47
does not affect the primary attachment of osteoclasts to bone matrix, as also demonstrated earlier (Mbalaviele et al. 1995). This could be expected, since the primary attachment is shown to be mediated by integrins (Duong et al. 1999, Lakkakorpi et al. 1993). When using the peptide AHAVSE, osteoclasts resorbed markedly less bone, which could be seen as a decrease in the number and total area of resorption pits when compared with the zero and peptide controls. Although the resorbed area is greatly decreased with the AHAVSE, we cannot quantify the depths of the resorption pits with the method used here. Thus, the true amount of bone resorbed remains open since we cannot know if the AHAVSE-treated osteoclasts have really resorbed less bone - as it seems when looking at the decrease in the area of resorption pits - or if the osteoclasts have just resorbed deeper resorption pits. Mbalaviele et al. have also shown a decrease in the total resorbed area when using HAV-containing peptide (Mbalaviele et al. 1995). They suggest that the decrease in the resorbed area is due to inhibition of osteoclast precursor fusion. The same report suggests that E-cadherin is involved in the generation of multinucleated osteoclasts from mononuclear precursors. As we wanted to learn if the activity of osteoclasts is truly decreased with AHAVSE or if it is only the mode of resorption that has changed, we measured the activity of osteoclasts by their morphology. The emerging of actin rings to the sealing zone of osteoclast is considered as a mark of osteoclastic activity (Lakkakorpi et al. 1991a). By counting the actin rings and the number of TRAP-positive cells, we can get a percentage of osteoclasts that are actively resorbing bone. We could see a great decrease in the activity of osteoclasts as soon as 20 minutes after AHAVSE peptide addition. The observed disorganization of actin rings leads to inactivation of osteoclasts. We believe that the disorganization of actin rings after the addition of AHAVSE is likely to be too rapid to be a result of inhibition of fusion of mononuclear osteoclast precursors. Our results thus suggest that AHAVSE has a specific effect on the sealing zone, since actin rings are an essential component of this tight attachment-mediating structure. The HAVcontaining peptide could either prevent the formation of new actin rings and tight attachment to the bone surface, or it could speed up the degradation of actin rings and subsequent detachment of the tight sealing. Since the sizes of the resorption pits in AHAVSE incubation were not changed when compared with those of the controls, the inhibition of formation of new attachments seems to be the main reason for the decreased percentage of active osteoclasts. We do not know what the counterpart of osteoclastic cadherin might be. Cadherins have generally been associated with homotypic cell-cell interactions, but it has been shown that cadherins might also be involved in interactions between different cell types or even different cell adhesion molecules (Cepek et al. 1994, Tang et al. 1993). These studies together with a recent report, where it was suggested that cadherins can interact with collagen type I (Mbalaviele et al. 1996) and could act as cell-matrix adhesion molecules, inspired us to investigate the possibility that cadherins might act as cell-matrix mediator in osteoclasts. Others have shown that osteoclasts express different cadherins including E-cadherin (Mbalaviele et al. 1995) and cadherin-6 (Mbalaviele et al. 1998).
48
49
Taking these results together - the immunofluorescence data, observation of the viral particle budding and the biotinylation results we can safely conclude that osteoblastic cells clearly posses distinct polarized membrane domains. Still, when comparing the degree of polarity of osteoblastic cells to that of epithelial cells we can see a certain difference. In epithelial cells the polarization is absolute. No VSV-particles can be seen to bud anywhere but the basolateral membrane domain, whereas Influenza particles can only be seen in the apical membrane domain. Although a clear tendency of polarization is easily observed in osteoblastic cells, some viral particles bud randomly from opposite membrane surfaces, in a non-polarized manner. The same randomness is also detectable when looking at the biotinylation results: the biotinylation of VSV G protein is incomplete, indicating that not all of the osteoblasts bud viral particles in a polarized manner. It seems that when osteoblasts grow in a monolayer, the polarization is best achieved whereas some of it is lost when the cells start growing on top of each other. Very little is known about the polarity of other than epithelial cells. Mesenchymal osteoclasts have been shown to polarize its membrane into domains (Salo et al. 1996, Salo et al. 1997). Most of the osteoclast membrane has receptors for VSV indicating basolateral membrane domain, but the special cap structure on the top of an active osteoclast has receptors for Influenza virus, being thus apical in nature. The mechanism by which these non-epithelial cells organize their membrane domains and maintain the polarity is not known, since they do not have tight junctions that usually mediate the polarity in epithelial cells.
50
osteoclasts, some of them being rather large. This finding indicates that osteoclasts are connected to the other bone cell types and thus take part in the remodeling of bone. Since the Cx43 staining was so intense in osteoclasts, we tested the effect of two gapjunctional inhibitors, heptanol and Gap 27, on osteoclasts with dramatic results. Great variety of drugs have been shown to inhibit gap-junctional communication with varying degrees of efficacy and specificity, including volatile anesthetics such as halothane (Nedergaard 1994), the straight-chain alcohols heptanol and octanol (Donahue et al. 1995a, Nedergaard 1994), anandamide (Venance et al. 1995), glycerrhetinic acid (Davidson et al. 1995) and Gap 27 (Chaytor et al. 1997, Chaytor et al. 1998). Of these we chose heptanol and Gap 27. The number of osteoclasts decreased markedly in the treated cultures. The results between the two inhibitors were very similar. When we further studied the reason for this decrease, we found to our surprise that the share of apoptotic osteoclasts was multiple to that of controls. It seems that the communication between osteoclasts and other bone marrow derived cells was essential for the survival of osteoclasts. The fact, that several osteoclasts undergo apoptosis as a result of blocking of the gap junctions, indicates the importance gap-junctional communication to the boneresorbing cells. None of the other cell types present in this bone cell culture model, excluding osteoclasts, are affected but their number is unchanged and they seem normal with healthy looking intact nuclei. When we further examined the inhibitor-treated osteoclast cultures we noticed that even though the numbers of both mononuclear and multinucleated TRAP-positive cells had reduced with the treatments, the number of TRAP-positive multinucleated cells was even more radically reduced. This could indicate that to be able to survive, multinucleated osteoclasts need contacts with the neighboring cells even more than their mononuclear precursors. Furthermore, the fusion of osteoclast precursors into mature multinucleated osteoclasts could somehow be gap junction dependent. This is by no means a far-fetched idea, since involvement of gap junctions has been demonstrated during the progress of macrophage multinucleation in vitro (Ejiri et al. 1987). In addition, Jones and Boyde (Jones et al. 1994) have also suggested the involvement of gap junctions in the fusion of osteoclast precursors to mature osteoclasts. Since the number of osteoclasts decreased significantly with the inhibitors, it was only expected that the resorption activity be decreased as well. The decrease in the resorbed area was in consistent with our expectations. We measured the activity of osteoclasts also by determining the activity of individual osteoclasts by the actin ring staining. Osteoclastic activity was found to be decreased by this method as well. The reduced activity of the remaining osteoclasts might suggest that even though some TRAP-positive mononuclear and multinucleated cells are found after Gap 27-treatment in these cultures, they may already be undergoing some changes leading eventually to apoptosis and thus inactivating the cells. Musil et al. (Musil et al. 1990) have shown that cells lacking morphologically and physiologically recognizable gap junctions can still express Cx43. This illustrates that connexin synthesis cannot automatically be taken as proof that a cell possesses functioning intercellular channels if it expresses connexin. Nevertheless, our results clearly show that inhibition of gap-junctional communication with either a commonly used gap-junctional inhibitor heptanol or with a more specific gap-junctional inhibitor Gap 27, causes osteoclastic apoptosis and hence a decrease in the bone resorption. It has
51
been suggested that the presence of Cx43 in gap junctions between osteoblasts may be a prerequisite for effective metabolic coupling between osteoblastic cells in bone cell networks. The precise role of intercellular communication in bone function is not clear, but gap junctions may modulate bone development and remodeling by coordinating the response of bone cell network to extracellular signals such as physical or hormonal signals (Palumbo et al. 1990). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that gap-junctional communication is critical for the functional responsiveness of osteoblastic network (Vander et al. 1996). Another possible role of gap-junctional intercellular communication in bone may be in the propagation of biophysical signals. A signal from cells that sense a change in mechanical load may be transmitted to other cells that do not sense the signal but are effectors of remodeling (Su et al. 1997).
7 Conclusions
Tight osteoclastic attachment to bone surface in the sealing zone is sensitive to the cadherin CAR sequence-containing peptide AHAVSE. The peptide-treatment decreased activity of osteoclasts seen as a decrease in the number of resorption pits and the total resorbed area. Staining of osteoclasts with a cadherin-recognizing antibody localized cadherin-like molecule in the sealing zone area of osteoclasts. The primary attachment of osteoclasts to bone surface is not affected by the peptide, suggesting that it is not mediated by cadherins. These results suggest that cadherin-like molecules may mediate the tight attachment of osteoclasts to the bone surface in the sealing zone and that the decrease of resorption in AHAVSE-treated osteoclast cultures is due to prevention of sealing zone formation. We demonstrate for the first time that mesenchymal osteoblastic cells have polarized plasma membrane domains. Our findings suggest that osteoblasts are polarized at some point of their life cycle. The bone attaching or bone matrix-facing plasma membrane of osteoblasts has apical characteristics, while the circulation or bone marrow-facing plasma membrane is basolateral in nature. The data from the bone cell communication studies suggest a functional role for gap junctions in osteoclastic bone resorption. We believe, that during bone remodeling, cell contacts and junctions play an important role in modulating osteoblast and osteoclast activity, recruiting osteoblasts that transform into osteocytes and forming an open canalicular network among osteocytes. Osteoclasts show connexin staining in cell-cell contacts, suggesting a possible communication mechanism to mononuclear cells. Osteoclastic activity is clearly reduced by gap junctional inhibitors and the number of osteoclasts also decreases with the treatment, which indicates the vital role of gapjunctional communication for the survival of osteoclasts. The proportional number of mononuclear TRAP-positive cells increases, which may mean that gap junctions are needed for the fusion of precursors to mature multinucleated osteoclasts. On the basis of these results we conclude that gap-junctional communication is essential for proper remodeling for bone and to the action of bone-resorbing osteoclasts.
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