KKKA6424

Intelligent Urban Traffic Control System Assignment5

Supervision:

Prof. Ir. Dr Riza Atiq

Prepared by: Hassn Ahmed H Hassn Malek M A Algadi P64139 P64143

Rising of crimes in Malaysia cities

Crime affects all Malaysians, irrespective of race, religion, gender or income levels. To protect our loved ones, we have set ambitious targets to reduce crime levels significantly for which I, as the Lead Minister, am accountable for delivering. Achieving these targets will require concerted efforts by all law enforcement agencies and also the help of community members. While we are starting to see some positive signs at the nationwide level for street crime, we have much more to do to create a Malaysia where the fear of crime is substantially reduced. I humbly ask that all Malaysians join hands with all the agencies involved in fighting crime at all levels such that we can all live in a safer nation.

THE FOCUS ON LOCAL GOVERNMENT:

The focus on cities and towns as the key to crime prevention is directly in line with international developments in the area of crime prevention. Since the vast majority of (recorded) criminal activities take place within cities, towns and urban areas in general, this focus is a logical one. Urban local government is often well placed to implement (or at least co-ordinate) initiatives to counter and prevent criminality. Greater co-ordination between different local government departmental functions is a critical success factor in achieving and sustaining urban safety and security. There are real incentives for municipal authorities to ensure a safe locality: revenues are increased through, among other factors, the provision of a safe environment, actively encouraging investment by business. Also, there is an important political dimension (although this in itself carries some dangers, as will be shown below): many local politicians are under increasing public pressure to be seen to be acting against

crime. Developing and implementing local crime prevention policy will ensure that ward councillors respond to the needs of their constituents. In many cases, a city or town government constitutes the lowest level where planning can take the needs of local communities and their particular crime problems into account, thus Providing a potentially effective link between locally elected officials, municipal departments. And the national police service. As it is, only a few types of crime can be combated at national level. An analysis of crime statistics from across the country suggests that the key to local crime prevention is the recognition that crime varies from locality to locality. As a consequence, different priorities and strategies and different approaches are needed in different areas to prevent crime. The failure to establish local crime prevention initiatives in response to the needs of diverse local Communities across the country will have serious consequences in the long term for the success of the NCPS. It is also essential that crime prevention initiatives at local government level begin sooner rather than later. Experience elsewhere suggests that there is much to be gained from 'learning by doing' - an incremental approach to the implementation of crime prevention strategies rather than one which attempts to ensure a high level of co-ordination across the country Indeed, while crime prevention strategies are only in their early stages in South Africa, much has already been learned (some of these lessons are outlined below). At the same time, these developments in South Africa have the potential to feed in (and learn from) an emerging global debate on urban safety. Over the past decade, there has been a growing trend across the world towards concentrating the bulk of crime prevention effort and its control not nationally, or even provincially, but at the level of the city or town. The last five years has seen a proliferation of forums in which cities share experiences of optimal approaches to urban safety and security. Generally. The main types of crime prevention strategies that were developed can be roughly divided into physical and social.

Social crime prevention

Social crime prevention can be explained by the following: The social crime prevention model gives much needed attention to the root causes of crime, especially the forces that contribute to delinquency, drug abuse, and a host of related adolescent problems. Based on the premise that crime is caused by the social ills of society, the social crime prevention model focuses on developing programs and policies to improve the health, family life, education, housing, work opportunities and neighborhood activities of potential offenders 2. There are various ways of considering why some communities/neighborhoods experience more crime than others. Some of the explanations include: a. Spiral of Decline Crime from the spiralofdecline perspective is understood as a consequence of multiple and overlapping social problems. Elisabeth Burney (1999) provides an effective summary: children below poverty line; unemployed and unemployable young adults; single parent households; single adults, especially those formerly in institutional care; ethnic minorities, including refugees. These areas become characterized by instability and change; rapid turnover of households, decline of labour market, loss of services and transportation, and visible deterioration of buildings as well as radical physical alteration, such as demolition and construction of housing stock (Knepper, P. (2007) Criminology and Social Policy

b. Social disorganisation In general terms, social disorganisation refers to the inability of a community structure to realise the common values of its residents and maintain effective social controls. Empirically, the structural dimensions of community social disorganisation can be measured in terms of the prevalence and interdependence of social networks in a community both informal (e.g. friendship ties) and formal (e.g. organisational participation) and in the span of collective supervision that the community directs toward local problems ... structural barriers impede development of the formal and informal ties that promote the ability to solve common problems(see diagram on the following page). Social organisation and disorganisation are thusseen as different ends of the same continuum with respect to systematic networks of community social control (Sampson, R.J. and Groves, W.B. (1989) Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social Disorganisation Theory, American Journal of Sociology. Sampson and his coauthors then introduced the term collective efficacy, which is defined in terms of the neighbourhoods ability to maintain order in public spaces such as streets, sidewalks, and parks. Collective efficacy is implemented when neighborhood residents take over actions to maintain public order, such as by complaining to the authorities or by organizing neighborhood watch programs. The authors argued that residents take such actions only when cohesion and mutual trust in the neighborhood is linked to shared expectations for intervening in support of neighborhood social control. If either the mutual trust or the shared expectations are absent, then residents will be unlikely to act when disorder invades public space. Housing tenure has been identified as a potential variable in elevated levels of crime in some areas: Results from the mixed model also found that the proportion of renters was significant for explaining increases in serious assaults, armed robbery, unarmed robbery and unlawful entry (other premises). These results clearly show the enduring problems in districts with high concentrations of renters, independent of social disadvantage. The criminological literature is replete with using proportion of renters as an important predictor of community crime problems.

Physical surveillance (CCTV)

Surveillance can be supported by physical systems such as CCTV, additional lighting, access management systems etc. CCTV has been widely used in surveillance. Evaluating the effectiveness of CCTV is difficult. However, some studies report reductions in crime and the fear of crime. CCTV may deter criminal offences (e.g. vehicle crime or burglary) due to a perceived increase in the risk of detection that may outweigh the perceived potential benefits to the criminal. However, in alcohol-related crime (such as public disorder) where 'rationality' is often relatively absent, the deterrent effect of CCTV may be nullified.

The purpose of the CCTV

As the name implies, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is a system in which the circuit is closed and all the elements are directly connected. This is unlike broadcast television where any receiver that is correctly tuned can pick up the signal from the airwaves. Directly connected in this context includes systems linked by microwave, infrared beams, etc. This article introduces the main components that can go to make up CCTV systems of varying complexity.

How CCTV Aims to Prevent Crime

For this crime prevention process to succeed, two elements must exist: 1. The offender must be aware of the cameras' presence. 2. The offender must believe the cameras present enough risk of capture to negate the rewards of the intended crime.

Benefits of using CCTV to reduce crimes:

Reduced Fear of Crime Numerous studies have tried to determine if the presence of cameras in public places reduces fear of crime in people who use the area. These studies, many of which interviewed people in the CCTV area, have examined whether consumer buying has increased in areas with new CCTV systems. The general argument is that the area will benefit from a positive economic impact when people feel safer. The findings are mixed but generally show there is some reduced level of fear of crime among people in CCTV areas, but only among people who were aware they were in an area under surveillance. Most studies exploring the perception of surveillance areas found that less than half the interviewees were aware they were in a CCTV area. Reduced fear of crime in an area may increase the number of people using the area, hence increasing natural surveillance. It may also encourage people to be more security conscious. Aid to Police Investigations Regardless of the potential for a CCTV system to have a role in crime prevention, it can still make a contribution in a detection role. There are numerous examples of CCTV tapes aiding in an offender's conviction. Camera footage can also help identify potential witnesses who might not otherwise come forward to police. CCTV camera evidence can be compelling, though issues of image quality are a factor if CCTV images are used for identification purposes. If the cameras record an incident, and police respond rapidly and make an arrest within view of the camera (and the offender does not leave the sight of the camera), the recording of the incident can help investigators gain a conviction, usually through a guilty plea. The potential to assist in police investigations may also

drive offenders away from committing offenses that take time, as they run a greater risk of capture. Provision of Medical Assistance As a community safety feature, CCTV camera operators can contact medical services if they see people in the street suffering from illness or injury as a result of criminal activity (such as robberies and assaults) or non-crime medical emergencies. The ability to summon assistance is a public safety benefit of CCTV. Squires found that police are called about 10 to 20 times for every 700 hours of observation.

Place Management CCTV can be used for general location management. The cameras can be used to look for lost children, to monitor traffic flow, public meetings, or demonstrations that may require additional police resources, or to determine if alarms have been activated unnecessarily thus removing the need for a police response. Brown reports that some police commanders claim that assaults on police have reduced because the cameras allow them to determine the appropriate level of response to an incident, either by sending more officers to large fights, or by limiting the number of officers to a minor incident and avoid inflaming the situation.

Information Gathering Cameras can also be used to gather intelligence and to monitor the behavior of known offenders in public places (such as shoplifters in public retail areas). Camera operators often come to know the faces of local offenders, and the cameras become a way to monitor their movements in a less intrusive manner than deploying plainclothes police officers. For example, officers in one city were able to gather intelligence on the behavior of individuals selling stolen goods. This intelligence was gathered remotely by CCTV cameras and enabled police to interdict in an organized and coordinated manner. Although intelligence gathering is a potential benefit of CCTV, the use of intelligence gathered from CCTV to control public order through surveillance is perceived by some to be a threat to civil liberties

Diffusion of Benefits Although rarely addressed in the research literature, there is also the distinct possibility that if offenders are aware and cautious in the presence of cameras, they may be unaware of the extent of the cameras' capabilities. As a result they may curtail their criminal activity in a wider area than that covered by the camera system. In effect, this extends the value of the cameras beyond their area of operation, a process criminologists call a diffusion of benefits.

Additional equipment such as computer and communication system:

The CCTV Camera The starting point for any CCTV system must be the camera. The camera creates the picture that will be transmitted to the control position. Apart from special designs CCTV cameras are not fitted with a lens. The lens must be provided separately and screwed onto the front of the camera. There is a standard screw thread for CCTV cameras, although there are different types of lens mounts.

The Monitor

Uses

CCTV monitors display pictures used for a variety of purposes, including monitoring traffic, to show pictures at sporting events, to detect crimes and to monitor the functioning of machines or other equipment in factories. Features

On most CCTV monitors, you can adjust the brightness and contrast to improve the display picture and turn off the equipment when not in use. CCTV monitors are available in black and white and color. Benefits

When CCTV monitors are in plain view of the public, they may reduce the threat of vandalism and theft as potential perpetrators know they are being watched. In industrial settings, CCTV monitors help ensure quality control and productivity

Simple CCTV Systems

The simplest system is a camera connected directly to a monitor by a coaxial cable with the power for the camera being provided from the monitor. This is known as a line powered camera. Diagram 3 shows such a system. Probably the earliest well-known version of this was the Pye Observation System that popularised the concept of CCTV, mainly in retail establishments. It was an affordable, do-it-yourself, self-contained system.

Basic Line Powered CCTV System The next development was to incorporate the outputs from four cameras into the monitor. These could be set to sequence automatically through the cameras or any camera could be held selectively. Diagram 4 shows a typical arrangement of such a system. There was even a microphone built into the camera to carry sound and a speaker in the monitor. The speaker, of course, only put out the sound of the selected camera. There were however a few disadvantages with the system, although this is not to disparage it. The microphone, being in the camera, tended to pick up sound close to it and not at the area at which it was aimed. There was a noticeable, and sometimes annoying, pause between pictures when switching. This was because the camera was powered down when not selected and it took time for the tube to heat up again. The system was, though, cheap to buy and simple to install. It came complete in a box with camera, 16mm lens, bracket, switching monitor and 12 metres of coaxial cable with fitted plugs. An outlet socket for a video recorder was provided, although reviewing could be a little tedious when the cameras had been set to sequence. There are now many systems of line powered cameras on the market that are more sophisticated than this basic system. Most of the drawbacks mentioned have been overcome. Cameras had been around for a long time of course, before this development. The example is given to show the simplest, practical application. The use of some line powered cameras can impose limitations on system design. They do though, offer the advantage of ease of installation.

Four-Camera Line Powered CCTV System

Mains Powered CCTV Systems

The basic CCTV installation is shown in diagram 5 where the camera is mains powered as is the monitor. A coaxial cable carries the video signal from the camera to the monitor. Although simple to install it should be born in mind that the installation must comply with the relevant regulations such as the Institute of Electrical Engineers latest edition. (Now incorporated into British Standard BS7671). Failure to do so could be dangerous and create problems with the validity of insurance. This arrangement allows for a great deal more flexibility in designing complex systems. When more than one camera is required, then a video switcher must be included as shown in diagram 6. Using this switcher any camera may be selected to be held on the screen or it can be set to sequence in turn through all the cameras. Usually the time that each camera is shown may be adjusted by a control knob or by a screwdriver.

Basic Mains Powered CCTV System

Four-Camera System with Video Switcher

Systems with Video Recording

The next development of a basic system is to add a video recorder.

Multi Camera System with Video Recorder With this arrangement the pictures shown during play back will be according to the way in which the switcher was set up when recording. That is, if it was set to sequence then the same views will be displayed on the monitor. There is no control over what can be displayed.

Movable Cameras
So far all the cameras shown have been fixed with fixed focal length lenses. In many applications the area to be covered would need many fixed cameras. The solution to this is to use cameras fixed to a movable platform. This platform can then be controlled from a remote location. The platform may simply rotate in a horizontal plane and is generally known as a scanner. Alternatively the platform may be controllable in both horizontal and vertical planes and is generally known as a pan, tilt unit.

This chapter does not deal with how cameras are controlled or wired; it is just showing the facilities that may be incorporated into a CCTV system. Therefore the diagrams that follow are simply descriptive block diagrams and not connection drawings.

Basic Movable Camera System Cameras may be used indoors or outdoors. When used outdoors they will always require a protective housing. For indoor use the environment or aesthetic constraints will dictate whether housing is needed. Systems may contain a combination of both fixed and movable cameras.

Multiple Camera System

Examples of Smart Cameras

There are many examples of smart cameras in action in real-world applications, especially for video surveillance and industrial machine vision. Industrial machine vision is probably the most mature application area for smart cameras, where these cameras perform tasks such as bar code recognition, parts inspection, surface inspection, fault detection, and objects counting and sorting. In video surveillance applications, typical tasks of smart cameras include motion detection, intrusion detection, crowd proling, number plate recognition. Other example of smart cameras from Intellio. Intellios ILC- 2102 is a smart camera for security and surveillance applications. It has an XGA resolution (1,024 768) CMOS image sensor as capture device and can operate in both day and night conditions. The ASIP unit onboard the camera can perform various types of event detection, such as motion detection, abandoned object detection, intrusion detection, crowd proling. Intellio also has smart cameras for trafc surveillance applications. Another example of smart cameras is Sonys XCI-SX13 The XCISX1 smart camera has an SXGA resolution (1,2801,024) CCD image sensor as capture device and an AMD Geode GX533 400 MHz microprocessor at the heart of the ASIP. The processor runs a MontaVista Linux real-time operating system providing both performance and exibility. Communication interfaces include VGA display, ethernet, USB, RS232. The camera allows OEMs (original equipment manufacturers) and system integrators to develop solutions for a variety of industrial machine vision applications.

Pixel analysis
The pixel (a word invented from "picture element") is the basic unit of programmable color on a computer display or in a computer image. Think of it as a logical - rather than a physical - unit. The physical size of a pixel depends on how you've set the resolution for the display screen. If you've set the display to its maximum resolution, the physical size of a pixel will equal the physical size of the dot pitch (let's just call it the dot size) of the display. If, however, you've set the resolution to something less than the maximum resolution, a pixel will be larger than the physical size of the screen's dot (that is, a pixel will use more than one dot). The specific color that a pixel describes is some blend of three components of the color spectrum - RGB. Up to three bytes of data are allocated for specifying a pixel's color, one byte for each major color component. A true color or 24-bit color system uses all three bytes. However, many color display systems use only one byte (limiting the display to 256 different colors

How to detect human by using pixel

There are many way to detect human one of them is detecting people by their skin and it can be done by the skin color information is an efficient tool for identifying facial areas and facial features, if the skin color model can be properly adapted for different lighting environments. Therefore, color information is convenient to use for face detection, localization and tracking, since it is invariant to rotation and robust to (partial) occlusion. There are some difficulties, mainly because different people have different facial color, make-up, and individual variations. For human color perception, a 3-D color space such as an RGB space is essential. Most video cameras use an RGB model; other color models can be easily converted to an RGB model. However, an RGB space is not necessarily essential for all other

problems. Color segmentation can basically be performed using appropriate skin color thresholds.

Technical

A pixel does not need to be rendered as a small square. This image shows alternative ways of reconstructing an image from a set of pixel values, using dots, lines, or smooth filtering.

A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image. However, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be "printed pixels" in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera (photo sensor elements). This list is not exhaustive, and depending on context, there are several terms that are synonymous in particular contexts, such as pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, spot, etc. The term "pixels" can be used in the abstract, or as a unit of measure, in particular when using pixels as a measure of resolution, such as: 2400 pixels per inch, 640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. The measures dots per inch (dpi) and pixels per inch (ppi) are sometimes used interchangeably, but have distinct meanings, especially for printer devices, where dpi is a measure of the printer's density of dot (e.g. ink droplet) placement. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer. Even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original. The number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition. Pixel counts can be expressed as a single

number, as in a "three-megapixel" digital camera, which has a nominal three million pixels, or as a pair of numbers, as in a "640 by 480 display", which has 640 pixels from side to side and 480 from top to bottom (as in a VGA display), and therefore has a total number of 640 480 = 307,200 pixels or 0.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form a digitized image (such as a JPEG file used on a web page) may or may not be in one-to-onecorrespondence with screen pixels, depending on how a computer displays an image. In computing, an image composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image. The word raster originates from television scanning patterns, and has been widely used to describe similar halftone printing and storage techniques.

How pixel works?

When the value of pixels is subtracted and produces zero values, no motion translation is detected. Thus, the images are carrying the same information. Some of the pixels in the first sequence are not zero value due to the light intensity occurrence due to the sunny day. This reading can be ignore sue to the sun light intensity and there is no drastic impact towards the motion translation in the image. The pixels change represents the front portion of car and head of lady guard respectively. There is difference in the pixels value when both images are subtracted. This happens because different value of pixels represents different information and color. The areas with no object detected (such as car and lady guard), the subtracted pixels value are relatively zeros or at minimal value (due to the intensity of light).

Area of interest
The objectives of the CCTV System are shown below and form the lawful basis for the processing of data:

To deter crime

To assist in the detection of crime

To reduce the fear of crime

To improve public protection

To improve the safety and security of residents, visitors and the business community who use the facilities within the areas covered

To facilitate the apprehension and prosecution of offenders in both criminal and public order offences

To discourage anti-social behavior including alcohol and drug related issues

To deter vandalism

To assist the Council in monitoring and managing its assets and areas of responsibility

To enhance the environment and thereby improve the enjoyment facilities by all who use them.