MathsModuleVol I

Distance Education Programme Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(DEP-SSA)
(An IGNOU-MHRD, Govt. of India Project)
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi 110 068

Teaching of Mathematics at Upper Primary
Level
Volume I
3
2
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4 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 4
5 > 4 > 3 > 2 > 1 or 5 < 4 < 3 < 2 < 1
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4 km/hr.
Y X
6 km/hr.
30
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bXuw

Teaching of Mathematics at
Upper Primary Level

Volume I

(DEP-SSA)
(An IGNOU-MHRD, Govt. of India project)

Distance Education Programme- Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, IGNOU, 2009

Printed at: Laxmi Printindia, 556, G.T. Road, Shahdra, Delhi-110 032.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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This book is an unpriced publication and shall not be sold, hired out or otherwise
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that in which it is published.

Upper Primary Level

Volume I

Guidance

Prof. K.R. Srivathsan Dr. S.S. Jena
Pro-Vice Chancellor, IGNOU Former Project Director
In-charge, Director DEP-SSA DEP-SSA, IGNOU

Academic Coordination

Dr. Sarat Kumar Rout Dr. Pradeep Kumar
Programme Officer Former Programme Officer
DEP-SSA, IGNOU DEP-SSA, IGNOU

(DEP-SSA)
(An IGNOU-MHRD, Govt. of India project)

Expert Committee
Prof. Provin Sinclair
PVC, IGNOU
Dr. S. S. Jena
Former Project
Director, DEP-SSA

Prof. M.L.Koul
Former In-charge
Project Director,
DEP-SSA

Prof. P.R Ramanujam
Director, STRIDE,
IGNOU
Dr. Mohit Mohan
Mohanty
Addl. Director (Retd.)
OPEPA, Orissa
Shri Madan Mohan
Mohanty
Deputy Director
(Retd.), BSE, Orissa
Ms. Jai Chandiram
Media Advisor
DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Ms. Avantika Dam
Asst. Teacher,
CIE Basic School,
University of Delhi

Unit Writer
Dr. Vijay S. Patel
Lecturer, SCERT,
Gujurat
Shri Thimmaraju,
Lecturer, DIET,
Gadog, Karnataka

Shri Manoj Kumar
Shukla, Lecturer,
SCERT, Uttarakhand
Shri C.P. Mantri
Udaipur
Rajasthan
Shri B.B.P Gupta
lecturer, SCERT,
M.P
Shri Sachindananda
Mishra
Lecturer, DIET,
Cuttack, Orissa

Shri Tapas Kr. Nayak
Lecturer, SCERT,
Orissa
Shri P. S. Rawat
Lecturer, SCERT,
Haryana

Ms. Pankaj Lohani
SISE, Allahabad
Uttar Pradesh
Shri Avtar Singh
DIET Fatehgarh
Punjab
Shri Ashok Kr. Sharma
DIET Fatehgarh
Punjab

Shri Sanjay Kr. Gupta
SCERT Solan
Himachal Pradesh
Dr. C. Saroja
DIET Chennai
Tamil Nadu
Dr. S. Suresh Babu
SCERT
Andhra Pradesh

Editorial Team
Content Editing Language Editing Unit Design, Format
Editing, Course
Coordination
Proof Reading
Dr. Mohit Mohan
Mohanty, Addl.
Director (Retd.),
OPEPA, Orissa

Prof. C.B. Sharma
School of Education,
IGNOU

Dr. Sarat Kumar Rout
Programme Officer
DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Dr. Sarat Kumar Rout
Programme Officer
DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Shri Madan Mohan
Mohanty
Deputy Director
(Retd.), BSE, Orissa
Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Sr. Lecturer, School of
Education, IGNOU

Graphic Designer Cover Page Editing
Mr. S.S. Chauhan SOS,
IGNOU

Mr. Mitrarun Haldar
M/s Pink Chilli
Communications, Dwarka, New
Delhi-110078

Mrs. Kashish Thakkar
Computer Programmer,
DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Secretarial Support
All Support Staff
DEP-SSA, IGNOU

Production
Sh. Deepak Israni
AFO, DEP-SSA

Teaching of Mathematics at Upper Primary Level

Volume I
Block 1 Page No.
NUMBER SYSTEM
UNIT 1
Numbers and Numerals 1
UNIT 2
Number Line and Operations on Numbers 49
UNIT 3
Data and Its Graphical Representation 69
Block 2
MATHEMATICS IN DAILY LIFE
UNIT 4
Percentage and Its Applications 99
UNIT 5
Simple and Compound Interest 121
UNIT 6
Ratio and Proportion 145
UNIT 7
Time and Distance 165
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a flagship programme of Govement of India to provide
quality elementary education to all. The Distance Education Programme (DEP) is a
national component, created by the MHRD, Govt. of India on July 1, 2003 covering all
the States and UTs. Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) has been
entrusted with the responsibility as a national apex institution for open and distance
education to implement distance education activities across the country to meet the
educational and training needs of the states at elementary level. The DEP-SSA at
national level aims at the capacity building of functionaries such as Master Trainers,
Coordinators of BRCs/CRCs, faculty of DIETS and SCERTs and evolve a sustainable
training system for elementary school teachers through Open and Distance Learning
(ODL) mode.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has came out
with National Curriculum Frame Work (NCF)-2005 which emphasizes on constructivist
pedagogy for transaction of learning experiences. Subsequently, NCERT has revised the
text books adopting the principles of constructivist pedagogy. Further this new
pedagogy demands that teacher in the class room should display the role of facilitator
instead of playing the role of knowledge distributor which is also very typical and
complex. In this context, the teacher must know how to adopt the new paradigm for
effective transaction of learning experiences in the classrooms? Secondly, learning
outcome is an important indicator of teaching-learning process and quality education at
all level. Hence, learning achievement of students are not up to the level of expectation
particularly in Language (English), Mathematics, Science at national level. Therefore,
Government of India and various state governments are working on the proposition of
Learning Enhancement Programme (LEP) focusing on Language (English),
Mathematics, and Science through SSA. It is quite essential to improve the teaching
competencies of the teachers in Mathematics at elementary level with appropriate
interventional strategies. The present module has made a small effort in this direction.
The specific objectives of this module are:

To improve teaching skills of teachers in Mathematics at elementary level.
To help the teachers to follow the principles of constructivist pedagogy for effective
transaction of mathematical concepts, facts and principles in the class room by
To enhance the professional competencies of teachers in developing interest and
curiosity of children towards learning Mathematics at elementary level.

I hope that at the end of training programmes, this module would enable the teachers to
absorb necessary skills and competencies for better transaction of teaching learning
experiences in Mathematics at upper primary level.

I would like to express my gratitude to Department of School Education Literacy,
MHRD, Govt. of India for sponsoring DEP-SSA to improve the professional
competency of functionaries associated with SSA.

I take this opportunity to express my thankfulness and gratitude to Prof. V.N.
Rajasekharan Pillai, Vice Chancellor, IGNOU & Chairman, Advisory Committee, DEP-
SSA for his constant support, encouragement and able guidance throughout the year to
carry out project activities for accomplishment of its goals and objectives.

I also take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the unit writers and the experts
involved in preparation of this module. My sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Mohit Mohan
Mohanty Ex-Reader, SCERT, Orissa and Sh. Madan Mohan Mohanty for their hard
labour in designing, developing and editing the module. I express my heartful thanks
Prof. C.B. Sharma and Dr. Eisha Kannadi, School of Education, IGNOU for language
editing of the present document.

I am also especially thankful to my colleagues of DEP-SSA for their coordination in the
development of this training module and my thanks are also due to all the support staff
working in this project towards the completion of this assignment.

I look forward to receive constructive suggestion for the improvement of this training
module.

December 2009 Project Director
DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Upper Primary Level
Volume I
Block 1 Number System
Unit 1 Numbers and Numerals
Unit 2 Number Line and Operations on Numbers

Unit 3 Data and Its Graphical Representation
Block 2 Mathematics In Daily Life
Unit 4 Percentage and Its Applications
Unit 5 Simple and Compound Interest
Unit 6 Ratio and Proportion

Unit 7 Time and Distance
Volume II
Block 3 Introduction to Algebra
Unit 8 Algebraic Expression and Operations
Unit 9 Factorization

Unit 10 Algebraic Equations
Block 4 Geometrical Shapes and Figures
Unit 11 Introduction to Geometrical Figures and Shapes
Unit 12 Construction of Geometrical Figures
Unit 13 Perimeter, Area and Volume

Unit 14 Symmetry
ABOUT THE VOLUME
The main focus of the module is to equip the teachers with required skills and
competencies to apply principles of constructivist pedagogy while transacting learning
experience in Mathematics with the students. The first and foremost step towards the
achievement of this objective is to acquaint the teachers and resource persons with
transactional strategies of mathematical concepts and principles in conformity to
principles of constructivist pedagogy. Secondly, this module is intended to empower the
teachers to be free from the tyranny of traditional approach of teaching mathematics in
which abstract concepts are usually presented to the students in an authoritarian way and
to adopt activity approach, play way method and creating social situation which stresses
the presentation of concrete experiences. This volume comprises two blocks 1 and 2. The
briefs of each unit have been presented below:
In Unit 1 we define number and numerals and discuss how Roman Numerals and Hindu-
Arabic Numerals are written, and discuss about natural number system and its properties
and operations followed by elaboration of regular fractions and decimal fractions. We
define whole numbers, rational numbers, integers and their operations.
Unit 2 explains how abstract number can be taught to the young students by associating
with concrete objects available in their surrounding. The unit begins with number line
and representation of numbers on it. Subsequently unit elaborates how different number
system can be represented on number line and ordering of the numbers. The unit
concludes with addition and subtraction of whole numbers and integers.
Unit 3 discusses about the concept and importance of data, methods of their
presentations both in tabular and graphical forms and basic descriptive statistics like
measures of central tendency i.e. mean, median and mode have been discussed.
Unit 4 In this unit an attempt has been made to clarify the basics of understanding and
calculating percentages along with its application in several areas including calculating
profit and loss. The unit open up with the brief explanation of explain the concept of
percentage and followed by conversion fractions and decimals into percentage. We ended
the unit by focusing on how to solve daily life problems by using percentage.
Unit 5 defines concepts of simple & compound interest and subsequently their
application have been discussed to enable the teachers to deal effectively in the
classroom transactions.
Unit 6 discusses the different methods of comparison of two quatities to develop the
concept of ratio in the minds of the children. Further unit defines the concept of ratio and
compare two ratios. The unit concludes with the description of proportion as equality of
two ratios and apply the concepts of ratio and proportion in real life-situations.
Unit 7 explains the concept of speed and calculate any one of time, distance or speed of a
journey when other two are given. The second part of the unit explain the concept of
relative speed of two moving bodies; and calculate the time required for two moving
bodies having considerable length.

Upper Primary Level

Volume I

Block 1 Page No.
NUMBER SYSTEM
UNIT 1
Numbers and Numerals 1
UNIT 2
Number Line and Operations on Numbers 49
UNIT 3
Data and Its Graphical Representation 69

UNIT 1 NUMBERS AND NUMERALS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Numbers and Numerals
1.3.1 Counting Numbers and Natural Numbers
1.3.2 Natural Numbers: Properties and their Operations
1.3.3 Concept of Zero and the Place Value System
1.3.4 Whole Numbers: Properties and their Operations
1.3.5 Fractions and Decimal
1.3.6 Integers: Properties and their Operations
1.3.7 Rational Numbers
1.3.8 Rational Numbers: Their Properties and Operations
1.3.9 Decimal Equivalences of Rational Numbers
1.4 Unit Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.7 Assignments
1.8 References
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us ask the children, Which scientific inventions have been extremely beneficial?
Answers may include petrol engines, cell phones, TV etc. Then we may ask Which of
the inventions could be possible without the involvement of numbers? "None of them
could be possible", would be the answer.
In ancient times, people felt the necessity of counting their belongings, such as the trees
planted, animals reared and such other things. They used pebbles, sticks, lines drawn on
the wall etc. to count their belongings by using the concept of one-to-one
correspondence for counting.
People had different collections of pebbles for representing different objects they had.
The number of pebbles in different collections might have confused them. Hence, they
thought of evolving some symbols representing quantities in different collections. Thus
perhaps the numerals have evolved.
In counting collection of objects, one has to use numbers signifying the quantity in the
collection like-six cows, ten pebbles, five fingers, fifteen trees. In these examples six,
ten, five and fifteen are names of the numbers signifying the quantity of objects in
different collections. While the quantity in a collection remains unchanged, the number
names may be different in different languages and societies for the same quantity.
For writing numbers, we use words or number names which had its own difficulties,
particularly when there are large numbers to be written. Therefore, symbols
representing numbers were evolved for writing numbers. These symbols representing
number names are called numerals. 1, 5, 9, 13, and 15 are examples of numerals
representing numbers one, five, nine, thirteen and fifteen respectively. Like number
names, the numerals representing same numbers were different in different cultures.
Civilizations developed simultaneously in different parts of the world. Everywhere the
problem of counting must have been felt. They must have solved the problems by
developing numerals. Some examples of numeral used in different civilizations are
given below.
(The symbols of numerals of Babylonian and Mayan civilizations are to be given
below)
i) In Babylonian Civilization :
1 2 3 10 100 1000
ii) In Maya Civilization :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
iii) In Roman Civilization :
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
I V X L C D M
As the objects to be counted became large, large number of numerals were necessary. It
was difficult to remember them. Further, it was difficult to go for operations like
addition, subtraction etc. with those numerals.
This problem was solved by Indian mathematicians by inventing zero and developing
the place value system. These two inventions have helped us in writing as big a number
as we need using only ten numerals, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 called digits.
The important fact about the place value system is that the location or position of a
numeral in the number expresses its value. This system of writing numbers developed in
India reached the Western land through the Arabians. Hence, the above numerals are
named as Hindu-Arabic numerals. Today we are proud of our ancestors.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
differentiate counting numbers and natural numbers;
explain the operations on natural numbers and their properties;
explain regular fractions and decimal fractions;
appreciate the utility of zero;
know the whole numbers and the properties of operations on them;
know the integers and the operations on them; and
define rational numbers and apply various operations on them.

1.3 NUMBERS AND NUMERALS
We have already discussed about the difference between numbers and numerals. In
brief, the symbols used for writing numbers are numerals.
As we have seen that the Hindu-Arabic system of numerals used only ten symbols or
digits for writing all possible numbers by using the concepts of place value which was
nearly absent in other systems. Thus, while same digits are used in 10, 100, 1000 they
differed in the place value of 1.
The place value system followed in writing the numerals we use is as follows:
Ten Thousands
10
4

Thousands
10
3

Hundreds
10
2

Tens
10
1

Ones
10
0

Because of this, the Hindu-Arabic numerals are known as ten-base numerals and the
numbers are said to be in the decimal system (deci in Latin means ten). You can try to
write numbers using Roman Numerals and Hindu-Arabic Numerals and can easily
realize how the latter makes it convenient to write any number.
The numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0 are now known as the digits when placed in
the places shown above to build a number.
Thus, in the number 29, 2 and 9 are the digits that occupy the tens place and the units
place respectively. Such as:
2 assumes the value 2 tens i.e. 20
and 9 assumes the value 9 ones i.e. 9
Thus, a number having several digits can be expanded as shown below.
375 = 3 hundreds + 7 tens + 5 ones
= 300 + 70 + 5
5039 = 5 thousands + zero hundreds + 3 tens + 9 ones
= 5000 + 0 + 30 + 9
= 5000 + 30 + 9
1.3.1 Counting Numbers and Natural Numbers
Numbers help us to count objects. The numbers which we use for counting are 1, 2, 3
Numbers created for counting did not solve all problems of daily life relating to
calculation unless operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division were
associated with the numbers. Counting numbers with the association of the above
operations on them give us the natural number system.
The Natural numbers are based upon the following principles:
i) The smallest natural number is 1.
ii) Each natural number has a successor which is 1 more than the other.
iii) Except 1, each natural number has a predecessor which is 1 less than the other.
The second and the third principles help us in developing the process of addition and
subtraction.
Next comes the operation of multiplication. Multiplication is nothing but repeated
addition of the same number. For instances, such as 5 + 5 + 5 is represented as 5 3.
Therefore, 5 3 = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15.
Continuous subtraction is division. Let us consider the following example.
Example 1: There are 9 children in a group and the teacher wants to form smaller
groups with 2 children in a group. The teacher sends away two of them to form the first
group.
After sending 2 children, the number of remaining children is 7. Again she sent 2
children to form the second group.
After this, the number of children left is 5. Likewise she sent 2 children to form the
third group and another two children to form the fourth group. Now she finds that she
cant get two more children to form the fifth group, as only one child is left.
Thus, it is found that 2 children could be taken away four times from a group of 9
children and one child remained at the end.
This lengthy operation could be made short by the process of division.
Thus, 9 2 = 7
7 2 = 5
5 2 = 3
3 2 = 1
This long operation is written in a short form as given below:

In this case of division
9 is the Dividend,
2 is the Divisor,
4 is the Quotient, and
1 is the Remainder.
The relation connecting them is:

1.3.2 Natural Numbers: Properties and their Operations
A. Addition
Example 2: To add 5 and 4, we write:
5 + 4 = 5 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
= (5 + 1) + 1 + 1 + 1
= 6 + 1 + 1 + 1 (Since, successor of 5 = 5 + 1 = 6)
= (6 + 1) + 1 + 1
= 7 + 1 + 1 (Since, successor of 6 = 6 + 1 = 7)
= (7 + 1) + 1
= 8 + 1 (Since, successor of 7 = 7 + 1 = 8)
= 9 (Since, successor of 8 = 8 + 1 = 9)
Thus, to add 4 to 5, we stretch open our four fingers and go on counting 6, 7,
8, 9 and get the result 9.
9 2 = 4 (Quotient) + 1 (Remainder)

Dividend = Divisor Quotient +Remainder

Properties of Addition
Let us assign each student in the class to add two natural numbers. The
numbers given for addition to different child may be different.
As they find the result, we may ask them to observe: What kind of numbers
they got as a result? They will be unanimous in saying that the result is a
natural number.
Thus we arrive at the conclusion that the sum of two natural numbers is a
natural number.
This property is called closure property.
A child can be asked to state any two natural numbers as she liked. Two
children may be asked to add the numbers in the reverse order.
As an example, 23 and 39 are separately added in two different orders
i.e. 23 + 39, 39 + 23.
Likewise, several pairs of children may be asked to add different pair of
natural numbers. One child may be asked to add in a particular order while
the other in the pair may be asked to add the two numbers in the reverse
order of the first child.
Each pair of children may now be asked to compare the results they got. It
will be found that every pair of children say that the results of both of them
was equal.
This will lead the children to conclude that the sum of any two natural
numbers added in the direct or reverse orders will get the same result.
i.e., the natural numbers can be added in any order.
Thus we say addition is commutative.
Let us go for another activity. Consider the numbers 3, 2 and 5.
Adding 3, 2 and 5 in different ways as: 3 + (2 + 5) and (3 + 2) + 5, we get 10
as the answer in both the cases. This shows that addition of natural numbers
is associative. Thus we see that adding any two of them first and adding the
third number with the result gives the same result. Let us try the other
combination also (3 + 5) + 2 = 8 + 2 = 10. Again the same result is obtained.
This property is known as associative property of addition.
B. Subtraction
Example 3: To subtract 3 from 7
7 3 = 7 1 1 1
= (7 1) 1 1
= 6 1 1 (since, the predecessor of 7 is 6)
= (6 1) 1
= 5 1 (since, the predecessor of 6 is 5)
= 4 (since, the predecessor of 5 is 4)
Thus, the operation of subtraction has been done using the principle of
predecessors in natural numbers.
Properties of Subtraction
Let us now consider some cases of subtractions in natural numbers.
i) 5 3 = 2; The answer is a natural number.
ii) 2 1 = 1; The answer is a natural number.
iii) 1 4 = ; Not defined in natural numbers.
Hence, natural numbers are not closed under subtraction.
Recalling the commutativity of the operation of addition, we can say that
subtraction is not commutative. We may check this property with any two
numbers, say 5 & 7.
5 7 7 5
Hence, subtraction is not commutative in natural numbers.
Thirdly, we can also say that subtraction is neither associative nor
distributive.
C. Multiplication
Repeated addition of a number is multiplication.
Consider the addition: 3 + 3 + 3 + 3
We briefly express it as 4 3
Therefore, 4 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
Properties of Multiplication
Consider 6 7 = 42
We see that the product of natural numbers 6 and 7 is 42 and it is also a
natural number.
This is known as closure property of multiplication.
Commutative property
We see that

Thus we observe: 5 3 = 3 5.
Hence, multiplication is commutative.
1 5 = 5
3 1 = 3
When we multiply any number with 1, we get the same number as
the product.
Hence, we say that 1 is the multiplicative identity.

Consider Natural numbers 5, 9 and 7. Observe the two orders of multiplying
the three numbers:
i) (5 9) 7 = 45 7 = 315
ii) 5 (9 7) = 5 63 = 315
Thus, we see that:
(5 9) 7 = 5 (9 7)
3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 15
i.e. 5 3 = 15
5 + 5 + 5 + = 15
i.e. 3 5 = 15
Check Your Progress
Notes : a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this
unit.
E1. Is there an additive identity in natural numbers? Give reasons for your
answer.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
The grouping of numbers differently does not affect the product of natural
numbers. Thus we say, multiplication is associative.
Let us consider the price of articles in a book shop. The price board shows:
1 work book costs Rs. 8.00.
1 pencil costs Rs. 3.00.
A child wants to buy 4 work books and 4 pencils. What should be the total
cost?
He calculates as follows:
Price of 4 work books = Rs. 8 4 = Rs. 32
Price of 4 pencils = Rs. 3 4 = Rs. 12
Total Price = Rs. 32 + Rs. 12 = Rs. 44.
The shopkeeper calculates as follows:
Cost of 1 book and 1 pencil = Rs. 8 + Rs. 3 = Rs. 11.
Cost of 4 sets of 1 book & 1 pencil = Rs. 11 4 = Rs. 44
Both the answers tally with each other.
Thus, we find:
4 8 + 4 8 = 32 + 12 = 44
4 (8 + 3) = 4 11 = 44
That is,
4 (8+3) = 48 + 43
Hence, we say that multiplication distributes over addition.
D. Division
The operation has already been discussed as continued subtraction of a
certain number from another.
The rule that follows in division is as we have seen in earlier example:

It can be seen that
division in many cases leaves a remainder. Such as 14 4 = quotient 3 and
remainder 2. We say 14 is not divisible by 4.
So we say that division is not closed on natural numbers.
Dividend = Divisor Quotient + Remainder
It is very clear that 8 4 does not give the same result as 4 8. There we see
that Division is not Commutative on Natural Numbers.
Let us check if:
(32 8) 2 and 32 (8 2) give us the same result.
(32 8) 2 = 4 2 = 2
32 (8 2) = 32 4 = 8
Thus we find that (32 8) 2 = 32 (8 2).
So we say division is not associative on natural numbers.
Let us recall the properties of different operations on natural numbers and put
them in the table below:
Properties

Closure Commutativity Associativity
Existence
of Identity
Addition Yes Yes Yes No
Subtraction No No No No
Multiplication Yes Yes Yes Yes
Division No No No No
Distributive property does not find place in the table as it relates to multiplication and
addition jointly.
1.3.3 Concept of Zero and the Place Value System
For subtractions like 2 2, 5 5, 12 12 etc. no result could be assigned so long as we
remain confined to natural number. We could only say that the result is Nothing.
It was felt necessary that a numeral should be developed to represent nothing. Thus the
Indians conceived zero (0). Counting numbers helped the primitive people to count
things but they had no means to measure a part of an object; that necessity forced them
to generate half (1/2) , quarter (1/4) and so on so that parts of an object can also be
measured.
1.3.4 Whole Numbers: Properties and their Operations
The collection of numbers, now available i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, are whole numbers and is
denoted by W.
The only additional member which W has over N is zero (0).
Properties of Operations on Whole Numbers
A. Addition
The operation of addition is the same as discussed in natural numbers. Hence
all the properties of addition in N, also the same in case of W. Thus:
Addition on W is closed.
Addition on W is commutative.
Addition on W is associative.
Because of the existence of 0 in W, we can see that:
5 + 0 = 5
12 + 0 = 12
347 + 0 = 347
Hence, 0 is the additive identity in W.
B. Subtraction
The operation of subtraction in W is similar to the operation on N. But in
N we could only subtract a smaller number from a bigger one.
But now even a number can be subtracted from itself.
Thus 3 3 = 0
5 5 = 0
9 9 = 0
Hence in W, we can subtract a number from a number equal to or greater than
the first.
C. Multiplication
The multiplication operation in W is similar to that in N. The properties of
operations in W are also the same as in N.
A special case of multiplication can be seen in W which is:
3 0 = 0
5 0 = 0
9 0 = 0
0 0 = 0
D. Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition
Distributive property of multiplication over addition also exists in W as in
N such as:
5 (3 + 0) = 5 3 + 5 0
4 (0 + 7) = 4 0 + 4 7
E. Division
The operation of division in N which was otherwise the process of continued
subtraction also works in a similar line in W. Only one special case appears in
division here. Dividing 23 by 5 means taking away 5 from 23 as many times as is
possible. The number of times 5 could be taken out of 23 gives us the quotient of
the division.
Thus, we get 23 5 = quotient 4 and remainder 3.
If we take away 0 from 23 every time, that is if nothing is taken away 23, then
there is no end to the process of taking away. Hence, we can not arrive at a specific
result.
Thus we say: Division by zero (0) is meaningless.
Similar to the properties of division in N, the division in W
i) is not closed,
ii) is not commutative and
iii) is not associative.
1.3.5 Fractions and Decimal
Every object, which we count as one in the process of counting objects is treated as a
Whole such as: an apple, a piece of chalk (before being used), a bucket full of water
etc.
After a part of a whole is removed or consumed, we say a part of the whole is left.
The whole numbers 0, 1, 2, cannot be used to express the measure of a part.
Hence, comes the necessity of creating Fractions.
With one part out of two equal parts of a whole as follows in Figure 1.1. We associate
the number
2
1
.
2
1

2
1

Figure 1.1
3 parts of 5 equal parts; 2 parts out of 5 equal parts as follows in Figure 1.2.

5
3

5
2

Figure 1.2
A fractions provides us with 2 information:
i) The whole is divided into how many equal parts; it is known as Denominator.
ii) How many parts are taken, it is known as Numerator.
Similarly, if the denominator is 7 and the numerator is 5, then the fraction is written as
7
5
.
A. Various Kinds of Fractions
I) Unit Fractions:
2
1
,
3
1
,
4
1
,
7
1
etc. are the fraction each of which has 1 as the
numerator.
II) Equivalent Fractions: The paper sheet AB is divided into

2 equal parts of a whole in Figure 1.3,
Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5
A P B
A P B
5
1

5
1

5
1

5
1

5
1

A P B
AP represents
2
1
in Figure 1.3.
AP represents
4
2
in Figure 1.4 (2 parts out of 4 equal parts).
AP represents
8
4
in Figure 1.5 (4 parts out of 8 equal parts).
Thus,
2
1
=
4
2
=
8
4
are known as equivalent fractions.
If
b
a
is a given fraction, the equivalent fraction of it can be obtained by
multiplying the numerator and denominator of both by the same number.
Thus,
b
a
= ...
3
3
2
2
=
b
a
b
a

It is evident from above that infinite number of equivalent fractions are
available for any given fraction.
B. Categorization of Fractions
I. Proper Fraction and Improper Fraction
Numerator and denominator of a fraction are the two constituents of
a fraction.
Depending upon the relative sizes of them, a fraction can be put into
2 categories.
i) If numerator < denominator, then the fraction is known as proper
fraction.

3
2
,
7
4
,
16
9
are proper fractions.
ii) If numerator > denominator, then the fraction is known as an
improper fraction.
4
5
,
7
11
,
3
16
are improper fractions. What does
the improper fraction
4
5
mean?
Does it mean 5 part taken out of 4 equal parts of a whole? It cannot be. So
then what is it?
Activity for you:
Take 2 square sheets of card board of equal sizes as in Figures 1.6.

Figure 1.6
Cut each of them along their diagonals. You get 8 triangular pieces as
shown in below mentioned Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7
Each is a quarter (
4
1
) of the original square-sheet.
Now put 4 of them together to give rise to the original square shape. You will
now have the shapes as shown in Figure 1.8. Thus you get 1 whole and a quarter (
4
1
).

Figure 1.8
Thus we find that
4
5
= 1
4
1
. 1
4
1
is known as a mixed fraction (or a mixed
number).
Conversion of an improper fraction into a mixed number

4
5
: 5 4 = quotient 1 and remainder 1. Thus
4
5
= 1
4
1

Think of an activity to demonstrate this concept of conversion.
Alternative method of conversion
As shown in the diagram along with
3
1

3
1

3
1
i.e. 1 =
3
3

1 =
3
3
, 1 =
4
4

Similarly 1 =
5
5
, 1 =
6
6
, 1 =
7
7
etc.
4
1

4
1

4
1

4
1
i.e. 1 =
4
4

Meaning of the above statements are as follows:
1 = 3 numbers of one thirds together.
1 = 5 numbers of one fifths together and so on.
Similarly,
2 = 2 1 = 2 3 numbers of one thirds together,
= 6 numbers of one third together.
Thus 1
3
3
= 1 +
3
1
=
3
3
+
3
1
=
3
1 3 +
=
3
4

1
5
3
= 1 +
5
3
=
5
5
+
5
3
=
5
3 5 +
=
5
8

Again
3
8
=
3
2 3 3 + +
=
3
3

+
3
3
+
3
2
= 1+1+
3
2
= 2 +
3
2
= 2
3
2

II. Like Fraction and Unlike Fraction
If a bread is cut into 12 equal slices and we take:
1 slice, then it is
12
1
of the bread,
5 slices, then it is
12
5
of the bread,
7 slices, then it is
12
7
of the bread.
The 3 fractions that we see above are
12
1
,
12
5
,
12
7
and those have equal
denominators. Such fractions which have equal denominators are known as
like fractions. Why like?

12
1
of the bread is 1 slice of it.

12
5
of the bread consists of 5 slices of it.

12
7
of the bread consists of 7 slices of it.
Thus, unit contained in the fraction i.e. the unit fractions contained in them
are all alike. Therefore, the term like fractions having unequal denominators are
unlike fractions.

7
2
,
5
3
,
11
6
are unlike fractions.
III. Fraction of a Collection of Objects
Consider a collection of 12 breads. The whole here is the entire collection.
The collection is divided into 2 equal parts as shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9
Each part is of a half i.e.
2
1
of the whole collection. It can be seen that
2
1
of 12
= 6.
i)
2
1
of 12 i.e. 1 part out of 2 equal parts of 12 = 12 2 = 6.
Similarly:
ii)
3
1
of 12 i.e. 12 3 = 4.
iii)
4
1
of 12 i.e. 12 4 = 3.
iv) What is
5
2
of a collection of 15?

5
2
of a collection of 15 means 2 parts out of 5 equal parts of 15.
We divide the collection of 15 into 5 equal parts. Each part (is
5
1
of the
collection) = 15 5 = 3.
Hence, 2 such parts = 2 3 = 6.
Thus, we see that:

5
2
of 15 {2 (
5
1
of 15)}= 2 (15 5) = 2 3 = 6.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E2. Design a diagram to represent the fraction
5
1
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

E3. Write 3 unit fractions.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E4. Write a fraction equivalent to
3
2
(i) with numerator 12 (ii) with
denominator 15.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E5. Write 3 like fractions.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E6. Determine
7
3
of 28.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E7. Express as mixed numbers:
3
8
,
4
17
,
8
21
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E8. Express as improper fractions: 2
3
2
, 4
5
3
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
IV. Decimal Fractions
The fractions which have been discussed so far are known as vulgar fractions.
Some of the vulgar fractions have their denominators as 10, 100, 1000 (i.e.
10
1
, 10
2
, 10
3
,)
Such fractions are:
10
3
,
100
23
, 1
10
7
etc.
This kind of fractions are known as decimal fractions.
The decimal fractions are also written in a different pattern by following the
place value system.
To accommodate decimal fractions in the place value system, the places used
in writing numerals are extended to the right as shown below:

Thousands
1000
Hundreds
100
Tens
10
Ones
1
*
Tenths
10
1

Hundredth
100
1

In this ten-base system, every place carries the value equal to one-tenth of value
of the place to the left of it.
Hence, a place developed to the right of the ones place has the value
10
1
and
known as tenths place.
The place to the right of the tenths place carries the value equal to
100
1
and
known as the hundredths place and so it continues to the right.
The diagram showing the places and their values has a gap between the ones
place and the tenths place (indicated by a star * mark). A dot ( . ) is marked there to
separate the places carrying fractional values.
Writing decimal fractions in the form of ten-base numerals
Thus, 3
10
1
is 3 +
10
1
and is written as 3.1.
10
2
is written as 0.2 (0
makes it distinct that there is nothing in the units place).

100
53
=
100
3 50 +
=
100
50
+
100
3
=
10
5
+
100
3
= 5 tenths and 3 hundreds =
0.53
2
100
37
= 2 +
100
37
= 2 +
100
30
+
100
7
= 2+
10
3
+
100
7
= 2 + 3 tenths + 7
hundredths = 2.37
Writing ten-base numerals with decimal point in the form of decimal
fractions
2.4 = 2 ones + 4 tenths = 2 +
10
4
= 2
10
4
[2
5
2
on further simplification]
3.57 = 3 ones + 5 tenths + 7 hundreds
= 3 +
10
5
+
100
7
= 3 +
100
50
+
100
7
= 3 +
100
57

= 3
100
57

C. Operations on Fractions
I. Reducing a Fraction into a Fraction of Lowest Order
A series of equivalent fractions are written below:

3
2
=
6
4
=
9
6
=
12
8
=
15
10

It can be seen that the numerator and denominator of each of the fractions
except the first one have a common factor whereas the numerator and
denominator of the first fraction has no common factor. This is the reason
why we say the first fraction as the fraction of lowest order.
Let us take each of the other fractions.

6
4
=
2 3
2 2
=
3
2
we say numerator and denominator are cancelled
log 2.

9
6
=
3 3
3 2
=
3
2
, thus
3
2
is fraction of lowest order of
9
6
and
6
4
.
II. Changing Fractions into Like Fractions

5
3
and
7
4
to be written as like fractions : let us write some equivalent
fractions for each of the above fractions.

5
3
=
10
6
=
15
9
=
20
12
=
25
15
=
30
18
=
35
21
=
40
24
=
45
27

7
4
=
14
8
=
21
12
=
28
16
=
35
20

The moment we got the fraction
35
20
equivalent to
7
4
we stopped, because we
found it denominator to be the same as the denominator of one of fractions equivalent
to
5
3
(if
35
21
).
Now we pick up those two fractions from 2 series of equivalent fractions
which have the same denominator.
Thus
5
3
=
35
21
,
And
7
4
=
35
20
.
Now
5
3
and
7
4
both have been converted into two like fractions.
But the process followed is quite long.
A short-cut process is as follows :

5
3
and
7
4
are the given fractions.
L.C.M. of their denominators 5 and 7 is 5 7 = 35.
35 5 = 7 (L.C.M. is divided by the first denominator)

5
3
=
7 5
7 3
=
35
21
.
And 35 7 = 5 (L.C.M. is divided by the second denominator),

7
4
=
5 7
5 4
=
35
20
.
Why is this exercise done?
This process of changing fractions into like fractions helps us in addition and
subtraction of fraction.
III. Addition of Fractions

3
2
+
5
4
= ?
The two fractions are changed into like fractions.
L.C.M. of the denominators 3 and 5 is 3 5 = 15
153 = 5 (LCM divided by the first denominator)

3
2
=
5 3
5 2
=
15
10
,
15 5 = 3 (LCM divided by the second denominator).

5
4
=
3 5
3 4
=
15
12
.
Now,
3
2
+
5
4

=
15
10
+
15
12
=
15
12 10 +

=
15
22
=
15
7 15 +

=
15
15
+
15
7
= 1 +
15
7

= 1
15
7

A short process is as follows:
The process discussed above develops the understanding. To be brief, we will
omit some of the steps shown above.
3
2
+
5
4
=
15
) 5 15 ( 4 ) 3 15 ( 2 +

=
15
3 4 5 2 +

=
15
12 10 +

=
15
22

= 1
15
7

Gradually we make a habit of doing the first step mentally. For instance,
We divide the LCM by the first denominator mentally and multiply the result
obtained to the first numerator mentally too. Thus we get (153) 2 = 5 2 = 10.
Similarly, we divide the LCM by the second denominator and multiply the
result with the second denominator and get (15 5) 4 = 3 4 = 12.
Then the second step is directly given. Thus we write:

3
2
+
5
4
=
15
12 10 +
=
15
22
= 1
5
7

But initially the child should be made to work in the expanded form for better
understanding of the process.
IV. Subtraction
The process is exactly the same as addition with the difference that minus sign
() is taken in place of the plus sign (+).
V. Multiplication
We want to multiply
3
2
by
7
5
.
Let us first try to give a physical representation of
3
2
7
5

Two rectangles of the same size are shown in Figure 1.10 (i&ii).

Figure 1.10(i) Figure 1.10(ii)
Each is divided into 3 rows and 7 columns.
(

7
5

3
2

In the first rectangle
7
5
is taken which includes 5columns out of 7 columns of
the rectangles.
The
7
5
of the rectangle 10 (i) contains 3 rows, taking
3
2
of 3 rows it comes to
over 2 rows.
Thus, two rows out of the 5 columns are shaded in rectangle 10 (ii).
Thus, we see
3
2
of
7
5
of the rectangle (containing 21 units) = 10 units.
The part containing 10 units out of 21 units of the rectangle =
21
10
.

3
2

7
5
=
7 3
5 2
.
10 is nothing but equal to 2 5.
And 21 is nothing but equal to 37.

3
2

7
5
=
7 3
5 2
.
This product of 2 fractions =
ators min deno 2 the of product
numerators 2 the of product

VI. Division
We describe
4
1
as 1 part out of 4 equal parts of a whole (object). This
otherwise means 1 divided by 4 gives the result
4
1
.
So we write 1 4 =
4
1
.
During the discussion of multiplication we have seen that
1
4
1
=
4
1
.
Thus we see that: 1 4 = 1
4
1
.
Let us see another example:
(II)

3
2
4 =?
Rectangle shown in Figure 1.11(i) is divided into 3 rows and 4 columns.

3
2
of rectangle shown in Figure 1.11(i)) includes 2 parts out of 3 equal parts
of it = 2 rows out of 3 of its rows.

Thus,
3
2
of rectangle in Figure 1.11(i) is shown in Figure 1.11(ii).
Rectangle shown in Figure 1.11(ii) is divided by 4.

The result is 1 rows as rectangle in Figure 1.11(ii) has 4 columns.
Thus,
3
2
of the original rectangle 4,
= 2 small unit out of 12 small units of rectangle in Figure 1.11(i)
=
12
2
of rectangle (I).
Thus,
3
2
4 =
12
2

12
2
=
3
2

4
1
(according to the rule of multiplication).

3
2
4 =
3
2

4
1

Figure 1.11(ii)
Figure 1.11(i)
Observing the 2 examples discussed above, we see that:
1 4 = 1
4
1
= 1 (reciprocal of 4).

3
2
4 =
3
2

4
1
=
3
2
(reciprocal of 4).

Thus we can say that:

This rule can also be extended to fractional divisors.
Note: (i) If mixed numbers are there for addition, subtraction, multiplication or
division, those are first to be changed into improper fractions and then the
operation is to be undertaken, and (ii) in a fraction division, no remainder
is left.
Activities may be designed by the teacher in accordance with the discussions
made earlier during multiplication and division in whole numbers.

Dividend Divisor = Dividend
Divisor
1

Check Your Progress
unit.
E9. Change the mixed numbers into improper fractions:
(i) 2
5
3
(ii)
9
7
4
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

D. Operations on Decimal Numbers
I. Addition and Subtraction

While adding or subtracting whole numbers, we add the digits contained in
the respective places.
E10. Change the improper fractions into mixed numbers:
(i)
5
23
(ii)
25
107

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E11. Find the sum of
5
3
, 1
3
2
and 2
2
1
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E12. Subtract
15
8
from 1
3
2
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E13. Express the decimal fractions into decimal numbers (10 base
numbers):
i)
10
23
ii) 2
10
7
iii) 3
100
9
iv) 2
1000
41

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Can you make a general conclusion about the number of decimal
digits that you get on changing decimal fraction into decimal
numbers?
To add 357, 36 and 128, we write one below the other in such a way
that the digits in ones place of all the 3 numbers remain one below the
others and similarly for other places, so write:
H T O
3 5 7
3 6
1 2 8
Similarly during subtraction we write:
H T O
5 9 4
1 5 7
While adding or subtracting decimal numbers same principle is followed while
writing them one below the other. As such the decimal points i.e. one below the
others. Thus to add 12.8 and 7.25 we write:
12.80
+ 7.25
20.05
Zero is taken at the tenth place so that both the numbers have digits up to the
tenth place.
To subtract 3.02 from 5.7 we write
5.70
3.02
2.68
Note:
i) Since digit at the tenth place of a number has to be added or subtracted
from the tenth digit of the other, therefore, a zero was taken at the tenth
place of the first number in both the examples above.
ii) One zero or several zeros following the last digit after the decimal point in a
decimal number makes no change in value in the number. That if 2.3 = 2.30
= 2.300 and so on try to reason out.
iii) We add or subtract the decimal numbers in the same way as we do with
whole numbers.
After writing them one below the other in the proper manner (decimal
points remaining one below the other).
II. Multiplication
We know that:
10
2

10
3
=
10
6

Thus 0.2 0.3 = 0.6 (as we see above).

Let us analyze the result obtained.
The result contains 6 (excluding the decimal point).
But 6 = 2 3.
There are 2 digits after the decimal point in the result (i.e. 0 at the tenth place
and 6 at the hundredths place.
We had 1 digit after the decimal point in the first number taken for
multiplication i.e. 0.2 and also 1 digit after the decimal point in the second
number i.e. 0.3.
So we observe:
Number of digits after the decimal point in the first number + number of digits
after the decimal point in the second number = number of digits after the decimal
point in the product.
So the process of multiplication of decimal numbers includes the following
steps:
Step I: Ignore the decimal points in the numbers to be multiplied and
multiply the resulting numbers and write the result.
Step II: Add the number of digits after the decimal point in both the numbers that
are multiplied. Whatsoever is the result, the number of digits after the
decimal print in the product will be equal to that.
Example 4: 1.2 0.3.
12 3 = 36 (multiplying the numbers ignoring the decimal points).
There is only one digit after the decimal point in each of the two digits. Thus,
the total number of digits after the decimal point in the two numbers is 2.
In the product, the decimal point is placed after two digits from the right of 36
i.e. 0.36.
Hence, 1.2 0.3 = .36 or 0.36.
Some special multiplications:
We know that:
10
3
10 = 3
=> 0.3 10 = 3
Similarly,
100
27
10 =
10
27
= 2.7
=> 0.27 10 = 2.7
Thus, we conclude that:
When a decimal number is multiplied by 10, units digit changes to tens digit,
tenths digit changes to units digit.
In other words, the decimal point is shifted to the right by one place.
Like-wise: 3.542 100 = 354.2.
While a decimal number is multiplied by 100, the decimal point is shifted to the
right by 2 places.
III. Division
How would we divide 12.56 by 4? The process of division by a whole
number is very much similar to the process of division of whole numbers. The
only difference is that in a whole number division, a remainder may be left. But a
decimal number division, no remainder will be left. The division may end giving an
exact quotient.
At times the division never comes to an end. In such cases we continue to any
number of decimal digits and get an appropriate result correct to a desired number of
decimal places.
Example 5: 2.56 to be divided by 4.
Step I: Left most digit of the dividend cannot be divided by 4. So we
take 2 digits from the left i.e. 12 and divide it by 4. We get the
quotient as 3.
Step II: 43 = 12 and 12 is subtracted from 13 and remainder left is 0.
Step III: Next digit with the decimal point is brought down. Thus we get
0.5 as dividend for the second division.
Step IV: As the decimal digit is to be divided by 4, so decimal digit will be
obtained as the quotient. A decimal point is taken in the quotient.
Further, 5 being divided by 4, the quotient is 1. Thus 1 is taken at the
tenths.
Place of the quotient:
Divisor 4 is multiplied by the quotient 1 taken at this phase and
product 4 is subtracted from 5 leaving the remainder 1. Therefore 6
is brought down from the hundredth place of the dividend.
Step V: Now 16 is to be divided by 4. Actually 16 hundredths are to be
divided by 4 which gives 4 hundredths as the quotient
Note: In practice after the decimal point is marked in the quotient, we ignore the
decimal point during the subsequent work.
Thus 12.56 4 = 3.14

Example 6: Let us divide 23.39 by 7. We proceed in the same manner as in the
previous example.
Note: One zero (or more than one zeros) being placed after a decimal then, there
is no change in its value. Hence, we can consider there to be as many zeros
after 9 in the dividend 23.39. Hence, whenever we need we can bring a
zero down.
Though we have continued with the division till 6 digits after the decimal point
in the quotient, yet the division has not come to an end.
In such a case we take an approximate result correct to some places of
decimal. In this case correct to 2 places of decimal, the approximate answer will
be 3.34 Correct to 3 places of decimal, the approximate answer will be 3.341.
3.14
_______
4 12.56
12
______
0.5
0.4
______
0.16
0.16
______
0
Now let us take an example of decimal number as divisor.
Example 7: Let us divide 48.52 by 0.6.
The decimal divisor should be changed into a whole number
48.5 0.6 i.e.
6 . 0
52 . 48

To make the denominator decimal free, it is necessary to multiply by 10.
But to keep the value of the fraction unchanged, we multiply the numerator
and the denominator both by 10.
So we get
10 6 . 0
10 52 . 48
=
6
2 . 485
.
Now it can be see that the division would never come to an end and 6 will
continue to be obtained in all the successive places.
The quotient correct to 2 places of decimal = 80.87
If the first digit to be deleted is 5 or more, then the previous digit is increased by
1.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E14. Complete the following table:
FOR WHOLE NUMBERS
Operation Properties
Closure Commutativity Associativity Distributivity Identity
Addition

Subtraction

Multiplication

Division

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E15. Find the product of 2.37 31.4.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E16. (i) Divide 302.48 by 8.
(ii) Divide 457.35 by 0.7 and get the result correct to 2 decimal
figures.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E17. Simplify 2.3 + 1.2 0.4 1.7.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

1.3.6 Integers: Properties and their Operations
Integers
In our day to day life situations, we often come across the need to write
numbers to represent the measures having opposite characters. Some examples are
given below:
i) Height above the ground, depth below the ground.
ii) Going forward, coming backward.
iii) Ascending, descending.
iv) Gain in a business, loss in the business.
In respect of the situation (i) Ground level is between height and depth.
In respect of (ii) the Standing place lies between forward movement and
backward movement.
In respect of (iii) it is the ground level which lies between the height to be
ascended and the depth to be descended.
In respect of (iv) neither gain nor loss i.e. getting back the capital lies between the
gain and the loss.
To express the measures of two opposite characters we make use of opposite
signs like + and with numbers such as +1 and 1 which are numbers with
opposite sign.
If +1 represents a height of 1m above the ground, 1 would represent a depth
of 1m below the ground.
Similarly other numbers with opposite signs are:
+ 2 and 2
E18. Divide 3
5
2
by 1
4
3
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
+ 3 and 3 and so on.
Thus every whole number other than 0 has an opposite number.
+ 1, + 2, + 3, + 4 etc. are named as positive numbers and 1, 2, 3 etc. are
named as negative numbers.
Zero (0) is neither +ve nor ve.
Ordering of the Positive, Negative Numbers and 0
We know about the ordering of all the whole numbers. What about the ordering of
negative numbers?
Consider three businessmen Haris, Rohit and Manjit starting a business with
say Rs. 10,000.00 each. After a month both Haris and Rohit incurred loss in their
business with a loss of Rs. 500.00 and Rs. 100.00 respectively. But Manjit neither
gained nor lost any thing. Then, at that point of time who had better financial
status?
It is evident that Haris with a loss of 500 Rupees has a worse financial status than
Rohit whose loss is Rs.100.
So we say, 500 < 100
Similarly, a person having no loss and no gain has a better financial position in
the business than the one who has made a loss of Rs. 100.00, i.e. Manjit had better
financial position after one month of business than either Rohit or Haris.
So we say, 0 > 100 > 500
Hence the ordering of +ve numbers, ve numbers and 0 is as follows:
5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, ..
i.e. .<5 <4 <3 <2 <1 <0 <+1 <+2 <+3 <.
This set of numbers is names as set of Integers (and denoted as I or Z).

Opposite Numbers and their Properties
We know that a loss of 200 rupees followed by a gain of rupees 200, places the
businessman where he had started having neither loss nor gain indicating his
position as 0 iness is 0. Thus we can easily say about the integers:
(+1) + (1) = 0
3 1 1 3 0
(+2) + (2) = 0
(+200) + (200) = 0 and so on.
Thus, sum of 2 opposite numbers is zero.
Integers and their Operations
i) Addition: +5 + 3 = + 8
which has already been discussed in natural numbers.
Consider (+5) + (3)
(+5) + (3) = (+1) + (+1) + (+1) + (+1) +(+1) + (1) + (1) + (1)
= + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 1 1 1
= (+11) + (+11) + (+11) + (+1) + (+1)
= 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 1
= 0 + 2
= 2
Alternatively,
(+5) + (3) = (+3+2) + (3)
= (+3) + (+2) + (3)
= (+3) + (3) + (+2)
= 0 + 2
= 2
ii) Subtraction
Subtraction of an integer is the same as addition of its opposite number.
Consider the examples below:
Example 8: 5 (+9)
(+5) (+9) = (+5) (9) = (+5) + (5) + [(5) + ( 4)]
= [(+5) (5)] + ( 4)
= (+5 5) 4
= 0 4 = 4
Here the subtraction of +ve number is treated an addition of the negative of the
number.
Hence we get,
(+5) (+9) = (+5) + (9)
= 5 9 = 4
Example 9: (+5) (3) = ?
+5 (3) is to be defined as + 5 + (+3), because subtraction of a negative
number is the addition of its opposite number.
Therefore, we get, +5 (3) = +5 + 3 = +8.
iii) Multiplication
Consider

Example 10:
a) (+3) (+5)
Already done in natural numbers and whole numbers.
Therefore, (+3) (+5) = + 15 (positive number)
b) 3 (5)
3 (5) = (5) + (5) + (5)
= (10) + (5)
= 15 (The product is a negative number).
c) (3) (+5)
We know that:
(+3) (5) = 15
(+2) (5) = 10 =15+5 = 15 (5)
[5 is subtracted from the previous product].
(+1) (5) = 5 = 10 + 5 = 10 (5)
0 (5) = 5 (5) = 5 + 5 = 0
(1) (5) = 0 (5) = 0+5 = +5
(2) (5) = (+5) = + 5 + 5 = +10
(3) (5) = (+10) (5) = +10 + 5 = +15
Two important results we have got
i) 0 (an integer) = 0.
ii) (ve integer) (ve integer) = +ve integer.
iv) Division on integers
a) We know that
15 3 = 5
b) Consider (8) (2)
(8) (2) = 8 + 2 = 6
6 (2) = 6 + 2 = 4
4 (2) = 4 + 2 = 2
2 (2) = 2 + 2 = 0
Therefore, (8) (2) = +4
Hence, we can say:
Division of a negative integer by another negative integer gives
a positive integer as quotient.
c) Consider
15 3 = 5 (done in whole numbers)
We know that division is the reverse process of multiplication.
From 3 5 = 15, we get 15 3 = 5 & 15 5 = 3
Similarly, 8 2 = 16 gives 16 2 = 8 and 16 8 = 2
For each multiplication statement of numbers, there are two
division statements.
Let us take (+2) (6) = 12.
The corresponding division statements are
i) (12) (+2) = 6, and
ii) (12) (6) = +2.
We also know that (2) (6) = + 12
(+12) (2) = 6.
And (+12) (2) = 6.
Sign rule of division
Now we can say that when we divide a ve integer by a +ve integer or a
+ve integer by a ve integer, we get the ve quotient.
When a ve integer is divided by a ve integer, the quotient we
get is +ve integer.
Properties of Operations on Integers
Properties of Addition and Subtraction Operations:
i) Closure property
Let us observe and complete the following table:
Statements Observations
i) 12 + 8 = 20
ii) 5 + 3 = 2
iii) +7 4 = + 3
iv) 3 9 = 6
v) 7 + 0 = 7
Result is an integer
-do-
-do-
-do-
-do-
Thus we see that: the sum of two integers is always an integer.
Therefore, we say: Integers are closed under addition.
Statements Observations
i) 12 8 = + 4
ii) 5 3 = 8
iii) +7 (4) = 11
iv) 1 (5) = 4
v) 3 9 = 6
vi) 7 0 = 7
vii) 0 2 = 2
Result in an integer
-do-
-do-
-do-
-do-
-do-
-do-
On seeing these results, we can say that integers are closed under
subtraction.
ii) Commutative property
Consider,
5 + (6) = 1 and
(6) + 5 = 1
Therefore, 5 + (6) = 6 + 5
Activity 1
Let us try this with five other pairs of integers assigned to 10 pupils individually
with one pair each to two students. For example, one student A is asked to add
(+7) + (9) and B is asked to add (9) + (+7). Then we can ask them to draw
conclusion from these examples.
Thus, we conclude: addition of integers is commutative.

Now, we can say: subtraction is not commutative for integers.
iii) Associative property of addition
Let us consider the integers,
3, 2 and 5.
(3) + (2) + (5) = 15 = 6
3 + (2 5) = 33 = 6
Therefore, (3 + 2) + (5) = (3) + (2 5).
Even though the grouping is not the same, the answer is the same.
This shows: addition is associative for integers.
iv) Additive identity
Let us fill in the blanks of the following:
Check Your Progress
unit.
E19. Take the same pair of numbers, do the subtraction in both the orders.
Are they equal?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
i) 3 + __ = 3
ii) 5 + 0 = ____
iii) 0 9 = ____
iv) 55 + 0 = ___
v) 0 + ____ = 17
vi) ___+ 0 = 2.5
We see that when 0 is added with any integer, we get the same integer.
Therefore, we can say: zero is the additive identity for integers.
v) Existence of additive inverse
We know that the sum of the opposite numbers is 0. That is
(+1) + C D = 0, (+5) + (5) = 0.
Hence, of a pair of opposite numbers, each is the additive universe of the other,
such as: +3 is the additive inverse of 3 and 3 is the additive inverse of +3.
Zero (0) is the additive universe of itself.
Properties of Multiplication on Integers
i) Integers are closed under multiplication i.e. if for any two integers a and
b, ab = c, then c is also an integer.
ii) Multiplication is commutative for integers i.e., ab = ba for any integers a and
b.
iii) The integer 1 is the multiplicative identity i.e., 1a = a1 = a for any integer a.
iv) Multiplication is associative for integers i.e., (ab) c = a (bc) for any three
integers a, b & c.
v) Multiplication is distributive over addition for integers i.e., a (b+c) = ab +
ac for any three integers a, b & c.
Activity 2
Take, at least five different values for each of a, b and c and verify the above
properties of multiplication.
Properties of Division on Integers
i) Consider (6) (2) = 3. 3 is an integer.
(2) (6) =
3
1
, and
3
1
is not an integer.
Therefore, Integers are not closed under division.
ii) Let us consider the integers +7 and +9. We see that 7 9 is not defined in
integers. Hence, division is not commutative for integers.
iii) We have seen that (+5) 1 = +5, (7) 1 7, 0 1 = 0
Thus any integer divided by 1 gives the same integer. Hence, 1 is the
identity of division in integers.
1.3.7 Rational Numbers
Let us recall the numbers we have already been familiar with operations. Examples are
Natural Numbers,
Whole Numbers,
Fraction Numbers,
Decimal Fractions, and
Integers.
Necessity begets invention of new sets of numbers. After invention of integers, it was
seen that it could not fulfill all the needs. So it was further extended to include all the
numbers which can be expressed in the form of p/q where p, and q are integers and q =
0. These numbers are known as the rational numbers. Set of rational numbers is denoted
as Q.
Note: All the integers can be written in the form of p/q.
For example: 3 can be written as 3/1.
2 can be written as 2/1.
We can observe that all the five categories of numbers discussed earlier are instances of
rational numbers.
1.3.8 Rational Numbers: Their Properties and Operations
We have already seen basic operations on integers which are part and parcel of rational
numbers. Hence, we try to discuss the operations on non-integral section of Rational
Numbers.
Ordering of Rational Numbers
Consider
2/3, 3/4 and 2/5. We have already discussed with fractions as to how to
change them into like fractions and place in order.
Properties
i) Closure
Since we have seen all the operations with integers, integers are not
closed under division.
Let us take any two rational numbers and divide one by the other.
Consider 2/3 1/5 = 10/3. It is a rational number.
7 5/3 = 7
5
3
=
5
21

Then answer is a rational number.
9 & 0 are rational numbers.
9 0 is not defined in rational numbers.
Therefore, rational numbers are not closed under division.
However, if we exclude zero then the collection of all other rational
numbers is closed under division.
Let us sum up the closure property under all the operation for all the
set of numbers studied.
Closed Under Numbers
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
Rational numbers Yes Yes Yes No
Integers Yes Yes Yes No
Whole numbers Yes No Yes No
Natural numbers Yes No Yes No
ii) Existence of additive identity
Consider the examples below:
3 + 0 = 0 + 3 = 3
7 + 0 = 0 + (7) = 7
3/8 + 0 = 0 + (3/8) = 3/8
Therefore, 0 is the additive identity in the rational numbers also.
iii) Existence of multiplicative identity
The role of 1 in Rational Numbers.
We have,
6 1 = 6 = 1 x 6
Similarly, 3/8 1 = 3/8 = 1 (3/8).
Therefore, we can say that
1 is the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.
iv) Commutative property of operations
Try to complete the table:
Commutative for
Numbers
Rational numbers Yes No
Integers No
Whole numbers
Natural numbers
v) Associative property
Complete the following table:
Associative for
Numbers
Rational numbers Yes No Yes No
Integers No
Whole numbers
Natural numbers
vi) Existence of additive inverse
We have seen with integers that
1 + (1) = (1) + 1 = 0
Similarly, we can see that 2/5 + (2/5) = 0
Hence, between
5
2
and
5
2
each is the additive inverse of the other.
vii) Existence of multiplicative inverse

2
1
2 = 1
Similarly
7
3

3
7
= 1.
Thus, between
7
3
and
3
7
each is the multiplicative inverse of the other.
We also say each of them to be the reciprocal of the other.
Thus, 5/9 is the reciprocal of 9/5
or 5/9 is the multiplicative inverse of 9/5.

Zero has no multiplicative inverse in rational numbers, because 1/0 is not
defined in rational numbers.
viii) Distributive property over addition in rational numbers
To explain this, consider 3/5, 2/3 and 5/7
Check Your Progress
unit.
E20. What is the multiplicative inverse of 1? Answer is 1. Why?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E21. What is the multiplicative inverse of 0?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3/5 [2/3 + (5/7)] = 3/5 {(14/21) + (15)/21}
= 3/5 {(1)/21}
=
5
3

21
1

= 1/35.
Now, let us consider
[(3/5) (2/3)] + [(3/5) (5/7)]
= (2/5) + (3/7) =
35
15 14 +
= 1/35.
Thus, (3/5) [2/3 + (5/7)] = (3/5) (2/3) + (3/5) (5/7).
Hence, we can say that rational numbers have the property of distributivity of
multiplication over addition.
ix) Existence of rational numbers between two given rational numbers
Between any two integers we have a definite number of integers.
Eg.: i) Between 1 & 5, we have 3 numbers. They are 2, 3 & 4.
ii) Between 5 and 4, how many integers are there? 8. They are
4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
iii) How many integers are there between 1 and + 1
Only one. It is 0.
Now, let us see how many rational numbers are there between 3/10 and
7/10. Let us try to list them out.

10
4
,
10
5
and
10
6
.
Is that all? Let us see.
We can also write

10
3
=
100
3
and
10
7
=
100
7

Now the numbers
31/100, 32/100, 68/100, 69/100, lie between 3/10 and 7/10.
Now we have 39 more numbers in between 3/10 and 7/10.
There is no end of the process.
3/10 can also be expressed as 3000/10000,
and 7/10 as 7000/10000.
Now we see that the rational numbers that occur between 3/10 and 7/10
are 3001/10000, 3002/10000, 6998/10000, 6999/10000.
These are 3999 were numbers. In this way we can go on finding more
and more rational numbers between 3/10 and 7/10.
Therefore, the number of rational numbers between two given rational numbers
is not limited. i.e. we can find countless rational numbers between any two
rational numbers.

1.3.9 Decimal Equivalences of Rational Numbers
Let us to convert the following fractions into equivalent fractions as indicated.
Convert
2
1
,
3
1
and
5
1
to equivalent fractions with denominator 10.

2
1
=
5 2
5 1
=
10
5

Can we convert
3
1
to an equivalent fraction with denominator 10?
No, as 10 is not a multiple of 3.

3
1
=
2 5
2 1
=
10
2

Thus we see that:

2
1
= 0.5 and
5
1
= 0.2
But we can divide 1 by 3 and (as we have seen in case of fractions) find a not ending
result like:
1 3 = 0.333 briefly written as 0.3
So
3
1
gives us a non-terminating decimal number which is also a recurring decimal
number.
Similarly,

4
1
=
25 4
25 1
=
100
25
= 0.25 (The results are terminating decimals).

25
1
=
4 25
4 1
=
100
4
= 0.04
But
14
1
= 0.0714285714285
= 0.0714285 (Recurring decimal number).
Summing up we find that:
i) Rational numbers give terminating decimals and others give non-terminating and
recurring decimals.
ii) 0 = 0.00, 1 = 1.0, 7 = 7.0 (terminating decimals).
iii) The rational numbers of which the denominators do not have a factor other than 2 or
5 gives terminating decimals. That is the rational numbers whose denominators are
2, 2
2
, 2
3
, 5, 5
2
, 5
3
25, 2
n
5
n
(nN) give terminating decimals.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E22. In which sets of numbers additive identity does not exist?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E23. In which of the sets of numbers additive inverse does not occur?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E24. In which of the sets of numbers, multiplicative inverse does not occur?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E25. Which of the following rational number do not give terminating
decimals?

8
1
,
15
1
,
32
3
,
35
11
,
40
17
,
48
23

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E26. Determine the decimal equivalence of (i)
32
5
(ii)
12
7
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

1.4 UNIT SUMMARY
Various sets of numbers are:
Natural Numbers (N): 1, 2, 3, 4,
Whole Number (W): 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
Integers (I or Z) : 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3,
Rational Numbers (Q): Numbers of the form
q
p
where p, q Z and q # 0.
Properties of Operations:
N, W, Z and Q are closed under addition.
N, W, Z and Q are closed under multiplication.
Addition is commutative in N, W, Z and Q.
Multiplication is commutative in N, W, Z and Q.
Addition is associative in N, W, Z and Q.
Multiplication is associative in N, W, Z and Q.
Multiplication distributes over addition in N, W, Z and Q.
Additive identity exists in W, Z and Q Zero (0) is the additive identity.
Multiplicative identity (1) exists in N, W, Z and Q.
Additive inverse exists in Z and Q.
Multiplicative inverse exists only in Q.

1.5 GLOSSARY
Additive Identity : The number which being added to a number a gives the
result a. Thus, 0 is the additive identity.
Additive Inverse : If the sum of two numbers is 0, each of them is known as
the additive inverse of the other (also known as opposite
number).
Multiplicative Inverse : If the product of two numbers is 1, then each of them is
known as the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of the
other.

1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
E2.
3
1
,
7
1
,
12
1

E3. (i)
18
12
(ii)
15
10

E4.
17
1
,
17
5
,
17
14

E5. 12
E6.
3
8
= 2
3
2
,
4
17
= 4
4
1
,
8
21
= 2
8
5

E7. 2
3
2
=
3
8
, 4
5
3
=
5
23

E8. (i) 2
3
2
=
5
13
(ii) 4
9
7
=
9
43

E9. (i) 4
5
3
(ii) 4
25
7

E10. 4
30
23

E11. 1
15
2

E12. (i) 2.3 (ii) 2.7 (iii) 3.09 (iv) 2.04
E13.
Operations in W Closure Commutative Associative Identity
Addition Yes Yes Yes Yes
Subtraction No No No Yes
Multiplication Yes Yes Yes Yes
Division No No No Yes
E14. 744.18
E15. (i) 37.81 (ii) 653.36
E16. 1.08
E17. 1
35
33

E18. N
E19. N, W.
E20. N, W, Z
E21. (i) 0.15625 (ii) 0.583

1.7 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Simplify (+13) + (17) + (36) + (+14)
2. Fill in the blank :
(i) 8 () = 13
(ii)
7
3
=
5
4

(iii) (17) + () = 0
(iv) Reciprocal of
17
8
is
(v) Multiplicative inverse of 3
5
2
is
(vi) (+3) {(5) + (2)} = (+3) () + (+3) x ()
(vii) Additive inverse of 0 is
(viii) Multiplicative inverse of (1) is
3. Find the decimal equivalence of
(i)
16
3

(ii)
125
12

(iii)
40
7

(iv)
9
4

(v)
12
5

4. Fill in the blanks in the table by the suitable numbers out of
7
3
,
3
2
, 0 and
5
4
.
Fraction
Rational Number
Fraction as well as rational number
Rational Number but not a fraction

1.8 REFERENCES
Textbooks for Classes VI, VII and VIII published by NCERT (2006).
UNIT 2 NUMBER LINE AND OPERATIONS
ON NUMBERS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Number Line and Representation of Numbers on it
2.3.1 Concept of Number Line
2.3.2 Representation of Whole Numbers
2.3.3 Representation of Integers
2.3.4 Representation of Integers on Number Line
2.3.5 Representation of Rational Numbers
2.4 Ordering the Numbers
2.5 Operations Rational Number
2.5.1 Addition of Whole Numbers
2.5.2 Additions of Integers
2.5.3 Subtraction of Integers
2.6 Unit Summary
2.7 Glossary
2.9 Assignments
2.10 References
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Since each and every situation that we face in our life is directly or indirectly linked
with measurements and the measuring units, numbers play an important role in our day
to day activities.
Numbers are abstract concepts for which we usually take the help of objects like sticks
or beads to develop physical representation of numbers. To a young learner, five does
not have any meaning unless the number five is associated with five objects. Thus the
objects are used as tools in building the concept of numbers. But such tools need more
space. Secondly, representation of zero is not possible with objects since zero means
absence of objects. So a better tool for physical representation object was felt necessary.
Numbers have some character, such as those are infinite in number and they are in
opposite direction (as positive and negative numbers) with zero in between. Hence,
something which has such character can provide a suitable physical representation of
the numbers.

As we know:
i) A line has infinite points in it;
ii) Any two points how-so-ever close they may be, there are other numbers
between them (as with two numbers, how-so-ever close they may be, there are other
numbers between them);
iii) A line is the union of two opposite ranges with a common end points (as
we have numbers in opposite direction with zero in between). So a line to be quite
similar to the numbers we use to the extent that there exists one to one a Line L
and the Real numbers R. Hence, people could think of fusing a line as a good
physical representation for the numbers. In lower clauses we used objects to
represent numbers. Hereafter we will use points on a line, on which points are used
to represent numbers, known as a Number line.
Convention followed in drawing a number line:
i) A horizontal line is taken to represent a number line (of course in
representing an artesian plane (RXR plane) we draw a horizontal line to represent
the X-axis and a vertical line to represent the Y-axis.
ii) The number go on increasing towards right and decrease towards left
direction.
iii) Internal between two consecutive points representing two consecutive
whole numbers is kept fixed throughout the line and what will be its measurement
that depends upon the requirement. If large numbers are to be shown on the line,
interval could be made smaller, or else, it could be more. Each interval is treated as
a unit.

Figure 2.1
The Figure 2.1 is visual representation of the number line which gives a visual
system to the numbers. Even the operation of addition and subtraction can be easily
worked out by making use of this number line.

4 3 2 1 0 3 2
1
4
2.2 OBJECTIVES
explain the concept of number line;
draw the number line and represent numbers on it;
order the numbers using number line; and
carry out addition and subtraction on integers using number line.
2.3 NUMBER LINE AND REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS ON
IT
2.3.1 Concept of Number Line
The Figure 2.2 shows a ladder that is standing on the floor.
The steps of the ladder represent the natural numbers 1, 2, 3
Each step has a successor (one next to it) except the last one and each
step has a predecessor except the first one.
The floor below the first step is the place from where we start as we
get on to the first step of the ladder. So the floor represents the
predecessor of 1. Thus the floor represents the number zero.
The intervals between the steps are equal. Thus each interval
represents a unit.
Manpreet is standing on the floor i.e. at 0. The step right above the
ground represents the number 1 and the successive ones represent the
numbers, 2, 3, 4, etc. Thus the steps in the upward direction represent
1, 2, 3 etc.

Figure 2.2

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Check Your Progress
unit.
E1. Look at the Figure 2.3 and answer. When do the numbers go on
increasing and when do the numbers go on decreasing?
The diagram below shows a line on which points have been marked at
equal distances and are made to represent whole numbers. Suppose
students named O, A, B, C, D, are standing on the points marked
by numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively.

4 3 2 1 5 6 7
8
0
9
C B A 0 H G F E D
I
Look at the number line and answer the following:
E2. Fill in the blanks:
(a) OC = ____ OA
(b) OD = ____ units
(c) Numbers are increasing towards __________ direction.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E3. Indicate whether the statement in each case True or False.
(i) OA = AB True/False
(ii) AB = EF True/False
(iii) BD = EH True/False
(iv) OC = 3 units True/False
(v) BH = 3 DF True/False
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
After similar simple exercises the children would come to know that a scale, a
measuring tape, a meter rod, or such other instruments used for measuring length are
designed on the concept of a number line as discussed here. The children will come to
the conclusion that line a) is correct number line and line b) is not a number line.
To sum up:
A number line is a line on which numbers are marked at equal intervals. To represent
the natural numbers, the point at the extreme end on the left is denoted as 1 and the
numbers are marked increasing towards the right.

Figure 2.3
2.3.2 Representation of Whole Numbers
By the invention of zero the number system was completed to some extent (as we have
already discussed this in Unit 1 of this Block).
The natural numbers and zero taken together are called Whole Numbers.

Figure 2.4
Distance OA i.e. the distance between the points representing 0 and 1. = 1 unit,
distance OB = OA + AB = distance from 0 to 2 = 2 units, and distance OC =
OA + AB + BC = OB + BC = distance from 0 to 3 = 3 units, and so on.
2.3.3 Representation of Integers
Let us consider the case of a straight road that connects a district headquarters (named
A in the Figure 2.5) to two towns of the district (named B and C in the Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5
4 3 2 1 5 6 7 8 9
C B A H G F E D I
4 3 2 1 5 6 7 8
0
9
C B A 0 H G F E D I
3 km 3km 2km 1km 4km 1km
0
5km
C B
A
2km 4km
Usually, distances of different places are measured from the district headquarters
marked by km-stones posted at interval of 1 km.
A being the district headquarters the stone there shows 0 indicating the starting point
for measuring the distances. The stones towards B show 1 km towards B, 2km
towards B and so on. Similarly, the stones towards C show 1km towards C, 2km
towards C, and so on.
Mathematicians always favour brevity. To make the writings brief, it was thought of
using the signs + and __ to represent the directions towards C (towards right) and B
(towards left) respectively.
Let us consider another example. There is a well
nearby a house as shown in the diagram. A ladder is
placed inside the well and its top end touches the roof
of the house. Using the ladder one can go to the top of
the building or to the bottom of the well. In either case
he has to start from the edge of the topmost rim of the
well. The step of the ladder touching the rim of the
well from where one has to climb upward or descend
downward is indicated as A. The step of the ladder
marked B is the fourth step downwards beginning
from A. Similarly, the step marked C is the third
step upward from A. Again to do away with the two
words i.e. upward and downward we can replace
them with + and __ signs respectively. Considering
the starting step i.e. A as the 0 in the number line, we can mark the steps above it as
+1, +2, +3 ... etc. in the increasing order starting from the 1
st
step above A. In other
words, when we move in upward direction the numbers go on increasing and when we
move in downward direction (i.e. into the well) the numbers go on decreasing.
i.e. 5 > 4 > 3 > 2 > 1 or 5 < 4 < 3 < 2 < 1
or 5 < 4 < 3 < 2 < 1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5
The two examples illustrate the concept of a number line.
Conventionally, a horizontal line is taken to demonstrate a number line. Points are
marked at equal intervals on it. One of these points, somewhere in the middle of the
line, is taken to represent 0. The points marked to the left of zero are taken to
represent negative integers 1, 2, 3, and the points to the right of zero represent
the positive integers, +1, +2, +3, +4, successively.

4 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 4
Figure 2.6
2.3.4 Representation of Integers on Number Line
Activity 1
Take a plane mirror and place it at 90 degree angle on zero on the line representing
whole numbers as shown in the Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7
We can easily see the numbers i.e. images of natural numbers on left side of 0 in the
mirror and the distances between pairs of consecutive image-numbers to be the
same.
Mark the images of numbers 1, 2, 3 as 1, 2, 3 (as we see in the mirror).
You will be getting the number line as shown in the Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8
We may say that1, 2, 3, are the images of the numbers 1, 2, 3, known as
positive integers and 1, 2, 3, ... as negative integers with zero occurring at the
mid point between +1 and 1.
The set of integers {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3} is denoted as I or Z.
To sum up:
In order to construct a number line, we draw a straight line with points marked at equal
intervals on it. One of these points is taken to represent zero. The points to the right of it
represent the positive integers +1, +2, +3, successively and the points to the left of
zero represent negative integers 1, 2, 3, successively.

4 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 4
4 3 2 1 3 2 1 4
Plane mirror

2.3.5 Representation of Rational Numbers
Then we go to the representation of rational numbers as the number. See the number
line below.

Figure 2.9
Exercise for Recapitulation
i) Which rational number is represented by the shaded region in each of the
Figures 2.10 and 2.11 below?
P Q
R S
2 1
A B C D E
0
+1
+2 +3 +4
Check Your Progress
unit.
E4. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The numbers go on increasing while moving in __________
direction.
(ii) The numbers go on ______________ while moving in left
direction.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E5. Write True or False.
(i) Distance of a positive integer + n from 0 is equal to
the distance of n from 0. True/False
(ii) The intervals on the number line between 3 and
4 and between +3 and +4 are of opposite sign. True/False
(iii)The distance between 0 and 3 is equal to 3
times the distance between 0 and +1. True/False
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Figure 2.10
The interval between 0 and +1 is divided into 3 equal parts and the points of
division are named as A, B and C. Similarly, the interval between +1 and +2 is
divided into 4 equal parts and the interval between 1 and 2 is divided into 5 equal
parts and named. Let us see if these points named A, B, Crepresent some
numbers.
Interval between 0 and +1 = 1 unit,
distances 0 and A = A to B = B to +1 =
3
1
unit.
Hence OA=
3
1
.
A represents +
3
1
.
OB = OA + AB =
3
1
+
3
1
=
3
2
.
B represents +
3
2
.

Figure 2.11

Figure 2.12
Thus, it can be understood that C represent 1
4
1
,
D represents 1
4
2
= 1
2
1

S represents 1
5
1

R represents 1
5
2

To represent 3
3
1
the interval between 3 and 4 is divided into 3 equal parts and the
first point of division to the left of 3 represents 3
3
1
.
What portion of the tank is filled with water?
Thus, by giving simple examples or exercises, teacher can make the learners
recapitulate the previous knowledge about rational numbers.
Activity 1
Represent 2/3 on number line as shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13
Since O represents 0 and P represents 1
1/4
2/4
3/4
4 3 2 1 0 3 2
1
4
O a b P
i.e. OP= 1 Unit.
Divide this OP (1 unit) into 3 equal parts and name the points of
division as a, b.
Now distance OA =1/3 of OP and distance ab =
3
1
of OP.
Therefore, ob=2/3 of OP or
3
2
unit.
Thus, the point named b represents the number
3
2
.
Activity 2
Represent 4/3 on a number line as shown in Figure 2.14.
Since 4/3 is an improper rational number (because denominator is smaller than
numerator) therefore, first change it into mixed number i.e. 4/3 = 1, 1/3 = 1+ 1/3

Figure 2.14
Since 4/3 = 1+ 1/3, it lies between +1 and +2.
Divide the interval between +1 and +2 into 3 equal parts and the points of division as P
and Q.
Therefore, 1+1/3 = OA+AP = OP.

4 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 4
a p q b
x
x
Check Your Progress
unit.
E6. The rational number 7/3 occurs between 2 whole numbers on a
number line. What are these whole numbers?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E7. Represent 1/3 on a number line.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Therefore, point P represents 4/3.

2.4 ORDERING THE NUMBERS
Since we have already discussed about the Number line, try to solve the following
problems.
The Figure 2.15 shows a straight road which may represent a number line.

Figure 2.15
Problem 1: Rani and Shobha started a race from 0 at the same time and moved towards
right. After one hour, Rani is at Point A and Shobha is at Point B.
i) Who has traveled longer distance?
ii) Shobha is on which side of Rani?
iii) Which of the 2 points A and B represents a larger number?
Problem 2: Ram, Shyam and Gauri started a race from 0 at the same time
towards the right direction. After two hours Ram covered 2
kms., Shyam 4 kms and Gauri covered 5 kms to that right of zero and
reached at A, B, C respectively. Compare the distances covered by them
with their positions.
i) Distance covered by Shyam > distance covered by distance
covered by

Figure 2.16
ii) C is to the right of and is to the left of B.
iii) A and B both are to the of C.
iv) As position represents the number on the Number line.
4 3 2 1 0
2 1
A
6
5
B C
Ram Shyam Gauri
0
0 Rani Shobha
A
B
Bs position represents the number on the Number line.
Cs position represents the number on the Number line.
v) The number lies between the numbers 3 and 5.
vi) The number 3 lies just between the numbers and
What have you learnt by solving these two problems?
The person who covers greater distance reaches a position to the right of the person who
covers less distance. Thus, bigger numbers are always to the right of the smaller
numbers on the number line.
So, if a and b are two numbers, such that a < b then a will be to the left of b on a
number line.
For example, 2 lies to the left of 1, as 2 < 1;
+3 lies to the right of 4 as +3 > 4.
Now the pupils will be able to compare the numbers and their positions on number line.

2.5 OPERATIONS RATIONAL NUMBER
Let us discuss three cases of addition and subtraction using number line:
Addition of Whole Numbers,
Addition of Integers, and
Subtraction of Integers
2.5.1 Addition of Whole Numbers
Example 1: Look at the situation describes below in Figure 2.17 and try to answer the
following questions:

Figure 2.17
There is a road running into the direction of East starting from a place named as O.
Starting from O, Rani travels 6 kms on Monday East, 3 kms on Tuesday towards East
and 2 kms on Wednesday in the same direction to reach her village at C.
What is the total distance of her village from O?
Which place Rani reached after travelling for first two days?
What is the position of her village on the road with respect to B?
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
A B C
West
East
You know that sum of 2 whole numbers is a whole number (closure property). So, when
we add two whole numbers, the sum also occurs on whole number line.
Example 2: Add 2 and 3.
We know that 1+1 = 2, 2+1 = 3 and so on. Thus, we see that adding 1 to a certain whole
number we get the next whole number which occurs to the right of the first number.
So we conclude that addition makes us move to the right.

Figure 2.18
Starting point is 0 move two units to the right of 0 and reach at a point B and move
three units to the right and reach at the point E.
Thus, we see
OB + BE = OE and E represents the number 5.
Hence, 2 + 3 = 5.
Thus, the total distance OE represents 5 units.

0 1 2 3 4 5
E B
2 units 3 units
Check Your Progress
unit.
E8. Add on the number line.
(i) 3+2
(ii) 5+3
(iii) 1+3
(iv) 5+0
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2.5.2 Additions of Integers
Look at the situation given in the Figure 2.19 and answer the following questions:

Figure 2.19
There is a straight road running in West-East directions. Ramu starts from 0 and travels
5 kms towards East and from the place he arrived at he travels 8 km towards West.
How much distance he covers to the right of 0 and at which number he
arrives at on the number line?
How far is he to the left of 0 after he performed his left-ward journey?
At what number on the number line he arrives at finally?
Sum of two or more integers is also an integer (closure property of addition).
Hence, sum of two integers lies on the number line. How to get it?
Example 3: 4 + 7 = 3.
How would we get it on the number line?
Consider the following additions of the integers:
(Show through diagram the additions on the number line in each case on the right side
of each one.)
i) (+5) + (+1) = +6 and
+6 is 1 unit to the right of +5 on the number line.
ii) (3) + (+1) = (2) + (1) + (+1)
= (2) + 0 = 2
2 is 1 unit to the right of 3 on the number line.
iii) (+8) + (1) = (+7) + (+1) + (1)
= (+7) + 0 = +7 and
+7 is 1 unit to the left of +8 on the number line.
4 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 4 5 5
B
East
West
iv) (5) + (1) = 6
and 6 is 1 unit to the left of 5 on the number line.
Thus to sum up:
While adding positive integers, we move to the right.
While adding negative integers, we move towards left.
Example 4: Add: (+5) + (+3).
Steps of addition
a) A number line is drawn and integers are marked on it.
b) Starting from 0 we move to +5 on the number line.

Figure 2.20
c) The number we arrive at is +8
(+5) + (+3) = +8
Example 5: Add (4) + (+7).
Steps of addition
a) Draw a number line and mark the integers on it.
b) Starting from 0 move to 4 on the Number line.
c) Then move 7 units to the right unit by unit.

Figure 2.21
d) The number we arrive at is +3.
(4) + (+7) = +3
1

0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
A O
B
Example 6: Add (+4) + (5).
We may recall that for addition of negative integers, we move to the left.
Steps of addition
a) A Number line is drawn and the integers are marked on it.
b) Starting from 0 we move to +4.
c) Then we move 5 units to the left unit by unit.

Figure 2.22
d) The number we arrive at is 1.
(+4) + (5) = 1.
Example 7: Add: (7) + (+3).
Write the steps of addition yourself.

Figure 2.23
(7) + (3) = 10
2.5.3 Subtraction of Integers
Subtraction of two integers is also an integer (subtraction in integers is closed). Hence,
the difference of two integers lies on the number line.
Example 8: +3 5 = 2
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 + 1 + 2
3 2 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8
How would we get the result on the Number line? (Show the diagram for each
example).
Consider the following subtractions:
i) (+5) (+1) = (+4) + (+1) (1)
= +4 and
+4 is 1 unit to the left of +5 on the number line.
ii) (4) (+1) = (5) + (+1) (+1)
= 5 and
5 is 1 unit to the left of 4 on the number line.
iii) (+3) (1) = (+4) + (1) (1) = (+4) and
+4 is 1 unit to the right of +3 on the number Line.
iv) (3) (1) = (2) + (1) (1) = 2 and
2 is to right of 3 by 1 unit on the number line.
Thus to sum up:
While subtracting positive integers, we move to the left.
While subtracting negative integers, we move to the right.
Example 9: Subtract +3 from +7.
Steps to subtract
a) A number line is drawn and the integers are marked on it.
b) Starting from 0 we move to +7 on the Number line.
c) Then we move 3 units to the left unit by unit.

Figure 2.24
d) The number we arrive at is +4.
(+7) (+3) = +4
3 2 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
Example 10: Subtract +3 from 4. Try to write the steps by yourself.

Figure 2.25
(4) (+3) = 7
Example 11: Subtract 3 from +5 (we may recall that for subtracting negative integers
we move to the right).
Try to write the working steps yourself.

Figure 2.26
Subtracting is the reverse process of addition. Thus subtracting a negative number is
addition of the additive inverse of the negative number to be subtracted.
Thus +5 (3) = (+5) + (additive inverse of 3)
= (+5) + (+3)
So we move to the right while subtracting negative integers.
Example 12: + 3 5 = 2
+ 3 5 = +3 (+5)
Then look at the figure below and try to state the steps of subtracting using number line.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 + 1 + 2
+ 3
3 2 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9
+ 10
3
2 1 0 1 2 3 4
5 5 4
A O B
Figure 2.27
(+3) (+5) = 2
Activity: Subtract 3 from 4.
Try to do it yourself.

2.6 UNIT SUMMARY
To sum up in brief
A ray is used as a number line to represent Natural or Whole numbers on it. The left
side extreme point of the Number line is denoted as 0 or 1 representing Whole or
Natural numbers respectively.
A straight line with a point at its middle indicating 0 is usually used as a Number
line to represent Integers, both positive (plotted to the right of 0) and negative
(plotted to the left of 0) numbers.
Units of equal length are taken to plot points to represent successive numbers. One
unit length can further be divided to represent the rational numbers between the two
successive integers.
Integers

ve integers
+ve integers
Natural numbers
3
2 1 0 1 2 3 4
4
Check Your Progress
unit.
E9. Use number line to get the results of the following:
(i) (+5) + (+4) (iii) (+8) (+3)
(ii) (+7) (2) (iv) (+3) + (7)
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Operations of addition and subtraction can be meaningfully performed on numbers
with the help of Number line.

2.7 GLOSSARY
Unit Length : The part of the number line between two consecutive
points representing two consecutive numbers is known as
the unit length.
Closure Property of
Addition and
Subtraction : When two integers are added we get an integer and where
an integer is subtracted from another, we also get an
integer.

E1. Numbers increase as Manpreet climbs up, and numbers decrease as Manpreet
climbs down.
E2. i) OC = 3OA.
ii) OD = 4 Units.
iii) Right Direction.
E3. i) OA = AB True.
ii) AB = EF True.
iii) BD = EH False.
iv) OC = 3 units True.
v) BH = 3 DF True.
E4. i) Right.
ii) Decreasing.
E5. i) True.
ii) False.
iii) True.
E6. Between 2 and 3
E7. The interval between 0 and 1 will be divided into 3 equal parts by 2 points of
division and the first point of the two will represent
3
7
i.e. 2
3
1
.

2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Represent 8 + 5 9 on a number line.
2. Represent 5/3 on a number line.
3. i) If 1/8 of a pencil is black, 1/2 of the remaining is white and remaining 3
1
/
2

cm is blue, find the total length of the pencil.
ii) The teacher will write 8 + 5 4 on the blackboard and he/she solves this by
performing the following activities.
The teacher places some marbles on the table. Then he/she asks one student
to take 5 marbles and put them in the jug. Then he/she asks a second student
to put 5 more marbles in the jug. Then he/she asks a third student to take
away 4 from the jug. Now the teacher will count remaining marbles in the
jug. In this way the concept of addition followed by subtraction will be clear
iii) The teacher will take some apples and he/she will cut these apples into
different number of equal pieces to demonstrate the concept of rational
numbers.
iv) The teacher will draw a number line on the ground and he/she will give the
pieces of cardboard marked with different numbers and he/she will tell the
students to place these number cards on the number line.

2.10 REFERENCES
Textbooks for Classes VI, VII and VIII published by NCERT (2006).
UNIT 3 DATA AND ITS GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Data and their Source
3.3.1 Collection of Data
3.3.2 Classification of Data
3.4 Graphical Representation of Data
3.4.1 Pictograph
3.4.2 Bar Graph/Bar Diagram
3.4.3 Histogram
3.4.4 Pie Chart
3.5 Measures of Central Tendency
3.5.1 Mean
3.5.2 Median
3.5.3 Mode
3.6 Unit Summary
3.7 Glossary
3.9 Assignments
3.10 References
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Collecting information or data, arranging or processing those data and drawing
inferences from them to solve the problem confronted have been components of the
domain of knowledge called Statistics (used in both singular and plural like its mother
subject Mathematics).
In the good old days, the kings were to collect data in respect of manpower of their
kingdom to assess their strength to fight against their enemies.
There are enough indications available from the Artha Shastra written by Kautilya
(Chanakya) that during 300 B.C many statistical methods were used in the field of
administration. During the reign of Akbar (1556-1605 A.D) well developed statistics
were found to be used in maintaining the records in respect of land, revenue,
agricultural products etc.
For ages statistics has been used in matters of the state, therefore, its no wonder that the
state and statistics owe their origin from the same Latin root status. Now it has been
established that it was ultimately derived from the New Latin statisticum collegium
(meaning council of state) and Italian word statista (statesman or politician).
Gottfried Achenwall first introduced in Germany in 1749 the word Stastisitik (political
arithmetic) which is more akin to the English word in current use which was first
introduced by Sir John Sinclair during the same period. With its association with the
affairs of kingdom or state, it is popularly called Science of Kings or Science of
State. Sir Ronald A. Fischer (1890-1962) was a genius who is considered to have
single handedly created the foundation of modern statistical science.
In this unit, the concept of data, methods of their presentations both in tabular and
graphical forms and basic descriptive statistics like measures of central tendency have
been discussed. Since, at the elementary schools, only simple and preliminary
treatments of data processing have been introduced, the discussions in this unit are,
therefore, tried to address the fundamentals of the data, data collection and data
processing.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
understand the importance of data and their sources;
know how to collect the data and classify those data;
prepare different types of simple graphical presentations of data; and
know the simple methods of calculating measures of central tendency.

3.3 DATA AND THEIR SOURCE
Think for a while about the number of information you need when planning for
effective management of different school activities:
The number of students (boys and girls separately in each class) attending school
every day.
The number of students (boys and girls separately) who remained absent more than
two days in a month.
The number of students who dropped out of the school during last five years (year-
wise and grade-wise).
The number of students (boys and girls, from SC, ST and minority communities)
attending unit tests and annual examinations (grade-wise and subject-wise).
Performance of students of different classes and in different school subjects.
Number of teachers actually present every working day during the last month.
The number of hours actually spent on teaching learning process every day during
last month.
Cleanliness habits of children.
Availability of safe drinking water.
Number of working days per month during the year.
Number of children in each class who are to be provided with free uniform, and
reading and writing materials.
The list may be quite long.
Often there is a need to collect various information which are required to solve the
problems we confront in our daily life. The information that we want to know are drawn
from some numerical descriptions. In each of the above mentioned problems we can
observe that numerical descriptions like number of absentees, number of drop-outs,
number of teachers, no. of hours etc. are to be collected for eliciting information from
them. Such numerical descriptions are called data. In other words, a data is a
collection of numbers gathered to give some information.

3.3.1 Collection of Data
Check Your Progress
unit.
E1. Prepare a list of data that you will require as a teacher in the primary
school for effective management of (i) Mid-day meal and (ii) Unit
tests in your school for the next month.
Identify which of the data can be used for both and which are specific
to one particular event.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
We first decide the sources for collection of data.
The data may be collected directly from the source, it may be collected from some
documents which have already been prepared for some other purpose like census report
and other reports of the kind, from various news items published in newspapers etc.
Before the data is collected, the purpose for which it is being collected should be known
to the person who collects it. Some examples of the purposes may be as follows:
Example 1: To know the achievement levels of the students of a school at the end of
Class-V in Mathematics.
With this purpose, we can prepare a test in Mathematics for Class-V students after they
complete that class. The scores of the test will serve as the data for our purpose. These
data are collected directly from the source; in this case the students of Class V of the
school. This is an instance of raw data collected from the primary source.
Example2: To know the age-group of patients who are affected by heart disease in an
industrial area.
One way of collecting data in this case is to examine the conditions of heart of all
persons living in the particular industrial area from which we can calculate the number
of heart patients in different age groups. Here, the data are collected directly from the
primary source.
Another source of information about the incidence of heart disease is the records
available in the local hospitals. This is not a direct source as given in Example 1. We
have to go through the records of all patients attended by the doctors in the hospital
from which we have to identify the patients with complications of heart among other
conditions of their health.
From the above two examples you can make out that there may be various sources of
data. Depending on the type of source, the data are classified into two types: Primary
and Secondary data.
Primary Data are collected from the source directly to meet the purpose for which they
are being collected.
Secondary Data are those which are gathered from other documents containing the
information collected for some other purpose. Census report is one such document from
which various data can be obtained and such data are called secondary data.
The data collected from the field are not well organized. For instance, when we collect
the performance of the students of a class in Mathematic, we do not collect the marks
following any particular order and collect the marks secured by each individual student
from the teacher concerned or from the mark register. The marks so collected may be
like, 83, 47, 69, 95, 14 and so on. Thus, it is not organized and a disorganized data does
not help us in drawing up any inference as to the level of achievement of the class in the
said subject. Thus it is known as raw data.
Data collected on certain aspect from a group like the age of children passing from a
school, marks secured by all 40 students of class six, the height of 25 athletes taking
part in a high jump competition is called distribution. The numbers indicating the age,
the marks, and the height and the like are usually called scores of the distribution.
Let us see how we can organize the raw data after it is collected.
3.3.2 Classification of Data
If the data includes a few scores, we simply arrange them in magnitude order
(increasing or decreasing order). Then it is known as arrayed data. There is an
example below:
Example 3
Raw data: (marks secured by 15 students in a test with maximum mark of 20)
12, 11, 17, 9, 10, 15, 19, 12, 16, 8, 11, 15, 18, 14, 12.
Arrayed Data: 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 14, 15, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19.
In this arrangement, the marks have been placed in a sequence of increasing order
equal marks are kept successively. It can also be arranged in a descending order.
From this we see that the eight scores i.e. 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 18, and 19 have been
obtained by eight students, one particular score by one specific student. On the other
hand the score 11 has been obtained by 2 students, 12 by three students and 15 by two
students. Some times quite a large number of data are collected when arranging those
in arrayed form may not help us to draw inferences. Therefore, the scores are grouped
in different ways so that a precise picture of the distribution of scores becomes clear and
further calculations with the scores becomes easier.
As for example, the scores given above can be arranged in a very simple way as the
following:
Score No. of Students
on the test obtaining the score
( X ) (f )
8 - 1
9 - 1
10 - 1
11 - 2
12 - 3
14 - 1
15 - 2
16 - 1
17 - 1
18 - 1
19 - 1
Total (N) 15

If the data includes a large number of scores, say (i) the age of the children studying in a
primary school or (ii) the age of the patients came to a hospital for treatment during a
week. In such a case preparing a data array, our purpose of making certain inferences
will not be easily satisfied. Hence, we classify the data into groups and prepare a
frequency distribution. For this work, we first observe the data collected and
determine its range.

In the data relating to the age of the children, if the highest age is 12 and the lowest age
is 5, then the range will be 12 5 = 7.
In case of the data having low range, the classification is done score-wise, as we have
shown above i.e. the number of students obtaining a particular score. Here we do not
group the scores. Only we determine how many times (or, how frequently) the score
occurs in the distribution. This sort of arranging scores in the distribution is known as
ungrouped frequency distribution. When the number of scores are less or are within a
short range, say within 10 to 15, then ungrouped frequency distribution is a convenient
way to organize the data.
But, when the distribution has large number of scores spread across a wide range, then
ungrouped frequency distribution will be of little help in systematically arranging the
data. For example, 50 students in a class have secured marks in Mathematics which
range from 0 to 100. Writing the marks in a descending order from 0 to 100 (101 nos.)
and then marking the frequency against each mark (frequency of each score occurring
in the distribution) would be quite lengthy and tedious.
In such distributions, instead of taking single scores and writing the frequency of each
score, the entire distribution is divided into a number of groups of scores each having
equal number of scores, like (0, 1, 2, 3, 4), (5, 6, 7, 8, 9), (10, 11, 12, 13, 14), (15, 16,
17, 18, 19), and so on.
Range: Difference between highest score and the lowest score.
In this example, the number of scores in each group (otherwise called a score class) is
5. These groups are usually written briefly as 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, and so on up to
100-104. Each such group or class denoted in brief is called a class interval. In this
example, we can observe that all the scores within any group are contained in the class
interval.
The total distribution is then divided into the class intervals and these class intervals are
written either in ascending or descending order. The frequency of scores within a class
interval taken together is marked against the class interval which is called the frequency
of that class interval. This sort of arrangement of scores in a distribution is called
grouped frequency distribution.
Before going to discuss the process of arranging the data in a frequency distribution, let
us learn more about the class intervals.

Class Intervals
In the above example, the class intervals are 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, , 99-104. Within
each of these class intervals there are five scores. The number of scores within a class
interval determines its size or length or sometimes called width of the concerned class
interval. In this case, the length of each class interval is 5. Depending on the choice and
situation, the length of the class intervals may be different and usually varies from 3 to
10.
Consider the end scores of the class interval 5-9. In this interval, 5 is the lowest and 9 is
the highest score. These two scores are the limits of the class interval; 5 is called the
lower limit and 9 is the upper limit. From these two limits the length of the class
interval can also be calculated. In this case we can easily see that
5 (the length of the C.I.) = 9 (the upper limit) 5 (the lower limit) +1
Observe that if we do not add 1 to the difference of the two limits one score may be
omitted from the C.I.
Hence, in the class interval which includes all the scores including both of its limits
(inclusive condition), its length is given by:
The length of the C.I. = The Upper Limit The Lower Limit + 1
In this example, the class intervals are also denoted in another way like, 0-5, 5-10,
10-15, 100-105. We see that each of the scores like 5, 10, 15, 100 are included
in two consecutive class intervals and effectively the length of each class interval is 6
which is not the case. To obviate such confusion, conventionally, the score indicating
the upper limit is excluded from the class interval. That means in the class intervals 0-5,
5-10, 5 is not a member of the group of scores within 0-5. In such exclusive conditions,
the length of the class interval is the difference of the two limits of the C.I.
Preparation of Frequency Distribution for a Raw Data
Data with low range (say 12 5 = 7), we write the scores from 5 to 12 in a column with
a column-head scores. Then for each score taken from the raw data serially we go on
putting a tally mark against the score concerned when a need arises to draw the 5
th
tally
mark, we put is across the first four which are drawn parallel (##). It helps us in
counting the number of scores easily.
We should advise the children not to go on searching for all fives (5) that are there in
the raw data and go on drawing the tally mark. We would rather demonstrate how we
look at one score from the raw data and put the tally mark and look at the next score and
the tally mark and so on.
After classification we come to know that the number of occurrences of each individual
score in case of an ungrouped classification and in case of a grouped classification, the
number of occurrence of the scores contained in a class.
Number of occurrence of a particular score or a group of score is known as the
frequency of the score (or the group of scores).
Examples of classified data are shown below:
a) Ungrouped classification
Example 4: The marks secured by 50 students of a class in a test of Mathematics
where maximum mark was 10 are listed below:
5, 6, 3, 7, 4, 6, 1, 6, 5, 9, 2, 7, 7, 6, 4, 5, 5, 3, 0, 5, 3, 7, 5, 6, 1,
5, 6, 6, 3, 5, 5, 2, 9, 3, 6, 5, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 6, 7, 4, 5, 10, 7, 4, 7, 4.
The classification is shown below.
Table 3.1: Ungrouped frequency distribution
Scores (Marks
secured)
Tally Marks Frequency
0 / 1
1 // 2
2 // 2
3 //// / 6
4 //// /// 8
5 //// //// // 12
6 //// //// 9
7 //// // 7
8 0
9 // 2
10 / 1
b) Grouped classification
Example 5: The water-bill (in rupees) of 40 families in a certain locality are given
below. This is to be put into grouped classification (think why?).
The amount of the bills (in Rupees) are:
80, 48, 55, 52, 78, 42, 93, 85, 73, 37, 94, 66, 72, 73, 66, 91, 52, 78, 85, 92,
68, 81, 64, 60, 75, 84, 78, 98, 63, 71, 54, 70, 59, 75, 99, 93, 35, 89, 95, 73
In this case, Range = highest amount lowest amount
= 99 35 = 64
The extent of the range helps us to decide about the number and length of the
class intervals.
Commonly used groupings of scores (the length of the C.I.) are 3, 5, and 10 as
these are somewhat easier to work with in later calculations. Dividing the range by
the size of the groupings (the length of the C.I.), we get approximation of the
number of groupings to be made for the distribution.
In this example,
if we take the length to be 3, then the number of C.I.s would be 22,
if we take the length to be 5, then the number of C.I.s would be 13, and
if we take the length to be 10, then the number of C.I.s would be 7.
When there are 22 C.I.s the data would be spread too much, thus the benefit of
grouping would be lost. Similarly, 7 class intervals would cause crowding of scores
in some class intervals. Therefore, 13 class intervals, each of length 5 would be
more convenient.
Table 3.2: Grouped frequency distribution
Class intervals of bill
amounts (C.I.s)
Tally
marks
Frequency
(f)
35-40 // 2
40-45 / 1
45-50 / 1
50-55 //// 4
55-60 / 1
60-65 /// 3
65-70 /// 3
70-75 //// / 6
75-80 //// 5
80-85 /// 3
85-90 /// 3
90-95 //// 5
95-100 /// 3

Check Your Progress
unit.
E2. The above ungrouped distribution given in Example 4, identify 3
different marks which are scored by more children as compared to the
other marks.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E3. The above ungrouped distribution given in Example 4, identify 3
different marks which are scored by more children as compared to the
other marks.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E4. If there was a bill of Rs. 32.00, could it be accommodated in the
grouped classification given in Example 5? If not what other class
would be necessary?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E5. If there was a bill amounting to Rs. 52.70, in which class would this
bill be place?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Activity 1
Take a group of 50 students from Classes VI, VII and VIII indiscriminately. Ask them
to measure their heights and then prepare a list of heights.
Now prepare a suitable frequency distribution.

3.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
Very often in books, in magazines, in newspapers data are presented by pictures or
diagrams or graphs so that the data are easy to understand and look beautiful and
impressive. The data are presented in colourful pictures and colourful graphs so that at a
glance the observer may get clear idea about the data.
There are different methods to represent data by pictures or by graphs.
3.4.1 Pictograph
There are 35 students in a class and the absentees of one week are given in Figure 3.1.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday -
Friday
Saturday
represents 1 student
Figure 3.1: No. of absentees in a week
What was the total no. of absentees in the week?
On which day maximum students are absent?
On which day all students were present?
The answers of these questions can be given easily by looking at this diagram.
This diagram is a pictograph.
A pictograph represents data through pictures of objects.
Pictographs are often used in magazines, newspapers etc.
Drawing of pictograph is interesting. For large data, multiple units as one picture is
used.
Example 6: In a school library, there are 300 books of math, 350 books of English, 375
books of Hindi, 200 books of Sanskrit. Draw a pictograph to represent the
books in the library.
Here data are large, so it is not convenient to draw one picture for one book or one data.
Therefore, we take for 50 books. The pictograph is shown as :
Subjects No. of books (50 books)
Maths
English
Hindi
Sanskrit
Figure 3.2: No. of books in the library
3.4.2 Bar Graph / Bar Diagram
Many times it is difficult to draw pictograph because it is not easy to draw all types of
pictures. It is also time consuming. Let us see some other way of representing data
visually. Bars of uniform width can be drawn horizontally or vertically with equal
spacing between then and the length of each bar represents the frequency of the given
data. This method of representing data by drawing bars is called bar graph or bar
diagram. For large data, choose suitable scale of length.
Bar diagram for table I can be shown as:
0
1
2
3
M
o
n
d
a
y
T
u
e
s
d
a
y
W
e
d
n
e
s
d
a
y
T
h
u
r
s
d
a
y
F
r
i
d
a
y
S
a
t
u
r
d
a
y
Days
N
o
.

o
f

A
b
s
e
n
t
e
e
s
Figure
3.3: No. of absentees in a week
Observe the bar graph which shows the marks obtained by Mohan in a half yearly
examination in different subjects. 1unit =10 marks.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hindi
English
Mathematics
Science
Social Science

Figure 3.4: Marks in different subjects
In which subject has Mohan got maximum marks?
In which subject has Mohan got minimum marks?
Prepare a chart of marks which Mohan has scored.
Sometimes the information are given relating to comparative data. So to compare the
data graphically, we draw double or multiple bar diagrams.
Consider the example of the performance of Sohan in two quarterly examinations is
given in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Marks in different subjects in two semesters
Exam
Subject
Hindi English Mathematics Science
1
st
Term
(MM=100)
75 70 75 80
2
nd
Term
(MM=100)
80 80 85 87
The bar graph for this table consists of two bars for each subject. So it is called double
bar graph. To differentiate the two exams we use different colours or different shades
for the two bars under each subject.
Marks in Two Semisters
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Hindi English Math. Science
M
a
r
k
s

O
b
t
a
i
n
e
d

Figure 3.5: Marks in two semesters
Subjects
M
a
r
k
s

o
b
t
a
i
n
e
d

3.4.3 Histogram
The frequency distribution of marks in a Language test (Full Marks 50) of 50 class III
students is given in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Marks of the class-III language test
Marks in language
(Out of 50)
No. of students (Frequency)
0-10 7
10-20 11
20-30 16
30-40 9
40-50 7
Total 50
In Table 3.1, we find the number of students corresponding to different days of a week
are given. It is a day-wise distribution. Whereas in Table 3.2, the number of student
corresponding to classes of marks are given. Marks have numerical continuity like the
lower limit of the second class begins. Thus, there is no justification of having a gap
between two successive bars. So the bars are drawn consecutively. Such a graph is
known as Histogram. The Histogram for Table 3.4 is shown below.

0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
No. of
Students
Marks
0
2
10
8
6
4
18
16
14
12
Language Achievement
Figure 3.6: Histogram of scores of the class-III language test
3.4.4 Pie-Chart (or Circular Diagram)
On a certain day the students of an upper primary school come to school by different
vehicles shown in the table below:
Table 3.5: No. of students coming by different vehicles
Kinds of Conveyance No. of Students
School Bus 320
Car 80
Cycles 160
Scooter / Motor Cycle 120
Others 40
Total 720
We are interested to draw a pie chart to represent the above data.
In a pie chart, a circle represents the whole data. Each division of it shown by a sector.
The sector angle is calculated by representing the total of the data as 360
0
.
Thus =
0
360
total
f
.
We find central angle for each sector. Total of the data here is 720. 720 will be
represented by 360
0
and the number of degrees in proportion to each section will be
calculated (as shown in the Table 3.6 below).

Table 3.6
We construct a table showing this relationship as:
Vehicle Number of students Fraction Central angle
School Bus 320 320/720 = 4/9 4/9 3600 = 160
0

Car 80 80/720 = 1/9 1/9360
0
= 40
0

Cycles 160 160/720 = 2/9 2/9360
0
= 80
0

Scooter/
Motor Cycle
120 120/720 = 1/6 1/6360
0
= 60
0

Other 40 40/720 = 1/18 1/18360
0
= 20
0

Draw a circle of suitable radius and divide the central angle in parts according to the
table above and you will get a graph as shown below. This is an example of a Pie Chart
or Circular diagram.

Figure 3.7: Pie chart showing students coming by different vehicles
We may use different colours for different sectors or the sectors could be differently
shaded so that each sector can be distinguished from the other and the pie chart also
looks attractive.

3.5 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Often in our daily life we make statements (or we have statements) of the following
kinds:
a) Average monthly attendance of a student is 95 percent.
Kinds of Conveyance
320
80
160
120
40
School Bus
Car
Cycles
Motor Cycles
Others
b) Average temperature in a week is 35 degree Celsius.
c) Average height of the students of Class VIII is 130 cm.
d) Average daily income of a labourer is Rs. 95.00.
What do such a statements mean? Let us consider the first statement.
Supposing in the month of January in which there were 20 working days in a certain
school and a student remained present in the school for 18 days, then his percentage of
attendance for that month is:
90 100
20
18
= per cent.
Thus the percentage of attendance for each of the 10 months is determined (taking into
consideration summer holidays for 2 months). Thus there will be 10 different
percentages obtained for 10 months.

We feel it necessary to determine a single percentage to represent all the 10 percentages.
Such a number is known as a representative score or Central Tendency for all the 10
percentages. The literal meaning of the term central tendency is the score where all the
scores tend to centralize.
The goal in measuring central tendency to describe the scores of a group of individuals
with a single measurement. Ideally, the value we use to describe the group will be the
single value that is most representative of all the individuals.
Let us now understand the methods of determining these three measures.
3.5.1 Mean (Arithmetic Mean)
Arithmetic Mean of a set of scores, commonly known as average, is calculated by
adding all the scores in the distribution and dividing the sum by the number of scores.
The mean ( X) of ' n' number of scores (X) is given by
Central tendency is a statistical measure that identifies a single score as a
representative of an entire distribution. The goal of central tendency is to
find the single score that is most typical or most representative of the entire
group.
There are three measures of central tendency. They are:
Arithmetic Mean or Mean,
Median, and
Mode
X =
n
X

If there are four scores say 2, 2, 6, 10 then the mean is
X=
4
10 6 2 2 + + +
=
4
20
= 5
a) In an ungrouped frequency distribution the mean is determined as follows :
Scores (x) Frequency (f) (No. of Students) f x
5 8 40
6 12 72
7 17 119
8 9 72
9 4 36
n = = 50 x = 339
Mean = 78 . 6
50
339
f
fx
= =

b) In case of a grouped frequency distribution each class is replaced by a single
number i.e. the mid point of the C.I.
The mid point of a class interval = (L
1
+ L
2
)/2,

Where L
1
and L
2
are respectively the lower and upper limits of the class
interval.
Let us now determine the mean of the following data.
Scores Frequency (f) Mid Point (x) (L
1
+ L
2
)/2

Fx
0-10 2 5 10
10-20 5 15 75
20-30 7 25 175
30-40 11 35 385
40-50 10 45 450
50-60 9 55 495
60-70 6 65 390
n = f = 50 fx = 1980
Mean = 6 . 39
50
1980
f
fx
= =

Note: Replacing the classes by mid points, the grouped distribution changes to
ungrouped distribution where the mid points take the place of scores. Here
the assumption is that the frequency of a class interval spread over the
scores of the group has equivalent effect as the frequency concentrated on
the mid-score of the group.
c) Consider the following example:
Example 7: In a school there are two sections of Class VII, 50 students in Section A
and 40 students in Section B. In the annual examination, out of 100
marks in Mathematics, the mean of Sec. A was 65.5 and that of Sec. B
was 55. What was the mean of the total class?
The problem can be presented in the following manner:
Class VII No. of Mean Sum of
students scores
(n) (M) (nM)
Sec. A 50 65.5 3275
Sec. B 40 55.0 2200
Total Class 90 ? 5475
In order to determine the mean of the total class, we need to know the sum of all scores
of the total 90 students of the combined sections. If we know the sum of scores of
students in each section, we can just add the two sums to get the sum of scores of the
total class.
We know that, Mean = Sum of all scores No. of scores.
From this relation we can derive,
Sum of scores = No. of scores Mean of scores.
The two sums of scores of the two sections have been calculated using the above
mentioned relations. Adding the two sums we get the sum of scores of all 90 students of
the total class which is 5475.
Hence, M
comb
i.e. the combined mean for the total class is:
M
comb
=
90
5475
= 60.83.
From this example, we get the idea of calculating combined mean of a number of
groups with different sizes and means.
If n
1
, n
2
, n
3
, n
4
, n
k
are the number of members of k no. of groups having mean of M
1
,
M
2
, M
3
, M
4
, M
k
respectively, then the combined mean is calculated using the
following formula:
M
comb
=
nk ... n n n
nkMk ... M n M n M n
3 2 1
3 3 2 2
1 1
+ + + +
+ + + +

Check Your Progress
unit.
E7. If the classes in a grouped classification are 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 and so
on, what is class size and what are the mid-points of the class
intervals?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E8. If the classes in a grouped classification are 0-9, 10-19, 20-29 and so
on, what is class size and what are the mid-points of the C.I.s?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E9. a) Prepare the arrayed data 12, 17, 5, 9, 13, 10, 8, 6, 10, 7, 18, 14, 17,
7, 11, 15, 8, 16.
b) Determine the range of the above data.
c) Determine the mean of the above data.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E10. Determine the mean of the frequency distribution given below:
Class Frequency
0-10 10
10-20 14
20-30 18
30-40 20
40-50 15
50-60 10
60-70 8
70-80 5
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.6
3.5.7
3.5.8
3.5.9
3.5.10 Median
An activity for you:
Take a group of 15 students and ask them to stand in a row in ascending order of their
height.
Let the row be as follows (A, B, C represent their names and 1, 2, 3, represent
their order of positions).
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Now let us identify the student who is exactly in the middle of the row.
We find that equal number of student from both the ends of the row, H who is at the 8th
place is found to be exactly at the middle of the line.
What is the position of H in the row? Since there are 7 students to the left of him and at
the right, his position is 8
th
from either end.
E11. One test of mental ability was administered over a class divided into
three groups. Group A obtained 32 scores, the mean of which is 24,
Group B of 54 scores with mean 31 and Group C of 16 scores with
mean 35. Calculate the combined mean for the total class.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E12. Calculate the mean of the following scores:
2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18
i) Add 4 to each of the above scores, calculate the mean of those
scores and find the relationship of the enhanced scores with that of
the above scores.
ii) Multiply each score with 3, calculate the mean of the enhanced
scores, and find the relationship of the enhanced scores with that of
the above scores.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
How could we determine the mid-position or the mid-point by calculation (not by
following the tedious process of learning equal number from both the end ?
In this case of 15 students occupying positions in the ascending order of their heights,
the mid-position or the mid-point of the positions is the 8th or
2
) 1 15 ( +
th position.
In general, in a group of odd number of scores, the mid-point is given by
2
1 n +
th
position where n is the number of scores which is odd in the above case.
If they were 16 in number, which point /position will be in the middle?
Half of 16 = 8.
Leaving 8 on both the ends of the row, there will be none left.
That is, there are two mid-positions, in this case they are 8th and 9th positions. In such a
case the exact mid-position is one equidistance from the 8th and the 9th position or the
2
) 1 16 ( +
th position. In this case, that is when there are even number of positions, the
mid-point is also the
2
1 n +
th position.
Example 8: Determine the median of 12, 8, 17, 15, 13, 10, 16, 9, 10, 14, 11
I. Arrange the scores in ascending/descending order. Here, arranging in ascending
order, we get,
8, 9, 10, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
There are 11 (n is odd) scores.
Hence, the mid-position is 6
2
12
2
1 11
2
1 n
= =
+
=
+
th position.
Median = 6
th
score = 10.
Example 9: Determine the median of the scores 8, 11, 5, 13, 6, 12, 9, 7, 14, 13
Arrayed data: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 13, 14
Here, the number of scores is 10 (n is even)
The mid-position is 5 . 5
2
11
2
1 10
2
1 n
= =
+
=
+
th position, i.e. the value of the score at the
mid point of the 5th and 6th positions.
Since, the scores at the 5th and the 6th positions are respectively 9 and 11, then the
value of the score which is exactly at the middle of the 5th and the 6th positions is
(5
th
score + 6
th
score) / 2
= 10
2
20
2
11 9
= =
+
.
Hence, the median = 10.
Note: From the above two examples we can see that the median of the distribution
having odd number of scores is a score of the distribution, but that of a
distribution having even number of scores is not a score of the distribution.
Thus, we define median as follows:
Ex
am
ple
10:
Determine the median of the following distribution.
We are to first determine the cumulative frequency which is the added up frequencies
from the beginning up to the score concerned. The example below may be seen.
Score Frequency Cumulative Frequency
5 7 7
6 12 7+12=19
7 16 7+12+16 = 19+16 = 35
8 19 35+19 = 54
9 15 54 + 15 = 69
10 12 69+12=81
11 10 81+10=91
12 9 91+9=100
f = 100
Note: Last CF is always equal to f the sum of all frequencies.
Here, n = 100 and 5 . 50
2
101
2
1 100
2
1 n
= =
+
=
+
.
This means that the mid-point falls in the middle of the 50
th
and 51
st
position of the
distribution.
In this case, only one score i.e. 8 occupies all the positions from the 36
th
to the 54
th
.
Hence, the median = 8.
Median of a distribution of scores is the score that occupies the mid-position of
the distribution when the scores are arranged in order of magnitude.
3.5.3 Mode
In forming the democratic Government, how do we elect our representative to the
Assembly or to the Parliament?
If there are 3 candidates (A, B, C) in an election and the number of votes cast in favour
of them are as follows:
A 30,570
B 32,980
C 29,823
Then B is elected as the representation for the constituency.
The one who has the largest number of votes in his favour represents the whole
constituency.
This principle of determining the mode as central tendency.

How to determine the mode of a few score! See the examples below:
Example 11: Determine the mode of the following scores:
10, 17, 13, 5, 9, 11, 10, 12, 10, 14, 15, 10, 11, 9
Arrayed data: 5, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17;
The score 10 has the highest occurrence:
Mode = 10
Example 12: Determine the mode of the following frequency distribution.
Scores 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Frequency 5 9 12 18 11 10 9 5 3
Mode = Score of highest frequency = 15.

Mode is the score having highest
occurrence (or frequency)

3.6 UNIT SUMMARY
Statistics includes the following basic phases of work:
i) Collection of Data,
ii) Classification of Data, and
iii) Determination of Central Tendency.
Data could be primary or secondary. Preparation of arrayed data if the data are few in
number and preparation of Frequency Distribution if the number of score is large.
Preparation of ungrouped distribution if the range is low and grouped distribution if the
range is high.
Drawing of (i) pictograph (ii) bar graph (iii) histogram (iv) pie charge.
Three kinds of Central Tendencies and their determination.

3.7 GLOSSARY
Score : The number representing the information relating to the
magnitude.
Frequency : The number of occurrence of each of the scores contained
in a data.
Class Limits : The numbers at the extremist of a class are the class limits
of the class.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E13. Marks obtained by 15 students in a unit test carrying 50 marks are as
follows:
41, 35, 31, 40, 32, 50, 47, 49, 50, 40, 39, 40, 45, 33, 32
(a) Find the mean, median and the mode. How do the mean, median
and mode compare?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Class Size : Class size = l
2
= l
1
in case of exclusive classification and
it is equal to l
2
l
1
+ 1 in case of inclusive classification
where, l
1
is the lower and l
2
is the upper limit of the class
interval .
Mid-point of the Class
Interval : The Mid-point of the C.I.=
2
l l
2 1
+
.
Central Tendency : A single score that represents the entire set of scores. It is
of 3 kinds, Mean, Median and Mode.
Mean : Mean =
scores of . no
scores all of sum

Median : The score occupying the mid-position when the scores are
arranged in order of magnitude.
Mode : The score of highest occurrence.
E2. 4, 5, and 6
E3. Cannot be accommodated. The class required is 30-35.
E4. 50-55
E5. 70-75
E8. (b) 13 (c) 11.28
E9. 35.3
E10. 29.43
E11. 10, (i) 14, (ii) 30
E12. (a) 40.27 (b) 40 (c) 40
(d) Mean, Median and mode are almost equal.

3.9 ASSIGNMENT
1. Prepare (a) Pictograph (b) Bar diagram (c) pie chart for the following
In a school sports number of students taking part in different events are given
below:
Long
Jump
High Jump 200m race Hurdles race
Name of
Events
No. of
Participants
24 20 28 18
2. Draw a multiple bar graph for the following data.
No. of students in different classes of a school are as follows:
Classes I II III IV V
Boys 18 15 17 16 15
Girls 20 15 15 12 10
3. Determine (a) mean (b) median (c) mode of the data given below.
The number of workers who worked in the field of a farmer for 16 days were
as follows:
18, 24, 12, 10, 20, 14, 15, 21, 15, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 16
4. Determine (a) Mean (b) Median (c) Mode for the data given below:
Scores 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Frequencies 3 5 8 14 10 7 3

3.10 REFERENCES
Textbooks for Classes VI, VII, VIII.

Block 2
MATHEMATICS IN DAILY LIFE
UNIT 4
Percentage and Its Applications 99
UNIT 5
Simple and Compound Interest 121
UNIT 6
Ratio and Proportion 145
UNIT 7
Time and Distance 165

UNIT 4 PERCENTAGE AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Concept of Percentage
4.3.1 Conversion of Fractional and Decimal Numbers into Percentage and
Vice Versa
4.4 Application of Percentage
4.4.1 Some Basic Calculations Related to Percentage
4.4.2 Application of Percentage in Situations Related to Profit and Loss
4.5 Unit Summary
4.6 Glossary
4.8 Assignments
4.9 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the newspapers, the news relating to human activities related to economy, commerce,
industry, health, population, and examination results percentage is often calculated. Rise
or fall in prices, profit or loss in businesses, off season discounts, growth in industrial
productions and agricultural production etc. are always expressed in percentages.
Comparison of one quantity with another is easily expressed with the help of
percentage.
In this unit an attempt has been made to clarify the basics of understanding and
calculating percentages along with its application in several areas including calculating
profit and loss.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
explain the concept of percentage;
convert fraction and decimals to percentage and vice-versa;
solve daily life problems using percentage; and
explain the concept of profit and loss and solve problems relating to profit and
loss in percentage.
4.3 CONCEPT OF PERCENTAGE
Marks secured by Meera in three subjects in her term-end examination are given below.
Table 4.1
Subject Maximum
marks
Total marks
secured
Mathematics 150 105
English 75 69
Science 100 85
Meera was discussing about her performance in the subjects with her friends. In which
subject was her performance better than the other two subjects? When they compared
just the total marks obtained in the three subjects, it was clear that in Mathematics she
had obtained the highest, amongst the three. But, somehow, Meera and some of her
friends were not convinced. Because Mathematics was not her favourite subject. One
of them pointed out that such a comparison of only the total marks obtained is not
correct since the maximum marks in the three subjects were not the same.
They went to their teacher to know the answer. The teacher told them to calculate what
would have been the marks secured by her if the maximum mark of the examination
was 100 in each of the subjects. The new marks, so calculated would represent the
percentage of her marks in each subject.
The teacher explained the marks obtained by Meera in percentage.
Observe that out of the maximum 150 marks in Mathematics Meera secured 105 marks.
That means:
on a maximum of 1, Meera would get
150
105
, and
on a maximum of 100, Meera would get
150
105
100 = 70.
In other words, she had obtained 70 percent (percent means per 100 or in every 100)
marks in Mathematics. Using the symbol for percent (%) 70 percent is written as 70%.
It can be seen that Meeras marks in Mathematics in terms of percentage =
% 81 % 100
n examinatio the of Mark Maximum
Meera by secured Mark
=
Similarly, the marks in English can be converted in percentage as:

|
|
\
|
= = 92 100
75
69
100
English in Marks Total
English in obtained Mark

Hence, Meeta had secured 92% in English.
She had secured 85 out of the maximum of 100 marks in Science. That means she had
obtained 85% in Science.
Now, we can compare the performance of Meera in the three subjects:
She secured 81% in Mathematics,
92% in English, and
85% in Science
Comparatively, she performed better in English when compared to the other two
subjects.
Thus, we see that percentage of marks means the mark calculated out of a maximum
mark of 100.
From the above discussion, we may conclude that:

Let us do the following activities:
Activity 1

Percentage means how much out of 100. Thus 2% means 2 out of 100.
Percentage is the numerator of fraction with denominator 100.
Percentage is represented by the symbol %.
Expressed in percentage, the scores can be compared.

Take any rectangular size paper.
Make a grid of 10 10 as shown in the grid above.
Now colour 15 boxes with red, 17 boxes with blue and 24 boxes with green colour.
You can observe from the grid you have made that the red coloured boxes are 15 out
of the total of 100 boxes available in the grid.
That means red coloured boxes are 15% of the grid.
Observe the grid and complete the table given below and express the boxes of different
colour as a percentage of the total number of boxes in the grid (i.e. 100).
Particulars No. of boxes Represented in
fraction with
denominator 100
Percentage
Red coloured
boxes
15 15/100 15%
Green coloured
boxes

Blue coloured
boxes

Uncoloured boxes
Total

Activity 2
A farmer has 10 animals in his shed, out of which 2 are cows, 3 are goats and 5 are
sheep. Express the no. of cows, goats and sheep in percentage out of the total number of
animals.

We have to express the number of each kind of animal as a percentage of the total
number of animals.
So the fractions we get are as follows:
Cows:
10
2
Goats:
10
3
Sheep:
10
5

In order to convert these fractions to percentage, we may convert the fractions to
fraction with denominator 100 i.e., we need to convert the fraction to an equivalent
fraction with denominator 100.
Animal Number of
animals
Fraction Fraction with
denominators
100
In
percentage
Cow 2
10
2

100
20
10 10
10 2
=

20%
Goat 3
10
3

100
30
10 10
10 3
=

30%
Sheep 5
10
5

100
50
10 10
10 5
=

50%
To express the no. of cows as percentage, three students Maneesha, Gurpeet and
Saleema adopted 3 different methods as shown below. Maneeshas method is shown
in row I, Gurpeets method is shown in row II and Saleemas method is shown in
row III.

I
Out of 10 animals the number of cows is 2.
Out of 1 animal, the number of cows is
10
2
.
Out of 100 animals, the number of cows =
10
2
100 = 20.
the number of cows = 20% of the total number of animals.
II
Hence cows are
10
2
of the animals.
Out of 100 animals, the number of cows is
10
2
100 = 20
III
The number of cows as a fraction of the total number of animals is
10
2
.
Equivalent fraction of
10
2
with denominator 100 =
10 10
10 2
=
100
20
.
Note that
Manisha used unitary method to get the percentage.
Gurpeet determined the number of cows as a fraction of total number of animals and
multiplied it by 100.
But Saleema determined the number of cows as a fraction of the total number of
animals and determined the equivalent fraction of it with denominator 100. Took the
numerator of the fraction as the answer.

In our day-to-day life, we may come across different situations where we are using the
concept of percentage. Some examples are given below:
63% of the students passed the Class VIII examination.
The population of the village has increased 10% in the last 10 years.
My fathers salary has increased by 20% during this month.
The post-office gives 5% interest per annum on the saving deposits.

4.3.1 Conversion of Fraction and Decimal Numbers into Percentage and Vice
Versa
a) Conversion of a fraction to percentage
A situation is described below. Read it carefully and answer the question
relating to the situation given below it.
One day four friends were going through a forest. All of them felt hungry, so
they went to a nearby house. The house owner gave them a big cake after taking
money from them. The cake was divided among four friends. The person who
gave more money got greater part of the cake. The friends got 1/5, 1/10, 1/4, 9/20 part
of the cakes respectively.
Let us now determine:
Who got the largest part and who got the smallest part of the cake?
Try to observe the situations in which people of your locality use the concept
of percentage in their day-to-day activities. Collect those situations and make
a list.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E1. Now convert the number of goats and sheep in percentage by using all
three methods used above.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
The parts of the cake which the friends got are given in fractions like
5
1
,
10
1
,
4
1
and
20
9
.
In the four fractions, the denominators are different. So from these it is
difficult to identify the biggest and the smallest fraction. To arrange the four
fractions in increasing order, we have to convert all the fractions to fractions of
equal denominator.
As discussed in Section 4.3.1 of this unit, it is convenient to convert the
fractions to fraction with denominator 100.
Now, we will convert each fraction to denominator 100.

5
1
=
100
20
20 5
20 1
=
i.e. 20%.

10
1
=
100
10
10 10
10 1
=
i.e. 10%.

Now you can easily say who out of the four friends, got the largest and who the smallest
part of the cake?
We see above that
5
1
=
100
20
i.e. 20 %. It can now be seen that
5
1
100 = 20.
Thus, to convert a fraction into percentage we may just multiply the given fraction by
100 and we get the percentage.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E2. Convert
4
1
and
20
9
into percentage.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

10
1
= (
10
1
100) % = 10 %

4
1
= (
4
1
100) % = 25 %
Activity 3
Observe the CASE I and complete the blanks in the box of CASE II.
CASE I

CASE II

Check Your Progress
unit.
E3. Convert the following fractions to percentages (i)
5
2
, (ii)
20
11
, (iii)
25
17
.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E4. In a class of 48 students, 12 are girls. Express the number of boys in
the class as a percentage of the total number of students in the class.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Saving %

Expenditure ...%

4/5 saving

1/5 expenditure

Total income

b) Conversion of a decimal number to percentage
Let us find out the procedure to convert the decimal numbers to percentage. We
know that, decimal is another form of fractional number. When a fraction is
converted to an equivalent fraction with denominator 10 or power of 10, then it can
be expressed in the form of a decimal number. Similarly, the decimal number can
be converted to a fraction, as shown below.
0.1 =
10
1
,
0.01 =
100
1
,
0.001 =
1000
1
,
0.23 =
100
23
,
0.02 =
100
2
etc.
Let us try to convert 0.1 into percentage.
We have already seen that 0.1 =
10
1
.
We also know that to convert a fraction into percentage, the fraction is simply to be
multiplied by 100. Hence to convert
10
1
into percentage we multiply it with 100
and obtain

10
1
100 = 10.
That means
10
1
when converted into percentage is equal to 10%.
Hence, 0.1 which is equal to
10
1
, when converted to percentage becomes 10%.
But we know that 0.1 100 = 10. Therefore, to convert 0.1 to percentage we
can just multiply it with 100.
Similarly,
0.01 in percentage = (0.01 100) % = 1%.
0.23 in percentage = (0.23 100) % = 23%.

c) Conversion of percentage into fraction
As we have already discussed that 2% means 2 out of hundred.
Thus 2% =
100
2

=
50
1
(reduced to lowest form).
Similarly, 25% =
100
25
=
4
1
.
What fraction does 6
3
2
% represent?
6
3
2
% =
100
3
2
6
=
100
3
20
=
3
20
100
1
=
15
1
.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E5. Express the following decimals in percentages:
(i) 0.5 (ii) 0.04 (iii) 0.53 (iv) 1.2
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Check Your Progress
unit.
E6. Express in fraction:
(i) 6
4
1
% (ii) 12
2
1
% (iii) 33
33
1
% (iv) 66
3
2
%
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

For four different percentages given in the previous question you have got the
respective fractions. Now say whether the given percentages are convenient or the
respective fractions are convenient to be utilized in solving problems?
d) Conversion of Percentage into a Decimal Number
Again, let us try to understand the meaning of a given percentage, say 5%
5% =
100
5
= 0.05
Thus, every percentage can be written as a fraction with denominator 100 and
hence it can be easily expressed as a decimal number.

4.4 APPLICATION OF PERCENTAGE
In every sphere of our life we come across wide use of percentage. Population figures
like males and females, children, girls within an area, be it a community, a village, a
panchayat, a block, a district; school effectiveness indicators like enrolment, drop out,
size of tribal children and girl children, the examination results are a few examples
which are generally expressed in percentages for the ease of comprehension and
comparison. You can think of other area of your day-to-day activities, like school,
community, market, hospital, travel and you will find abundant use of percentage. To be
able to understand its proper use you need to be familiar with some basic calculations
related to percentage and some of the areas of its application.
4.4.1 Some Basic Calculations Related to Percentage
i) A certain percent of a given number
Check Your Progress
unit.
E7. Write the equivalent decimal numbers of:
(i) 8% (ii) 23% (iii) 85% (iv) 225%
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Example 1: What is 5% of 300?
(say, out of 300 coconut trees in a farm, 5% are not bearing
any fruit).
5% of 300 =
100
5
300 = 53 = 15.
(we expressed 5% as fraction)
Thus,
4
1
6 % of 80= 80
16
1
=5 (
4
1
6 % =
100
4
1
6
=
100
4
25
=
4
25

100
1
=
16
1
)
ii) A given number is expressed as a percentage of another
Example 2: What percentage of 25 is 16?
It otherwise asks to express 16 out of 25 in percentage i.e. what is the percentage
expressed by
25
16
?
We know,
25
16
in % = (
25
16
100) % = (164) % = 64%.
Similarly, 25 out of 80 expressed in % = (
80
25
100) % =
4
125
% = 31
4
1
%.
Example 3: In a class of 40 students, 15 are girls. What is the percentage of girls in
the class?
Girls are 15 out of 40.
15 out of 40 expressed in % = (
40
15
100) % =
2
75
% = 37
2
1
%

iii) To determine a number of which a given percentage is known
8% of which number is equal to 40?
8% means out of 100, 8 are taken.
i.e. 8 are taken out of 100.
or, 1 is taken out of
8
100

Hence, 40 are taken out of
8
100
40 = 500

500 is the required number whose 8% is 40. (You can check the answer by
calculating 8% of 500)
Alternative Method
We assume the required number as x.
According to the question:
8% of x = 40
or,
100
8
x = 40
Check Your Progress
unit.
E8. Calculate:
(i) 8% of 300 (ii) 27% of 5000
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E9. Express as a percentage:
(i) 20 out of 400 (ii) 325 out of 10000
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E10. Out of 25 patients admitted into a hospital on a particular day, 22 were
cured and discharged the next day. What percentage of patients
admitted were still under treatment?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
or, x =
5
100 40
= 500
Depending upon the background knowledge of the students, we select the
appropriate method out of the two discussed.

iv) Increase or decrease to be expressed as a percentage of the original number
The price of rice was Rs. 12.00 per kg and it increases to Rs. 16.00 per kg.
How much is the increase in price per kg?
The increase in the price of rice = Rs. 24.00 Rs 20.00 = Rs. 4.00/ kg.
The price of one kg. of fish was Rs. 60.00 and it increased to Rs. 75.00 per kg..
The increase here is Rs.75.00 Rs. 60.00 = Rs.15.00 per kg.
The increase in price per kg in which of these two materials is more?
Check Your Progress
unit.
E11. i) Calculate:
a)
2
1
12 of how much is 25?
b) %
3
1
33 of which number is 130?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
ii) The girls are 40% of the total number of students in a school. If the
boys in the school are 480 in number, then what is the total
number of students in the school?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
The increase in the price of the two materials can be rightly compared if the increase
can be expressed as a percentage of the original price of the respective materials.
In case of rice:
Increase in price as a percentage of the original price
= %
3
1
33 %
3
100
% 100
00 . 12 Rs.
00 . 4 Rs.
= = .
In case of fish:
Increase in price as a percentage of the original price
= % 25 %
4
100
% 100
00 . 60 Rs.
00 . 15 Rs.
= = .
The increase percentage in price of rice is found to be more.
But comparing the increase in prices, we find price increase in fish is much more
than that in rice (as the increase in fish is Rs. 15.00 and the increase in rice is Rs.
4.00).
Thus percentage increase is of some practical utility. Hence, whenever the
comparison between the increase and decrease in the prices of a number of
commodities is required, it is always advisable to convert these increases/ decreases
into percentages of the original price.
Increase percent means increase as a percentage of the original =
original
increase
100%
Price Increase = Final value Original Value
Increase % = 100
value Original
value Original value Final

Thus, out of the three figures i.e., original value, final value and increase %, any two
are known, then the third one can be calculated.
Similarly, in case of a decrease:
% 100
value Original
value Decrease
% Decrease =
= % 100
value Original
value Final value Original

Examples to determine the increase percent and decrease percent are given below.
Example 4: The paddy produced in a certain field was 28 quintals last year and it is
31.5 quintals this year. What is the percentage in increase in the paddy
production?
Solution: Original production was 28 quintals. Final production is 31.5
quintals.
Increase in paddy produce = 31.5 28 = 3.5 quintals
Increase percentage = % 100
weight original
in weight increase

= (
28
5 . 3
100) %
= (
28
350
) % = 12
2
1
%
Example 5: The price of an article was Rs. 250.00. If the price decreased to Rs.
225.00, what is the percentage decrease in price?
Solution: Original price = Rs. 250.00
Final price = Rs. 225.00
Decrease in price = Original price final price
= Rs. 250.00 Rs. 225.00
= Rs. 25.00
Decrease percentage = % 100
price Original
price in Decrease

= (
250
25
100) % = 10%

If we can see the heading of the newspaper we may find that some news deal with
percentage like crime has increased by 10%, fuel price increased by 20%, population
of a town increases by 5%, winning rate of a team reduced to 10%. Increase and
decrease of an amount can be easily represented with the help of percentage.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E12. The total number of students in a school was 300 last year. This year it
becomes 315. What is percentage of increase in the strength of the
school?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E13. The weight of a person was 64 kg. After a dieting course his weight
fell to 60 kg. What is the percentage of decrease in his weight?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Check Your Progress
unit.
E14. The performance of a cricket team in the years of 2007 and 2008 are
shown below. Complete the table below and find in which year their
performance was better?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

In which year, the team performed well?
How we can compare the performance of the team with the help of the table?
2007 2008
Matches played 20 25
Matches won 12 14
Winning percentage ? ?
4.4.2 Application of Percentage in Situations Related to Profit and Loss
A businessman always wants to get back more money from his business than the
amount invested so as to make a profit. Of course under unavoidable situations he gets
back less money than he invested i.e. he makes a loss.
Profit or loss in a business depends on two prices of the commodity of the business viz.
Cost Price (CP) and the Sale Price (SP).
If sale price (SP) is more than the cost price (CP), there is a profit
and the profit = SP CP.
(Profit is similar to increase as discussed before).
Percentage of profit means profit as a percentage of the CP.
Profit percent = % 100
CP
ofit Pr
,
or, Profit percent = % 100
CP
CP SP
.
The above relation can also be rewritten as:
% Pr 100
SP
100
CP
+
= .
Similarly in case of loss:
Loss percent = % 100
CP
SP CP
.
This can also be rewritten as:
% percent Loss 100
SP
100
CP
=
Example 6: One shopkeeper bought an electric heater for Rs. 600.00 and sold it for Rs.
660.00. Another shopkeeper bought an electric heater of different make for
Rs. 500.00 and sold it for Rs. 560.00. Who got a higher percentage of
profit?
Solution
In case of the first shopkeeper:
CP = Rs. 600.00 SP = Rs. 660.00
Profit = SP CP = Rs. 660.00 Rs. 600.00 = Rs. 60.00
Profit% = % 100
CP
ofit Pr
= % 100
600
60
= 10%.
In case of the second shopkeeper:
CP = Rs. 500.00 SP = Rs. 560.00
Profit = SP CP = Rs. 560.00 Rs. 500.00 = Rs. 60.00
Profit per cent = % 100
CP
ofit Pr
= % 100
500
60
= 12%.
Hence, the proportion of profit of the second shopkeeper was higher than that of the
first shopkeeper.
Note: It can be seen that the profits made by both of the shopkeepers are equal, but the
profit percentage made by them are different.
Example 7: A shopkeeper sold an article for Rs. 928.00 thus getting a profit of 16%.
What was his cost price?
Solution
If his CP were Rs. 100, his profit would have been Rs. 16.00.
Hence, SP would have been Rs. (100+16) = Rs.116.00.
Or, we can say, when SP is Rs 116.00., the CP = Rs. 100.00
If SP is 1 Re, the CP = Rs
116
100
.
When, SP is Rs. 928, the CP = Rs 928
116
100
= Rs. 800.00. (Answer)
Alternative Method
Look at the rule given above:

% ofit Pr 100
SP
100
CP
+
=
or,
16 100
928
100
CP
+
= (Profit is 16% means profit percent is 16)
or, CP = Rs. 100
116
928

= Rs. (8 100) = Rs 800.00.

Note: If some overhead expenditure is there, the CP is taken to be equal to the buying
price + overhead cost.

4.5 UNIT SUMMARY
Percentage means out of 100. Thus, 5% means 5 out of 100 =
100
5
.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E15. A shopkeeper made a loss of 12
12
1
% by selling an article for
Rs. 1400. What price did he pay for the article when he purchased it?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
A number is compared with another in the form of a percentage. If a number x is
to be compared with another number y in percentage, then x as a percentage of y =
y
x
100, e.g. marks secured by a student as percentage of the maximum mark =
% 100
imummark max
ured sec mark

A fraction or a decimal number is converted into percentage by multiplying each
of them by 100.
e.g. (i)
5
3
as a percentage =
5
3
100 = 60%.
(ii) 0.24 as a percentage = 0.24 100 = 24.
To convert a percentage into fraction or decimal, we just write the percentage
as a fraction taking the given percentage as a numerator 100 as denominator.
For example 18% as fraction =
100
18
=
50
9
,
18% as decimal =
100
18
= 0.18.
Increase or decrease in value is also expressed as a percentage (of the original
value). The calculation is done as follows :
Increase in percentage =
original
increase
100%
= % 100
value original
value original value final

Decrease in percentage =
original
decrease
100%
=
Profit or loss in a business is expressed as a percentage of the cost price. The
calculations are done using the following rules :
Profit% = % 100
CP
ofit Pr
= % 100
CP
CP SP
.
Alternative Rule:

100
CP
=
% ofit Pr 100
SP
+

Loss% = % 100
CP
Loss
= % 100
CP
SP CP
.
Alternative Rule:

100
CP
=
% Loss 100
SP
+

If there is some overhead cost to be met by the shopkeeper, then the price paid
for buying the article together with the overhead cost is treated as cost price in
calculating the profit or loss percentage.

4.6 GLOSSARY
Original Value and
Final Value : When some measure changes, such as, the price changes,
the production of an industry changes, the weight of a
person changes, the expenditure on a certain head
changes, the first one and the second one after change is
taken as final value.
Increase : If the final value > original value, then we say that there is
an increase and increase = final original.
Decrease : If final < original, we say that there is a decrease and
decrease = original final.
Profit : If SP > CP we say that there is a profit and Profit = SP
CP.
Loss : If SP < CP we say that there is a loss and loss = CP SP.

E2.
4
1
in percentage is 25%;
20
9
is percentage is 45%.
E3. (i) 40% (ii) 55% (iii) 68%
E4. 75%
E5. (i) 50% (ii) 4% (iii) 53% (iv) 120%
E6. (i)
16
1
(ii)
8
1
(iii)
3
1
(iv)
3
2

E7. (i) 0.08 (ii) 0.23 (iii) 0.85 (iv) 2.25
E8. (i) 24 (ii) 1350
E9. (i) 5% (ii) 3.25%
E10. 12%
E11. (i) (a) 200 (b) 360 (ii) 800
E12. 5%.
E13. 6
4
1
%.
E14. In 2007, the winning percentage was 60%. In 2008 the winning percentage
became 56%. Hence, it was better in 2007.
E15. Rs. 1600.00

4.8 ASSIGNMENTS
1. (i) 32 is what percentage of 80?
(ii) 200 is what percentage of 250?
(iii) 300 is what percentage of 200?
2. Calculate:
(i) 5% of 200.
(ii) 20% of Rs. 400.
(iii) 12
2
1
% of 40 Kgs.
(iv) 33
3
1
% of 600 m
3. (i) The monthly income of a man increased from Rs. 2000 to Rs.
4800. What is the percentage of increase?
(ii) The weekly production of cement of a factory decreased from 5600 bags
to 4900 bags. What is the percentage of decrease in the production?
4. (i) 20% of how much of money is Rs. 5000 ?
(ii) 12
2
1
% what weight is 35 kg?
5. Calculate the profit % / Loss% in the following cases:
6.
Articles CP SP Profit% Loss%
A Geometry Box Rs.30.00 Rs.36.00
A Shirt Rs.325.00 Rs.377.00
A Bicycle Rs.1850.00 Rs.1776.00
6. Cost of petrol per litre decreased from Rs. 50.00 to Rs. 46.00. What is the
percentage of decrease?
7. In a factory, 3 out of evens 15 are damaged.
8. Determine the selling price in each of the following cases:
CP Profit% Loss% SP
Rs. 600.00 30%
Rs. 450.00 10%
Rs. 600.00 12
2
1
%
9. (i) By selling an article for Rs. 720.00 a shopkeeper lost 10%. What was his
cost price?
(ii) By selling an article for Rs. 132.00, the shopkeeper made a profit of
10%. What was the cost price?

4.9 REFERENCES
Textbooks of Class VI, Class VII and Class VIII published by NCERT.

UNIT 5 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND
INTEREST
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Simple and Compound Interest
5.3.1 Concept of Interest
5.3.2 Simple Interest
5.3.3 Compound Interest
5.4 Unit Summary
5.5 Glossary
5.7 Assignments
5.8 References
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Beginning from the close confinement of our day-to-day life to the business in the
International markets, money has been seen as the central driving force. At every step
of an individual, a family, an institution or a government a big business house, earning,
spending, investing, taking loans and repaying those have become inseparable
processes. In order to function as an effective individual, one has to be familiar with the
matters of financial transactions.
Besides the persons concerned with business, everyone of us needs to use our income
in an optimal manner to get maximum benefits out of it at present and in future. All of
us save a portion of our earnings and deposit in a bank, invest in some business or lend
out to somebody. After a time period we earn interest on the amount saved, invested or
given as loan. On the other hand, to meet some of our needs like, building a house,
educating our children, meeting major medical expenses, our savings may not be
adequate. To meet such exigencies, we take loans from banks or from money lenders
for which we have to pay interest. Even, governments at the state or at the center take
loans from public or from several financing agencies for various developmental
projects and pay interest on the loans.
To know the nature and ways to calculate interests on the deposits or loans has become
a basic necessity for living. Therefore, the topic on interest calculation finds place in
primary school mathematics curriculum. In this unit the concepts of simple &
compound interest and their application have been discussed to enable the teachers to
deal effectively in the classroom transactions.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
explain the concept of Simple Interest (SI) and Compound Interest (CI); and
apply the principles of SI and CI in different real life situations.

5.3 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST
5.3.1 Concept of Interest
Mohan said that he was going to buy a scooter. Rani asked him whether he had the
money to buy it. Mohan replied that he was going to take a loan of Rs.20,000/- from the
Bank. I will return the money after 3 years and at the time of return, I will have to pay
back Rs. 26,000/-. Rani asked Mohan why he will pay back more money than he will
borrow.
Mohan explained that he will utilize a sum of Rs. 20000/- of the bank money for 3
years. For utilizing the money from the bank for his personal purpose, he has to pay an
extra money of Rs. 6000/- along with the money he borrows. Rani asked Mohan how
will he come to know how much is the extra money to be paid. Mohan explains the
method of calculating the interest. Money borrowed is known as the principal and
denoted as P i.e. Rs. 20000/-.
The total money to be refunded is known as the amount and denoted as A.
Total amount given back after 3 years = Rs. 26,000.
Extra amount of money paid after 3 years = Interest in 3 years
= 26,000 20,000
= Rs. 6000.
Interest paid in 1 year = Rs. 2000.
Now interest on Rs. 20,000 paid in 1 year = Rs. 2000/-
Interest on Rs. 100 paid in one year = 100
20000
2000
Rs. = Rs.10/-.
So, the interest on Rs. 100 per year is Rs. 10/-.
Otherwise we say that:
the rate of interest is 10 percent per annum or in short R = 10%.
Similarly, the amount deposited in a bank is the principal and the total amount on it is
calculated after adding the principal with the interest accrued on it.
The interest on the principal amount for more than 1 year is calculated in two
ways i.e. Simple interest and compound interest.
Mohan explained: When principal remains the same throughout the entire period of the
loan, the type of interest is known as Simple Interest. Some times at the end of every
year (or half year or quarter year) the interest is compounded (added) to the principal
and the result obtained (other wise known as the amount) becomes the principal for the
next year. Thus the principal goes on increasing from year to year. This system is
known as compound interest.
5.3.2 Simple Interest
The rate at which SI is to be calculated is decided by the individual or the organization
which lend the money. In case of Nationalized Banks, the rate of interest is decided by
the Central Government (i.e. RBI).
If r = 10%
It means, on a principal of Rs. 100.00, the interest for 1 year is Rs. 10.00.

How much money is to be borrowed (i.e. the principal, denoted as P) and the time
(denoted as t) for which the money is to be borrowed are decided by the person who
borrows the money.
Calculation of Simple Interest
The calculation of simple interest on a known principal and a known period may be
done as follows:
Example 1
Let the money borrowed i.e. the Principal (P) be Rs. 600/-
Rate of Interest per annum (R) be 8%.
Time for which loan is made (t) be 4 years.
To calculate the interest:
Interest on Rs.100.00 for 1 year = Rs. 8.00
Rate of interest is the interest to be charged on a
principal of Rs. 100/- for 1 year.
It is expressed as a percentage and denoted as r.
Interest on Rs.1.00 for 1 year = Rs.
100
8

Interest on Rs. 600.00 for 1 year = Rs.
100
8
600
Interest on Rs. 600.00 for 3 years = Rs.
100
8
600 3
= Rs.
100
8
600 3
= Rs. 48 3
= Rs.144.00
A rule for calculation of simple interest
For calculating the interest briefly, we can derive a rule as follows:
Let the rate of simple interest be r% on a principal of Rs. P for a period of t years.
i.e. Principal = Rs. P,
Time =t years, and
Rate of interest = r%.
On Rs.100, the simple interest (s.i.) for 1 year = Rs. r
On Re.1, the S.I. for 1 year = Rs.
100
r
.
On Rs. P, the S.I. for 1 year = Rs.
100
r
P
On Rs. P, the S.I. for t years = Rs.
100
Pr
t
Thus, the simple interest on the principal of Rs .P
at the rate of r% per year for t years =
100
t Pr

or, S.I. =
100
t Pr
(5.1)
Problems related to simple interest
The rule (5.1) written above has 4 components, i.e. the S.I., P, r and t.
Any 3 of them being given, the fourth one can be determined.
Thus, we can solve 4 different kinds of questions using the rule (5.1) given
above. Examples of such questions are shown in example below.
Example 2
Calculate amount marked ? in the table below:
Sl. No. P in Rs. r t S.I. in Rs.
(i) 1200 5% 4 ?
(ii) 800 10% ? 240
(iii) 1500 ? 3 360
(iv) ? 9% 4 360
Solution
Using the formula for the calculation of S.I. given in (5.1), we can solve these
problems.
i) S.I. =
100
t Pr

= Rs.
100
4 5 1200
= Rs.1220 = Rs. 240.00
Procedure of calculating the S.I. using unitary method has already been
shown earlier in this Unit.
ii) Here time t to be determined.

100
t Pr
= S.I.
or,
100
t 10 800
= 240,
or, 8 10 t = 240,
t =
10 8
240
= 3 years.
Unitary method
Without directly using the formula we can solve the problem by using the
unitary method as follows:
10 Rs. is the S.I. on 100 Rs. in 1 year,
10 Re is the S.I. on 800 Rs. in
8
1
years,
1 Re is the S.I. on 800 Rs. in
10 8
1
years,
240 Rs. is the S.I. on 800 Rs. in 240
10 8
1
= 3 years.
iii) In this case, rate percent (r%) of interest is to be determined.
On Rs. 1500 in 3 years, the S.I. is Rs 360.
On Rs. 1500 in 1 year, the S.I. is Rs.
3
360
= Rs 120.
On Rs. 100 in 1 year, the S.I. is Rs.
15
120
= Rs. 8.
Rate percent of S.I. is 8%.
We can use the formula (1) i.e. S.I. =
100
t Pr
in solving this problem.
Here, given P = Rs.1500, t = 3 years, and S.I. = Rs.360. We have to
calculate r.
We can write the formula as
100
t Pr
= S.I.,
Putting the values of P, t, and S.I. we get,

100
3 r 1500
= 360
or, 1500 r 3 = 360 100
r =
3 1500
100 360
= 8.
iv) Principal is to be calculated here:
Rate of S.I. is 9%.
Rs. 9 is the S.I. in 1 year on the Principal of Rs. 100
Rs.1 is the S.I. in 1 year on the principal of Rs.
9
100

Rs. 360 is the s.i. in 1 year on the principal of Rs. 360
9
100
= Rs. 4000.
Rs. 360 is the s.i. in 4 years on the principal of Rs.
4
4000
= Rs.1000.
P = Rs. 1000.
You can solve the problem by using the formula.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E1. If Rs.800.00 is borrow at
4
1
6 % for 3 years, what will be the simple
interest ?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Amount of the loan and its calculation
When we make loan, we have to clear up as per contract made at the time of
making the loan.
At the time of clearing up, we have to refund the money we borrowed along with
the interest calculated.
The total sum of money to be refunded (i.e. P + s.i.) is known as the amount and
is denoted as A.
Thus A = P + s.i.
E2. The s.i. for 2 years on Rs.500.00 is Rs.100.00. What is the rate percent
of interest?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E3. In what time, the s.i. on Rs. 1600.00 at 8% will be Rs. 640.00?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E4. On how much of principal, the s.i. at 12
2
1
% will be Rs.1000.00 in 4
years?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E5. In how many years, does a sum of money doubles itself at 6
4
1
% s.i.?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Hint:A certain sum of money doubles itself means the amount becomes
double the principal i.e. A = 2P.
Hence, after calculating the s.i., we add up the s.i. with the principal in order to
determine the amount A.
The rule relating to the amount A.
A = P + s.i.
= P +
100
t Pr

= P (1 +
100
rt
) (5.2)

Check Your Progress
unit.
E6. How many components are there in the formula (2.2)? What are the
components?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E7. What are the different kinds of problems that can be solved using the
formula (2.2)?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E8. What amount is to be refunded if Rs. 5000/- is borrowed at 8% s.i. for
3 years?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E9. On what sum of money borrowed at 10% s.i. for 4 years, the amount
to be refunded is Rs. 5600/-.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

5.3.3 Compound Interest
Let us assume that the principal is Rs.5000.00, rate of interest is 8% and time is 3 years.
Now we calculate the interest under the following conditions.
a) The principal remains unchanged (i.e. Rs.5000.00) for each of the years over the
entire period of 3 years.
b) The loan is required to be cleared up at the end of every year with the interest
due. If not cleared up, then the amount of the previous year will be treated as the
principal for the next year.
a. Calculation under condition (a) (simple interest)
1
st
Year
P = 5000 Rs., r = 8%, t = 1 year
I =
100
t Pr
= = 400 Rs.
2
nd
Year
P = 5000 Rs., r = 8%, t = 1 year
I =
100
t Pr
= Rs.
100
1 8 5000
= Rs.400.
3
rd
Year
P = 5000 Rs., r = 8%, t = 1 year
I =
100
t Pr
=
100
1 8 5000
= Rs.400
Total Interest due = Rs.400.00 3 = Rs.1200.00
This system of calculation of interest is known as simple interest.
It is seen that for each of the years over the entire period, the principal remains the
same as the money borrowed and as such the interest also remains the same. This
system of calculation is known as the simple interest system.
Calculation of interest under condition (b)(compound interest)
1
st
Year
P
1
= 5000 Rs., r = 8%, t = 1 year
I
1
=
100
t r P
1

= Rs.
100
1 8 5000
= Rs. 400.
Money to be refunded i.e. A
1
= P
1
+ I
1
= Rs.5000 + Rs.400 = Rs.5400.
2
nd
Year
P
2
= A
1
= Rs.5400, r = 8%, t = 1 year
I
2
=
100
t r P
2

= Rs.
100
1 8 5400
= Rs.432.
A
2
= P
2
+ I
2
= 5400 + 432 = Rs.5832.
3
rd
Year
P
3
= A
2
= 5832 Rs., r = 8%, t = 1 year
I
3
=
100
t r P
3

=
100
1 8 5832
= Rs.466.56
A
3
= P
3
+ I
3
= 5832 + 466.56 = Rs. 6298.56
It can be seen that:
i) Principal is going on increasing every year as the interest is compounded
(added) with the principal. Hence, the name compound interest.
ii) Interest is gaining on increased every year as the principal goes on increasing.
What is the total interest due?
Total interest can be determined in 2 different ways.
1
st
method
Total interest for 3 years = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3

= 400 Rs. + 432 Rs. + 466.56
= Rs.1298.56
We say compound interest (CI) = Rs.1298.56
2
nd
method
C.I. = Final amount Original principal
= A
3
P
1

= Rs. 6298.56 Rs.5000.00
= Rs.1298.56
Note
i) On certain principal, at a certain rate of interest and for a certain period more
than one year. CI > SI
ii) For the fist year, c.i. and s.i. are the same.
The method of calculation of c.i. above is the year-wise calculation method.
We can also derive a rule which can help us calculating the CI briefly.
Let us take the principal as P Rs., rate as r% c.i. and time 3 years and calculate the
make compound calculation of interest and amount in the year-wise method.
1
st
Year
P = P
1
, t = 1 year, rate = r%
I
1
=
100
t r P
=
100
1 r P
1

=
100
Pr
where I
1
is the interest at the end
of the 1st. year.
A
1
= P
1
+ I
1
= P +
100
Pr
= P (1+
100
r
)
2
nd
Year
In the second year, the total amount at the end of the first year becomes the
principal as the interest accrued at the end of the first is compounded to the
principal.
P
2
= A
1
= P (1+
100
r
), t = 1 year, rate = r%.
If I
2
is the interest at the end of the 2
nd
year, then

I
2
=
100
t r P
2

= P (1+
100
r
) r
100
1
= P (1+
100
r
)
100
r

A
2
= P
2
+I
2
= P (1+
100
r
) + P (1+
100
r
)
100
r

= P (1+
100
r
) (1+
100
r
)
= P (1+
100
r
)
2

3
rd
Year
P
3
= A
2
= P (1+
100
r
)
2
, t = 1 year, rate = r%
I
3
=
100
t r P
3

= P (1+
100
r
)
2
r
100
1
= P (1+
100
r
)
2

100
r

A
3
= P
3
+ I
3
= P (1+
100
r
)
2
+ P (1+
100
r
)
2

100
r

= P (1+
100
r
)
2
(1+
100
r
)
= P (1+
100
r
)
3

Let us now observe the results for the amounts calculated for different years.
At the end of the 1
st
year, amount A
1
= P (1+
100
r
) i.e. A
1
= P (1+
100
r
)
1

At the end of the 2
nd
year, amount A
2
= P (1+
100
r
)
2

At the end of the 3
rd
year, amount A
3
= P (1+
100
r
)
3

Similarly,
After 5 years, the amount A
5
= P (1+
100
r
)
5

In general, after t years,
The amount A
t
= P (1+
100
r
)
t
(5.3)
Note
i) For the money that we deposit in the Post Office or in the banks, under savings
bank account scheme, we get compound interest.
ii) Compounding of interest could be annual (as discussed above) or half yearly or
quarterly.
In case of half yearly compounding, the interest becomes more as compared to
annual compounding.
An example is given below here the rule stated above is used.
Example 3: Determine the compound interest on a sum of Rs.25000.00 at 6% in 3
years compounded annually using the rule.
Solution: P = Rs. 25000.00, r = 6%
Time in years (t) = 3
A
3
= P (1+
100
r
)
3

= Rs.25000 (1+
100
6
)
3

= Rs.25000 (1.06)
3

= Rs.25000 1.191016
= Rs.29775.35
Compound interest = A
3
P
1

= Rs.29775.35 Rs.25000.00
= Rs.4775.35
Note: At times, rates for different years are different. In such a case, the rule can be
taken as follows. Taking the rates as r
1
% for the 1
st
year, r
2
% for the 2
nd
year and
r
3
% for the 3
rd
year.
A
3
= P (1+
100
r
1
) (1+
100
r
2
) (1+
100
r
3
)
Example 4: Determine the compound interest on Rs.1000.00 for 1 year at 8% per
annum compounded half yearly.
Solution: Rate is denoted as r% per annum.
rate per half year =
2
r
%
No. of half years in t years = 2t
Thus the rule is as follows:
A
n
= P (1+
200
r
)
2t

Where P is the principal
r is the rate percent per annum
n is the number of years.
Here in the example:
P = Rs.1000.00
r = 8% per annum
No. of years t = 1
A = P (1+
200
r
)
2t

= Rs.1000 (1+
100
8
)
2x1

= Rs.1000 (1+
100
4
)
2

= Rs.1000 (1.04)
2

= Rs.1000 1.0816
= Rs.1081.60
C.I. = Rs.1081.60 Rs.1000.00 = Rs.81.60
Alternatively,
when compounded half yearly, rate % of interest per half year may be
denoted as r%
Then, r =
2
1
rate % per annum
No. of half years may be denoted as n
Then n = 2 no. of years
Thus the rules becomes:
A = P (1+
100
r
)
t

Here in the question given in Example 4,
P = Rs.1000.00
Rate % per
2
1
year = r =
2
1
rate % per annum =
2
1
8% = 4%
No. of half years = t = 2 no. of years = 2 1 = 2
A = P (1+
100
r
)
t

= Rs.1000 (1+
100
4
)
2
can be continued as above.
Example 5: Calculate the sum of money which amounts to Rs.1331 in 3 years at 10%
per annum compounded annually.
Solution
In this case given,
A = Rs.1331.00 r = 10% c.i. compounded annually, and t = 3 years
We have to determine P.
Substituting the values in the formula
A = P (1+
100
r
)
t
We get 1331 = P (1+
100
10
)
3

or, 1331 = P (1.1)
3

or, 1331 = P 1.331
or, P =
331 . 1
1331
=
1331
1331000
= 1000
the required sum of money = Rs.1000.00
Example 6: Amina borrowed a sum of Rs.16000.00 at 5% per annum c.i. compounded
annually for some time and at the end of the period of the loan, refunded
Rs.18522.00 to clear up the loan. Determine the time for which she made
the loan.
Solution
Here, given that,
P = Rs. 16000.00, A = Rs.18522.00
r = 5% per annum compounded annually
The time period of the loan (t) to be determined.
Substituting values of A, P, and r in the formula
A = P (1+
100
r
)
t

We get, 18522 = 16000 (1+
100
5
)
t

or,
16000
18522
= (1+
20
1
)
t

or,
8000
9261
=
t
20
21
|
\
|

or,
20 20 20
21 21 21

=
t
20
21
|
\
|

or,
3
20
21
|
\
|
=
t
20
21
|
\
|

t = 3
Example 7: At what rate percent per annum a sum of Rs.4000.00 fetches the compound
interest of Rs.410.00 in 2 years?
Solution
Here, given that,
P = Rs. 4000.00, c.i. = Rs.410.00, and n = 2
We have to determine the rate of interest (r).
First, we calculate the amount (A) as follows:
A = P + c.i.
= Rs.4000.00 + Rs.410.00
= Rs.4410.00
Substituting the values for A, P, and t in the formula
A = P (1+
100
r
)
t

We get, 4410 = 4000 (1+
100
r
)
2

4000
4410
= (1+
100
r
)
2

(1+
100
r
)
2
=
400
441

(1+
100
r
)
2
=
2
20
21
|
\
|

1+
100
r
=
20
21

100
r
=
20
21
1

100
r
=
20
1

r =
20
1
100
r = 5
the rate of interest per annum = 5%

Check Your Progress
unit.
E10. Determine the compound interest on Rs.12600.00 for 2 years at 10%
per annum compounded annually.
a) by year-wise calculation (b) using the rule (c) do you find any
difference in the result ?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E11. Determine the compound interest on Rs.8000.00 for 1
2
1
year at 10%
per annum compounded half yearly?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Some specific rules

E12. Calculate the amount due on a principal of Rs.4000.00 lent 3 years at
5%, 6% and 8% for the first year, second year and third year
respectively.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E13. Rita took Rs. 5000.00 from a bank at 8% per annum. How much
would she be paying back after 1
2
1
years if interest is compounded
annually?
Hint: Calculation is to be done for the first year and then for the next
year.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E14. What sum of money will amount to Rs.5832.00 in 2 years at 8% per
annum compounded annually?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E15. In what time will a sum of Rs.1800.00 amount to Rs.2178.00 at 10%
per annum compounded annually?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E16. At what rate % of interest a sum of Rs.1000.00 amounts to Rs.1210.00
in 2 years, interest compounded annually?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
1. Rule relating to 2 years s.i. and 2 years c.i.
We have seen that s.i. and c.i remain equal at the end of the 1st. year. But at the
end of the 2nd year, the c.i. becomes more because the s.i. of the 1st. year gets added to
the principal and the difference between c.i and s.i. is equal to the interest on the s.i. for
one year.
Or, writing specifically,
s.i. for 2 years = s.i. for 1 year + s.i. for 1 year = 2 (s.i. for 1 year)
c.i. for 2 years = s.i for 1 year + ( s.i. for 1 year + interest on s.i. for 1 year)
= 2 (s.i. for 1 year) + s.i. for 1 year
100
r

c.i. for 2 years s.i. for 2 years = s.i. for 1 year
100
r
(5.4)
Example 8: If s.i. for 2 years = Rs. 800.00 and c.i. for 2 years is Rs.840.00, then find
the rate % of interest and the Principal.
Solution
s.i. for 2 years = Rs.800.00
s.i. for 1 year = Rs.800.00 1 year
100
r

Rs. 840 Rs. 800 = Rs. 400
100
r

Rs. 40 = Rs. 400
100
r

r =
400
100 40
= 10
rate % of interest = 10%
s.i. for 1 year = 400

100
t r P
= 400

100
1 10 P
= 400
P =
10
100 400
= 4000
Principal is Rs. 4000.00
2. Rule relating to 2 successive years c.i.
If I
n
denotes the c.i. for t
th
year and I
t-1
denotes the c.i. for (t-1)
th
year
Then I
t
I
t-1
= I
t-1

100
r
(5.5)
If n = 3, then the rule becomes
I
3
I
2
= I
2

100
r

If n = 5, then the rule is I
5
I
4
= I
4

100
r

Thus, the rule can be applied relating to the c.i. for any 2 successive years.
Example 9: If on a certain sum of money the c.i. for 2
nd
year and 3
rd
year are Rs.420.00
and Rs.441.00 respectively, find the rate of interest, the 1
st
years interest
and the principal.
Solution
Here,
I
2
(2
nd
years c.i.) = Rs.420.00
I
3
(3
rd
years c.i.) = Rs.441.00
We know that
I
3
I
1
= I
2

100
r
(as per rule 5)
441 420 = 420
100
r

21 = 420
100
r

r =
420
100 21
= 5
Rate of Interest = 5%
Again
I
2
I
1
= I
1

100
r

420 I
1
= I
1

100
5

420 = I
1

100
5

420 =
20
I 21
1

I
1
=
21
20 420
= 400

100
t Pr
= 400 [I
1
=
100
t Pr
]

100
5 1 P
= 400
P =
5
100 400
= 8000
Principal = Rs. 8000.00
and Rate of Interest = 5%
A similar rule also exists relating to the compound amounts of 2 successive years.
It is: A
t
A
t-1
= A
t 1

100
r
(5.6)
Example 10: If the compound amounts for 2 years and 3 years are Rs.8820 and
Rs.9261 respectively, find the rate of interest.
Solution
From the rule 6. we get,
A
3
A
2
= A
2

100
r

Substituting values for A
2
and A
3
as given in the problem, we get,
9261 8820 = 8820
100
r

441 = 8820
100
r

r =
8820
100 44
= 5
Rate of Interest = 5%

5.4 UNIT SUMMARY
1. Simple interest system
Money borrowed/ deposited continues as the principal for each of the successive
years over the period of the loan/deposit.
As a result the interest on a principal for each of the successive years is the same.
i.e. I
1
= I
2
= I
3
and so on.
As a result : Interest for n number of years = n interest for 1 year
Thus, the rules used are s.i. =
100
t r P

Amount = P + s.i. = P (1 +
100
rt
)
2. Compound interest system
The interest for each year is compounded (added) with the principal for that year
and resulting amount becomes the principal for the next year.
That is, the amount of every year is treated as the principal for the next year.
Thus, the principal goes on increasing from year to year.
Hence, the interest also goes on increasing from year to year.
For the 1
st
year of the loan period, the s.i. and c.i. are equal but, for subsequent
years c.i. > s.i..
Calculation could be made year-wise or calculation could be made using the
following rules.
a) A
t
= P (1 +
100
r
)
t

b) CI = A
t
P
1

= P (1+
100
r
)
t
P
= P
\
|
+ 1
100
r
1
t

c) When interest is compounded half yearly :
A = P (1+
100
r
)
2t

Where r is the rate% per annum c.i.,
t is the number of years
and p is the principal
Special rules
i) c.i. for 2 years s.i. for 2 years = s.i. for 1 year
100
r

ii) I
t
I
t-1
= I
t-1

100
r

where I
t
denotes c.i. for t
th
year.
and I
t-1
denotes c.i. for (t-1)
th
year.
iii) A
t
A
t-1
= A
t-1

100
r

where A
t
denotes the compound amount for t number of years.
and A
t-1
denotes the compound amount for t-1 number of years.

5.5 GLOSSARY
Interest (I) : The extra money paid along with the money borrowed
while repaying the loan back.
Principal (P) : Money borrowed.
Amount (A) : The principal and the interest together which is
refunded while clearing up the loan.
Rate of Interest (R or r) : The interest on a principal of 100 Rs. for one year. It is
usually expressed as a percentage.
Time (t) : Period for which loan is taken.
Simple Interest (SI) : The interest calculated treating the money borrowed as
the principal for each of the successive years of the loan
period.
Compound Interest (CI) : When the interest of every year is compounded with the
principal of the same year and the resulting amount is
treated as the principal for calculated is said as
compound interest.

E1. Rs.150.00
E2. 10%
E3. 5%
E4. Rs.2000.00
E5. 16 Years
E6. 4, they are A, P, r, t.
E7. Broadly four types of problems as follows:
(i) P, r, t given to calculate A.
(ii) P, r, t given to calculate t.
(iii) P, t, a given to calculate r.
(iv) r, t, a given to calculate P.
E8. Rs.6200.00
E9. Rs. 4000.00
E10. Rs. 15146.00
E11. Rs. 1261.00
E12. Rs. 4808.16
E13. Rs. 5616.00
E14. Rs. 5000.00
E15. 2 Years
E16. 10%

5.7 ASSIGNMENTS
Q1. Akhtar borrowed some money at the rate of 10
1
/
2
% p.a at S.I. After 2
1
/
2
years
he pays Rs. 1863.75 as S.I. Find the money borrowed
Q2. An amount of money becomes 7/4 times of it self in 3 years, find the rate
of interests.
Q3. SI of a sum in 3 years at 10% per annum is Rs. 2400. What will be the
compound interest on the same sum of moneys for the same time and at same
rate of interest?
Q4. Anshu lent a sum of Rs. 12500 for 2 years on compound interest which
became Rs. 14580 after 2 years find rate p.a if interest is compounded
yearly.
Q5. John lent a sum of money at 5% s.i. p.a. for 3 years. Had he lent the same
at same rate of c.i. for the same time; he would receive Rs. 61 more. Find the sum
lent. What was the sum of interest?
Q6. What is the better way to invest Rs. 2000/- for 2 years at 5% simple
interest or at 4.8% interest compounded quarterly?
Q7. How much should you invest at 10% per annum compounded quarterly to
have Rs. 1,00,000 in 5 years?
Q8. If you invest Rs. 5000/- at an annual rate of interest of 18% compounded (i)
annually (ii) semi-annually (iii) quarterly, what amount you will get after 2 years?
Q9. To create interest in unit a small activity can be done in the class room as
following.
Q10. Rita took 5000 at the rate of 5% p.a from Mohan at simple interest. Nidhi took
Rs 5000 at same rate but at compound interest. After 2 years who will pay
more? This activity should be done in class room by the students. The teacher
will facilitate the activity. After the activity every student in the class will
understand the basic concepts of S.I & C.I and difference between them.
Q11. Arun borrows Rs.8000.00 at 10% per annum c.i. At the end of each of the first 2
years he refunded Rs.2000.00 to reduce the financial load on him. How much
has he to pay at the end of the third year to clear up the loan. How much of
compound interest he paid in all?

5.8 REFERENCES
The textbooks published by NCERT for Classes VI, VII and VIII.
UNIT 6 RATIO AND PROPORTION
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Comparison of Quantities
6.3.1 Comparison of Two Quantities Using Difference
6.3.2 Ratio of More Than Two Quantities
6.3.3 Conversion of Ratio to Decimal Number
6.3.4 Conversion of Ratio to Percentage
6.3.5 Proportion as Equality of Two Ratios
6.3.6 Comparison of Ratios
6.4 Unit Summary
6.5 Glossary
6.7 Assignments
6.8 References
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In our day-to-day life, in many occasion we compare two (or more than two) quantities.
We compare the prices of two bicycles. We say:
a) The Hero model bicycle costs 150 rupees more than the Atlas model.
b) Sameer secured 12 marks more in the second unit test than the first.
c) This years yield of paddy from the field of Rehan is double of what it
was last year.
d) The number of new admissions to S.K. Academy this year is one-third of
what it was last year.
In the statements (a) and (b) above comparisons are made by finding the difference
between two quantities. In such a process, the terms used for comparison are more and
less, greater and smaller, longer and shorter etc.
In the statements (c) and (d) above comparison between quantities are made by the way
of division. We divide the measure of one quantity by the measure of the other. Such as
in the situation contained in (c), the weight of the paddy harvested this year is divided
by the weight of the paddy harvested last year and the result must have been 2. Thus it
was said the years yield is double of the yield of the last year.
Let us look to the situation into the school this year when the enrolment has been less
than what it was last year.
Hence, while dividing a smaller number by a larger number a fraction was the result.
For example, if the last years new admissions were 45 in number and these years new
admissions were 15, then to compare this years admission with that of the last year.
We divide 15 by 45.
Thus, we get 15 45 or
3
1
45
15
=
So it can be said that the new admissions this year is one-third of the last.
We find that comparisons are made through the process of division. The terms used for
comparison in such cases are 2 times (double), 3 times (triple) etc. or half, one-
third etc.
The comparison by division is also expressed in the following manner.
a) This years paddy production is double of that of the last year is also expressed by
the symbol 2: 1.
b) This years new admissions are one-third of that of the last year is also expressed
as 1:3.
The symbols 2:1, 1:3 etc. are known as ratios.
Thus, it can be said that:

6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
compare two or more quantities using ratio;
explain the concept of ratio;
compare two ratios;
describe proportion as equality of two ratios; and
apply the concepts of ratio and proportion in life-situations.

The comparison of two quantities in the way of
division gives a ratio.
6.3 COMPARISON OF QUANTITIES
In every walk of life, whether it is education, agriculture, business, we all compare
things, objects at many instances. Even children compare their marks among
themselves. Using the concept of mathematics, often we compare two quantities of
same type. There are different methods of comparison of one quantity with another
quality of same type. Let us discuss here the different
methods of comparison of two qualities to develop the concept of ratio in the minds of
the children.
6.3.1 Comparison of Two Quantities Using Difference
A) Comparison using difference
Example 1: What do you find in the picture?

Can you measure the length and breadth of your mathematics text book?
Let us measure the length and breadth of our mathematics book.
What is the length of it?
What is the breadth of it?
Do you find any difference between the two quantities?
Out of the two measurements which one is more?
How much is the length of your Mathematics book more than its width?
How do you know?
Can you compare the length of the book with its width? In how many ways can
you compare them?
1.
2.
Length =
Breadth =
3.

Example 2: Let us count the number of boys and girls sitting in our class.
How many Girls are there?
How many Boys are there?
Do the number of boys is equal to the number of girls?
What is the difference between the number of boys and girls?
How do you get it?

In Illustration I, we compare two different quantities (length and breadth of the
book) by taking their difference?
In Illustration 2, we compare two different quantities (number of boys and
number of girls) by taking their difference?
[Two quantities of same type can be compared with one another by using the
method of difference]

B. Comparison of two quantities using division
Example 3: Let us see the illustration below. What do you find in the diagram?
We compare length of a book with its width by taking difference between the
length and width.
No. of boys =
No. of girls =
We compare number of girls with number of boys by taking
difference between number of boys and the number of girls.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E1. Give two similar situations from your day today life and compare the
two quantities by using method of difference.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Would you like to know about the measure of various aspects?
Why do you want to know?
Karuna gave the measurements of length and breadth of the field as follows:
Length of the field = 100m
Breadth of the field = 20m
Could you divide the length of the playground with that of its breadth?

Breadth
Length
=
m 20
m 100
=
1
5

What does
1
5
represent?

1
5
is the comparison of length to breadth of the playground.
1
5
can also be represented by 5:1 and this is known as ratio. Thus the length to
breadth ratio of the playground = 5:1
Activity 1
Make children to sit in groups and ask them to compare the length of the playground
with its breadth in different ways.
Let us note the varieties of answers submitted by the groups on the blackboard.
Possible answers
Length is 80 m more than the width;
Breadth is 80 m less than the width;
Length is 5 times that of width;
Width is
5
1
th of length;
5 times the width gives us the length.

Similarly in the above activity could you compare breadth of the playground with
that of its length? Yes, we can. It is as follows:

Length
Breadth
=
m 100
m 20
=
5
1
= 5: 1.
Thus, Breadth : Length = 1: 5
Or we say, the ratio of breadth to length of the playground is 1:5.
Note: In the above example, ratio of length to breadth (5/1 or 5:1) is not equal to the
ratio of breadth to length 1/5 or 1:5)
Of the 2 numbers in a ratio, the first one is known as antecedent and the second one
is known as consequent.
The symbol : represent the ratio.

First two comparisons are made on the basis of difference between
length and width.
Last three comparisons are made on the basis of division of length with
width.
Comparison of one quantity with another quantity by division is called
ratio.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E2. Give two similar situations from your real life experience each relating
to two measures and compare the two measures by the method of
division.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Group Length Diameter
1
2
3
4
5
C. Comparison of measures having different units
Example 4: Taking cylinders of different shape in a basket as shown in the figure,
describe each cylinder about its dimensions.

Make students to sit in 5 different groups.
From the basket, give one cylindrical object to each group (on the surface of each
cylinder length is given in cm and diameter is given in mm).
Ask children in each group to observe the cylindrical object carefully and find
i) ratio of length of the object to its diameter
ii) ratio of diameter of the object to its length
Note the measures given by the groups on the black board in the table given below:

Consider the calculation of ratio of the length of the cylinder and its diameter done
by one group as follows:
Length of the cylinder = 25 cm
Diameter of the cylinder = 50 mm
Ratio of Length to Diameter =
Diameter
Length
of the cylinder
=
mm 50
cm 25

=
2
1
= 1: 2
Could you say length is half of the diameter?
If no, is there something wrong?
What is wrong?
In what unit length of the cylinder is expressed?
In what unit Diameter of the Cylinder is expressed?
Do you find both units equal?
Let us express both the measures (length and diameter) in the same unit (in this
case, say, in mm)
Allow children in group to carry out the activity and note their response on the
blackboard.
They found out that:
Length of the cylinder = 25 cm.
= 2510 mm = 250 mm (1cm = 10mm)
Diameter of cylinder = 50 mm
The ratio of length and diameter of the cylinder
=
Breadth
Length
=
mm 50
mm 250

=
1
5
= 5:1
That is, the length of the cylinder is 5 times that of its diameter.
Similarly find the ratio of diameter to length of the cylinder and examine whether
the ratio of length to diameter is equal to the ratio of diameter to length.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E3. Give a situation relating to two quantities from your day-to-day
experience and compare their measures using the concept of ratio.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E4. Mr. X gave Rs. 2 to his elder son and 50 paise to his younger son.
Calculate the ratio of the amount given to younger son to the amount
given to the elder son.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E5. Observe the rectangular plot given and calculate the following:
(i) Its perimeter.
(ii) Ratio of its length to its width.
(iii) Ratio of its width to its length.
(iv) Ratio of length to its perimeter.
(v) Ratio of width to its perimeter.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

2m
50cm

6.3.2 Ratio of More than Two Quantities
Look to the picture. The heights of the students A, B and C are 129 cm, 132 cm and 135
cm respectively. Can we compare their heights?

Now can division be worked out with three numbers?
When the length (100 cm) was compared with breadth (20 cm), we wrote the ratio as 5:
1 because 100 20 = 5 or
1
5
20
100
=
Thus, we could see that the ratio of length to breadth = 100: 20 = 5:1
The ratio 100: 20 has been reduced to lowest form as 5:1, where 100 and 20 are both
divided by 20. Thus, we see that:
Both the terms of a ratio are divided by the same number
by which they are both divisible to get the ratio reduced to
lowest form.
The two or more number of ratios like 100: 20 and 5: 1 are known as equivalent ratios.
Example 5: There were 28 boys and 25 girls in Class VI of a school. Some new boys
were admitted into the same class. After the admission, the ratio of the
number of boys to the number of girls will be 6:5. How many boys were
newly admitted?
Solution
The ratios of boys to girls will be 6:5.
So, for every 5 girls, there will be 6 boys.
For every 1 girl, there will be
5
6
boy
For 25 girls, there will be 30 25
5
6
= boys
The number of new boys admitted = 30 28 = 2
Alternative Method
Let the number of boys newly admitted be x.
Then the total number of boys = 28 + x.
According to the question:
Total No. of Boys / No. of girls =
5
6

5
6
25
x 28
=
+

5 (28+x) = 625
140 + 5x = 150
5x = 150 140
5x = 10
x =
5
10
= 2
The number of boys newly admitted = 2.
Example 6: Let us consider the heights of A, B and C which are 129cm, 132cm, and
135cm respectively and try to write the ratio of those heights.
Solution
Thus, the ratio of the heights of A, B and C is 129: 132: 135.
All the 3 numbers contained in the ratio are divisible by 3. So we divide each
of the numbers contained in the ratio by 3.
129: 132: 135 = 43: 44: 45.
Thus, height of A: height of B: height of C = 43: 44: 45.
What does this mean?
The ratio of the heights of A, B and C as written above means that:
As height is 43 units.
Bs height is 44 units
Cs height is 45 units.
Where 1 unit is 3 cm.

6.3.3 Conversion of Ratio to Decimal Number
Check Your Progress
unit.
E6. The weights of 3 bags of rice are 150 kg, 125 kg and 200 kg. What is
the ratio of the weights of the 3 bags in the same order as given?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E7. The lengths of 4 logs of wood are 5m 40cm, 4m 80cm, 4m and 3m
60cm. find the ratio of the lengths of the 4 logs.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E8. Write ratio equivalent to 3: 4 of which the (a) antecedent is 18 (b) the
consequent is 32.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
A ratio, as is already seen before, is a different form of writing a fraction. Of course, it
is so when we talk of the ratio of two quantities only such as
1
5
is 5:1.
We have already discussed the process of expressing a fraction as a decimal number.
An example follows.

4
3
as a decimal number
= 75 . 0
100
75
25 4
25 3
= =

Or, by actual division

4
3
= 3 4 = 0.75
Here 3: 4 is the same as
4
3

3: 4 = 75 . 0
100
75
25 4
25 3
4
3
= =
=

6.3.4 Conversion of Ratio to Percentage
As we already know that percentage means out of hundred. e.g. 5% means 5 out of
hundred.
Thus, if the consequent (2
nd
term) in a ratio is 100, then the antecedent expresses the
equivalent percentage.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E9. Express the following ratios as decimal numbers:
(i) 7:4 (ii) 11:20 (iii) 5:8
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Hence, to express the ratio 3: 4 as a percentage, we change the consequent 4 to 100.

3:4 = (325) : (425) = 75: 100 = 75%
Otherwise, 3:4 =
4
3
100% = 325% = 75%
Example 7: In a game period, student of Class VI were in the school playground. Out
of total 50 students, 42 were engaged in different games and sports and
the rest were watching these events.
Let us calculate the ratio of no. of students engaged in different activity to the total
number of students.
The required ratio = No. of students performing the events / Total no. of students =
2 50
2 42
50
42
= =
100
84
= 84: 100.
From this ratio, could you tell what % of students were engaged in different games and
sports out of total no. of students?
Obviously, the required percentage is 60%.
Similarly could you find the percentage of student watching events out of total no. of
students?

6.3.5 Proportion as Equality of Two Ratios
Example 8: Let us see the objects in the figure?
Check Your Progress
unit.
E10. Express the following ratios into percentage:
(i) 7:4 (ii) 3:5 (iii) 5:8 (iv) 17:20
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

What are those objects?
How many pens are there?
How many pencils are there?
Could you find the ratio of number of pen to no. of pencil?
Of course the ratio is 3: 2.
What is the number of pens here?
What is the number of pencils here?
What the ratio of the number of pens to the
number of pencils?
The number of pens: the number of pencil
= 9:6 = 3:2 (reduced to lowest order)

Now we find that: the ratio of the pens and pencils in the first basket = the ratio of the
pens and pencils in the second basket.
Thus, 3: 2 = 9: 6
In such a condition, 3, 2, 9 and 6 are said to be in proportion. In other words, proportion
is an equation with one ratio on each side of it. More generally speaking, if a, b, c, and d
are non - zero quantities of same kind and if
b
a
=
d
c
or a:b :: c:d , then a, b, c, and d are
in proportion.
The statement showing the equality of two ratios is said to
be a proportion.
Note: The above proportion is also written as 3:2 :: 9:6. The sign :: is read as is as.
Activity 2
Take a group of 5 boys and a group of 3 girls from Class VI. Name these groups as A
and B.
Ask each boy of group A to call 2 boys from Class VII and ask each girl of Group B to
call 2 girls from Class VII.
Let the boys called by the boys of group be asked to remain in a group and the group be
named as Group C.
Let the girls called by the girls of Group B be asked to remain in a group and the group
be named as Group D.
Thus, we have 4 groups of students now.
The groups A and B are from class and the groups C and D are from Class VII.
What is A: B equal to?
A: B = 5: 3
What is C: D equal to?
The number of students of Group C = 52 and the number of students in Group D =
32.
C:D = (52) : (32)
C:D = 10:6 (is equivalent to 5:3).
Hence, it is seen that:
A:B = C:D.
Different forms of a proportion
The proportion given by the statement A: B = C: D is also written as:
i) A, B, C and D are proportional (statement form)
ii) A : B = C : D (Ratio form)
iii)
B
A
=
D
C
(fraction form)
Terms related to a proportion
Extremes : The left-most and right-most terms in a proportion are
known as the extremes in it, e.g. in the proportion A:B =
C:D, A and D are the extremes.
Means : The term in the middle of a proportion are known as the
means, e.g. B and C are the means in the proportion A:B
= C:D.
Fourth Proportional : The right most term in a proportion in it. e.g. in the
proportion A:B = C:D, D is the 4
th
proportional.
Further, we see from the statement in (iii) above that:
B
A
=
D
C

By cross multiplication, we get, AD = BC
or, product of the extremes = product of the means.
We may write in symbols as: E
1
E
2
= M
1
M
2

(where E
1
and E
2
represent the extremes and M
1
and M
2
represent the means).
We have used the names, A, B, C and D for the 4 groups of students and formed the
proportion. If there are four groups with 5, 3, 10 and 6 students respectively, then we
can express the proportion in the following ways:
i) 5,3,10 and 6 are proportional (statement form)
ii) 5:3 = 10:6 (ratio form)
iii)
3
5
=
6
10
(fraction form)
iv) 56 = 103 (equation form)
We can also see that when the number of students of 3 of the groups being known to us,
the fourth one can be calculated.
Example 9: In the proportion a:b = c:d, a = 7, c = 21 and d = 33; what is b equal to?
Solution: a:b = c:d =>
b
a
=
d
c

b
7
=
33
21

733 = b21
b =
21
33 7
= 11

Activity 3
The students of Classes VI and VII were asked to prepare 3 earthen cubes each at home,
get them dried up and bring them next day to the class.
On the next day, all brought the cubes prepared by them as per instruction.
The cubes collected by the students of Classes VI and VII were kept separately. The
two collections were counted separately.
Now let the number of students in classes VI and VII be denoted as p and q
respectively and the numbers of cubes they have collected separately be denoted as r
and s.
The students were asked to write a proportion using these four symbol p, q, r and s.
The following proportions were written by the students:
a) p:q = r:s
b) q:s = p:r
c) p:s = q:r
Check Your Progress
unit.
E11. Determine the value of a in each case.
(i) a:5 = 16:20
(ii) 8, a, 40 and 35 are proportional
(iii) 3:7 = a:49
(iv) 5:9 = 30:a
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E12. Find the fourth proportional of 9, 5 and 36.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
d) r:p = q:s
e) q:p = s:r
f) s:r = q:p
g) r:p = s:q
h) s:q = r:s
i) q:s = r:p
Out of these 9 statements written by the students, which are correct proportions?
(Statements f, g, j, k, and l are correct)

6.3.6 Comparison of Ratios
How to compare the ratios 2:3, 5:8 and 7:12?
We know that a ratio can be written in fraction form.
We also know the process of comparing fractions.
Thus, we change the ratios into fractions and then compare them.
Let us now compare the 3 ratios given above.
2:3 =
3
2

5:8 =
8
5

7:12 =
12
7

Check Your Progress
unit.
E13. Calculate the two ratios contained in each bit-question and check if
you get a proportion?
(i) 30 cm to 4m; 20 seconds to 3 minutes
(ii) 4 kg to 800g; Rs.2.00 to 40 paise
(iii) 500ml to 1.5 liter; 400g to 1kg 200g
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
To compare the fractions, we change the fractions into fractions of the same
denominator (which will be equal to the LCM of the denominations of the given
fractions).
LCM of the denominators 3, 8 and 12 to be determined.
LCM of 3, 8 and 12 = 24
Now,
24
16
8 3
8 2
3
2
=
= ,

24
15
3 8
3 5
8
5
=
= , and

24
14
2 12
2 7
12
7
=
=
The order of the fractions is the same as the order of the numerators.
the increasing order of the fractions is
12
7
,
8
5
, and
3
2
.
Hence, the increasing order of the ratios is 7:12, 5:8 and 2:3.

Check Your Progress
unit.
E14. Write the following ratios in decreasing order 3:4, 7:8 and 19:24.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E15. Put the sign > or = or < appropriately in the box.
(i) 3:4 71:80
(ii) 5:9 41:72
(iii) 8:15 38:75
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
6.4 UNIT SUMMARY
a) Ratio is the comparison of two quantities in the way of division.
b) A ratio is an otherwise form of writing a fraction. a:b can be written as
b
a
.
c) a:b expressed in percentage gives )% 100
b
a
( .
d) a:b can be changed into a decimal number in two ways.
1
st
Method: 3:5 =
10
6
2 5
2 3
5
3
=
=
3:5 = 0.6
2
nd
Method: 3:5 = 3 5 = 0.6
e) A proportion is the equality of 2 ratios.
f) Comparison of 2 or more number of ratios: The ratios are to be changed
into fractions of equal denominators. Then the comparison of the ratios can be
done.

6.5 GLOSSARY
Antecedent : The first term of a ratio.
Consequent : The second term of the ratio.
Extremes : The left-most and the right-most terms in a proportion.
Means : Two middle terms in a proportion.
Equivalent Ratios : Equal ratios.

E4. 1: 4
E5. (i) 5m or 500cm (ii) 4:1 (iii) 1:4
(iv) 2:5 (v) 1: 10
E6. 6 : 5 : 8
E7. 27 : 24 : 20 : 18
E8. (i) 18:24 (ii) 24:32
E9. (i) 1.75 (ii) 0.55 (iii) 0.625
E10. (i) 175% (ii) 60% (iii) 62.5% (iv) 85%
E11. (i) 4 (ii) 7 (iii) 21 (iv) 54
E12. 20
E13. (i) 3 : 40 and 1 : 9 (ii) 5 : 1 and 5 : 1
Yes, we get a proportion iii) 1:3 and 1:3 yes, we get a proportion.
E14. 7:8, 19:24, 3:4
E15. (i) < (ii) < (iii) >

6.7 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Identify the antecedent and consequent of the ratio 29:32.
2. What is ratio in the reduced form of the ratio of which the antecedent is
45 and consequent is 36?
3. Determine the ratio (in lowest order) in each of the following cases.
a) 18m to 27m
b) Rs.2.00 to 80 paise
c) 1.2l to 300 ml
d) 800g to 4 kg
4. Write the ratio of the following measures in the same order 5 kg, 800g,
1.5 kg.
5. Compare the two ratios in of the cases using < or = or > sign
appropriately.
a) 2 : 3 and 5 : 6
b) 11 : 25 and 22 : 49
Hint: Make the numerators equal. Whose denominator is more, that ratio is less.
c) 28 : 41 and 35 : 51
6. Find the 4
th
proportional of 8, 15 and 40
7. Find the value of x if 8, x, 214 and 33 are proportional.
8. Use the symbol is as to the proportion given below.
5, 8, 15 and 24 are proportional.
9. For a construction work 20 bags of chips and 28 bags of sand were
mixed. How many bags of sands is to be added so that chips and sand ratio
becomes 2 : 3?

6.8 REFERENCES
Teaching of Arithmetic & Commercial Methods ES342, March, 200, IGNOU,
Maidan Garhi, Delhi.
Mathematics Text Book for Class VI, NCERT, New Delhi.
UNIT 7 TIME AND DISTANCE
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Concept of Speed
7.3.1 Time, Distance and Speed
7.3.2 Time Taken by Two Moving Bodies to Meet Each Other
7.3.3 Time Required for a Moving Body to Cross a Fixed Object
7.3.4 Time Required by Two Moving Bodies to Cross Each Other
7.4 Unit Summary
7.5 Glossary
7.7 Assignments

7.1 INTRODUCTION
We perform several kinds of activities in our daily life. Moving over a certain distance
(small or large) i.e. performing a journey is a common activity which everyone of us
performs. Often we see that the same distance is covered by different persons in
different ways. Let us take the example of going from a residential area to a market
place. From the same residential area to the same market place.

i) Ramesh goes on foot
ii) Namita goes on her bicycle
iii) Usha goes with her scooty
iv)
Why do they make different modes of journey? Let us ask them.
On asking, they gave the following answers.

Ramesh : He was not in a hurry. So he walked over the distance.
Namita : She did not have much time at her disposal. So she made to and fro journey
using her bicycle.
Usha : She was in a hurry. She had little time at her disposal. So she felt it
necessary to go on her scooty.
Thus, it can be concluded that:
Ramesh managed to be slow in his movement.
Namita wanted to be a little faster.
Usha wanted to be quite first.
To be slow or fast or very fast during ones movement speaks of the speed with which
we perform a journey. Thus, the concept behind the term speed is slowness or fastness
with which we move.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
explain the concept of speed;
calculate any one of time, distance or speed of a journey when other two are
given;
explain the concept of relative speed of two moving bodies; and
calculate the time required for two moving bodies having considerable length.

7.3 CONCEPT OF SPEED
The following illustration may be read through:
Children living at different places in a city and their school is shown in the map given
below.

Diagram 7.1: Showing children living at different places in a city and their school
The map also gives following information:
The distance between school and childrens houses.
The starting time of each child and their mode of journey.
The reaching time for each child at school i.e. 10.00 a.m.
After reading the map, think and answer the questions below:
Which child is going fastest and which one is slowest and why?
Does Sachin take less time to cover more distance than others? Why?
Why Hari takes more time to cover less distance?
We cannot answer these questions easily and quickly. For this, what we can do? Think
to find out the distance covered by each of them in one hour.
The distance between Nishas house and school is 10 km. She starts from her
house at 08.00 a.m. on cycle and reaches in school at 10 km. distance. Therefore,
the distance covered by Nisha in one hour = 10 km. 2 = 5 km.
The distance between Salmas house and school is 12 km. She starts from her
house at 09.15 a.m. on a scooty and reaches in school at 10.00 a.m. She takes 45
minutes i.e. hour to cover 12 km distance. Therefore, the distance covered by
Salma in 1 hour = 12 km. = 16 km.
The distance between Davids house and school is 5 km. He starts from his
house at 09.00 a.m. on bicycle and reaches in school at 10.00 a.m. He takes 1 hour
to cover 5 km. distance. Therefore, the distance covered by David in 1 hour = 5 km.
The distance between Haris house and school is 3 km. He starts from his house
at 09.00 a.m. on foot and reaches in school at 10.00 a.m. He takes 1 hour to cover
3 km. distance. Therefore, the distance covered by Hari in 1 hour = 3 km.
The distance between Sachins house and school is 15 km. He starts from his
house at 09.30 a.m. by bus and reaches in school at 10.00 a.m. He takes 30 minutes
i.e. hour to cover 15 km. distance. Therefore, the distance covered by Sachin in 1
hour = 15 km. = 30 km.
Now think over the questions noted earlier in view of the distance covered by each child
in 1 hour time. Now it is very easy to answer them as:
Hari is slowest because he is going on foot. That is, Haris speed is the lowest,
as he covers 3 km. (the best distance) in 1 hour.
Sachin is fastest because he is going by bus. That is, Sachins speed is the
highest, as he covers 30 k.m. (the largest) in 1 hour.
Sachin takes less time to cover more distance because he is covering more
distance in 1 hour as compared to others. That is Sachins speed is greater than
others.
Hari takes more time to cover less distance as compared to others. That is,
Haris speed is the lowest.
Thus we conclude:

7.3.1 Time, Distance and Speed
As we have already said that speed is the distance covered in unit time, let us consider
the information given below about a journey.
Harish covered a distance of 20 km. in 2 hours.
What is distance did he cover in 1 hour?
The distance covered by Harish in 1 hour = 20 km. 2
Thus, his speed =
hour 2
km 20
= 10 km. per hour
Otherwise speaking: Speed =
taken Time
covered Distance

The speed of a moving body is the distance it covers in unit time.
So the information relating to the journey of Harish are:
Distance covered = 20 km.
Time taken = 2 hours
Speed = 12 km. per hour.
If Neha makes a journey of 30 km. in 5 hours, then the distance covered by her in 1
hour =
hours 5
km 30
= 6 km per hour.
Thus the information relating to the journey of Neha are:
Distance Covered = 30 km
Speed = 6 km. per hour.
Now it can be seen that a journey relates to 3 components and the components are the
distance, the time and the speed.
We have also seen above that the relation connecting these components is as follows:
Speed =
Time
ce tan Dis

This relation can help us in calculating any one of the components speed, distance, time
when the other two are given.
Thus three kinds of problems can be solved using the above relation.
Table 7.1: Types of problems relating to distance, time and speed
Problem kind Components given To be calculated
1 Distance, Time Speed
2 Speed, Time Distance
3 Speed, Distance Time
Unit of Speed
Since speed is related to distance and time, therefore, the unit of speed is a
compound unit that contains the unit of distance and unit of speed. The table
below shows the unit of speed based upon the unit of distance and time.
Table 7.2: Unit of distance, time and speed
Situation Unit of Distance Unit of Time Unit of Speed
1 kilometer hour km.p.h. or km/hr
2 meter minute m.p.m.in or m/min
3 meter second m.p.sec or m/sec
4 centimeter second cm.p.sec or cm/sec
Some examples are solved below:
Example 1: The distance of my office from my house is 10 km. and I cover this
distance in 2 hours. With what speed do I move?
Solution
Distance covered = 10 km.
Time taken to cover the distance = 2 hours. We have to calculate speed.
Speed =
Time
ce tan Dis

=
hrs 2
. km 10
= 5 km. / hr
Example 2: A car moves with a speed of 50 km per hour. What distance can it cover in
3 hours?
Solution
Speed of the car = 50 km. / hour
Time taken to cover the distance = 3 hours. Here, the distance covered is to be
calculated.
Speed =
Time
ce tan Dis

50 km / hr =
hr 3
ce tan Dis

50 km 3hr = Distance
Distance = 150 km.
Example 3: Ramesh covered a distance of 30 km. on his scooty. If he maintained a
speed of 40 km / hr, what time did he take to perform the journey?
Solution
Speed = 40 km/ hour
Distance = 30 km. What was the time taken?
Speed =
Time
ce tan Dis

= 40 km / hr =
time
. km 30
= Distance
or, Time 4 km/hr = 30 km
Time taken =
hr / km 40
km 30

=
4
3
hour = 45 minutes

Check Your Progress
unit.
E1. In a school 100 meter race was organized on the sports day. The time
taken by runners to finish the race are given below:

Runner
Time taken by
Runner
Mohan 20 Sec
Geeta 25 Sec
Fiza 40 Sec
Ravi 50 Sec
John 10 Sec
(i) Name the runner, who finished the race first and calculate his / her
speed in meter per second.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

Concept of Average Speed
Let us study the example below:
Example 4: A motorcyclist covers a distance of 80 km from A to D in 2 hours. He
travels from A to B, a distance of 35km in 70 minutes, from B to C, a
distance of 25 km in 30 minutes and from C to D, a distance of 20 km in
20 minutes.

Calculate the speed of the motorcyclist in covering the distance:
in 70 min
B C
20 km
D A
35 km 25 km
in 30 min in 20 min
(ii) Name the runner, who finished the race last and calculate his / her
speed in km per hour.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(iii)What speed Mohan must keep so that he can finish the race in 16
sec.?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
E2. A motorcyclist takes 3 hours to cover 180 km distance. Calculate
speed of the motorcyclist?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E3. Speed of a car is 60 km / hour. Calculate speed of the car in meter per
second.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
i) between A and B
ii) between B and C
iii) between C and D
iv) The speed over the entire journey
Solution
i) Journey from A to B
Distance = 35 km
Time = 70 min =
60
70
hr =
6
7
hr.
Speed =
time
distance
=
hr
6
7
km 35

= 35
7
6
km/h = 30 km/hr
ii) Journey from B to C
Distance = 25 km
Time = 30 min =
60
30
hr =
2
1
hr.
Speed =
time
ce tan dis
=
hr
2
1
km 25

= 25
1
2
km/h = 50 km/hr
iii) Journey from C to D
Distance = 20 km
Time = 20 min =
60
20
hr =
3
1
hr.
Speed =
time
distance
=
hr
3
1
km 20
= 20
1
3
km/h = 60 km/hr
iv) Journey from A to D (total journey)
Distance covered in the entire journey = 35 km + 25 km + 20 km = 80 km
Time taken for the entire journey= 70 min + 30 min + 20 min = 120 min = 2
hours
Speed over the entire journey =
journey entire for the taken Time
journey entire the of Distance

=
hr 2
km 80
= 40 km / hr
Speed over the entire journey is otherwise known as average speed.
The motorcyclist would see the pointer of his speedometer showing a speed of 30 km/hr
during the journey from A to B, 50 km / hr during his journey from B to C and 60 km/hr
during his journey from C to D.
But taking the whole journey into consideration, the speed comes to be 40 km/hr, which
is different from the speeds shown by the speedometer during different parts of his
journey.
The speed determined taking the whole journey into consideration is known as the
average speed.
Thus,
taken time Total
covered distance Total
speed Average =
When someone says that he covered a distance of 10 km on his scooty with a speed of
40 km per hour, it was never true that the speedometer of his scooty showed 40 all the
time. It really means that he covered 10 km taking a total time of 15 minutes and he
made a mental calculation that in 15 minutes he covered 10 km and he covered 10 km
4 = 40 km in 60 minutes. In the process of calculation he had made use of the total
distance covered and total time taken to calculate the speed. Thus, the speed he
calculated is actually the average speed.
Example 5: Ranjeet took 30 minutes to cover a distance of 6 km from A to B on a
bicycle and came back on foot leaving the bicycle at B without halting at
B. If he took a total time of 2 hours in covering both ways, determine i)
speed of his cycling, ii) speed of his walking, and iii) average speed in the
total journey.
Solution
i) For Journey from A to B (cycling):
Distance covered = 6 km
Time taken = 30 min = 1/2 hour
Speed =
Time
Distance
=
hour
2
1
km 6
= 62 km/hr = 12 km / hr
ii) For Journey from B to A (Walking):
Distance covered = 6 km
Time taken = 2 hour 1/2 hour = 1
2
1
hours =
2
3
hours
Speed =
Time
Distance
=
hours
2
3
km 6
= 6
3
2
km/hr = 4 km / hr
iii) For both journeys:
Distance covered = 6 km + 6 km = 12 km
Average Speed =
Time
Distance
=
hours 2
km 12
= 6 km/hr

Check Your Progress
unit.
E4. Seema covers a distance of 10 km from A to B on her scooty with a
speed of 40 km per hour and then she could drive at a speed of 30 km
per hour over a further distance of 6 km and reached C. Determine her
average speed over the entire journey from A to C.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E5. A train covers 55 km in the first hour, 65 km in the second hour and
75 km in the third hour. Calculate the average speed of the train.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

7.3.2 Time Taken by Two Moving Bodies to Meet Each Other
Look to the Figure 7.1. In each of the two diagrams, two persons (X and Y) are shown
at two places P and Q. In Figure 7.1, the persons are moving in the same direction and
in Figure 7.2, the persons are moving in opposite directions.

Figure 7.1
X and Y start moving at the same time from P and Q in the same direction. Speed of X
is 6 km/hr and speed of Y is 4 km/hr.
After 1 hour, the positions of X and Y are shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2
X has moved 6 km from P and he is at R. So PR = 6 km
Y has moved 4 km from Q and he is at S. So QS = 4 km
Now the distance between X and Y after 1 hour = RS
= RQ + QS
= (PQ PR) + QS
= PQ (PR QS)
= 30 (6-4)
= (30 2) km = 28km
Thus we find that the distance between X and Y has become reduced by 2 km which is
the difference between the speeds of X and Y.
The Figure 7.3 shows the position of X and Y after 2 hours.

P R Q S
4 km Y
X 6 km
P Q
4 km/hr. Y
X
6 km/hr.
30 km
P R Q S
Y X
T V
Figure 7.3
X has covered the distance PT in 2 hours.
PT = 2 6 km = 12 km
Y has covered the distance QV in 2 hours.
QV = 2 4 km = 8 km
Now the distance between X and Y =
TV = TQ + QV
= (PQ PT) + QV
= PQ (PT QV)
= 30 km (12 km 8 km)
= 30 km 2 (6 km 4 km)
= 26 km
Thus, we see that:
During every hour the distance between X and Y gets reduced by (6 km 4 km).
Otherwise speaking:
The rate at which they become closer every hour by (S
1
S
2
) where S
1
and S
2
are the
speeds of X and Y respectively.
We can also say:
The rate at which X approaches Y is (S
1
S
2
) per hour.
This is also known as the relative speed of the two persons X and Y.
Thus, it is concluded that when two persons/bodies move in the same direction the
relative speed between them is given by:

Note: Only if speed of X is greater than that of Y, he goes on approaching Y. If
speed of X is less than that of Y, X cannot come nearer to Y.
For children of primary level, the term relative speed will not be meaningful. Hence,
instead of relative speed it would be more proper to say it as speed of approach. As
they see that in the example, discussed above, X approaches Y and after some time X
will reach Y.
Relative Speed = S
1
S
2
where S
1
and S
2
are the speeds of the two
persons/bodies moving in the same direction.
Thus, we say when two persons move in the same direction:
The speed of approach = S
1
S
2

Now let us look to the Figure 7.4 where two persons X and Y start to move in opposite
direction (towards each others) from P and Q respectively.
Distance between P and Q is 30 km
Speed of X i.e. S
1
= 6 km/hr
Speed of Y i.e. S
2
= 4 km/hr

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5
X and Y start at the same time. After 1 hour X reaches R and Y reaches S as shown in
Figure 7.5. As such, PR = 6 km and QS = 4 km
So the distance between X and Y after 1 hour
= RS = RQ QS
= PQ PR QS
= PQ (PR + QS)
= PQ (6km + 4 km)
= 30 km 10 km = 20 km
Let us now take into consideration of the positions of X and Y after they continue
moving for 2 hours.
The Figure 7.6 shows the positions of X and Y after 2 hours.

P Q
4 km/hr. Y
X
6 km/hr.
30 km
P R Q S
Y
X
P R Q S
Y X
T V

Figure 7.6
After 2 hours, the distance between X and Y
= TV = TQ VQ
= PQ PT VQ
= PQ (PT + VQ)
= 30 km (26 km + 24 km)
= 30 km 2 (6 km + 4 km)
= 30 km 2 10 km
= 10 km
Thus, we see that the distance between X and Y gets reduced by:
10 km (i.e. 6 km + 4 km) in 1 hour
and 2 10 km in 2 hours
So we can say that they become nearer ton each other at the rate of 10 km (i.e. S
1
+ S
2
)
per hour. That is, they approach each other at the rate of (S
1
+ S
2)
km every hour.
Thus we conclude:

The relative speed = S
1
+ S
2

Or, the speed of approach = S
1
+ S
2

when the two persons/bodies move in opposite directions.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E6. X and Y start from two places P and Q 10 km apart. Find the time
after which they meet if they move with speeds 6 km / hr and 4 km/hr
(i) in the same direction (ii) in opposite direction.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Example 6: Two cars start from a place at same time in opposite direction with speed
of 50 km/hr and 65 km/hr. Find out the distance between then after 3
hours.
Solution
As both the car going in opposite direction, therefore
Their relative speed = The sum of their speeds
= (50 + 65) km/hr
= 115 km/hr
The Distance between them after 3 hours
= Relative Speed Time
= 115 km 3
= 345 km
Example 7: A train starts from Delhi towards Udaipur and another train start from
Udaipur towards Delhi with speed of 85 km / hr and 75 km/hr respectively
in the evening at 6 P.M. If the distance between Delhi and Udaipur is 800
km, then find:
i) After what time both the trains meet each other?
ii) At what distance from Delhi the trains meet each other?
Solution
As both trains start at same time from different places and move in opposite directions
Time taken for the trains to meet =
approach of Speed
em between th Distance

The speed of approach of the two trains = (85 + 75) km/hour
Time taken for the trains to meet =
hr / km 160
km 800
= 5 hours
Hence the trains will meet 5 hours after the starting time of 6 P.M i.e. at 11 P.M. in the
night.
The distance of the meeting place from Delhi
= Time speed of the train that left Delhi
= 5 hr 85 km/hr = 425 km.
The following discussion will help us in understanding the relative speed of approach
when bodies move in same direction.
Persons/Bodies moving from different places in the same direction.

Figure 7.7
As shown in Figure 7.7, the distance between two places P and Q is 11
km. Body A starts from P with the speed of 6 km/hr and body B starts from Q with
the speed of 4 km/hr in same direction at same time. Then the distance between
them changes from time to time as shown in the tabular form below.
Time Distance between A and B
0 hour 11 km
1 hour (11 km + 4 km) 6 km = 9 km
2 hours (11 km + 8 km) 12 km = 7 km
3 hours (11 km + 12 km) 18 km = 5 km
Here, A approaches B at the rate of 2 km per hour, which is equal to the difference
between their speeds. It is their relative speed or the speed of approach = 2 km/hr.
If As speed is less than the speed of B, the distance between them goes on increasing
from time to time and A can never meet B.
If As speed = Bs speed, then the distance between them does not change and hence A
can never meet B.
Example 8: Mahesh and Ramesh both left Delhi at 8.00 a.m. and moved in the same
direction. Mahesh moved on his motorcycle with a speed of 50 km/hr and
Ramesh moved on his scooter with a speed of 45 km/hr. Find the time
when they will be 30 km apart from each other.
Solution
Here, both of them start at 8.00 from Delhi in same direction, therefore
Their relative speed = The difference between their speeds
= (50 45) km/hr
= 5 km / hr
Hence, the rate at which they go away from each other = 5 km/hr
Time for having 30 km distance between them will be
P Q
4 km/hr. B A
6 km/hr.
11 km
R S
=
Speed Relative
Distance
=
hr / km 5
km 30
= 6 hours
Hence 6 hours from 8.00 a.m. i.e. at 02.00 p.m. the distance between them will be 30
km.
Example 9: A bus with speed of 45 km/hr starts from Udaipur to Jaipur. Find out that
Udaipur to Jaipur. After 2 hours a car also starts with speed of 65 km/hr
from Udaipur to Jaipur. Find out that:
i) After how much time both the vehicles meet each other?
ii) At what distance from Udaipur, they meet?
Solution
Here, bus and car both are moving in same direction.
Therefore, their relative speed = The difference between their speeds
= (65 45) km/hr
= 20 km/hr
i) The distance covered by bus in 2 hours = speed of bus Time
= (45 2) km =90 km
i.e. when car starts then bus is 90 km ahead of it.
Time for covering 90 km = Distance / Relative Speed
=
) hr / km 20 (
km 90

= 4.5 hrs or (4 hours and 30 minutes)
Hence, after 4
2
1
hours both vehicles meet each other.
ii) Distance from Udaipur when they meet each other
= speed of car time = 65 km 4
2
1
hrs.
= 292.50 km

7.3.3 Time Required for a Moving Body to Cross a Fixed Object

Figure 7.8
In the Figure 7.8 above P represents a km-stone by the side of a railway track. BA
represents a train of which A is frontal part of the engine and B is the rear end of the
Guards van (i.e. the last coach of the train).
In course of the train moving on the track, A, the front part of its engine reaches the km-
stone at P (Phase-1 in the Figure 7.8). Then the coaches/bogies of the train one-by-one
pass by the km-stone. It continues to run and the passing ends when the rear end of the
Guards van just crosses the km-stone (Phase-2 in the Figure 7.8). Thus, the distance
covered by the train in passing the km-stone = BA which is the length of the train.
If the length of the train = l, then the distance to be covered = l.
Phase-1 Phase 2
B A
P
B A
Check Your Progress
unit.
E7. Two cars starting from Jodhpur at same time with speed of 60 km/hr
and 50 km/hr in same direction. Calculate the distance between them
after 5 hours.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E8. A goods train starts from Chittorgarh to Delhi at 21.30 O Clock with
speed of 50 km/hr. After it a passenger train starts from Chittorgarh to
Delhi at 0.30 O clock with speed of 65 km/hr. Find after how much
time the passenger train meets the goods train?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Here the km-stone is a body of negligible length and the train is a body of considerable
length.
Now let us take two bodies both of considerable length. It may be a train and a bridge,
both of considerable length.

Figure 7.9
In the Figure 7.9 above: PQ is a bridge of length L
1
.
BA is train in which A is frontal part of the engine and B is rear part of the guards van
and the train moves from M to N. The crossing begins when the frontal part of the
engine, i.e. A is reaches P as the train keeps on moving towards right till the rear part of
the Guards van i.e. B reached Q. The train is said to have just crossed the bridge when
B reaches Q.
What distance has been covered by the train during its crossing the bridge?
The distance covered in crossing the bridge
= The distance which the engine has covered = PN
= The length of the bridge + the length of the train
= PQ + QN = L
1
+ L
2

What is the speed of crossing?
In case of a train and the bridge, the train alone moves, not the bridge. In this case the
speed of passing = Speed of the train = S km/hr (say).
What is the time taken for crossing?
Time taken by the train to cross the bridge
=
crossing of Speed
covered distance Total
=
S
L L
2 1
+

Example 10: In how much time will a train 750 meter long moving with speed of 60
km/hr pass a person standing on the platform?
Solution
Given, Length of the train = 750m = km
1000
750
=
4
3
km
L
1
L
1
M P Q N
B L
2
A B L
2
A
Time taken by the train to pass a person
=
train the of Speed
train the of Length

=
hr / km 60
km
4
3

= hr
60
1
4
3

=
80
1
hr =
80
1
60 60 sec = 45 sec
Example 11: What time will a train 500m long moving with a speed of 45 km/hr
take to pass a tunnel of length 1 km?
Solution
Given, length of train (L
1
) = 500m =
2
1
km
Length of the tunnel (L
2
) = 1 km
Speed of train (S) = 45 km/hr
Time to be taken to pass =
S
L L
2 1
+
=
hr / km 45
km 1
2
1
|
\
|
+
=
hr / km 45
km
3
3

=
2
3

45
1
hr =
30
1
hr
=
30
1
60 min = 2 min

7.3.4 Time Required by Two Moving Bodies to Cross Each Other
There are two possible situations:

i) When the two moving bodies of considerable length move in the same
direction.
ii) When the two moving bodies of considerable length move in the
opposite directions.
iii) In case of two trains both of which move in the same direction, speed of approach
also becomes the speed of crossing.
Speed of crossing = S
1
S
2

where S
1
and S
2
are the speeds of the two trains.
Time required for passing =
crossing of Speed
crossing for covered be to Distance

When both the bodies are of considerable length and they both move in the
same direction.
Time of passing =
2 1
2 1
S S
L L
+
where L
1
and L
2
are

the lengths of the moving
bodies and S
1
and S
2
are their respective speeds.
When both the bodies are of considerable length and they both move in opposite
directions, then
Check Your Progress
unit.
E9. Length of a train is 600m. If the speed is 72 km/hr, in what time will it
pass a tree that stands by the side of the railway track.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E10. What time will a goods train 750m long take to pass a platform of
length 250m if it moves with a speed of 50 km/hr?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Time taken for crossing =
2 1
2 1
S S
L L
+

When one body is of negligible length (i.e. L
1
=0) and the other is of
considerable length (i.e. L
2
=L) and they both move in the same direction, then
Time taken for crossing =
2 1
S S
L

When one body is of negligible length (i.e. L
1
=0) and the other is of
considerable length (i.e. L
2
=L) and they both move in the opposite direction,
then
The time of passing =
2 1
S S
L
+

Exemplars of such phenomena that give us a clear concept of relative
speed:
When two trains move in same direction with same speed (say 60 km/hr
each) then the passengers of both the trains feel that their trains are not
moving. The cause of such feeling is due to the fact that the relative speed =
60 60 = 0.
When two trains move in same direction with different speed (say 60 km/hr
and 50 km/hr) then the passengers in the slower train feel as the other train
moves with a much less speed. The cause of this is that the relative speed =
60 50 = 10 km/hr.
When two trains move in opposite direction with low speeds like 20 km/hr
and 50 km/hr then the passengers each train feels as if the other train moves
much faster. The cause of this is that the relative speed = 20 km/hr + 30
km/hr = 50 km/hr.
Example 12: Lengths of two trains are 260m and 280m. They are moving with speeds
of 60 km/hr and 70 km/hr respectively in same direction on parallel rail
tracks. In what time will they cross each other after meeting?
Solution
Here both trains are moving in same direction
Therefore, their speed of passing S
1
S
2

= (70 60) km/hr
= 10 km/hr
=
60
1000 10
m/min =
3
500
m/min
The sum of lengths of both trains = 260 + 280m = 580 m
Time for train to cross each other
=
passing of Speed
trains of lengths of Sum

=
m/min
3
400
540m

= 540 min
500
3

= 3.24 minutes
Example 13: Two trains are moving on parallel rail tracks in opposite directions with
speed of 65 km/hr and 80 km/hr. If their lengths are 750m and 700m
respectively, then find out the time taken by them to pass each other.
Solution
Here trains are moving in opposite directions.
Hence, their speed of crossing each other = sum of their speeds
= (65 + 80) km/hr
= 145 km/hr
Sum of the lengths of trains = 750m + 700m
= 1450 m =
100
145
km 145 km/hr
=
100
145

145
1
hr
=
100
1
60 60 sec
= 36 sec

7.4 UNIT SUMMARY
The distance covered by any moving body in unit time is called its speed i.e.
Speed = Distance / Time
Time taken by a moving body to pass a static object of negligible length is the
time taken by moving body to cover distance equal to its own length with its
speed i.e.
Time taken by a moving body to cross a static object of considerable length is
the time taken by moving body to cover distance equal to the sum of lengths of the
moving body and static object with its speed.
The rate at which the distance between two moving bodies increases is their
relative speed. It depends on the direction of moving bodies i.e. in same or
opposite direction.
Relative speed of two bodies moving in opposite direction = sum of their speeds.
Relative speed of two moving bodies going in same direction is equal to the
difference between their speeds.
Check Your Progress
unit.
E11. Two goods trains moving in same direction with speed of 45 km/hr
and 54 km/hr respectively on parallel rail tracks. If their lengths are
720 m and 600m respectively then, find out the time for goods trains
to cross each other.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
E12. Two trains of length 300m and 400m are coming to each other with
speed of 56 km/hr and 70 km/hr on parallel rail tracks. After their
meeting, in how much time they cross each other?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Time taken by two moving bodies (of considerable length) to cross each other
going in same or opposite direction is the time taken to cover distance equal to
sum of the lengths of both moving bodies through their relative speed.

7.5 GLOSSARY
Speed : Distance covered in unit time
Relative Speed : Speed at which a moving body looks like moving as seen
by person who sets in another moving body.
Speed of Approach : Rate at which two bodies approach each other.
Speed of Passing : Rate at which a body passes another or two bodies pass
each other.

E1. (i) Johnson, 10m/sec (ii) Ravi, 7.2 km/hr (iii) 6.25 m/sec
E2. 60 km/hr
E3. 16 2/3 m/sec
E4. 35
9
5
km/hr
E5. 65 km/hr
E6. (i) 5 hr (ii) 1 hr
E7. 50 km
E8. 10 hours
E9. 8 min 48 sec
E10. 20 sec.
7.7 ASSIGNMENTS
Q1. What time will a person moving on his bicycle at a speed of 5 km/hr take to
cover a distance of 15 km?
Q2. How much distance a car will cover in 6 hrs with if it moves with a speed of 58
km/hr?
Q3. Speed of a train is 20m/sec. Express the speed in km/hr.
Q4. Mukesh on motorcycle starts from Jaipur at 08.00 a.m. and reaches Delhi at
02.00 p.m. If the speed of motorcycle is 50/3 m/sec, then find out the distance
between Jaipur and Delhi.
Q5. In what time will a train 250m long pass a bridge of length 500m if it moves
with a speed of 50 km/hr?
Q6. A person is standing at the centre of 150m long platform. What time will a train
350m long take to pass the person if it moves with a speed of 50 km/hr?
Q7. How much time does a train 395m long take to pass a tunnel of length 265m if
the train moves with a speed of 44 km/hr?
Q8. A train from Ahmedabad to Delhi and another train from Delhi to Ahmedabad
leave the stations at 23.15, if the train move with the speeds of 68 km/hr and 60
km/hr respectively and the distance of Delhi from Ahmedabad is 1024 km, then
find:

a) After how much of time both trains will meet each other?
b) How far is their meeting place from Delhi?

Q9. Length of two trains are 264m and 216m respectively. They are moving towards
each other with speeds of 64 km/hr and 80km/hr respectively on parallel rail
tracks. Determine the time they take to cross each other after meeting.
Q10. Ajay and Prakash were at the same place. Ajoy started running first when he
was at a distance of 100m from the starting place Prakash started chasing him. If
the speeds of Prakash and Ajoy are 110 km/hr and 90 km/hr respectively, after a
run of what time can Prakash catch Ajoy?

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