PRESENTED BY PUBLISHER

H o w To Buy An Automobile Bv THOS. J. FAY f c^^ )

PUBLISHED BV THE MOTOR PRESS SYNDICATE CLEVELAND, OHIO

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COPYRIGHT 1914

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DEDICATED TO THE "PROSPECTIVE

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Front I'icceC'ro>* section ot ihe Rockefeller molor, . . 'i! g relation of : it!-.

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F o r e w o r d G R A X T I X G that there i s nofixedrule of procedure

for the absolute guidance of the prospective purchaser of an automobile, any more than there is a definite and absolute guide to success in any other field of endeavor, the fact remains that the shrewd bargainer has an advantage over his unsophisticated confrere; likewise. the skilled salesman, unless he is a m a n of principle and character, is in a position to take undue advantage of the guileless and, considering these and other points likely to arise in a transaction of any magnitude at all, i t will be just as well if the " prospective." so-called, will be guided by elemental prudence, to say the least. It is even within the rights of the possible purchaser to put the salesman to the proof whenever his statements are so loosely drawn or so far-fetched that they depart from the obvious. Not a few psychologists m a k e m u c h of salesmanship; books are written on the subject of psychology as it refers to selling, and the conduct of the salesman is commented upon by the psychologist for the noble purpose (doubtless) of inducing in the salesman a degree of skill such as will give him undue advantage over the customer. w h o becomes his victim unless the customer delves equally deep into the science of purchasing, and is sufficiently tainted with the principles of psychology so that he m a y take rank as an antagonist. Indeed, m a y w e not say that i t is as unfair for a salesman deeply schooled in the psychology of salesmanship to practise his wiles upon an unsophisticated " prospective" as i t would

have been in the olden days, w h e n knights were bold, were one of them to meet a lout on the king's highway and run him through? Fortunately, despite the predictions of the schooled psychologist, it is extremely difficult for a fox of even considerable experience to m a k e any inroads upon a c o m m o n sense chicken-coop. Common-sense well adhered to is the ancestor of the time lock; the latter, as every m a n knows, is all that stands between the gold in the banker's vault and the burglar of accentuated skill and a great longing. Common-sense (sometimes referred to as horsesense) not infrequently deserts the "prospective" in a melee. T h e wily salesman invariably undertakes to induce common-sense to desert a " prospective." T h e other side of the whole matter is that commonsense and u n c o m m o n dollars are boon companionsthey belong in the same neck of the woods. Granting that i t is proper to advise the salesman to depend upon logic for effect and to m a k e no statement that will test the credulity of the purchaser; even so, it is true of a certain type of logic that i t fattens on falsehood. It remains for the " prospective " to conduct himself with dignity and fair-minded affability throughout, neither displaying undue suspicion, nor departing from that course which will compel him to seek a reliable establishment wherein to conclude his purchase.

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H e r b e r t Spencer's M e s s a g e s 1. "Arriving at the correct judgment on disputed questions, much depends upon the mental attitude while listening to, or taking part in, the controversies; and for the preservation of a right attitude, it is needful that w e should learn h o w true, and yet h o w untrue, are average h u m a n beliefs. O n the other hand, w e must keep free from that bias in favor of received ideas which expresses itself in such d o g m a as ' what everyone says must be true.' 2. " On the other hand, the facts disclosed by a survey of the past that majorities have usually been wrong, must not blind us to the complementary fact that m a jorities have usually not been entirely wrong. T o this end w e must contemplate the kind of relation that ordinarily subsists between opinion and fact. 3. " The question, however, is not the value or novelty of the particular truth in a given case arrived at. T h e aim must be to exhibit the more general truth, that between the most divers beliefs there is usually something in commonsomething taken for granted in each; and that this something, if not to be set down as an unquestionable verity, m a y yet be considered to have the highest degree of probability. 4. " A consistent adoption of the method will greatly aid us in dealing with chronic antagonisms of belief. By applying i t not only to ideas with which w c are concerned, but also to our o w n ideas and those of our opponents, w e shall be enabled to form m o r e correct judgment, w e shall be led to suspect that our convictions are not wholly right, and that the adverse convictions are not vii

wholly wrong. O n the one hand w e shall not. in comm o n with the great mass of unthinking, let our creed be determined by the mere accident of birth in a particular age on a particular part of the earth's surface, while on the other hand, w e shall be saved from that error of entire and contemptuous negation, fallen into by most w h o take up an attitude of independent criticism. 5. " In the battle of opinion, like the one which has been carried on for ages under the banners of Religion and Science, truly, i t has generated an animosity fatal to a just estimate of either party by the other. Happily the times display an increasing catholicity of feeling, which w e shall do well to carry as far as our natures permit. In proportion as w e love truth more and victory less, w e shall become anxious to k n o w what i t is which leads our opponents to think as they do. W e shall begin to suspect that the pertinacity of belief exhibited by them must result from a perception of something w e have not perceived. A n d w c shall aim to supplement the portion of truth w e have found with the portion found by them. C. " Making a rational estimate of human authority, w e shall avoid alike the extremes of undue submission and undue rebellionshall not regard some men's judgment as wholly good and others as wholly bad; but shall. contrariwise, lean to the more defensible position that none are completely right and none are completely wrong. 7. "What is science? To see the absurd prejudices against it. w e need only remark that science is simplv a higher development of c o m m o n knowledge; and that if science is repudiated, all knowledge must be repudiated along with it. T h e extremest bigot will not suspect a m harm in the observation that the sun rises earlier and sets later in S u m m e r than in Winter; but will rather consider rill

such an observation as a useful aid in fulfilling the duties of life. Well, astronomy is an organized body of kindred observations, m a d e with great nicety, extended to a large number of objects, and so analyzed as to disclose the real arrangements of the heavens and to dispel our false conceptions of them. That iron will rust in water, that wood will burn, that long-kept viands become putrid, the most timid will teach without alarm, as things useful to be known. But these are chemical truths: Chemistry is a systemized collection of such facts, ascertained with prevision, and so classified and generalized as to enable us to say with certainty, concerning each simple or compound substance, what change will occur in i t under given conditions. A n d ihus i t is with all the sciences. They severally germinate out of the experiences of daily life; insensibly as they grow they draw in remoter, more numerous and more complex experiences. S. " Wise men know that scientific men throughout the world subject one another's results to a searching examination: and that error is mercilessly exposed and rejected as soon as discovered. A n d ,finally,they know that still more conclusive evidence is furnished by the daily verification of scientific prediction, and by the neverceasing triumphs of that part of those arts which science guides. 9. " How to find something thus becomes the problem w e should perseveringly try to solve. Not to reconcile in any makeshift way. but to establish a real and permanent place. T h e thing w c have to seek out is that ultimate truth which all will avow with absolute sincerity with not the remotest mental reservation. There should be no concessionno yielding on either side of something that will by and by be reasserted; but the c o m m o n ground on which they meet shall be one which each will maintain for itself."

IX

I t . Certainty has a C a s h V a l u e "

P A R T

Meeting the Demonstrator on His Own Terms

'T1 HERE is no denying the fact that the demonstrator * ( w h o m the prospective purchaser of an automobile is likely to encounter w h e n he goes in quest of a car) is perfectly justified in putting his best foot forward; which gives the prospective purchaser equal rights in the premises. There are certain practices in every art designed to facilitate trade. These practices arc justified to whatever extent they do what they are intended to do, but this is not to say that they retain the color of justification w h e n they are used for a dishonest purpose. T h e other side of the whole matter is punctured by certain situations that m a y not be justified. For instance, the demonstrator can find no justification for the use of paint in the bearings of the automobile in order to m a k e it perform without rattling during a demonstration. In like manner, and, with equal force, i t is proper to observe that the demonstrator has no right to employ larger pneumatic tires on the automobile that he uses for purposes of demonstration than are to be employed on the car which is to be delivered to the " prospective," if the demonstration ends in a sale. It would even be unfair in a demonstration were the gasoline used in the test better than the fuel obtainable at any source of supply at the roadside. Every departure from the ordinary practice in the operation of the automobile involved in a given case must be condemned as a departure from fair dealing. T h e demonstrator w h o claims that he is putting his best foot forward when, as a matter of fact, he is practicing a deception, can find no justification anywhere for his acts. 1

But the prospective purchaser of an automobile does not have to take the demonstrator's word for any of these situations. If, for illustration, the tires used on the car employed by the demonstrator in his work are of a larger size than the tires on the car that the agent offers to deliver to the purchaser, it is easy for the purchaser to note this fact; if the purchaser is less endowed with c o m m o n sense than the average m a n he will listen to some m u m bled explanation as to w h y the tires on the car of demonstration are bigger than the tires on the car to be delivered. But if the prospective purchaser is wise he will either insist upon having a demonstration with the proper sized tires duly inflated according to the recommendations of the tire makers, or he will g o elsewhere to have his want filled. Following the common-sense course, the prospective purchaser of a car can easily determine whether paint or other gum-like substance (such as shellac) is employed to stop the rattling of a car undergoing investigation; if the oil holes throughout the chassis are stopped up with paint, this is a matter which can be seen. Ask the agent for the car for the company's instruction book: upon receipt of the same turn to the instructions in relation to the oiling of the automobile: go over the car identifying every oil hole referred to and, if the oil holes arefilledup with paint, ask the agent h o w you arc to put any oil in those holes. If he says that you can pick the paint out of the oil holes, using a hair pin for the purpose, tell him to do i t himself. But unless he can prove that the automobile will run without undue rattling w h e n the paint is removed from the journals and bearings, w h y not g o elsewhere to have your wantfilled? When the demonstrator is conducting you so blithely over the polished surface of a billiard table (road), and

he gets through amusing himself by thus proceeding. ask him to take you to a rougher type of pavement, and then, if you please, instead of riding with the demonstrator in the front of the car, try the rear seat; see whether you are contracting for a catapult or an automobile. A little experience on rough roads at various speeds (with the top d o w n ) m a y suffice to prove to you that the automobile is well-designed for road work and that the spring suspension is excellent; however, have the demonstrator put up the top, after which go back over the same road and see if the effect of the top up is not such as to destroy your previous and perhaps hastily-formed opinion. At all events, cars do not, as a rule, perform the same with the top up as they do with the top down. T h e demonstrator will prefer to have the top in that position which will make the best showing for him. Having tried the automobile on the demonstrator's billiard table (road), not forgetting the rougher pavements above referred to, let the demonstrator take you to some gentle undulation which he will doubtless call a twentytwo per cent, grade, and after he goes up this incline of his o w n selection, ending with aflourish,ask him to conduct you to a real hill, and, making sure that the automobile is fully loaded, let him show you what the car will do. When you get to the top of a real hill and the demonstrator overcomes his astonishment, ask him to take you back d o w n that grade to see if the brakes will w o r k select a long hill in order to m a k e sure that the brakes will hold out for a long time. Having concluded what would appear to be a fair demonstration of the capabilities of the automobile, w h y not return up the same hill (without the load in order to get

the "light" performance of the car), and then return d o w n the same grade, thereby ascertaining the performance of the brakes w h e n the automobile is not loaded. The demonstrator will doubtless point out to you how perfectly cool the motor operates; you will almost be persuaded to believe that the motor is as cool as the demonstrator himself. But if you want to get a fine line of information on this subject of motor heating, try a dirt road up and d o w n hill for ten miles at the best speed of which the car is capable under the circumstances, and note the resultif a large percentage of the water steams out of the radiator overflowA you will k n o w that there is something the matter. Another way to test a motor to ascertain whether or not i t gets hot is to stop the car at the curb and let the motor turn over at a slow rate of speed for an hour, retarding the spark in order to make the motor run slowly; if at the end of an hour there are no undue evidences of distress and over-heating, then, in all fairness, the demonstrator's nonchalance m a y be regarded as having a measure of justification. On the subject of starting, if the automobile is fitted with a self-starterand i t works with apparent success i t merely remains for the intending purchaser to investigate the mechanism of the self-starter in order to estimate its value. But if the automobile is notfittedwith a selfstarter, i t remains for the intending purchaser to go through the operation of cranking the motor himself, the idea being to note the case with which the motor m a y be started. However, if the type of automobile, as indicated by demonstration, offers attraction to the purchaser. i t remains for him to have the demonstration repeated on the very car that he is to accept. It would be more or less undesirable to observe the ease of starting on a well-

groomed demonstrating car, only to neglect the same situation as it refers to the automobile that the purchaser is to accept. A perfectly safe plan of procedure is for the purchaser to try a number of examples of the automobile that apparently suit his purpose, the idea being for him to pick out of a number of cars the one that comes nearest to suiting him. It is scarcely to be expected that every automobile of a given m a k e will be exactly alike in all particularsautomobiles have lhat which is akin to personality. T h e personality (so-called) of the automobile should accord with the personality of the intending purchaser. Of course, the demonstrator will state how many miles his m a k e of car will g o on a gallon of gasolinelet him prove it, using the very car that is to be accepted in the purchase. With equal confidence the demonstrator will enlarge upon the amount of lubricating oil that will keep the m o tor going for ever so long; get him to modify his statement in relation to the lubricating oil requirement, reducing the same to such terms that a test can be made. For instance, ascertain by test the amount of lubricating oil required in a run of such a number of miles as the demonstrator will agree upon. But if the demonstrator will not agree upon some form of test of the lubricating efficiency of the automobile he so deftly undertakes to dispose of, tell him to talk about something that he will stand back of; w h y should he take uf> his time, and yours, in idle talk? Gasoline is getting scarcer every day. It is predicted that the time will come w h e n gasoline will cease to ob-

tain for automobiles. Authorities tell us that three years hence the distillation k n o w n as gasoline will no longer be available in this class of work. . T h e question is, what are you going to do with the automobile of your selection (if it is only designed to burn gasoline) w h e n gasoline gives out? T h e demonstrator m a y say to you that his car will burn kerosene. In that event, unless he desires to affront your intelligence, the demonstrator will be willing to stop in front of a grocery store and, after emptying all of the gasoline out of the tank wherein the same is kept in the car,fillthat tank with kerosene from the grocery store, and prove to your satisfaction that what he says is so. If the demonstrator refuses to furnish the proof, since he will test your credulity by the statement. w h y not terminate the demonstration without making a purchase, thereby giving you further opportunity to think i t over, asking yourself again, what are you going to do with the automobile of your purchase three years hence w h e n gasoline gives out? Disharmonies Creep In From Several Quarters "C-XPERIENCED aittomobilists are well aware of the *-* fact that the road performance of a given automobile depends upon a plurality of constructions, some of which are within the car, others have to d o with the speed of the same; not a few relate to the road which, in all fairness, is the other half of the automobile and. for the balance there are variables as. for illustration, if the top is up the spring performance of the automobile will be harsh; whereas if the top is d o w n the spring work will be smooth and soothing to the occupants of the car. In like manner, those w h o ride in the back seats soon experience the sensation that all is well if the weight total of the occupants of the seats is that for which the springs at the rear of the chassis were originally designed to support. But if the back springs are designed to carry

a weight equal to six persons and more or less baggage, then if one or two persons get into the back of the car they will soon discover that the springs are boisterous; in a word, if the springs are designed to do one thing it must not be expected of them that they will d o anything else with quite the same facility. Not a few users of cars upset all calculation by insisting upon having spring suspensions that will behave under average load conditions and average speeds along the road, only to interpose unruly objections if, w h e n the car is fully loaded and driven at high speed over rough roads, the springs deflect sufficiently to cause the chassis frame to let d o w n on the axle. N o matter h o w m u c h these automobilists object to violent spring performances under the conditions as above n a m e d it remains to be said that nothing can be done for them unless they choose between springs that will do their best work under average conditions on the one hand, or accept a spring suspension designed for m a x i m u m work as the other alternative. W e are indebted to Dr. Bobeth for a most excellent analysis of the happenings referring to the spring suspen-

Fig. 1. Diagram of the road performance of an automo-ile showing ihe wave form and amplitude of axle and body in a car traveling along Ihe roadway.

sion of an automobile w h e n the car is traveling along the road. T h e chart, Fig. I. represents the axle path, and the curve " b " shows the companion path of the chassis frame. For the sake of comparison, an additional curve. " c." was added, which, to the same scale, shows the axle motion when non-clastic tires arc used on the road wheels, under the assumption that the wheels roll over the obstruction without losing ground. A represents the time element at the moment of contact of obstacle and wheel, A' the time element when the wheel is vertically over the middle of the obstacle, and A " the time element when the wheel leaves the obstacle. T h e real curve or gradual acceleration of the axle is shown by thefirstarc, A B C , in the curve a. O n account of the acceleration forces the axle acquires a considerable vertical velocity. T h e acceleration continues until the vertical upward forces are overcome by the vertical d o w n w a r d forces. A state ot equilibrium follows: the vertical speed has reached a maxi m u m yet the vertical motion will continue to the point I> w h e n the forces opposing have perfectly neutralized the kinetic energy of the axle. T h e axle will reverse its direction of travel immediately. During this period the axle mass also acquires considerable kinetic energy, and swings past the position of balance, which is marked in the diagram by a horizontal line and causes an additional downward pressure curve, F G , on the roadbed, until its kinetic energy is neutralized by opposing forces. O n account of the increased ground pressures there will follow a second upward swinging, which is shown in the diagram by the curve, G H J . A series of oscillations (as indicated) follow this amplitude, diminishing until equilibrium i s established. T h e movement of the axle influences the movement of the frame directly, as shown in the curve b in the diagram. While the swinging of the axle has developed the

vertical forces, which arc the cause of the frame vibrations, the frame vibrations lag behind the m o v e m e n t s of the axle to s o m e extent. T h e rise of the frame occurs considerably later than that of the axle and, as s h o w n in the diagram, the highest point of the frame curve is far behind the corresponding point o n the axle curve. It is of special importance to note that not only the first oscillation of the axle but also the second has considerable influence o n the a m o u n t of the frame motion. Because, since the abscissae of the oscillation diagram represent time, it is easy to read the time of oscillation of axle and frame from the diagram. T h e axle must he considered as a hanging m a s s between t w o spring systems (the vehicle springs o n the one side and the tires o n the other), while the frame is a m a s s carried bv the vehicle springs only. T h e duration of oscillation of the frame will generally be greater than that of the axle. In the case of the axle it m u s t be considered that the duration of the first oscillation (the rise over the obstacle) o n a n average, is greater than the duration of the following oscillations. T h e diagram also s h o w s the oscillation velocity of axle and frame at any m o m e n t . Since the velocity varies as the tangent of the oscillation curve, the ground pressure

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Fig. 2. Diagram showing ihe path of the hody. aI*o the wave form and amplitude of wave of the axle and other attending matter referring IO an automobile traveling along the road nay.

between wheel tires and obstruction is of great importance in regard to the performance of the tires. Tests are necessary in order to find the pressures under different conditions, also the ground pressures during the rebound of the wheel on the ground, after the jolt over the obstruction. It is further shown by the diminishing amplitude of the vibrations that there must be steady forces acting against the oscillations; however, for further information along these lines it would be necessary to m a k e tests in order to ascertain the action of these forces. T h e curves a and b of the diagram represent the oscillations of axle and frame in relation to a fixed point. But it is of interest to find the relative motion between axle and frame. This can be read offhand from the diagram Fig. 2. T h e crossing point of the curves a and b represents the time element in which the frame and axle are in their normal positions, indicating a state of balancein other words, establishing equilibrium. T h e periods in which the points in curve a arc above the points in the curve b show the approaching of the axle to the frame, and the periods in which the points of a are below the points in curve b show a falling a w a y of the axle from the frame. Fig. 3 is given for the purpose of showing graphically a diagram of these relations. It will be noticed that on account of the opposite motion of axle and frame (from time to time) there are exceptionally high relative speeds indicated, and the speeds are greater by a considerable amount than the m a x i m u m absolute speeds.

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the C a r S h o u l d

Perform

TV/TAKERS as well as purchasers of automobiles

* * * * have to keep in mind the broad principles involved in every attempt to moderate the jolting actions by the springs of motor-driven vehicles, in which it is necessary that the springs and tires shall w o r k together. T h e maker of the springs, if he relies upon static tests for his results, cannot get beyond static results. T h e user of the automobile very quickly ascertains as a result of service that dynamic requirements as brought about by service can only be arrived at through dynamic tests, fixing the relations of the springs to the tires, a n d the relations of the springs and the tires to the vehicle, the speed, and the road. Referring to Fig. 4, which is a static testing machine designed for T h e Perfection Spring C o m p a n y , Cleveland, Ohio, to ascertain the ability of elliptic springs, it will be seen h o w the spring is placed in the testing machine,

Fig. 3. "Graph" depicting the wave form and amplitude of in a*'c to frame of an automobile traveling along the roadway.

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with the eyes at the extremities of the same shackled to the table, applying a load at the middle of the spring, with means available for ascertaining the deflection, and the load producing that deflection. This arrangement is very simple and substantial; i t is quick and accurate in a given case and, if i t is desired to note the life of a given spring, the testing machine is so arranged that it tests the spring to destruction and counts the n u m b e r of vibrations which m a y be measured up to m o r e than a million in a well designed spring. But the fact remains that two pairs of springs of different degrees of hardness, used in a given car, m a y produce entirely contrary results, to the disaffection of the owner of the car. Referring to Fig. 5, which is a graphical presentation of the performance of soft alongside of hard springs, i t will be seen that a considerable and material difference is likely to creep in in practice, whereby the soft springs are likely to let d o w n one side of the car and the hard springs m a y have an equal facility in the opposite direction. T h e prospective purchaser of an automobile will not have to display an accentuated measure of acumen in the process of ascertaining whether or not the car of his choice is so sprung that the top of the chassis frame i > substantially the s a m e distance from the floor at both sides, front and rear, of the vehicle, w h e n the vehicle is loaded acorn ling t > > it- capacity. If the purchaser should find that the front springs on the driver's side of the car carry the chassis frame a little higher than that of the opposite side, he m a y take i t for granted that the designer of the automobile reasoned that the driver would be in his scat all of the time with the car in motion, but i t does not necessarily follow that the seat opposite the driver would have an occupant all of the time; since springs arc prone to settle more or less in consequence of service, i t is reasonable to suppose that the 12

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Fig. 4. Olsen vibratory spring testing machine, showing Cadillac type of Perfection rear spring at end of test to destruction after 1.048.000 complete reversals of camber under full load in the laboratory of The Perfection Spring Compiny, Cleveland.

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driver's side of the automobile (having to do the most w o r k ) is the more likely to settle. A difference of more or less one-half inch in the distance from the top of the chassis frame to the ground on the driver's side at the front of the car is probably a wise provision. In like manner, since the back of the car is likely to be heavily burdened at times, i t is not out of place to so design and construct the rear springs as to give the chassis a slight elevation at the back in order that it will not suffer a positive droop to the rear under conditions of m a x i m u m load. There is nothing so disconcerting to an automobilist of discrimination as a drooping of the chassis frame to the rear (like a truck), making the car look overloaded all of the time. It is better by far to provide for inevitable overloading of the tonneau since these emergencies will arise; the fact remains that in the conservation of the investment, the automobilist w h o gracefully eludes these overloading emergencies experiences an enormous advantage over the poor devil w h o has too m a n y friends.

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D e f i n i n g the S p r i n g S u s p e n s i o n of Automobiles REFERRING to " Webster's New International Die

tionary." and the definition of the w o r d "spring" therein, the information imparted thereafter, has a literal bearing as follows: "6. An elastic body or device that recovers i t s original shape when released afler being distorted, * * springs are used io check recoil or diminish concussion and jar, io store up energy, and for any other purpose." Noting, carefully, the definition of the w o r d " spring " as authoritatively above given, i t remains to observe that the divers innovations which parade under the guise of the appellation spring, bear little or n o resemblance to a real spring. Rubber, for illustration, as it ordinarily obtains in c o m p o u n d s of which bumpers are m a d e , is essentially non-elastic, hence not a spring. R e m e m b e r i n g that a spring must be m a d e of a type of material such as will check recoil or diminish concussion and jar, i t will be obvious to the reader that so-called rubber compounds, non-elastic in character, depart sufficiently from the principle of springs as not to qualify them for entry into that class. Hitherto it has been the general practice to describe automobiles, referring for the most part to the motor. transmission gear, wheels, axles, body, and general appearance; specifically calling attention to the auxiliary devices such as the magneto, carburetor, m e a n s of starting, etc.; ignoring the design a n d construction whereby results of afittingcharacter are obtained. From the point of view of the conservation of the investment, i t is necessary to observe that the high fre15

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o io t i .m io ; > o ;n v 'JO INnim. D G Q D C Dcrtcvlioii quency vibrations which are induced through the high speed of the car over rough roads can be modified; in other words, translated, substituting vibrations of a greater amplitude and a slower beat for those which injure mechanism in the make-up of the car. Dr. F.rich Bobeth, who. after conducting very extensive experiments, utilizing intricate testing equipment for the purpose, reached devious and important conclusions, among which the following has specific bearing upon the point w e wish to here make. Quoting Dr. Bobeth: " Consider, as shown in Fig. 6. a wheel moving forward with uniform horizontal speed vh and at the point

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A . meeting with an obstruction 1>. A t the m o m e n t of contact with the obstruction the wheel is constrained to m o v e about the point O as a center. *' Now, if the wheel has a non-elastic tire, and the horizontal speed vn during its passage over the obstruction remains constant then, at the m o m e n t of contact with the obstruction, according to the parallelogram of forces. the vertical speed, which w a s zero before contact with the obstruction, becomes infinitely great. This m e a n s that the vertical acceleration must become infinitely great, and consequently there must be, for the time being, infinitely great forces tending to injure or destroy either the wheel or the obstruction. In this explanation it w a s assumed that the horizontal speed vn of the frame and axle during the run over the obstruction remained conslant. This assumption is reasonable because the internal losses of the rolling vehicle are so great that any deceleration at the m o m e n t of meeting an obstruction can be neglected." Fig. 6. Diagram indicating the diagonal of forces when ihe wheel of an automobile traversing ihe roadway intercepts an obstacle.

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D
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A little further thought during the examination of Fig. G is likely to lead to important conclusions. It is scarcely to be expected that the obstruction B (which m a y be a hard stone) will yield to the blow struck by the contact of the wheel. It is equally to be observed that solid tires, however well they m a y be fashioned, will yield more than a mere trifle at the instant of the blow struck at the point of contact of the solid tire with the obstruction B. It is also to be remembered that pneumatic tires are incapable of " swallowing " considerable obstructions, nor must i t be forgotten that the life of pneumatic tires will be too short if their degrees of inflation are such as to permit the tires to yield beyond a slight amount at the instant of the blow due to violent contact of the wheel with the obstruction B. W h a t is more plain than that the vertical speed of the wheel (as indicated by the parallelogram of forces) will be enormous, if not infinitely great, and that the vertical acceleration approaches infinity; hence, to all intents and purposes, enormous (if not infinitely great) forces are introduced, which tend to seriously injure, if not totally destroy, the mechanisms of the carin the absence of suitably contrived springs zvhereby Ihe characteristics of the vibrations of violent contact are robbed of their violence. From what has been said it would appear that the spring suspension of an automobile is of thefirstimportance because (a) the quality of the service that the car is capable of rendering largely depends upon the springs used, since they reflect the deportment of the car, and (b) it is to the springs that w e must look for the conservation of the investment. While i t is the obvious purpose here to aid the intending purchaser to get the worth of his investment, i t remains IS

to be said that the maker of the vehicle is also interested. N o maker of automobiles can survive the wiles of time unless the product of his plant is worthy. T h e m a n u facturer w h o fails to stand behind his goods is rapidly skating over the slippery pavement of the broad avenue that leads to the house of the receiver. T h e maker and the user have a c o m m o n cause. T h e ground on which they stand is c o m m o n ground. If the maker fails to meet the want of the user, that maker will have to g o out of business because, as should be well understood, the user (so far as that maker is concerned) " Will fold his tent like the Arabs A n d as silently steal away." Policy, then, demands of the maker that he shall consider the user. But the policy of the user, taking the individual, requires of him that he shall consider his specific purchase. It remains to observe for the benefit of the specific user that he shall take due notice of the requirements of springs. A m o n g the principal considerations, involving springs from the specific user's point of view, the following hold: (a) Granting that the springs must be relied upon to protect the mechanisms of the car from the nearly infinitely great forces which tend to destroy, when the road wheels of the car contact with an abrupt obstruction, it is equally important to observe that the finer the mechanisms of the car. and the more they cost, the greater is the importance of the protection to be afforded, hence the better the spring should be for the purpose. (b) Taking into account the fact that the energy stored in a moving mass is directly proportional to the square of the velocity, and to the weight, it is easily seen that spring protection of the delicate mechanisms of the car must be finely wrought if the automobile is of high power and capable of traveling at a rapid rate of speed along the road. 19

(c) In like manner, if the automobile is heavy, and the speed is also high, the duties which fall to the lot of the springs are accentuated. T h e springs must be especially fashioned not only to take care of the high speed vibrations presented, but the heavy pressures imposed. (d) Springs, if they are to do the best work, must be capable of acting in all directions. Elastic concussions between axles and frames are such as to modify the forces which tend to injure or destroy the parts w h e n wheels violently contact with road obstructions. This is but another way of saying that the springs interposed between axles and frames should not only take the vertical moments, but they should translate the horizontal moments as well. In a word, i t is the parallelogram of forces that the springs are called upon to meet. A n d in proportion as the springs are designed to translate the parallelogram of forces, i t is in that proportion that the mechanisms of the car will be afforded protection from violence from whatever quarter. (e) T h e reason w h y helical springs are not the vogue in automobile work is because they do not dampen the pendulum beat of the body resultant of the wheels in violent contact with road obstructions. A m o n g the types of springs extant, the elliptic varieties of leaf springs offer the best opportunities due to the fact that, as will be readily understood, the principle of the pendulum obtains in the elliptic spring. (f) But what has a pendulum (which is so commonly understood as belonging in a clock) got to do with the spring in an automobile? It has this to d o : the principle of the pendulum is present in the springit reacts to dampen the high frequency vibrations which are set up with the road wheels of the car coming into violent contact with the obstruction, evolving slower pendulum beats, producing agreeable riding qualities in the car. lid

( g ) H a v i n g established the fact that the law of the pendulum is at the bottom of easy riding qualities in an automobile, it remains to observe that it is the long pendulum which is slow in its beat, and it is the short pendulum which is of the high frequency order. There is but one main conclusion to reach under the circumstances, i. e., the greater the span of the springs, the greater will be their translating ability. But if the springs are too long, they will either be too w e a k for the load lo be carried or too heavy to be tolerated in a car, and their lateral play will be excessive. (h) Referring to the ability of the springs, remembering that steel is the only material that can possibly be employed for the purpose; remembering, also, that there

Fig. /. Halftone reproduction showing the nearly straight, relatively shorl. and lighl weight front spring of an automobile. indicating good design for the front end of a car where the load is substantially constant.

21

are an infinite variety of steels to be had on the market, what is more plain than that the quality of the springs, while this desirable property depends upon the design thereof, must necessarily be founded upon the quality of the steel used? (i) Referring to the steel of which springs are made, not forgetting that the quality of the steel is the basis of the quality of the springs; since it is true that the quality of the steel depends as m u c h upon the heat treatment as it does upon the initial value, on what basis is i t possible to deny that the quality of a spring depends upon the skill of the spring maker more than i t does upon the initial quality of the steel? (j) But h o w is the skill of the spring maker to be exerted to any purpose at all unless the quality of the steel is adequate for the purpose ? (k) A n d what is the use of wasting initially good spring steel, and taking up the time of a skilled spring maker in the fashioning of the spring, unless the design of the spring is such as to produce the desired result ? (1) Since the steel is fabricated in a steel mill, and the springs are m a d e in the spring maker's plant, and the automobile is assembled elsewhere, unless there is unity of thought between the metallurgist in the steel mill, the technician w h o supervises the efficiency of the spring, and the engineer w h o is responsible for the assembling of the whole in the plant of the maker of the automobile, to w h o m is the purchaser of that car to look for the disharmony that m a y reside therein? ( m ) Putting i t in plain English and referring the matter to c o m m o n law. i t is the invariable rule that the purchaser shall look out for himself. T h e purchaser must look out for himself because, as his good sense will tell him. i t is not difficult for a disharmony to creep in between the metallurgist in the steel mil!, the technician w h o 22

fashioned the springs, and the engineer w h o is responsible for the assembling of the whole in the plant of the maker of the automobile. (n) Then, too, there are debatable questions involved, as, for instance, s o m e users of automobiles object to side sway, which is caused by lateralflexibilityof the springs used in the suspension of the car. But h o w are the springs to be used to protect the mechanisms of the automobile from shock emanating from all directions if the springs are not to have a fair measure of lateral flexibility? In like manner, if the springs are restrained from fore and aft action due to the interposition of rigid distance rods, h o w are the springs to afford protection from the enormous shocks which arise w h e n the wheels violently contact with road obstructions? Fig. 8. Half-tone reproduction of the tront end of a car showing .ihe springs with iheir r-iiotts tightly clamping the spring to the perch. relatively straight springs, and means of lubrication. n D n n a a rS

d a

D
23

(o) Revamping the previous views on the subject of divided responsibility, is i t not quite clear to the reader that the purchaser of the automobile must take his measure of responsibility in proportion as he dictates the requirements and compels the builder of the car to cater to his incongruous views? If the user insists upon a car that has no side sway, and the life of the automobile is seriously impaired in consequence of lateral rigidity of the couples involved, w h o but the user of the car shall be responsible for the result ? (p) True, not a few of the experiences of automobilists, when properly interpreted, resulted in the ultimate and considerable improvement of the automobile. Equally true, from the point of view here taken, these users, w h o furnish valuable experience, were the very persons w h o fell short of a good investment in proportion as they were able to relate valuable experiences. Naturally, from the point of view of the user, i t is far from his desire to merely get experience out of his purchase. T h e real aim of the level-minded user of a car is to realize pleasure and profit. It is equally true of the level-minded purchaser of an automobile that he hesitates to tell the builder thereof h o w to fashion and assemble the car. Indeed, referring to the maker's warranty, the user cannot expect the maker of the car to be an enthusiastic backer of the warranty if the automobile is seriously hampered with a lot of innovations emanating from the fertile imagination of the insistent user. In a word, it is high time that the user should understand that his loud voice, reflecting the money in his pocket, will be rendered as d u m b as the maker will be deaf w h e n the m o n e y changes hands. This way of looking at i t only refers to the type of user w h o refuses to accept an automobile unless he gets a lot of his innovations plastered upon it. Moreover, i t takes into account the class of maker of automobiles w h o 2'

throws the w o r k of his engineers to the dogs, substituting the ill-advised user's innovations. ( q ) Not forgetting that a relation exists between the springs and the tiresthat these elements combined are the conservators of the investmentthe purchaser of an automobile will exhibit w i s d o m in proportion as h e indicates a willingness to pay for g o o d sized tires o n his car. (r) In this connection it will be w i s d o m on the part of the purchaser of the car if he will m a k e sure that he is taking his demonstrations on tires exactly the s a m e size as are put o n the car of his purchase. (s) If the tires are small as expressed in tire ability, what is m o r e plain lhan that the springs must be overw o r k e d ? A n d . if the springs are to be overworked, h o w Fig. 9. From Spring suspension of an automobile combining the soft riding qualities of wire wheels, indicating harmony. u a G D D D D

a a

d
2 ; >

are they to perform as well as they should in the process of conserving the investment ? (t) Again, if the purchaser takes a demonstration in an automobile fitted with large tires but softly inflated, and gets the impression that the car rides beautifully, thinking that the springs are doing fine work; if that purchaser does not use these large tires softly inflated on the car delivered to him, h o w is he going to reconcile his original views with the facts? (u) H a r m o n y must exist between the tires and the springs, otherwise there can be no harmony existing between the purchasers mind and his purchase. The springs must be large enough to do the work, but they must not be m a d e larger for the purpose of enabling them to perform the duties of the tires. (v) Not a few automobilists have had to consider the disappearance of the power of the motor. They neglect to observe that every motion imparted to every member in the make-up of an automobile detracts from the power of the motor. If the automobile is well-designed with the parts in unison and in harmony, the power required to drive the car along the road will be reduced, reflecting that harmony. ( w ) In the interest of harmony, and in order that the springs shall be free to do their allotted work, the good automobile is so designed and constructed that there will be no undue binding of its component parts at their points of contact and where they are connected to each other. Betimes w h e n the springs apparently fail to work, the remedy lies in applications of lubricating oil to the various small joints abounding in the chassis thus freeing them so that they will respond to the actions, without setting up undue reactions to be interpreted by the springs. (x) T h e same type of harmony that favors the springs, permitting them to do their allotted work unhampered by 2li

an adverse environment, helps the tires in their severe undertaking and helps the owner of the car to realize upon his investment. (y) T h e judgment of the driver of the automobile has an enormous influence upon the life, not forgetting the excellence of service, of the car. W h e n the roads are bad the automobile should be driven at a slow rate of speed. W h e n the roads are good the automobile should not be driven so fast that the brake will have to be applied with violence. W h e n the day's run is over and the driver finds that he averages but a spare twenty miles per hour, he might just as well m a k e up his mind that the best w a y to go twenty miles per hour is to establish an average speed which is very close to the maxim u m speed. W h y go fast one minute and crawl the next? W h y not travel twenty miles per hour for each succeeding hour throughout the run? T h e end will be in the better conservation of the investment, greater enjoyment of the sport, a materially reduced tire bill, a nicer action of the springs and, what is more to the point, the justification of the undertaking. (z) In proportion as automobilists in the past have disregarded the importance of springs, it is in that proportion that the experienced owners of cars of today are taking them into account.

Examining Maker's

Warranty

STANDARDIZATION, as the word relates to the maker's guarantee, is an accomplished fact: but this settled state of affairs is not so clear when reference is had to the users of automobiles. Stripping warranties of their legal verbiage, they mean in plain English that the maker accepts responsibility for proven inherent im-

27

perfections in his product, and that the purchaser must accept responsibility for the ills of gross misuse, abuse, and ordinary w e a r and tear. W h e n the user of an automobile claims that a defect resides in his car. and he calls u p o n the m a k e r thereof to stand back of his expressed warranty, the m a k e r is confronted by the necessity of ascertaining whether or not the defect, as claimed, is the product of gross misuse, or abuse, before he will be in position to accept the conclusion arrived at by the user that the defect is traceable to inherent imperfections of material or w o r k m a n s h i p . Inherent imperfections of material are necessarily described as that class of defects residing in the component parts of the car, such as are hidden f r o m the naked eye of the inspector, only to be uncovered by the tooling process, if at all. In order to reach a better understanding of the nature and scope of inherent imperfections of m a terial, reference m a y be had to Fig. 10, which is a micrograph showing a typical flaw in the malleable iron cast-

Fig. 10. Micrograph disclosing a typical flaw in a malleable iron casting. This flaw was produced by shrinkage during the cooling of the metal in the mold. Castings of all sons almost invariably showflawsof this _ character at the junctions of verging arms. due to Ihe mass of metal involved on account of Ihefillet,and in some cases because of defective design. For this and other reasons drop forging* and pressed steel parts | are given preference in the best type of automobiles,

lAg. II. Micrograph showing the typical hard spot in mild Steel, in this case caused by the segregation of cementite. Not infrequently automobilist-. encounter difficulty with their cardan -.haft* and Other torsional members. which are twisted off when the car is negotiating a considerable grade or traversing soft roads. Usually (he failure is attributed to the extra work impoicd upon the car but. in some cases, the failure may traced ing, cause d bbe y s h r i n k a g e t h r o u g h the cooling o f the metal to such conditions as are in the m o l d . T h e black c a n y o n s , w h i c h radiate in three disclosed in this figure. directions fr o m the As a rule the makers of center, are cavities attended b y a g e n eral porosity l o n g t h e line o f the flaw. B u t the figure automobiles will a replace parts show s h o w which s that, s o defects far as the exterior surface o f the metal is of this character. Fig._ 13. Micrograph depicting blow holes in ihe section of a steel shaft. These imperfections are characteristic in steel and somciimcs they reach such an acute stage thai the shafts and other parts made from such steel develop weaknesses which impair thcnWor service. Defects of this character are only lo_ be detccled under the microscope. The fact remains that users of automobiles, if they experience trouble through the breakage of pans, should closely scrutinize fractures they the failure. can.and theascertain, reason the for if

29

concerned, i t looks so entirely free from imperfections, that a part m a d e of this metal would be likely to escape the vigilance of the inspector at the plant. However, should a part thus fashioned fail in actual service, the imperfection would be uncovered at the point of fracture and i t is scarcely to be expected that any maker of automobiles would decline to replace such a part with its obvious defect. But there are imperfections of material that are not so clearly defined, and yet they are a class of imperfections that unquestionably are the cause of failure in service. Fig. 11 is a micrograph of just such a product, showing typical hard spots in the metal. T h e hard region to the left is a segregation of what is k n o w n as cementitc, as i t obtains in a low carbon steelthe material is shown in its natural state at the right of the figure. There is a third type of inherent imperfection that resists discovery tenaciously. Fig. 12 is a micrograph characteristic of this type of imperfection showing small blowholes as indicated by black spots scattered over the section of the metal. It is not believed that these small blowholes are alone such material causes of failure, but they indicate that the metal itself is not up to a high standard. T h e average maker, realizing that a satisfied customer is the best advertisement, takes the broad-minded view that a clean fracture of a part, where there is no evidence of abuse of the car, is sufficient evidence to warrant the replacement of the part without discussion.

H o w to Conserve the Springs NSTEAD of applying a lubricant over the adjacent I surfaces of the leaves of the springs it is proposed to introduce a composition of gum-like consistency for 30

the purpose of preventing rust on the one hand, and maintaining a constant rate of friction on the other. In the application of the materials to be employed between plates to prevent the formation of rust and to maintain a constant rate of friction, the fact must not be overlooked that the hollow formed between the adjacent concave surfaces of the leaves accumulates the silt of the road, which must be excluded to obtain the best result. In the suggested process there are interposed strips or ribbons of fabric saturated with a non-mobile material of gum-like consistency. This material is a mixture of bees w a x and resinous g u m s , the bees w a x and g u m s being mingled and applied in a hot or molten condition to the fabric, whereby the interstices of the weave composing the fabric will be filled with this material of gum-like consistency. In selecting the ingredients for the material with which the fabric is saturated, preference is expressed for bees w a x because of its rust-preventing qualities ; whereas the resinous g u m s arc taken advantage of because of their anti-lubricating qualities. It will be readily understood that, with the interstices of the weave of the fabric filled with this material of gum-like consistency, the leaves making up the spring will be prevented from rusting, while a high and uniform friction will be opposed to the relative movements between the plates. Each ply or ribbon of fabric provides a reservoir for the retention of the non-lubricating gum-like material. A s a practical device, i t is suggested that the ribbon for use in this work shall be about a N o . 14 duck. so-called, as a suitable fabric, and, with fabric of this weight and thickness interposed between the leaves of an ordinary spring, the cumulative effect of these plies, under compression at the center of the spring, not forgetting the cooperation of the retainers, is to subject the spring clips to elastic tension, which is a most excellent means 31

of preventing the spring clips from loosening up, thereby dispensing with the use of any locking device for the nuts. It is more than likely that the life of a spring having these plies of fabric interposed between plates will be very materially enhanced on account of the cushioning effect of the fabric in addition to the ability of the respective plates to form a good seat in relation to each other, resulting iu more uniform conditions of stress of the extreme fiber.

Attitude of M i n d is Readily Transferred F r o m Master to Servant, E v e n T h o u g h T h a t Servant M a y B e in the Shape of a Motor CANDIDLY speaking, the type of automobilist who experiences continual trouble with his car on the road is like the m a n w h o fell asleep in the street with his t e a m s o m e roguish boys unhitched the horses, as the story is related, and w h e n the m a n awoke he came to the conclusion that he had either lost a horse or found a wagon. W h e n a m a n goes to a dealer to purchase an automobile he experiences little or n o difficulty in acquiring what he goes after. H e is even told h o w the automobile must be managed to get the best results out of it. Does that m a n carefully note d o w n the instructions that are so carefully extended to him? Does he read the instruction book that he finds in the " k i t " or that is handed to him with injunctions to read and learn what he should k n o w about the vehicle? T h e wise automobilist does all of these things. But h o w about the m a n w h o cannot be set d o w n in the classification of the wise? T h e best that can be said for him is that he even forgets that an instruction book exists. W h y ? Because that m a n relics upon the automobile. H e admits that the vehicle knows more about h o w it should g o than he can 32

possibly know. T h e m a n as m u c h as says: " M y automobile is endowed with a set of brains to think; eyes to see; ears to hear; the sense to smell; a well-trained taste, and i t can feel." W h a t does this type of automobilist find out in the course of his experience? That the socalled brain of the automobile is mere endurance; that the seeing power of the vehicle is mere habitthe habit of goinga habit that the maker originally endowed the vehicle with; that the sense of hearing of the automobile is nothing in comparison with the din that i t makes when it is neglected; that the sense of smell is limited to the exhaust from the forgotten motor; the carburetor is "squawking" for attention; that taste, as it was referred to, is reduced to lack of taste of the automobilist; that feeling in the automobile is soon leveled to a sense of hard feeling, which other automobilists harbor against the owner of the car, w h o , in addition to his neglect of his o w n property, disregards other people's rightsour hero soon falls into the ranks of the " road hog." That m a n is like the m a n w h o taught his horse to eat shavings, but the horse died of his education. Trouble in a motor in the hands of the automobilist w h o does not try to master the few simple rules of its proper manipulation is like a leech that does not leave the skin until it is full of blood. It would be a great thing, were it possible, for makers of motors to so contrive that the product would be like the India rubber m a n w h o professed to have the singular faculty of swallowing himself. W h a t usually happens is that this type of owner discovers before the end of the year that he will get better service if he trades in his much-abused automobile and gets a n e w one in its stead. After practicing this art for two or three years, he goes around with a hurt expression on his countenance, telling his friends ( w h o do not believe h i m ) that he feels like the old w o man's eels, which eventually got used to being skinned. 33

S o m e m e n are like old wagons, they rattle most when there is nothing in them. A n d when they rattle, of the words that they utter, they are fondest of stating that there is a great difference in the behavior of even automobiles of the same model and make, produced under the same shop order by the same identical set of men. W h a t they mean is that, considering a lot of automobiles, in a sense, as a bushel of apples, some of them are spotted, and some of them are ripe, but some of them are green, yet others of them are w o r m y , and i t is not farfetched for one to reach the conclusion that they would infer that the balance of them are rotten at the core.

Reflecting G o o d R o a d

Work

"D INFERRING to the flat plate type of springs employed * * in the suspension of automobilesremembering that they are composed of a plurality of relatively thin leaves one upon the other, not forgetting that a few automobilists over-concern themselves in relation to the care and attention proper to award these springsa little attention bestowed upon the subject m a y not be out of place. Despite the fact that the springs of this character should not be lubricated, all sorts of devices are being suggested as advisable to employ in the process of lubricating springs. Catchpenny ideas are thrust upon the notice of the unsuspecting users of cars; they are asked to investigate various types of "jimmies." diminutive crowbars and other instruments of the Archimedean genera, with instructions to use them to pry apart the leaves of the springs in order that lubricant of one kind or another m a y be deposited upon the surfaces. O f course the springs arc destroyed when the plates are thus bent out of 34

shape; the stresses set u p in the fiber of the metal of which the leaves are composed too often exceed the elastic limit under the conditions here suggested and, even if the springs do not break at the time, their life expectation thereafter must necessarily be a matter of grave concern to the prudent automobilist. Very few automobilists realize that the leaves of which springs are composed are concave; to the casual observer these leaves look flat. T h e concavity, which will be found upon measurement, is sufficient to prevent bearing of the leaves except along their edges. There arc those w h o harbor the mistaken notion that this concavity is resorted to for the purpose of providing a pocket for lubricant. O f course a lubricating grease can be smeared over the plates and m u c h of i t will be retained in the hollow formed by the concavities of the adjacent spring members or. for that matter, some sort of a lubricating button m a y be inserted between the plates at the points of bearings near their extremities. In the meantime, as before intimated. any attempt to lubricate the leaves of the springs will, in a measure, defeat the undertaking. In proportion as friction is set u p between the leaves of the spring, to that extent the fiber of which the leaves are m a d e will be saved from stress. In a word, the utility of the spring is represented in its ability to dissipate energy, which is converted into heat either by friction between the plates or by molecular work. It is obvious. therefore, that the plates should not be lubricated, for then all of the work will fall upon the fibers of the material and the life of the spring be materially shortened. In advertising devices for use in the process of prying the spring leaves apart for the purpose of inserting the lubricant, there are those w h o advocate the use of the lubricant to stop squeaking and other noises which are said to emanate from springs. But these doctors overlook the source of the squeaks to which they allude; little or no 35

noise ever comes from between the plates; indeed, every noise investigated by the writer, which was claimed as having its source between the leaves of the springs, proved to have been due to interferences of mechanisms of one kind or another, thus proclaiming lack of clearance in the design of the vehicle, or lack of lubricant in the bearings of the shackles and other parts connected with or in the region of the springs. N o t a few of the squeaks which are said to emanate from springs c o m e from the body, due to working in its various joints. Another phase of the spring lubricating problem has to do with rust. It is said that lubricant, deposited on the surfaces of the leaves, will prevent the formation of rust. There is a measure of truth in statements of this sort; acid-free lubricant will subdue rustit will also strip the paint off of the vehicle by breaking the bond between the layer of paint and the surface to which i t is attaclied. In the meantime, the lubricating greases, composed of horse tallow and other refuse matter, blackened with a little graphite (which does not disguise the odor), are by n o means a safe agent to employ in the process of alleviating rust formations. T h e reverse condition obtains; acid, which is a natural constituent of these dirty greases, will etch the steel, with what result? T h e extremefiberof the steel (which is the part that has to do nearly all of the w o r k ) will be changed in character; some of its constituents will be dissolved by the acid, and the remainder of its constituents will stand out like a jagged chain of mountains unsupported by the surrounding scenery. A s a sign of the best requirement in the care of springs. attention is called to the practice of sportsmen w h o enter their high-powered automobiles in contests w h o . before " crossing the tape," not only tune up their engines and 36

overhaul their cars generally but, in view of the grilling test to which they essay to subject the mechanism as a whole, they put great reliance upon the springs. But in order to get the best result out of the springs, instead of applying a lubricant over the surfaces of the plates, they wrap strong cotton cord of excellent diameter closely around the spring and from end to end, the idea being to compress the plates firmly against each other without interfering with the flexure of the spring as a whole. T h e average automobilist would not care to entertain an unsightly wrapping of cotton cord around the springs of his automobile, hence the practice of attaching retainers to the springs. These retainers are of particular use when the springs are suffering reaction. T o whatever extent the retainers are responsible for intimacy of contact of leaves they serve a further purpose in that the friction of contact is increased. T h e fact remains, however, that retainers are inefficient for anything excepting cooperation during reaction.

f>?<3

0?<3

37

Referring to N o i s e s Peculiar to M o t o r s T-USREGARDING promiscuous discussion of the L^ noises which emanate from motors i n general on
the ground that in the absence of classifications of the causes of these disagreeable sounds there is no profit, i t remains merely to observe that these noises are fairly well-defined, which is a point that w a s well-brought out in an article appearing in T h e Engineer ( L o n d o n ) , issue of February 13. 1914, as follows: " At the present time a manufacturer is at liberty to turn out a vehicle that m a y m a k e almost unlimited noise, and it is only the maker of the private passenger car who is compelledby those whose custom he seeksto make a careful study of the silent working of the vehicles made by him. It is certain that vehicles can be m a d e to run almost inaudiblythe exception being the slight noise caused by steel-studded tires rolling upon the road surface; so quiet, indeed, is the progress of some cars w e could mention that considerable responsibility rests upon the driver of such lest a foot passenger should, not being aware of the car's approach, step off the pavement into the roadway and be perhaps struck d o w n and injured. If a vehicle provided with an engine of 30 horse-power or more can be m a d e to run silently, w h y then cannot all have such features embodied in their construction as would m a k e them equally silent? W e must admit that the question of expense of manufacture has to be considered, and no doubt, to a certain degree, silence costs m o n e y ; at the same time, a great deal of totally unnecessary noise is permitted because responsible authorities have not yet realized the great necessity for tolerable quietness for the millions of daily workers in great cities.

If i t is proper and right that a large proportion of the community should occupy its time with brain rather than body work, it is surely essential for these people, and important for those w h o m a y follow them, that that brain work should be performed under reasonably quiet conditions and without constant aggravating noise and clamor. " It is necessary to m a k e some attempt broadly to classify noises, though, with the exceptionin the case of motive p o w e r o f dividing gasoline vehicles from other vehicles, it docs not seem necessary or desirable to separate vehicle types. Even the motorcycle can have its engine, transmission, and exhaust noises discussed with the gasoline motor omnibus, motor truck, privatelyowned car, etc. " T h e apparently best classification brings all noises under one or other of four headings; these a r e : A. Noises produced by engine. B. Noises produced by transmission. C. Noises produced by vibrationdue to both engine and road. D. Noises produced by wheel contact with road. " T h e first heading it will be necessary to subdivide thus:

Gasoline.

Othkb.

" Electrically-driven vehicles w e d o not propose to discuss, as they are almost beyond criticismat any rate. in contrast with other motor vehicles. " T h e three remaining divisions can be dealt with irrespective of the particular form of power employed. A . Noises produced by gasoline engines. " T h e valve mechanism.Taking an engine of standard typethat is, one employing poppet valvesthere is little doubt that the valve actuating mechanism is responsible for the larger proportion of the clatter that occurs.

T h e tappets striking the valve stems ( 1 ) ; the valves falling upon their searings (?) ; the cams striking the tappet rollers ( 3 ) ; the rollers falling upon the cams (-1); and, finally, side movement of the tappets due to wear (5);all m a y be the cause of slight noise. These five sources of noise, which are indicated clearly in Fig. 13, have to be multiplied by eight in the case of a fourcylinder engine: thus, during each complete cycle of two revolutions there m a y be no less than forty distinct though slight blows, and the combined effect of these can be considerable, and is particularly noticeable in the case of some heavy vehicles, such as motor trucks, motor omnibuses, etc. Supposing that each set of valve mechanism produces during every cycle one only of these five possible noises, the eight valves of a four-cylinder engine will then give eight diminutive knocks per cycleor four per revolution. A t 750 revolutions per minute there would then be 3000 of these slight valve noises each minute. It is not possible for the ear to separate each individual knock w h e n the interval of time between is so brief; hence i t appears that one knock only per set of valve mechanism is quite sufficient to cause the dull, continuous roar that one frequently hears proceeding from the bonnet of some types of vehicle. It is considered that the boxing-in of the valve stems, etc., n o w rather c o m m o n practice, does not have the effect of boxing-in the noise; however, covers over the valves do undoubtedly protect them from road dust drawn through the radiator, and thus these covers, by preventing wear, also assist in the maintenance of silent working. T o produce a silent valve gear, then, the following points have to receive attention: I. A m i n i m u m of clearance between tappet and valve stem. ?. A m i n i m u m lift for the valve. HI

3. T h e use of cams, giving an easy rising and falling movement to the valves. 4. Springs to keep valve stem and tappet in contact. 5. Valve springs of suitable strength. ( ' . Fiber insertions for tappets. " Unfortunately, an engine that m a y be perfectly silent whenfirstput upon the road may, after a few weeks' use. develop into a noisy engine simply because slight wear has taken place in some of the parts mentioned above. W e a r in these small details must be stopped, and enclosing the valvesespecially if. the enclosing doors are of solid constructionis certainly an assisting factor. Attention is here drawn to an arrangement which permits the tappets and the lower ends of the valve stems to work in an oil bathsee Fig. 14. This appears to us to be an idea of great merit, for not only will wear be very m u c h reduced under these conditions, but any slight noise that might otherwise occur will be deadened. It must not be forgotten, however, that all liquids transmit sound well. T h e beneficial effect of submerging moving parts beneath some liquid, such as oil, appears to be threefold;first,the presence of oil between parts alternately thrown into and out of contact has a softening influence at the m o m e n t of contact; second, wear is prevented so that good working fits are maintained; and. third, the presence of oil in an enclosed chamber, if the sides of the chamber are not very stiff, undoubtedly reduces the possibility of vibration of the sides and thus has a quieting effect. A s an example of this latter, it is only necessary to notice the difference in the volume of sound produced w h e n an empty tank is struck with some hard substance and w h e n the same tank is struck w h e n full. T o enclose any moving part in a thin sheet metal casing with the idea of keeping in the noise is absolutely useless. T h e sides of such a casing must either be so stout as not to vibrate 41

or the casing must befilledwith liquidoilin order to lessen or altogether suppress vibration of the walls. ' * A plan which has always seemed to us to be a satisfactory one for reducing tappet noise is shown in Fig. 15. A flat spring is attached to the top of the tappet radius link, and this spring pushes the tappet upwards into contact with the valve stem end, and maintains the radius link in contact with the cam. T h e only clearance is that between the under side of the spring and the upper side of the link, and probably oil hereabouts will have a satisfactory muffling effect upon any slight noise at the moment of valve lift. " Usually the designer of a slow-speed engine, suitable for the commercial vehicle, prefers to use a small valve, because i t keeps his cylinder design more compact and slightly lessens the machining necessary and the material; such a valve must, to give a reasonable gas flow. have a high lift, and is consequently noisy. " With regard to c a m shaft gear, if silent chains are used, noise is almost entirely absent, but i t is not so easy to produce a silent running set of toothed gears for camshaft driving. " T h e remarks w e have m a d e concerning valve mechanism apply to four-cycle engines of all sizes and whatever the number of cylinders; the single-cylinder engine, particularly that type used for motorcycle propulsion, though this engine has two tappets only, often produces more noise than a large engine such as might have eight or a dozen tappets. High-speed coupled with unsuitable cam design is responsible for this fact, and also, since these parts are usually entirely exposed to the road dust, they soon become worn. " T h e exhaust.From valve mechanism w e will pass to exhaust ejection, and, since w c have a case here in which noise can, without doubt, be entirely eliminated, i t is difficult to see the reason w h y some vehiclesand the 42

motorcycle in particularare allowed to pass along the streets emitting a so m u c h greater volume of noise than vehicles m a n y times their size. T h e dimensions of most of the cycle mufflers w e have examined are totally inadequate, and if such mufflers are designed so that their capacity shall bear some proportion to cylinder capacity or piston swept volume, then w e say that the proportion chosen is almost invariably incorrect. It is admitted that any muffler must absorb some of the engine's power by causing a certain degree of back pressure during the exhaust stroke, and it is unreasonable for a user of the motorcycle or other vehicle to complain because this is Ihe case. Loss of power m a y slightly inconvenience a few people; noise interferes with the comfort of many. S o m e steps ought to be taken to compel motorcycle makers tofiteither m u c h larger or duplicate mufflers to their machines. If there were regulations as to muffler capacity, area of the hole or holes through which the exhaust is discharged to atmosphere, and, perhaps, also some stipulation with regard to thickness of material used, such regulations, if properly drawn up, ought certainly to be of benefit to the general public. T h e motorcyclist will no doubt say that his is a comparatively small vehicle, and that there is n o room upon his machine for a large muffler; to which w e would reply if there is room for an engine to carry the rider at 50 miles per hour or more, then certainly there is room for a proper and suitable muffler for the exhaust of that engine. If motorcycles and other light motor vehicles were to be put through a noise test, as suggested above, then it would rest with the makers tofitsuitable silencing devices. It is possible for the exhaust gases to be the cause of considerable noise before they reach the muffler; for example, if the exhaust valve stem guide is m u c h worn, at the m o m e n t of exhaust valve opening there is an escape of gas, producing a disagreeable hissing noise. This is a frequently unsus43

pected cause of noise, a n d occurs, naturally, m o s t often in a n engine that h a s spent s o m e years u p o n the road. P e r h a p s that type of valve stem guide s h o w n in Fig. 1G, which consists of t w o short bushes with a space between them, assists in a small w a y in diminishing the type of noise just mentioned. T h e space b e t w e e n the bushes m a y perhaps play the part of a n expansion or silencing c h a m b e r , a n d thus diminish the hiss m a d e b y the escape of exhaust gas. It is believed that the thickness of m a terial of which exhaust pipes are m a d e affects the sound question not a little. A pipe of light material will vibrate m o r e readily to the impact of the discharged g a s than will one of g o o d thickness. P e r h a p s a thickness of material about the s a m e as that e m p l o y e d in the case of standard iron pipe is most suitable, a n d the extra weight of such pipes for h e a v y m o t o r vehicles, o m n i b u s e s , a n d the like Fi^. 13. Section through poppet valve showing the number of parts used between the camshaft and the valve mushroom, and the relations which obtain beiween these parts. It will be readily understood that, in view o! the noise adjustment required in the operation of a valve, the mechanical means provided for adjustment must not only offer the functional facilities, but a sturdiness of design capable of resisting ihe hammer blows induced by the intermittent action of the cam. In some motors the roll on the end of the lift where it contacts wilh the cam is omitted. In other motors the adjusting nut is omitted. In such cases it Is the idea of the designer that, instead of adjusting: for wear, new pans be provided and substituted instead of the worn parts. The idea is by no means a bad one but the purchaser of an automobile ought to get Ihe maker's price-list of repair parts before he concludes his purchase, thereby ascertaining how much it will cost to replace these 44 able members when, as a result of non- adjust wear, they become too noisy and inefficient to longer serve their purpose. DDDDDQaUDD D

Fig. 14, Cross-section through the poppet valve of a motor (made abroad) showing the camshaft, tappet, and relating members sub. merged in oil. O n account of the perfect silence of sleeve valves in modern motors. the builders of the poppet valves are struggling to obtain a fair measure of silence in their products- This illustration is typical of the undertakings which have lor their purpose the preservation from wear of the relating m e m bers in the poppet valve svstem. It is admitted that noise is not muffled by oil. It is equally true, however, that submerging the parts in oil prevents wear. a n u is not worth consideration. If very thin pipe is used DDDDDDDDa near to the exhaust valve, it is conceivable that the high-pressure gas striking against a bend might cause a noise almost as if the pipe had been struck by some solid substance. Since it is a proved possibility, however. to silence completely the exhaust of a private motor car of standard touring car dimensions, n o vehicle of greater or less size ought to be permitted to run with a more noisy exhaust. A silent exhaust appears to result from a study of the following considerations:(a) A muffler of suitable capacity, (b) A muffler of stiff and strong construction, (c) Suitable arrangements within the muffler to check the velocity of the exhaust gases, to cool the gases, and to split them u p into small jets, (d) Fairly heavy exhaust pipes, (e) Sound joints throughout the system. " W h e n there is a noisy exhaust on, say, a commercial vehicle, a duplicate muffler would, beyond doubt, cure it, and such a method of correction should add little to cost

45

or weight. S o far as exhaust noise only is concerned, if vehicles w e r e arranged in order, the list would perhaps be as follows:motorcycles, m o t o r carriers, etc.; motor cabs; light delivery w a g o n s ; heavy commercial vehicles; m o t o r omnibuses; privately-owned vehicles the last-mentioned being, of course, the most silent type of vehicle. " T h e above leads one to think that the manufacturer usually takes little care in the matter of a silent exhaust unless he is compelled to d o so by his customers, the private o w n e r being perhaps the only one to d e m a n d silence in this as in other respects. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that a noisy exhaust is actually a ' selling point' in the case of the motorcycle, these vehicles being almost invariably noisy. Vehicles should all be brought to one standard in the matter of the noise m a d e by exhaust ejection, and that standard need be n o lower d o w n the scale than that of the average touring car. " Air suction.It is remarkable that, though in some of the earliest motor vehicles to be imported into this country mufflers were employed to soften the noise of

46

Fig. IS. Suggestion of a means for preventing the noise in poppet valve motors. interposing a finger between the cam and the end of the tappet shaft is an old device. In (his case, however, the tongue-like spring fastened to the upper side of Ihefingerand acting between the Dfinger D and the endof the tappet takes up lost motion. D

Fig. 16. Showing a type of valve and stem and guide which is being used to a limited extent in the struggle to prevent poppet valve noises. The space between the bushings is said to play a pari, serving as an expansion chamber for ihe escaping gases so that ihey exude under quiescent pressures. T o what extent this innovation serves a useful purpose is something ol a question. The fact remains that il is an excel lent example of the considerable pressure under which the designers D of poppet valve motors are laboring in the D D for D silent D Daction a of n motors a nof this struggle type, the suction stroke, such devices are not c o m m o n at the present time. T h e sucking noise to which w e refer is, indeed, not very objectionable, but such noises will certainly become more prominent as soon as other sounds are reduced in volume. Most of the best-known carburetors in use are provided with more than one opening through which air enters and it would be necessary to couple all air inlets to a c o m m o n muffling chamber, thus there might be, as a result of this, some pipe complication. It appears to us that the question is one for the consideration of those w h o are makers and patenters of carburetors. If the maker does not care to supply a silencing device as part of his carburetor outfitand w e think that i t would be quite worth his while to d o s o h e could well arrange the air ports of the carburetor in such fashion that a small muffling chamber might be attached if one was deemed to be necessary. In mentioning this particular feature, w e do so because w e consider that any noise whatever produced by a motor vehicle ought to be stopped if possible, and w e do not, of course, suggest that the noise caused by the suction of an engine

1 7

is very objectionable. It is possible, and perhaps likely, that just as a muffler to the exhaust of an engine absorbs a percentage of power, in the same way an inlet muffler will also be responsible for a slight loss. A n engine running with an inlet muffler would d r a w its air supply from a source having a pressure a little below that of the atmosphere, whereas, normally the supply would be taken direct from the atmosphere. S o m e degree of ' starving' would take place, and no doubt objection would be raised to thefittingof suction mufflers by those engine builders w h o seek for very high volumetric efficiency. It is, perhaps, unreasonable to expect to find a suction muffler on a cycle engine, yet i t m a y be that if the exhaust of these small engines were to be dealt with as w e have suggested above, the air suction would then cry out for attention. W e have noticed that where sleeve valve engines are employed, suction through the carburetor is the most prominent engine noisetappet and valve noise being, of course, entirely absent. There is no doubt that the introduction of the mechanical inlet valve has m u c h reduced the necessity for suction silencingthe intermittent air flow past the automatic valve and the clatter of the valve upon its seating was the cause of considerably more noise than is n o w usual. " In addition to the engine noises that w e have already dealt with, and which m a y , perhaps, be termed permanent noises, there are a few others that only occur intermittently. L'nder this heading comes leaking compression cocks, blowing sparking plugs, explosions in the muffler, and popping in the carburetor. T h e two first mentioned do not occur frequently, and result from slight temporary derangement, and they are easily put right. T h e two remaining can hardly be completely eliminated and, since they are closely connected with the perfection of the ignition system and of the carbureting device, i t is probable that in the course of time both will, to all in48

tents and purposes, disappear. W e have heard it suggested that explosions in the muffler might be prevented by placing a series of gauze screens in the end of the exhaust pipe where it enters the muffler. T h e objections to such a suggestion are, in thefirstcase, that the screens would quickly become choked, and, unless the exhaust pipe was a long one, the screens might become hot enough to permit flame to pass. Carburetor popping occurs principally w h e n starting up and w h e n the mixture is liable to be of uncertain quality. T h e carburetor has by no means reached its final design, and improvement is always in the direction of securing a correct mixture percentage under all conditions; thus there is a tendency to reduce the possibility of flame spreading back into the carburetor and causing a low-pressure explosion there."

W h a t Becomes of Lubricating Oil? WHEN the average automobilist replenishes the lubricating oil in the reservoir of his motor he doubtless realizes two things: (a) That lubricating oil, if i t is of good quality, is a relatively expensive product, and (b) the oil disappears, leaving almost no residuum. O f course. some of the oil is burned up in the combustion chamber of the motor. But, if the lubricating system is well designed the pistons of the motor will be adequately supplied with lubricating oil without the necessity of great waste to the combustion chamber. Making due allowance for the oil that is burnt, the fact remains that a large part of the lubricant disappears through channels which are not as a rule fully accounted for. T h e best explanation of the disappearance of lubricating oil is probably given by Count Rumford, w h o m a d e some experiments for the purpose of finding out as much

as he could about this matter. T h e Count took a metal vessel with a hollow bottom and a perpendicular shaft fitted with a fan; this was rapidly rotated by mechanical power. T h e vessel was filled with water, and it was ascertained that after four hours the temperature of the water went up to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, owing to the absorption of frictional heat; in eight hours the boiling point of water (212 degrees Fahrenheit) w a s reached. After this the water began to diminish in bulk so long as the shaft was kept in motion. Substituting oil for water, the same performance was observed. In a word, the temperature of the oil gradually increased, and, at the higher temperatures reached, the oil showed evaporation and its bulk diminished. T h e Count reached the conclusion that the process of lubrication represents more than a simple mechanical matter of keeping two surfaces apart. In a word, the oil film theory does not satisfactorily account for all of the phenomena of lubrication. It was further concluded that lubrication involves chemical reactions. T h e chemical part of the process seems to consist in the evaporation of the oil, its transformation into a gaseous state, and the dissipation of heat by the oil while in its gaseous state. It is also to be remembered that friction occurs between the two films of oil themselves. True, evaporation only takes place in bearings on a small scale, so small indeed, as to be imperceptible to our senses. It has been concluded that where the journal exerts the greatest pressure on the bearing there is a line to be drawn where the invisible transformation of the oil from the liquid into the gaseous state takes place. This line is very small, perhaps not more than two or three one-thousandths of an inch, but it is on this line that the frictional heat starts to be generated, and being 50

taken u p by a few molecules of oil at a time, is carried with the vapor into space, Neglected bearings m a y become overheated, and under the rapidly increasing temperature the few particles of oil m a y vaporize too fast and become decomposed by the increased heat. T h e vapor with its burning smell proved the slow and mysterious process by which the oil disappears. It is also to be inferred that the latent heat of evaporation of the fluid takes a part in the lubricating process. W h e n lubricating oil gets stale, as it does when it is long in service, i t is easily ascertained that its unctuous properties are n o longer present, but i t is not quite so simple to state what becomes of the unctuous properties of the oil w h e n it wears out. However, since the evaporation of the lubricating oil in the bearings is accounted for, it m a y not be too m u c h to observe that its process is nothing more or less than a process of distillation, and in the " still " i t will be understood that as the boiling-off process advances the residuum becomes a more or less sticky and viscous mass.

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Points A b o u t Spark-Plugs "^OT a few automobile motors have been condemned * ' on account of insufficient performance without the reasons having been discovered. T o obtain the best results in a motor i t is not only necessary to observe that the mechanism is in a sweet running condition, but i t is equally to the point to find lhat the carburetion is cooperative, not forgetting that the ignition system must be in harmony and well-Contrived. Spark-plug troubles are at the bottom of m a n y cases of dissatisfaction. The spark-plug is a simple contrivance, with every appearance of stability, and yet sparkplug trouble is not only difficult to locate but even the ability of the device itself tests the competence of those w h o essay to take its measure. C o m m o n account has it that the high potential voltage in the average ignition system runs into a very high figure10.000 volts are referred to as nothing out of the ordinary. Actual tests disclose quite another matter, as the following records will show:

Electrical T e s t i n g 8589.

Laboratories

Report

No.

H i g h Potential T e s t s o n S p a r k -

p l u g C o m p l e t e a n d Porcelain Insulators. Samples. O n e spark-plug complete with six extra porcelain insulators for the mplete wit same were submit! submitted. Object. The object of the tests was to determine the arcing or break-down voltage between the terminal and the metal parts under the various conditions given below. Method. T h e high potential tests on the spark-plug were made by applying an alternating voltage bctween~the electrode and shell with a sheet of mica between the regular sparking points. The tests on the porcelain insulator were made by selling Ihe same in mercury to about the depth of the ?**r.,r,m an . *"PP>.v"*R an alternating voltage between the mercury and a tinfoil plug placed in the hole in the top of the porcelain. These voltages

were applied at a low value, raised gradually, and the effect noted. T h e approximate time which elapsed between the point where the voltage reached an appreciable value and that ol arcing over was about ten sec- The r.i transformers used had a capacity of three kilovolt amperes and a nominal ratio of 6000 io 100 volis. The voltage was measured by a voltmeter across the low tension circuit in connection wilh the ratio of transformation. Data. The-source of the current was a sixty cycle circuit, the voltage waveform of which is practically a Sine curve. The voltages given are effective (square root of mean square) and not maximum values. High Potential Tests. Sample Test Volts No- N o * AM-flS"1 Remarks Test on bpark-PiUK. complete with Oil Deflector. 1 4500 Arced from terminal stem to oil deflector. 2 5160 Arced from terminal stem to oil deflector. Test on Spark-Plug, complete without Oil Deflector. 3 5520 Arced from terminal stem to shell. Tests on Spark-Plug wilh lower or outer bushing removed. 4 7920 Arced from terminal stem to shell. 5 8100 Arced from terminal stem to shell. Same as preceding with a new porcelain substituted for old one. * 1 7200 Arced from terminal stem to shell. Insulator alone. Report N o . Test 5 7on 4 1Porcelain . Miscellaneous Tests o n 3 8460 Arced through center. Spark-Plugs SparkPlug Bushings 2 and 6300 Arced through center " This lower value is probably due largely to the deposit on the inner Samples. wall from thefirstarcing. Six spark-plugs complete, plain white porcelain and two composiRelative humidity, 7 4 % of six saturation. tion bushings were submitted. Room temperature, 23 cent. Object. The object of the test was to determine (a) Insulation resistance of the bushings. (b) Dielectric strength, as determined by high potential test. (c) Effect upon the porcelain of heating and cooling. Methods of Tests. (a) Insulation Resistance. This test wa* made by the usual sensitive galvanometer method, on direct current. The electrodes used were the terminals of the plug. (b) Dielectric Strength. This test was made by impressing an alternating voltage between the inner terminal of the plug, and a narrow strip of tinfoil wrapped about ihe outer circumference of the porcelain or composition. The distance from the inner terminal was noted. The voltage was applied at a low value, 53 The raised transformers gradually, used and had the a effect capacity noted. of 1 Kilo-watt, and a nominal

ratio of 20000 lo 100 volts. The voltage was determined from the in dications of a voltmeter across the primary circuit, and the ratio ot transformation. This was checked by means of an electrostatic voltmeter connected directly across the sample under lesl. Data The voltages given are mean effective and not maximum values. The test was made with sixly cycle current, the wave form of which it practically a sine curve. (c) Effect of Heating and Cooling upon the Porcelain. One end ol each sample was held in a Bunsen flame for various periods. and the effect noted. Resistance (a) Insulation Resistance. (1) With Porcelain Bushings. RejistaMT All six samples too high to be readily measured at 300 volts. was greater lhan 1,000,000 megohms. (2) With Plain White Porcelain Bushings. All six samples too high to be readily measured at 300 volts. was greater than 1.000.000 megohms. Length of (3) With Composition Bushings. Sample Air Cap. Volts Remarks The resistance as measured on 300 volts was about 1,000,000 No- insulation Inches Applied (1) Porcelains. megohms. 17400 Arced over both upper and lower surfaces. (b) Dielectric Strength. 16000 Arced over lower surface. 17400 Arced over lower surface for about S seconds and then punctured. 1SS00 Arced over lower surface. S 17000 Arced over upper surface. (. 17000 Arced over lower surface. (2) Plain White Porcelains. 15000 Arced over upper surface. 1 1 15400 Punctured and cracked porcelain. 16400 Arced over upper surface. I 10000 Arced through crack. 2 1 16000 Punctured. 3 I 16400 Arced over upper surface. 1 16200 Arced over upper surface. 4 I 14400 Arced over lower surface. 1 14000 Arced over lower surface. 5 I 15200 Punctured. 6 1 12000 Punctured. (3) Composition Bushings. 1 1 16400 Arced over upper surface. 2 1 14400 Arced over lower surface. Sample defective. Porcelain broken at shoulder. No test made. (c) Heat Tests. One end of each sample of the porcelains was held in a Bunsen flame 54 for periods of one. two and live seconds and two minutes respectively. each time starting at about room temperature- In last period tne porcelain N oreached tendency a red to crack heat. was observed in any case.

Report N o . 8 7 8 4 .

High Potential Tests O n

a Spark-Plug
Method. The high potential tests on the sparkplug were made by applying an alternating voliage between the terminal siem and the shell, fust with insulating material between the terminal of the spark gap proper, and second without the insulating material in the spark gap. The first test wai made to determine Ihe breakdown voltage of the porcelain insulator. The second test showed the breakdown voltage of the spark gap. The voltages were applied at a low value, raised gradually, and the effect noted. The approximate time which elapsed between the point where ihe voltage reached an appreciable value and that of arcing was about len seconds. The transformers used had a capacity of three or Iwo ki1->voli-ampere* and nominal ratios of 6000 to 100 or 4000 to 100 volts, respectively. T h e voltage was measured by a voltmeter across the low tension circuit in connection with the ratio of transformation. The source of current was a sixty-cycle circuit, the voltage wave-form made. of which is practically a sine curve. The voltages given arc effective Ten Volts (square root ol mean square) and not maximumRemarks values. No. Applied Data. With spark gap insulated. 1 The surface3000 of the porcelain wasfrom carefully theon test wa* Arced inner cleaned terminalbefore lo shell inside. 2 Potential 2700 High Tests. Arced from inner terminal to shell on inside. Without Without insulation : 1920 between spark gap terminals. Arced across gap. 2 I960 Arced across gap. 1 1840 Arced across gap. 4 1640 Arced across gap. NOTE: The difference in sparking voltage for the last case is prolably due to ihe center electrode becoming hot and bending slightly toward the shell terminal. Relative humidity during test, 4 9 % of salutation. Room lemperature. 22.2 degree* Cent.

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Characteristics of Benzol* SEEING the confusion that seems to exist as to the constitution of 9 0 s benzol or motor spirit of similar quality and origin, it would, perhaps, be as well to shortly describe the pure products which in mixtures of varying proportions g o to m a k e up 90's benzol. 1. Benzene, C.H. (It m a y be noted that the termination " ene " is applied to pure productsbenzene, toluene, xylene, mesitylene, etc.while the termination "ol" is applied to commercial productsbenzol, toluol, xylol, etc.) This is the simplest hydro-carbon of a homologous series having the generic formula C n I I recovered from coal. It boils and completely distils at 80.5 degrees Centigrade; has a specific gravity of .889 at 0 degrees Centigrade. 2. Toluene, C7H8. T h e second m e m b e r of the series. Boils and distils at 110.3 degrees Centigrade. Does nol even solidify at 28 degrees Centigrade. 3. Xylene, C8HI0. T h e third m e m b e r of the series. Boils and distils at 140 degrees Centigrade; specific gravity 0.881 at 0 degrees Centigrade. Does not solidify at 28 degrees Centigrade. T h e series extends very much further than this, but the above three are the three products which go to m a k e u p 00's benzol. It m a y be pointed out that, as is the case with all pure products, these liquids completely distil over at the s a m e temperature as their boiling points, e. g.. benzene boils at 80.5 degrees Centigrade, and 100 per cent, distils over at that temperature. It is obvious that if pure products are mixed, the range of temperature of the distillation is spread over the difference in boiling points of the products making up the Memorandums supplied by Mr. H. A. Morfcy and Mr. J. E. Mitchell ol the Mitchell Main Colliery Co.. Ltd.. 25 Regent Street, Barnslcr, Eng.. from the second report of the Petrol Committee January. 1913. Royal Automobile Club. * ' Remarks on the Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Bewol, Ap pendix No. Vll. 56

mixture. For instance, take a mixture of one-half benzene, B. P. 80.5, and one-half xylene, B. P. 110 degrees Centigrade. This will be found to distil as follows : 8. P. OF MIXTURE 67 C. 33 per cent A further 16 p. * A further 9 p. ... A further 9 p. u A further 33 p.

33 per cent, distils 49 per cenl. distils 58 per cent, distils 67 per cent, distils 100 per cent, distils

over at 100 C. over al 110 C. over al 120 C. over at 130 C. over at 140 C.

It will be noted that one-third distils over in the first 13 degrees Centigrade, and one-third distils over in the last 10 degrees Centigrade, these temperatures being nearest to the boiling points of the constituents of the mixture. F r o m the above the approximate constitution of 90's benzol will be apparent. It boils at 82-83 degrees Centigrade and 90 per cent, distils over at 100 degrees Centigrade. Obviously, it consists mainly of benzene mixed with toluene and a little xylene. A s a matter of fact, 90's benzol contains about 70-75 per cent, benzene, 24-29 per cent, toluene, and about 1 per cent, xylene. F r o m the above it is manifestly absurd to speak of 90's benzol as of 90 per cent, purity. T h e term 90's benzol is entirely a trade n a m e , and is no indication of the purity of the benzol; it merely implies that the mixture of benzene, toluene and xylene is such that 90 per cent, of the mixture will distil over below 100 degrees Centigrade. Similarly with what is termed 100's benzolif this implies that 100 per cent, distils over below 100 degrees Centigrade, then it is equally a mixture, but containing less quantities of toluene and xylene than 90's benzol. If, on the contrary. 100's benzol implies pure benzene, that is, boiling and distilling at 80.5 degrees Centigrade, then I consider that considerable trouble is taken to procure a product which 57

has no advantage over 90's benzol. O n the contrary, i t has disadvantages. With 90's benzol it will be recognized that the presence of the toluene and xylene is a potent factor in preventing freezing of the benzol, although i t must be admitted that the presence of the higher boiling point homologues is a disadvantage w h e n starting from cold. Still, with 100 per cent, pure benzine, the tendency to freeze will inevitably cause trouble, especially as even in ordinary weather a carburetor temperature at the time of starting u p will often fall below 0 degrees Centigrade. Also it is probable that the pulling power will be less, as w e have found by experience that the presence of toluene means considerably more power on the hills. C o m i n g to the impurities proper to be found in 90's benzoland they are equally likely to be present in 100's benzolthey will generally be found to consist of paraffins about 1 per cent, (these vary with the source of origin of the coal, and, so far as use in internal combustion engines is concerned, are n o detriment), carbon bisulphide 1 to 1 per cent., thiophen and other obscure compounds, all of which vary with the effectiveness of washing. A s for the 10 per cent, impurities consisting of tar in solution, this is mere nonsense. In any case, if the washing and final rectification is carefully done the quantity of true impurities remaining ought to cause no trouble whatever. With reference lo the increase in mileage obtained by use of benzol, this is only to be expected. T h e whole question is one of calorific value per pound of fuel. Assuming gasoline to have a calorific value of 19,500 British thermal units per pound and 90's benzol to have a calorific value of 20,000 British thermal units per pound, and taking gasoline at 7J lbs. per gallon and benzol at 8.8 lbs. per gallon, this gives benzol an advantage of 20 per cent. 58

in calorific value over gasoline per gallon; hence the increased mileage.* " Foul exhaust, valve sooting and carbon deposit in cylinders "all these can be attributed to incomplete combustion. This is usually attributed to lack of air; hence the general advice to use m o r e air with benzol than gasoline. Theoretically, however, benzol should take no more air for combustion than gasoline. But. knowing h o w easily benzol vapor condenses, serious condensation and assumption of the liquid state occurs in the induction pipe in the case of benzol. It is, of course, at once apparent that if this is so the resulting explosion from such a charge can never ensure complete combustion, and in such case sooting, carbon deposit, foul exhaust, and actual waste of calorific value will ensue. T h e remedy for this is to have the carburetor as near the cylinders as possible, and w a r m e d either by a surrounding water jacket with w a r m water from the cylinder jackets or by by-passing a portion of the exhaust round it. With respect to standardizing, there would be no trouble in doing this provided it is definitely ascertained what volatility of spirit is the most suitable. All that would be necessary would be a simple washing test, a test as to total percentage of sulphur, and a test as to percentage of the spirit distilling over at stated temperature.

Hydraulic System of Gasoline Storage T^HE PRINCIPLES of operation in the hydraulic sys * - tern for the storage of gasoline and other oils depend upon the difference in specific gravity of water and oil. For example, a 12-inch head of water will balance ap"The British Imperial gallon herein referred to is equal IO 277.274 cubic inches, or approximately 1 . 2 l*. S. standard gallons. 59

proximately a 17-inch head of gasoline, so this law of nature is the basis upon which the hydraulic system works. "In preparing the system for operation, it isfirstfilled with water by raising the lever of the water-controlling valve. This single movement closes the port leading to the water-discharge pipe and opens the port leading to the water float-box, and allows the water to pass from the float-box through the valve to the bottom of the leg of the storage tank, and u p this leg into the tank, where i t strikes a deflector and spreads evenly. T h e entering water displaces the air, forcing it up the gasoline delivery pipe and out of the delivery nozzle. Keep the lever up until water appears in the gauge glass and then the tank is full of water and all air expelled. Drop the lever; this single movement closes the port of the water controlling valve which communicates with float-box, and opens the port which communicates with water-discharge pipe, thus allowing the water in the gasoline pipe above the water controlling valve to return to the storage tank, and discharge an equal volume of water into the sewer. " T ofillwith gasoline unscrew the plug in the gasoline filler and pour in the gasoline. T h e gasoline passes down the piping into the top of the storage tank, where i t strikes a deflector and spreads evenly over the surface of the water, forcing the water out of the tank through the water pipe and water controlling valve to the sewer. " Gasoline can be poured in until the storage tank is completely full of gasoline, but i t cannot be overfilled, thereby forcing the gasoline into the sewer, because the water column from the water controlling valve clown the pipe to a point level with the bottom o f the storage tank is of sufficient length to balance a column of gasoline from the bottom of the storage tank up to the top of the gasoline filler. Therefore, when the tank is full of gas60

Fig. 17. Diagram of connections of a storage tank ( w f W J I I u using water as the controlling means in the withdrawal of gasoline.

oline no more can be poured in, because it will overflow at the filler the same as any other full tank. " T o draw gasoline raise the lever of the water controlling valve. This closes the water-discharge port and opens the port connecting thefloat-box,and allows water to pass into the tank under the gasoline and force the gasoline from the top of the tank out of the delivery nozzle. W h e n desired amount has been drawn, release the lever and the flow will instantly stop, and the gasoline in the delivery pipe will return to the storage tank. " O w i n g to the swing check valve in thefillerpipe, no liquid can be forced up this pipe. After all the gasoline has been drawn, water will flow u p the delivery pipe to the same level as the water in thefloat-boxor about six inches below the level from which the gasoline is drawn. Therefore, no water can be drawn with gasoline from the system. T h e available head of water is kept constant by thefloatand valve in thefloat-box.which is connected with the city water supply."

A b o u t Graphite Lubrication
^"KWLY acquired information on the subject of graph L ' ite lubrication clears up the points in the long and drawn-out controversy which has clouded the issue and retarded success. In the experimental work which has been carried on for upwards of five years upon sleeve-valves for use in the Rockefeller motor the main problem w a s one of lubrication. For instance, the one good point in favor of poppet-valves lies in the absence of any lubricating requirement so long as mere service is all that the user d e m a n d s if noise is not a factor. In this connection 12

during all of the discussion for and against sleeve-valves dating from the earliest efforts of Charles Y. Knight, the problem of lubrication was uppermost: those w h o looked with disfavor upon sleeve-valves within the working cylinders of the motor pronounced lubrication impossible. A n d those w h o defended sleeve-valves in this difficult and trying position, tried to show that lubrication was possible. In the Rockefeller motor, even with the sleeves located (as they are) in a water-jacketed casing at one side of the working cylinders, sleeve-valve lubrication was found lo be the one great and nearly insurmountable problem. However, there is one excellent advantage in the Rockefeller motor plan of sleeve-valves: the sleeves (instead of being ground to obtain a polished surface) are threaded from end to end to afford a footing for the graphite " veneer " which does two things; (1) the unctuous properties of the graphite afford lubrication, and (2) the refractory character of the finely divided material (increased by the addition of magnesite) prevents the sleeves from getting hot and expanding. In this connection two valuable papers were read at the meeting of the Metropolitan Section of the Society of Automobile Engineers as reported in the S. A. E . Bulletin, Vol. V I , N o . 1, April, 1914. T h e value of these papers lies in the t w o opposing sources, i.e., the paper by H . Gale T h o m s o n , Sales Manager of Joseph Dixon Crucible C o m p a n y , champions " natural" graphite: whereas, the paper by Marcus A. Smith favors artificial graphite. It is in the discussion of these papers that the greatest value will be found. After expunging irrelevant matter and avoiding " discussion " not to the point, the revised papers and " discussion " are presented here from which the conclusions as follows m a y be drawn : 03

(1) Graphite m a y be selected because of its unctuous properties. (2) T h e refractory properties of the graphite m a y be of the first importance for a given undertaking. (3) It does not necessarily follow that a given specimen of graphite will be both unctuous and refractory to the m a x i m u m degree. (4) Graphite for crucibles, for instance, holding maxi m u m refractory properties, is of a tough fibrous flake, not particularly valuable as a lubricant. (5) T h e low grade (amorphous) graphites would scarcely suffice for either refractory or unctuous demands. (6) Unctuousness is more or less a property of all graphites. (7) Adaptability is the great requirement. In order to establish a graphite " veneer " over the surfaces of sleeve-valves, if they are to be shielded from the frying heat of combustion, the evidence afforded by the " discussion " discloses the following: (a) Crystalline or flake graphite, however unctuous, cannot readily form a veneer over polished surfaces due to the cleavage of the structure. (b) Finely divided graphite packs, and, unless i t is colloidal, i t is extremely difficult to deliver it to the surface to be lubricated and protected. (c) T h e colloidal form of graphite does not necessarily lend itself to sleeve-valve lubrication, due to the " sucking " and " blowing " action to which the sleeves are subjected, bringing about problems which are comm o n to lubricating oil. (d) But, w h e n the sleeves are threaded over their surfaces, as in the Rockefeller motor, it does not matter in what form the graphite obtains so long as it is fed against the reciprocating sleeves at some point of 64

their lengththe threads act as afile,so to speak; and, in proportion to demand, the end of the column of graphite is filed off, as it were, distributing itself over the surfaces of the sleeves, affording adequate lubrication, and, at the s a m e time, shielding the sleeves from the frying heat of combustion of the working fluids of the motor. O f course, in order to be able to take advantage of the refractory properties of graphite for sleeve-valve protection, the sleeves must be situated in separate chambers to one side of the working cylinders of the motor. T h e reason for this is obvious: were the sleeves concentric with the pistons within the working cylinders of the motor, while i t is quite true that a graphite veneer would shield the sleeves from heat, it remains to observe that the s a m e shield would stand between the great heat of combustion and the cooling effect of the water in the jackets; this would tend to an "increase of thermal efficiency to be sure, but i t would also induce thermal troubles, prcigiiition would be eminent.

Graphite as a Lubricant By H. Gale Thomson

I T IS unfortunate that the average m a n is not m o r e interested and better informed relative to the theories of lubrication. In technical schools this subject is one which the average student passes over as requiring little attention and as possessing m o r e mystery than any other subject with which he has to deal. This is not only true of oils and greases in general, but especially true of graphite. Graphite is a mineral and one of the natural forms of carbon. T h e origin of graphite is not definitely k n o w n . although i t w a s probably formed by the distillation of vegetable matter. 65

Graphite varies in quality from that possessing but little lubricating value to that which is extremely valuable as a lubricant. M a n y conditions determine the commercial value of graphite, such as physical formation, ability to resist heat, unctuousness or lubricating quality. These determine the use to which any particular graphite is best suited. Graphite enters directly or indirectly into practically every k n o w n manufactured product. T h e largest fields for the use of i t are lubrication, the manufacture of crucibles, foundry facing, electrical apparatus, elect retyping. the manufacture of paints, pencils, stove polish, etc. A graphite which is suitable for one or m o r e of these uses m a y not be suitable for any of the others, and this is an important point to remember. For instance, graphite for crucibles njust consist of flakes which are heavy and tough and with surfaces that are fibrous or irregular to enable them to anchor in the binding material used. L o w grade or amorphous graphite is found in practically all countries. T h e cost of refining this grade is sufficiently high in m a n y cases to prohibit economical working of deposits. Graphite is also k n o w n as plumbago and black lead; plumbago being the term used by custom officials with reference to the foreign grades, principally received from Ceylon, and the term black lead being applied to the cheaper or inferior grades. W h e n two metal surfaces are brought in contact, the minute irregularities interlock and act to retard motion. Lubricants are intended to reduce friction by preventing the actual contact of metallic surfaces, thus substituting the lower friction of the lubricant. Oils and greases are the two best k n o w n reducers of friction, but flake graphite possesses qualities not shared by either oil or grease. In the first place, i t overcomes no

in a measure the specific cause of the friction, the microscopic roughness, by filling in the depressions, forming a smooth, tough, veneer-like surface on the metals. T h e efficiency of oils and greases is m u c h affected by varying conditions of temperature, pressure and velocity. T h e ideal condition is, of course, that in which the lubricant used has the least viscosity necessary to keep the rubbing surfaces apart, but in attempting this there is always danger that the varying conditions m a y reduce the viscosity to the point where the lubricant cannot support the load. This danger entirely disappears when flake graphite is used in connection with oil and grease, as metallic contact cannot occur w h e n it is present. Graphite exists in two forms: crystalline or flake, and amorphous. T h e distinguishing characteristic of graphite is its quality of unctuousness. A H graphites have this quality more or less; the crystalline form being better in this respect than the amorphous, for the reason that when a graphite crystal is subdivided the cleavage surface is smooth, while with amorphous graphite the line of fracture is irregular and rough; only w h e n these irregularities arc worn a w a y does the amorphous graphite become smooth. A mixture of graphite suspended in oil has no particular advantage over a non-graphite oil as a lubricating material, because the particles of graphite, being in suspension, cannot break through the surrounding film of oil and become attached to the metal surfaces. They simply m o v e about in the oil film without at all decreasing the viscosity of the oil, which is the only w a y any reduction of friction can be brought about. In fact, a mixture of finely divided graphite and oil has a higher viscosity than that of oil alone. 67

Taking the viewpoint that the individual particles of both oil and water arc solid, and that the specific gravity of graphite is greater than that of water or a light oil, it will be necessary to have the particles of graphite very small in order to hold them in suspension in water or light oil. If the larger particles of oil or water will not keep the friction surfaces apart, h o w can the smaller particles of graphite be expected to perform this function? In all friction surfaces, the irregularities are both above and below the normal surfaces. It is the irregularities above the normal surfaces that cause friction. It is important that whatever surfacing material is used should be able lo build up the surfaces lo the level of the high points rather than simply to fill u p the minute pores of the metal. It is not conceivable that any particle of graphite small enough to g o through afilterpaper could become impaled on one of these projecting peaks, but such a result is entirely possible where broad flake graphite is used. Everyone k n o w s h o w difficult it is to sweep up a small,flatpiece of paper, like confetti. The same reasons that cause the paper to adhere to the floor cause the graphite flakes io adhere to ihe surfaces which it is intended they shall lubricate. Almost every engineer is ready to admit that for plain bearings graphite alone or combined with the proper carrier is very satisfactory, but takes the stand that it is not so well adapted lo ball or roller hearings. I have heard m a n y engineers state that graphite will pack in the ball races, obstruct the balls, and spread the races and containers. This is true of amorphous graphite, but not of flake graphite, because when the latter is broken the cleavage surfaces are smooth. All graphite is not lubricating graphite, nor is all lubricating graphite fit for automobile lubrication. Referring to motor lubrication, a percentage of graphite mixed

with oil will increase compression, eliminate friction, and cause a considerable saving in oil. Most of the oil that i s used is consumed iu the explosion chamber. If you increase the compression less oil will get past the pistons and rings into the combustion chamber.

Deflocculated Graphite as a Motor Lubricant By Marcus A. Smith.

TN 1906, in an electric furnace designed by Dr. Edwa * G. Acheson, the manufacture of unctuous a r t i f i c i a l graphite was commenced. The material used to make this graphite is a carefully selected form of natural carbon. The temperature created is slightly over 7,500 deg. Fahrenheit. Shortly after graphite was manufactured for commercial purposes, Dr. Acheson commenced a series of experiments to determine the possibility of subdividing graphite to such a small state that i t could be used in lubricating oils without settling. H e found that the action of certain liquids on particles of graphite would cause them to separate into small subdivisions, and then again cause these subdivisions, or particles, to continue to subdivide until the graphite reached the colloidal state. This substance he named deflocculated graphite, because flocculation is the union of small particles into granular aggregates or compound particles of larger size. Having reduced graphite to this colloidal form i t was found that added to oil or water i t remained in suspension, owing to the fact that the law of gravity does not affect matter in the colloidal state. The lubricating value of an oil i s dependent upon i t s successful maintenance of a proper oilfilmbetween the moving surfaces, and the amount of internal friction in the oil itself. By adding to the lubricating oil one-quarter of one per cent, of deflocculated graphite i t is possible to carry to all surfaces a material that isfinerthan the

most minute pores of the metal and which will gradually saturate the metal with a lubricant that heat cannot destroy. The benefits derived from the use of deflocculated graphite diffused in oil are accumulative, for with continued use all the bearings, cylinder walls and piston rings are protected by a lubricant which impregnates the metal. If at any time the supply of lubricant is shut off, the coefficient of friction remains practically the same for m a n y hours; this fact has been proven by numerous experiments. B y using deflocculated graphite diffused in oil in place of plain oil in assembling the motor and then in the lubricating system when i t is belted in and when it is run under its o w n power on the testing stand, and again while on road test, i t is actually possible to secure more perfectly seated bearings, freer action of piston rings, better compression and a lower consumption of fuel and oil, with resultant lessening of carbon troubles. W h e n the graphitoid surface is created i t is, in reality, an antifriction metal formed right where needed. Deflocculated graphite applies equally well to the lubrication of transmissions, differentials, universal joints, w o r m gears, and such other moving parts in the modern automobile which require lubrication. DISCUSSION A. G. Thomson :I would substantiate everything that M r . Smith said, except one remark. H e said that graphite does not put a film or a veneer on the surface. I do not k n o w m u c h about deflocculated graphite, but I do k n o w about the flake graphite. It will fill in the pores, after which i t places a veneer over the entire body, as much as the metal will hold. P. J. Dasey:After the surface is thoroughly veneered, what becomes of the rest of the graphite fed in the lubricating oil? 70

A. G. T h o m s o n :Flake graphite will not adhere to itself, hence i t is impossible to develop the veneer beyond a definite thickness. L. G. B u s b y : I would like to ask M r . Smith and Mr. Thomson what effect graphite has on connecting-rod bearings? If lubrication failed, would the bearings of a motor in which graphite is used run longer before failure than those in a motor using no graphite? A. G. T h o m s o n : A s long as you have the graphite veneer the metal cannot heat and for that reason i t cannot wear. T h e proper kind of graphite, properly applied, will absolutely prevent the wear of melal, for the simple reason that you have a graphite to graphite contact and not a metal to metal contact. I think i t is obvious that if the metal does not come in contact, i t cannot wear. M . A . S m i t h : T h e gentleman asked what would happen to the crankshaft bearings. If i t is a new motor you must wear the bearing in some. If it is an old motor, which has been running some time, you must have a pretty good fit. W e had a motor running on the dynamometer stand, and took out all the oil i t was possible to get out, drained i t completely, and ran this motor, which had previously been run in with deflocculated graphite. The motor ran several hours. W e did everything w e could to make i t stop, raised the number of revolutions, put a load on the dynamometer and ran without water. W e did not seem to be able to wear i t out and had to stop it. L. G. Busby : D o you recommend charging the motor only occasionally with graphite ? A. G. T h o m s o n :I believe it is customary to recommend using a certain amount of deflocculated graphite with each five gallons of oil. W e recommend a scant teaspoonful offlakegraphite to a gallon of oil. 71

M . A . S m i t h :Deflocculated graphite is used continuously, not intermittently. It does not settle in the oil, and i t is not necessary to put i t in according to periods measured by months or days. B. M . B e s k o w :I m a d e a test of a motor in which oil and deflocculated graphite had been used, and I found it was coated with a film of graphite. Would that surface cause a short circuit? M . A. Smith :In the case of graphite which is in oil in a deflocculated condition, you cannot get a current through the material in a liquid form. W e have had tests of Ford cars on which the magneto runs in an oil bath, the oil being charged with deflocculated graphite. T h e oil does not short-circuit the magneto. Y o u understand that cylinder oils are composed of about 20 per cent, hydrogen and 80 per cent, carbon. The weight of a gallon of oil is about 7.5 lbs. T h e weight of the 80 per cent, of carbon is about 5.8 lbs., the actual carbon in the oil, a good lubricating oil. It stands to reason that if w e add but one-quarter of one per cent, of graphite to the oil, the amount of graphite which passes the piston rings to the combustion chamber and is burned up. or incompletely burned up, is comparatively small, as compared to the carbon of the oil itself. The trouble which people have with spark-plugs is from the carbon that comes from the oil. H . W . Slauson :If a m a n had failed previously to use graphite in the cylinders, and wanted to make up for lost time, in order to prolong the life of the motor. could he do that all at once by any process of dusting the graphite on the cylinder walls and hearings and wiping i t off? W o u l d that take the place of charging ihe crankcase? A . G. T h o m s o n : T h e best w a y to assemble any motor is to rub the graphite into all the working parts, to get i t there and k n o w it is there. 72

H . W . Si-auson : W i p e off the excess? A. G. T h o m s o n : N o , that is not necessary if you use proper graphite. But all graphite will wear away in time. The flake graphite will last m u c h longer than amorphous graphite under any stress. If you will carry in your crankcase a small amount of graphite to supply that winch is worn away, you will have permanent, lasting results. L. P. Prossen :It was stated that graphite contains a certain amount of mica. I would ask as to what extent graphite is affected by the mica, and whether there would be any destructive effect on the working surface of the motor caused by it? A. G. T h o m s o n : M i c a is not a lubricant. In all flake graphite you will find a small percentage of mica, which is not a detriment to it. nor will it injure your bearings in any way. T h e graphites I speak of will vary from 1 to 2.5 per cent, in mica content. P. J. Dasey:Is there any liability of the graphite getting into the oil circulating system, or stopping up the holes in the bearings? A. G. T h o m s o n : A n y graphite will settle in oil in time. If you keep i t in suspension it will not increase the lubricating qualities of the oil. P. J. Dasey : D o you have a graphite that remains in suspension ? A. G. T h o m s o n : N o , sir, w e have not. Y o u cannot subdivide graphite infinitely and retain its lubricating properties. P. J. Dasey :In this other case they must subdivide to a great extent, but still the diagrams showed betler lubricating quality than w c have with the oil itself. H o w does that match up with your statement? A. G. T h o m s o n :It matches up very well. Y o u get more efficient lubrication from the use of any graphite, unless i t is so poor i t will cut and destroy bearings, but 73

you will not get the lasting results from the amorphous graphite that you will from the flake graphite. It is more friable and wears away. It does not put a film ^ver the material, but onlyfillsthe pores. M . A . S m i t h : W e found that deflocculated graphite mixed with an oil will stay in suspension for an indefinite period; in fact, w e have had i t in suspension for years. W e find, however, that where the oils have been m a d e by an acid process, some oils have such a percentage of acid that i t acts on the graphite, tending to reverse the principle of deflocculation. F. H . Floyd : A s to llic use of graphite in grease, its advantages are that it does not settle oul in the grease owing to the plastic condition of this lubricant. It will remain in suspense and more thoroughly coat the metals orfillup the low spots, than i t will in an oil. By filling up the interstices w e get a perfectly smooth melal, and since there arc no high spots w e prevent abrasion and consequently wear and friction. A s far as the use of graphite in grease is concerned, there are very rare places where it is not an advantage w h e n properly used. It has a tendency to make grease more brittle. T h e addition of ihe right amount of graphite, of course, I have always considered to be an advantage as a load sustainer. In the lubrication of all kinds of gears under heavy loads the use of flake graphite in proper proportions is an advantage. W h e n it comes to the use of graphite in oil, thai is a different proposition. If it could be held in suspension perfectly so that it could be shipped commercially throughout the country and remain in suspension, I believe i t would be advantageous to use if fed uniformly. but because of the difference in weight between graphite and oil, graphite being very m u c h heavier, i t has a tendency to settle to the bottom of the receptacle. With the average individual likely to fail to take the precaution to stir the graphite and oil, and to get an oversup74

ply, I think i t has been largely objeclionable. If it could be transmitted to the metal uniformly, in the oil, I think i t would be an advantage. U p to the present time, I have never been able to find any graphite that could be held perfectly in suspense for a long period. For that reason I have never dared to use i t in oils or recommend it. M . A. S m i t h : T h e r e were probably periods in our first work w h e n w e were not quite familiar with the carrying material, and i l is quite likely that w c have m a d e some errors in our previous processes, bul today I a m willing to have M r . Floyd put his oil in a tube, and I will put ihe deflocculated graphite in the oil, and w e will keep i t in a state of suspension.

T e n Pertinent Suggestions 1. Fill the gasoline tank with gasoline. 2. Fill the lubricating oil reservoir with lubricating oil. 3. Fill the radiator with clean water. 4. Adjust the spark lever to the " late " position for safe cranking of the motor. 5. O p e n the Ihrottle a few notches in order to deliver a rich mixture for starting the motor. 6. Observe that the change-gear lever is in the neutral position. 7. T h r o w electric switch to " battery " o r to " magneto " if " battery " is not working. 8. If necessary, " prime " the motor by " flooding " the carburetor. 9. Engage starting crank by pushing i t in direction of motor. 10. Give quick pull up on starting crank, using left hand, and " spin " motor if necessary never crank with right hand, or push d o w n on crank. 75

Automobile Greases* By Prof. W. Jones

* one that is the best suited to the purpose, it would seem that the automobile engineer has very little to guide him. It will, perhaps, be interesting to look over some of the greases that arc on the market with a view of determining Iheir relative value as lubricants. All of the m a n y greases n o w offered to the automobile engineer and which have come under the writer's observation, can be placed in about three main groups, Ihe proportions of ihe various ingredients varying together with ihe quality and density of the oils used. W e find that these greases contain mineral oils, vaseline and resin oil, the latter being the most generally used and containing more or less resin. These are combined with carbonate of soda, lime, graphite, both natural and artificial, and w o o d chips. All these greases except Ihose composed of straight vaseline and graphite contain more or less water. T h e vaseline greases melt at rather low temperatures, while those composed of heavy resin oils and lime, m a y require a temperature of over 200 degrees Fahrenheit for melting. T o give some idea of the different makes of greases on the market I submit the following values for thirteen greases I have examined: N o . 1 is a rather stiff grease, which, however, melts at 107 degrees Fahrenheit. This is about the melting 'Paper read before Metropolitan Section of the the S. A. E.See Society Bulletin, Vol. VI. No. I, April. 14. 76

TN SELECTING a grease for use in the automobile

point of vaseline. This grease contains 0.75 per cent, of carbonate of soda. No. 2 is a very m u c h softer grease and contains 0.72 per cenl. of carbonate of soda, but only partly melts al 200 degrees Fahrenheit. No. 3 is a mixture of vaseline and natural graphite. I l melts at 108 degrees Fahrenheit, and contains only 0.12 per cent, of ash, which comes from the graphite. No. 4 is a similar mixture of vaseline and graphite and also contains about 25 per cent, of wood chips. Of course ihe last named have no lubricating value, and just what value they have in the grease is hard to say. T h e best lhat can be said is that in lime they will be ground to pulp and prevent the flowing of the grease al temperatures above its melting point, which is Iowa The ash in this grease is only 0.25 per cent. No. 5 is a grease lhat melts only partially at 200 degrees Fahrenheit and has an ash of 2.40 per cent., which is lime. No. 6 is a grease containing artificial graphite. It has a moiling point of 200 degrees Fahrenheit and contains 1.95 per cent, ash, which is lime. No. 7 melts at 170 degrees Fahrenheit and has ash of 3.70 per cent., which is a mixture of lime and carbonate of soda. N o 8 has a melting point of 190 degrees Fahrenheit and contains 1.50 per cent, of lime as ash. No. 9 has a melting point of 190 degrees Fahrenheit. the same as No. 8, but contains only one-half the amount of lime, 0.95 per cent. No. 10 melts above 200 degrees Fahrenheit and has an ash of 3 per cent, which is a mixture of lime and carbonate of soda. No. 11 melts at 125 degrees Fahrenheit and has an ash of 0.85 per cent. 77

No. 12 is a semifluid black oil, at ordinary temperatures. This is an unmixed mineral oil. and has no ash. No. 13 i s the stiffcst grease of the lot. I t melts at 225 degrees Fahrenheit and has an ash of 6.95 per cent., a l l lime. This grease is made from a heavy resin oil, and contains a large amount of resin. In considering the above data, wefindw c have to deal with mineral oil and vaseline, resin oil, resin, carbonate of soda and lime. The mineral oil and resin, carbonate of soda and lime have not much value in this connection. Therefore i t would seem advisable to select a grease with as l i t t l e of these ingredients as possible. If wc want a grease, one made of resin oil and lime, we should select one made from a good quality oil. containing l i t t l e or no resin, and low lime percentage. O n the other hand, i f we can use a grease of low melting point, the mixture of vaseline and graphite should give good results. Here the amount of graphite may be increased to prevent too easy flowing of the grease al temperatures above its melting point. Either natural or a r t i f i c i a l graphite may be used. Mixtures of lime thickened resin oil also give good results. In deciding upon an automobile grease, i t isfirstnecessary to determine the temperature at which i ti s to be used, and then make proper mechanical tests of different compounds to determine which gives the best results. DISCUSSION

H. W. Slauson :Was it specified in Professor Jones' paper that the greases which he examined were a l l mineral greases, or were some of them animal greases? Herbert Chase:Professor Jones did not find any trace of animal oils in the greases. There were a few vegetable oils, chiefly resin oils. I selected the greases out of a number of representative brands that can be purchased from almost any supply house. 78

M . R. M a c h o l : S u p p o s i n g a grease is wanted for a place that will run fairly w a r m , what grease do you select? D o you select a grease with graphite in it, a grease made of animal oils, or vaseline ? H o w arc you lo pick i t out? If you want lo use grease in a place where i t will run cold, what kind of grease should you have there? Thai sort of information would be of very material assistance. A c h e s o n S m i t h :I think that if anyone wants grease for any particular purpose, he should send the specifications to the grease manufacturer or anyone w h o is in a position to furnish the various kinds of grease, and let himfillihe requirements. T h e subject of greases is such a peculiar one that i t would be impossible in ihe time at our disposal this evening to tell h o w they are all m a d e and what affects the cold test, the melting point and various other things, in the case of various oils, as there are one hundred and one different combinations. M . R. M a c h o l : W h a t affects the cold test generally? Is vaseline a good thing? Is graphite in the grease a good thing? A c h e s o n S m i t h :I will answer directly in regard to vaseline grease. Vaseline is a pure mineral grease and melts at a low temperature, and also stiffens up in ihe cold very quickly, so that i t has to be used within a reasonably narrow limit of temperature. A s to the graphite. that would depend on the surface upon which it is to be put, whether you want i t large or little, and also whether i t is to be used under conditions of cold or heat. R. M c A . L l o y d : I doubt if the grease manufacturers arc able to provide special greases for special conditions. even if they know what is required. I think a good deal of ihe information has been acquired by pure accident. certain greases having been found satisfactory in certain 79

cases. I doubt if m u c h study has been given to the subject by the people from w h o m w e are buying grease. H . W . Slauson :There is one point in Professor Jones' paper that I would like lo refer to, and that is the proportion of ash, or in most cases lime, that was found. I understand that lime is not a good thing to have in large percentage in grease. I heard of one case in which lime proved harmful in a transmission. L i m e incrustations were found on the gear teeth, which had so hardened that the shafts were thrown out of alignment. H . E . H a w s : A certain amount of lime has lo be used in making mineral greases to cause saponification. I d o not know lhat lime is ever used in larger quantities than is necessary to do that, speaking, of course, of well m a d e greases. Greases are called " hard oils " by some. Oils have a certain viscosity or body and w h e n they reach a certain limit of body are found unsuitable as a lubricant under extremely heavy loads. T h e lubricating films break down and ihe metals abrade. T h e grease manufacturer takes different oils and by saponification and otherwise breaks d o w n the fat globules and produces a plaslic substance thai is a greater load sustainer lhan the heaviest oil. T h e value of grease, I repeat, depends largely on its consistency or load-bearing value. For ball bearings w e want a lubricant that will not attack or corrode metals in any way. Something that will follow nicely the races, and properly lubricate the balls. Here w e find that a certain consistency of grease is very essential. If i t is too hard, i t refuses to follow the balls, and ihey are improperly lubricated. If i t is too soft, i t flows away and leaves them dry. 80

In referring lo Ihe stickiness of oils, w e usually classify this under the head of viscosity. T h e animal, vegetable and hydro-carbon or mineral oils vary in this respect; some are lighter, some are heavier and some arc more adhesive than others. W h e n oils are converted into a grease, the load-sustaining power is dependent upon the way in which the manufacturer makes the grease up. Let m e stale in a general way h o w the grease manufacturer proceeds in making up grease. W h a t w e term a boiled grease is m a d e up iu this w a y : A n y w h e r e from fifteen to twenty-five per cent., usually of animal oil or vegetable oil or both, are saponified by an alkali, say a lime solution, with a hydro-carbon oil iu suspense. Only the animal and vegetable oils are saponifiablc, please bear in mind. Y o u cannot saponify a hydro-carbon or mineral oil, but hydro-carbon or mineral oil is held in suspense in a grease by and wilh the assistance of saponified animal or vegetable oils. The grease manufacturer gets the different consistencies largely by regulating the time of boiling; longer or shorter, getting softer or harder greases, depending upon what he wishes. H e gets different melting points by this method, and, of course, load-sustaining value of Ihe lubricant. This kind of grease is not, strictly speaking, a pure mineral grease. Vaseline is a pure mineral grease or hard oil. Then there arc asphallic products that are pure mineral. A s to animal or vegetable oils that enter into the m a n u facture of grease, there is no limit to Ihe amount that you can add. Probably Ihe greater the quantity of highgrade animal or vegetable oil that is used, the better a grease will be. But animal and vegetable oils are very expensive, while Ihe hydro-carbon oils are very inexpensive. H . W . Slauson :Is there any animal or vegetable oil to which no petroleum or mineral oil has been added ? HI

F. H . F l o y d : ! think possibly there are some. They are very high-priced, however, and m a y be used in Ihe drug manufacturing establishments for lubricating special machinery and also for making ointments. M . R. M a c h o l : F r e e from graphite? F. H . Floyd :Graphite m a y , of course, be added to the grease. T h e purpose of adding graphite is to coat the metal or tofillup the low spots in it so as to get a perfectly smooth surface, even smoother than machining will make, consequently reducing friction. Graphite performs this function w h e n added to a grease and assists Ihe grease as a lubricant. It becomes a very valuable adjunct to the grease manufacturer in reducing friction, particularly in gear lubrication. Herbert C h a s e : I would say that lime is used only lo saponify ihe fats. F. H . F l o y d : Y e s , lhat is what i t is used for unless perhaps to neutralize any free falty acids that m a y be in the animal or vegetable oils. In the manufacture of grease w e do not want an excess of lime or alkali of any kind, as i t would injure the lubricating value of the grease. T h e grease-maker is desirous of a perfectly neutral grease, no acids or alkali in excess. P. J. Dasey :Is alkali used for the purification of the oil ? F. H . Fi.ovd:It is used for saponifying and also to neutralize any acids that m a y be in the oils, whether they be free falty acids or otherwise. In the matter of acids, about 85 per cent, of Ihe oils on ihe market are treated wilh sulphuric acid and caustic soda solutions. This i s nol true of thefilteredoils that come from Pennsylvania, however. T h e original process of treating hydro-carbon oils used in grease-making and those that come from the mid-continentfields,is treating them with sulphuric acids

and alkali solutions and washing them wilh water to eliminate both. Still there m a y be traces of acid left and in the manufacture of greases an alkali will neutralize this.

Outlining the G a s o l i n e C a r

SPEAKING to the intending purchaser of an automobile, w h o will express his preference for a gasoline type of car, i t remains for him to examine more or less closely the various types of motors employed in Ihis work for the obvious purpose of getting one thai will serve as a testimonial to his good judgment. In motors choice lies within the classifications as follows : (a) T h e motor m a y have 1, 2, 4, 6 or 8 cylinders. (b) T h e motor m a y function either according lo the two-stroke cycle principle or, as in nearly every instance, i t will operate according to the four-stroke cycle principle. (c) Cooling m a y be accomplished either through the use of air or by applying a cooling solution which is usually water, excepting in the Rockefeller motor, in which the cooling solution is oil. (d) In the circulation of the cooling medium, if i t is air, an efficient type of fan is employed; in the circulation of liquids i t is customary to employ a p u m p . T h e thermosiphon system, so-called, dispenses with the use of a p u m p for circulating the cooling solution, dependence being placed upon the difference of temperature residing in the fluid. (e) T h e motor m a y be of the high or low compression type. Measuring the compression in pounds per square 83

inch above the atmosphere, a low compression motor would show about 55 lbs. per square inch and a high compression motor would scarcely g o above 80 lbs. per square inch. T h e compression in m a n y motors falls within these gauge pressures. (f) Since the efficiency of a motor depends in a considerable measure upon the compression, i l is important to observe the means of securing compression, noting the possibility for leakage. Since the valves regulate the flow of the working fluid i l is entirely proper to carefully note the principle of design and the details of the construction of these valves. (g) Motors are m a d e utilizing the various types of valves usually designated as poppet, sleeve, rotary, and various more or less complicated combinations of these specific types of valves. (h) In a gasoline motor the mixture*of air and vapor of hydro-carbon fuel is technically k n o w n as the working fluid. T h e c o m m o n designation is " mixture." T h e mixture is produced in a carburetor which is attached by means of a manifold to ihe intake side of a motor. It is worth while observing h o w the carburetor is m a d e and whether or not i t functions properly. S o m e perfectly simple carbureting devices work extremely well. T h e other side of Ihe same question is lhat some very complicated carburetors sland in the w a y of success. (i) T h e working fluid after i t is compressed has lo be ignited in order that it will burn. Ignition devices are designed in various ways. In general a magneto electric machine is acceptable. T h e battery system, so-called, obtains to some extent. Excellent examples of ignition work are accomplished by means of a combination of the magneto and the battery system, involving the use of an induction coil. O n account of the introduction of the electric starter, which is a relatively recent innovation, 84

ignition systems are undergoing modification. Not a few automobiles are provided with ignition means combined wilh Ihe electric starter and electric lighting, more particularly the latter. (j) T h e electric starter is rapidly becoming an extremely important device in connection with automobile motors. Scarcity of highly volatile hydro-carbon fuel makes i l increasingly more difficult to start motors. Welldesigned electric starters accomplish Ihis end. (k) In addition to electric starters mention will be made of compressed air and acetylene gas starters, since they are used to some extent in this work. (1) Remembering lhat lubrication is of the utmost importance in the operation of a motor, the lubricating system used in each case must be carefully examined for competence. If the system delivers too m u c h lubricating oil excess smoke in the exhaust, attended by a decrease in Ihe power of the molor. will result. If the lubricating system does not provide enough lubricating oil excess depreciation will be the burden to bear. Lubricating systems belong in two general classes, i.e.. pressure and so-called " splash " systems. ( m ) T h e cylinders of the motor m a y be cast (1) en bloc, (2) in pairs, (3) in units of one cylinder, otherwise k n o w n as individual castings. (n) Referring again to the cylinder castings, the valves m a y be located (1) in the head; (2) L-head fashion, the valves being on one side; (3) T-head fashion, with the inlet valves on one side and the exhaust valves at the opposite side. Modifications of these types of cylinders are occasionally to be noted. (o) T h e crankcase (the base to which the cylinders are bolted containing the crankshaft and relating m e m bers) m a y be of the "barrel" type in relatively small motors; the well-designed motors of m e d i u m and large 85

sizes usually include crankcases m a d e u p of two parts split horizontally in the plane of the crankshaft axis. T h e lubricating oil reservoir (sometimes called the sump) m a y be integral with the lower half of the crankcase; however, in not a few examples of motor designs ihe oil reservoir is flanged and bolted to the lower half of the crankcase. (p) T h e oil reservoir usually has a capacity sufficient lo contain the oil required in the operation of the motor for a duration of a month or more. But the oil gets more or less contaminated in service, hence afilteror screen of some kind is introduced in the circulatory system, i t not being unusual to find thisfilteror screen incorporated in the oil reservoir casting. (q) T h e lubricating oil is usually circulated by means of a gear p u m p . T h e p u m p should be submerged to avoid a suction lift. T h e best w a y lo submerge ihe p u m p is to place i t in the casting of the lower half of the crankcase, locating ihe suction of the p u m p below the minimum level of the oil in the reservoir. (r) In order to have knowledge of the condition of lubrication obtaining in a motor i t is customary to install a " tell-tale" in the piping system, locating the device referred to within sight of the operator of the car. The lubricating oil passes from the p u m p through Ihe " telltale," whereby Ihe operator m a y sec that the oil is flowing from the p u m p to the parts requiring lubrication. (s) Referring lo the cooling system, w h e n a p u m p is used for circulating the cooling m e d i u m the radiator utilizing the cooling solution is located over the front axle and in front of the motor. But. in some examples of thermo-siphon cooling work, the radiator is located over the fly-wheel; the draft of cooling air is set up by vanes o n the periphery of the fly-wheel. (t) T h e molor m a y be complete without transmission gear, which is true in examples of targe power plants

or, in not a few instances the unit type of power plant may be employed. T h e difference is that the transmission gear is either included within the motorcasc or i t is located elsewhere. (u) It is customary with unit power plants lo suspend ihe motor on three points; this is k n o w n as the threepoint suspension. T h e ordinary custom is lo carry the motor on arms extending to the side frame at the back near thefly-wheeland to m a k e the third point of suspension concentric with the crankshaft, using a more or less universal joint, attaching the same to the cover of the half-time gearcase in front. (v) T h e transmission gear system, if i t is not integral with the crankcase, m a y be integral with the rear axle, or a separate unit between Ihe motor and the cardan shaft, Ihe laller reaching back to the rear axle. ( w ) T h e exhaust side of the motor is attached to a muffler at the back of the car through a manifold boiled to the motor, utilizing a drawn steel tube as the connecting link between the exhaust manifold and the muffler. A n exhaust cutout is usually placed in the length of the exhaust pipe between the exhaust manifold and the muffler. T h e objeel of the exhaust cutout is to relieve the motor of any back pressure at a time when all the power of the motor is required, as when going up a long. steep grade. T h e muffler cutout also permits the operator to listen lo the exhaust, the idea being to note if any of Ihe cylinders are missing or if the explosions (as indicated by the noise of the exhaust) are rhythmical and uniform. (x) Involving the power plant a m o n g the remaining considerations mention will be m a d e of the sod apron or m u d pan which protects the underside of the motor from the silt of the road; the apron should be securely fastened to the underside of the chassis frame, but the fact re87

mains that il should be easily removed in order to facilitate inspection and repair of the motor. If the motor is of that design which provides an air fan in the flywheel, the sod apron must be tight all around, otherwise the fan in the flywheel will be incapacitated for its intended work. (y) Referring to the bonnet or hood, which passes over the motor spanning the space between the radiator and the dash so-called, in addition to good design and neat appearance it should be so hinged and provided with fastening devices as lo facilitate removal and replacement for purposes of inspection and repair. (z) In divers of the excellent designs of power plants to be had in automobiles, without respect to price i t will be readily observed that the piping and connecting links throughout are symmetrically designed, neatly arranged and securely put into place; the reverse condition obtains in not a few examples.

H o w to Doctor Valves LEAKY poppel valves come from warping due to heat rather than from service. Then, too, the diameter of the mushroom influences the service. If the valves are of large diameter, which is necessary if the power of the motor is to be u p to a fair standard, it is then thai warping is most likely lo happen. In this connection, while i t is quite true that tungsten steel heads of valves m a k e good and permanent seats, this fact has no bearing upon the valve-leakage, which comes from warping. If the valve-stem is not at right angles to ihe head, it makes no difference of what metal the head is composed or h o w good the seat, the valve will leak because i t cannot seal. Again, if the valve-stems arc a good fit in the guides,

Kig. 18. Cross-section of poppet valve in a motor of ihe class suggested, showing the mushroom head attached lo the same with a largefilletand water jackets affording cooling action to the head and the stem, notwithstanding which fact ihe mushroom head is shown so warped that the valve cannot scat, hence leakage due lo this unavoidable warping is the normal expectation.

when the motor w a r m s up, they will stick in the open position. T h e cylinders thus affected will miss fire and the motor will lose power. But, if the valve stems arc not a goodfitin the guides, then the mixture will be upset on account of the extra air which will find ils w a y in by w a y of the space around the stems in their loose guides. O n e way to partially overcome valve trouble of the character here referred to is to employ very strong valvespringssay 70 to 80-pound pressure of spring closing the valve. True, such strong springs will read upon the cams and rollers; exert a considerable pressure upon the camshaft bearings; put extra duty upon ihe half-time gears and, perhaps, shorten the life of the motor, but, even so, i t is better to get good service for a short time lhan to put up with incompetence for all lime. It might be said that the best plan would be to design Ihe valves of small diameter. This plan has been tried out over and over, with what result? T h e motor gets hot. The products of combustion do not get out. T h e motor suffers loss of power.

>?

C &

30

P A R T

II

Concerning the Rockefeller Motor

Describing and illustrating the Rockefeller sleeve-valve motor, stating h o w it works and pointing out its relation to and differences front other motors as used in automobile work. Discussing the Rockefeller type of sleeve valve, stating w h y this type of valve works so well, it being protected in a refrigerated cone rather than in the frying heat of the combustion chamber of the working cylinders of the motor. Explaining the action of the Rockefeller dynamic brake, which is incorporated in the sleeve construction of the motor, it being interesting to observe that this contrivance supplants the ordinary service brakes in the process of arresting the motion of automobiles, thus saving the brakes from being burnt up on long hills. Presenting a n e w and novel means of vaporization up to 60 per cent of the " crude " which includes kerosene. N o change is m a d e or required in the carburetor in order to accomplish this result. T h e ignition system and other appurtenances of the motor are retained in conventional form. Fig. 1. Presenting the magneto electric machine and method ol installing the same on the Rockefeller motor. This magneto delivers two s i m u l t a n e o u s sparks. A flexible coupling between the magneto shaft and the gear spindle affords a O D D due measure of flexibility, besides being oiltight and silent acling.

in

Offering a n e w and simple solution of the winter weather problem depicted in the freezing of the cooling solution and the consequent cracking of the motor cylinders, or effecting the destruction of the radiator. These ills are prevented in the Rockefeller motor through the substitution of a non-freezing, cooling oil in place of water.

Fig. 2. In view oi the facility with which the Rockefeller motor burns up to 60 per cent of the " crude,' i i is interesting to note the degree of combustion when the engine is burning kerosene as compared with the completeness of combustion when the engine is burning gasoline. Fig. 2 shows the engine limning gasoline delivering a small amount of vapor from the exhautt spout, which is to be compared with I .g. 3. D D D a Affording complete immunity from lubricating a a a a oil d problems and troubles. The system of lubrication used in the Rockefeller motor filters every drop of lubricating oil every time it does a cycle of work. The oil is improved with age, thus effecting a great saving to the automobilist J 2

w h o uses this system. T h e motor is maintained for a m u c h longer time, delivering silent and sweet service throughout its life. The Rockefeller motor is establishing a position of remarkable stability, not only in automobile zvork, but in a wider field of utility as well.

Fig. 1. The Rocke leller motor burning kerosene, the exhaust from the muffler spout being photographed in order lo matte a comparison with the gaso line exhaust as shown in Fig. 2. In both exam pics the amount ol smoke delivered from the muffler spout iaugmentcd. ihe idea be0 inc facilitate the photographing operaD tion, and to draw comn parison. u D

D D

T " | U R I N G the rapid-fire changes of a decade of auto*-* mobile history, those w h o have participated in the progress m a d e were ihe witnesses of m a n y struggles for betterment, some of which ended in success, whereas others failed. Without saying a single word against the poppet valve type of motor, which in all fairness has served its purpose under difficult and trying conditions,

1 1 3

i t remains to observe thai the sleeve lype of valve was reflected in efforts m a d e even so far back as seven or eight years ago. S o m e four or five years ago the Rockefeller motor was taken u p experimentally for Ihe purpose of ascertaining ils true value, not so m u c h for immediate use bul in view of the mere question of time w h e n gasoline for use in automobile work will have to be supplanted by the heavier constituents of the " crude " a s kerosene. T h e higher heat level at which kerosene and other coarse hydro-carbon fuels must be burned naturally sounds the death knell of the weaker design of poppel valve and ils tendency to warp, it being difficult to maintain tight relation of ihe valve to its seat after the valve warps the least bit. O n the other hand, hundreds of experimenters w h o became exceedingly active in thefieldof Ihe sleeve and the rotary valve found their efforts to no purpose; they soon discovered that the same heat which warps the poppet valve so that i t will n o longer stay tight destroys almost every other device if i t is licked by the flame of combustion. Even the Rockefeller motor with its sleeves of relatively small diameter, situated in cooled casings at a distance sufficiently remote from the center of heat in the combustion chamber of the working cylinders of the motor to ward off thefirstblush of the most glaring heat, offered such potential possibilities for valve trouble as lo require good attention in order to guarantee freedom from manufacturing trouble. In the course of ihe Rockefeller experiments, when it was found lhat the sleeve had to be protected from the frying heat of the burning mixture, m a n y courses were 94

pursued, leading to thefinalplan of adopting a " veneer " of refractory graphite with means for automatically maintaining the same all over Ihe working surface of the sleeves to a suitable depth. This " veneer " is fed to the working sleeves in powdered form under pressure during the entire period of operation of the molor, gradually replacing any part of the " veneer" which m a y wear away in service. In order to impart to the graphite the highest attainable refractory properties without destroying its lubricating qualities thefinelydivided graphite is loaded with finely divided refractory substances. such as magnesite. It has been found that sleeves carrying this " veneer " of graphite mixture embodying highly refractory substances, are kept cool due to the fact that the heat residing in Ihe burning mixture cannot penetrate the " v e n e e r " of refractory material on the sleeves. hence they are masked so thoroughly that the expansion of the melal due to heat changes is obviated. T h e advantages of the refractory " veneer'' over the sleeve surfaces in the Rockefeller motor will be particularly appreciated by those w h o from experience k n o w that i t is extremely difficult lo prevent a sleeve valve molor from smoking if lubricating oil is permitted to contact with ihe sleeves. A n d yet h o w to operate the sleeve valves of a motor without lubricating ihem is a mailer which was never so satisfactorily solved as through the adoption of the refractory " veneer " in ihe case above cited. It is a remarkable advantage to be able lo shield the sleeves, relying upon a refractory " veneer " as the buffer, thus absolutely eliminating lubricating troubles such as are prone to exist in sleeve-valve motors w h e n the lubricating oil is applied to the blister-hot sleeves. F r o m what has been said i t would appear that the possibilities sought in the experimental work which led u p lo the Rockefeller motor w e r e :

95

Fig. 4. Intake side of the _ Rockefeller motor showing the carburetor, " stove," and the lubricating oil filter in place. Attention is called to the relatively small dimensions of D Ihis extremely powerful motor. n

c a

.(a) To obtain a motor which would bum up to 60

per cent, of the " crude." doing automobile work. (b) Realizing the effect of the motor in braking action when the automobile is going d o w n the hill or in order to slop the progress of the car along the roadway. (c) Obtaining the m a x i m u m of thermal and mechanical efficiency in ihe interest of low cost of maintenance and for the further practice of inducing silent action. (d) Limiting the use of lubricating oil to conventional work in the crankcase, providing means whereby the motor would maintain a high compression in continued service through the simple process of maintaining a refractory " veneer " of graphite loaded with magnesite. H o w these excellent results are attained in the Rockefeller molor would be best appreciated by the reader in the following description : Hydro-carbon Fuel Characteristics Everybody knows what coal isput it In a furnace, kindle a fire under it. and afler i t is initially heated by Ihe heat from ihe burning kindling wood, it will ignite and burn, supplying heal to the surroundings. In a word. coal is carbon cemented together but not quite pure.

T o the novice, gasoline is not related to coal at all the novice is mistaken. All hydro-carbons, eilher in gas form, or as liquids, are so closely related to coal lhat they m a y be regarded as the very finest grade of coal, differing only in heal value, ease of igniting and subsequent burning, and in formliquid instead of solid. Indeed. about 8 0 per cenl. of gasoline is pure c a r b o n a fine grade of coal, as il were. T h e balance is hydrogen for the most part, hence the designation, hydro-carbon, instead of coal. It is understood by even the novice lha! coals are nol all of the same qualitysome arc good and m o r e arc bad; some are hard and m o r e are soft; some are pure and more are full of slate, stone and a s h t h e harder Ihe coal, the more difficult it is to ignite, but, Ihe slower i l burns the more heat it gives up. Soft coal, on the other hand, lights easier, burns faster, but it gives off less heatit does not contain so m a n y heat units. Just so with the hydro-carbons; there are three grades s o m e are light (soft) and m o r e arc heavier (hard). T h e lighter hydro-carbons ignite, most readily, burn fiercely and, like soft coal, raise to high temperatures, but they

Fig. S. Magneto side of the Rockefeller motor depicting the method of driving the magneto, relative proportions of parts, and method of installing the high tension cables in order to serve two seta of spark plugs. Attention i s called to the diminutive size ol the motor for the d d a enormous power delivery.

97

have not Ihe m a x i m u m number of heat units in a given weight. T h e heavier (hard) hydro-carbons are more difficult to kindle, burn slower and yield more heat. T h e reason w h y coal burns after ils temperature is raised afler afireis kindled under itpreferably by wood i s because, at certain high temperatures the liquids with which the carbon of Ihe coal is saturated, are driven off by the heat due to expansion, and, as these liquids (hydro-carbons) boil out of the coal Ihey form a vapor with the surrounding healed air. with what result ? W h y , just the same result as w h e n a match is applied to a jet of gasthere is a chemical combination of the hydrogen in the gas with the oxygen of the air, and water is formed, which is floated away in the form of steam, hence not noticed by the casual observer; and the carbon in the gas also combines with its quota of oxygen of the heated air a chemical combinationforming carbonic acid, which alsofloatsaway (while it is healed) in the air, hence invisible to the casual observer; but as soon as the carbonic acid cools off. i t condenses to a fluid heavier than air, hence i t falls to the floor and, in l i t lie spheroids, more or less like mustard seed, only smaller, the carbonic acid rolls around under one's feet, as i t were. Going back to the coal in the stove, w h e n Ihe liquids all boil off and burn, they raise the mass of remaining coke to such a high temperature that it, too, shatters; the fine dust of carbon raised to an incandescent temperature. combines with its quota of oxygen of the air and burnsforming more carbonic acid. T h e part that remains in Ihe stove is called ashit has no fuel value, hence, even when it is heated, i l cannot combine with the oxygen of the air and burn. In a word oxygen, alone, cannot burn. because the process of burning presupposes the combination of two or more elements, each having a fuel value its

as, oxygen and hydrogen, or oxygen and carbon. But oxygen must be one of the elements, i t being true, as physicists have amply demonstrated, that hydrogen and carbon, for illustration, no matter h o w Ihey are mingled so long as no oxygen (in any form) is present, cannot be m a d e to burn. In the same w a y the nitrogen, of which the air holds about 80 per cent., is the " ash " of the airit has no fuel value; hence i t will not combine with oxygen and burn. Indeed, i t is because of the large amount of nitrogen in the air, that i t is possible to safely burn coal, lo say nothing about hydro-carbon compounds that burn more readily than coal. T h e nitrogen serves to isolale the oxygen from the hydrogen and carbon, and il is only as fasl as these elements find each other in a Iondon " fog" of nitrogen that they are able to combine and, when they do couple, there is a little burst of energy, a flash in the pan, so to speak, and they add to the flameihey burn. While i t is true that nitrogen is the " fog " that mainly retards the combination of the oxygen of the air with the hydrogen and carbon of Ihe coal or the hydro-carbon, as the case m a y be, there are other retarding influences, besides. Hydrogen finds its oxygen mate with great promptness; carbon is a dullard in this respect. T h e marrying process, for such it is in the usual terms of thinking, means a short courtship and an -elopement, when the hydrogen male for oxygen comes along. Whereas, the carbon beau is slower and more sluggish in actiona longer courtship follows, and the marriage is less spectacular. T h e combination of hydrogen and oxygen is attended by the highest heat. W h e n carbon and oxygen combine. there is not so m u c h heat. But carbon has the greatest capacity for heat, the greatest specific heatit takes more heat to raise its temperaturewith what result? T h e

m o r e hydrogen there is present the fiercer will the fire burneven the more sluggish carbon will ignite and burn with accelerated speed when it gets under Ihe spell of burning hydrogen. Why? Because the temperature of the carbon is quickly elevated to the point at which it the more readily combines with oxygen. Now, coal is a solid hydro-carbon in which the liquid fills the interstices or voids of the solid part, hence it is carried around in a hodas a solid. Gasoline, benzine, or kerosene, on Ihe other hand, are liquidsall hydro-carbonsin which Ihe solid part, that is to say, the carbon, fills the interstices or voids of the liquid part, hence it is moved about in a canas a liquid. It may be regarded as strange, but there is not a great difference in composition between a good grade of coal

100

Fig. 6. Looking a t the Rockefeller motor from a point at the rear of same, showing the flywheel ind clutch housed within the rim of the same: also the arms and levers extending from the back of the cylinders to the right side of the motor, one ol which is for the dynamic brake control and the other regulates the fuel consumption. D C C 0 L

a a a a a

Fig. 7. Looking at 1 the Rockefeller motor from a point in front of the same, showing the air propeller. starting crank, centrifugal circulating pump, and other relations; the view is complete including Ihe piping for lubricating oil and the circulating medium. The Maranville filter fur the lubricating oil is shown supported by one of the cross arms of the motor at the right in the view. The compactness of the installation as a whole, with freedom from and complication, kerosene are or gasoline. After making allowance for points to be admired. about 110 pounds of ash per ton of coal, the remainder D will show not far from the same amount of carbon, and iJ Ihe same value of hydrogen as an equal weight of keroa d a a a sene. Nature plays tricks upon her subjectsif she desires liquids she forms them inlo liquids; if she prefers solids, she compresses them into solids. It is in the same way that water changes its slate of aggregation, for, as w e all know, it is a solid (ice) or, a liquid (water) or, a gas (steam)a mere matter of temperature and pressure influence. Referring, now, lo hydro-carbon, i t changes, too, and, with slighl differences, accounted for by impurities, the hydro-carbon is solid (coal) or, liquid (kerosene, gasoline, etc.) or, gas (vapor)a mere matter of heat influence.

101

Water is hydrogen-dioxide, whereas coal is a hydrocarbonihey both hold hydrogen, but the hydrogen i s combined with a different element in each case. The point is that the water is the product of the coal; that i s lo say, w h e n the hydro-carbon is burned, the products of combustion are water and carbonic acid. Obviously, even though water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, i t will not burn, because i t is a saturated compoundthe hydrogen is saturated wilh oxygen, which is collected by burning and, having once burned, i t will not again burn, so long as i t remains as water, no matter in which of its three states of aggregation, i. e., ice, water or steam. Still, as every good fireman knows, waler will not quench a fire after i t is split up inlo ils constituents, hydrogen and oxygen; but, then, as will be self-evident, i t ceases to be water. It requires power to run the machinery in the plants where automobiles are fashionedit takes power to propel an automobileit demands a power plant in either eventuality. W h a t is a power plant ? It is a more or less intricate mechanism whereby energy is abstracted from ils natural stores and reduced lo its mechanical equivalent, power. In a thrice, power is derived from heatthe heat of burning coal, or the heat of burning "gas." In Ihe plant where automobiles are fashioned, i l is more than likely that a steam power plant drives the machinery thai is found to be necessary for the work lo be done in the fashioning of the automobiles. But, the power plant in the automobile, required to propel the same, is an internal combustion enginecalled a molor, more often. W h a t is the distinction? In the steam power plant at the automobile maker's factory, a coal fire is kindled and kept up under a boiler partlyfilledwith water. T h e heat of the coalfireon the 102

grate passes t h r o u g h the shell of the boiler, a n d raises the temperature of Ihe w a t e r in the boiler until it gives off steam at a considerable pressure. T h i s high-pressure steam is admitted to the cylinders of the engine a n d , w h a t does it d o ? It pushes the piston in each cylinder of the engine back a n d forth with the force of ihe steam pressure applied to the face of the pislon. T h e reciprocating motion thus induced is translated b y a crank Io an angular motion, thus m a k i n g it a simple thing to utilize Ihe p o w e r of the engine to drive the m a c h i n e r y of the plant. T h e engine is proportioned for Ihe w o r k to be done. Fig. 8. Piston and connecting rod of the Rockefeller motor. Ihe piston being fitted with tungsten steel ring*. The design presented shows excellent care in the fashioning of the parts in order 10 arrive at a due measure of strength without introd u c i n g unbalanced metal, such as would interfere with the power delivery of motor under conditions of hicb speed. The large end of the connecting rod shows strength and light weight. The holding bolts are iwo in number, dowel pins co-operating with them to prevent the working of the cap: these dowel pins facilitate the assembly of the motor. It is a noteworthy fact in this construc'ion that the pistons are of steel. the D a to d make pistons refractory dThe aa a are footing surfaces threaded veneer. for of

103

But i t is not convenient to use a steam plant and coal as the source of heal and energy in an automobileit has been done. It is more convenient to do a w a y with the steam boiler altogether. Instead of kindling a fire on the grate of a steam boiler and from the heat of burning coal, raise steam from water, it is preferable to kindle a fire right in the cylinder of the enginedoing away with the boiler full of water and all thai i t impliesand Ihis is exactly what is done in automobile engines, and lhat is w h y they are called internal combuslion engines o r motors.

H o w the Fire is Kindled in the Molor "DEMEMBERING lhat it is the energy in steam that * * pushes the piston back and forth in the cylinder of the steam engine, i t is n o w timely lo observe that any other liquid, so-called, will do the same as steam if, only, it is the residence of energy as evolved by pressure. which pressure is the indicator of heat, and, as has already been slated, Ihe mechanical equivalent of heat is power. W e come, n o w , to a very specific and significant detail if the fire is to,be kindled in Ihe cylinder instead of on the grate under ihe boiler, the fire must burn so fast as to afford the desired mechanical equivalent of the heat units residing in Ihe fuel, in a very brief intervalsomething like Ihe fraction of a second lhat the pislon takes as i t " dwells " at the top of Ihe stroke; and it is during this interval that the fluid is ignited (kindled) and burned to carbonic acid and water plus heated nitrogen, in an efficient motor. If the combustion is started too early, the motor will " pound "if the combustion is not completed before the piston moves on its power stroke, the product as measured in mechanical equivalent, i. e., power, will be rediicedthe motor will be inefficient. 104

In order to be able to ignite the fuel and b u m it completely in the brief fraction of a second allowed, i t must be quick-burning fuel. N o w , gunpowder is quick-burning ; i t is too quickthe piston could not sweep the stroke fast enough to absorb the energy, and power would be lost the heat would escape |o the cooling solution in the jacket surrounding the cylinder instead of being converted into mechanical work. But the vapor of gasoline m i x e d with its proper measure of oxygen in the air does extremely well. T h e reason for this lies largely in the fact that gasoline vaporizes at normal atmospheric temperatures, hence i t is a most excellent fuel to use in a conventional type of float-feed carburetor. It will be understood that i t is the function of the carburetor lo measure out the liquid gasoline to the entering column of air in such proportion as to deliver a quick-burning charge of fluid to the combustion chamber in each working cylinder of the molor. T h e gasoline, as i t is sucked out of the nozzle placed adjacent to the float-bowl of the carburetor, must vaporize and mix with the column of atmospheric air, to produce a homogeneous mixture or fluid, before the fluid enters the working cylinder of the motor. If the liquid gasoline, after i t leaves the nozzle. does not vaporize before i t enters the working cylinders of the motor, it will not be in a receptive condilion. due to the fact that the hydrogen and carbon will be in bond, hence i t will be impossible for these elements to combine with the oxygen of the air and ihe end will register as a partial combustion or a misfirewith little or no power as a resultant. Moreover, the liquid gasoline, after entering the working cylinder of the motor, instead of doing useful work, will " crack," forming coke; which. in turn, will produce what is technically k n o w n as a deposit of carbon within the working cylinders of the motor. Such formalions of carbon are not to be encouraged they lead up to pre-ignition, and loss of power. 105

Fig. 9. Elements of a flexible universal Joint, suggested for use in the co-operating points between units ol automobiles for the obvious purpose ol thwarting the ills of misalignment, nol forgetting thai noise is generated at these point! under ordinary conditions of construca n a tion. In this example the laminae of members in coal, Ihe middle It is well k n o w n thai c o k e is f o r m e dshown out of in a assembly leather. simple w a y ; ihe coal is c h a r g e d into a retort arc orofcoking o v e n a n d sealed. H e a t is applied to the retort and, since n o air c a n enter the retort, the fluids arc expanded. b y the heat, out of the coal, leaving the b o d y of coke. N o w , Ihe s a m e thing c a n h e d o n e to gasoline or other hydro-carbon fluids. T h e s a m e process applies. In a thrice, if the liquid is heated in a stillexcluding air or

106

Fig. 10. Assembled universal joint, shown disassembled in Fig. 9. Attention is called lo theflutingof one of the shafts co-operating with the universal joint. the idea being to impart longitudinal freedom to the system, thus affording a joint that is universal to a high dewree ain its a process a of unifying the distortions so o'tviously present in automobile work.

other sources of o x y g e n w h e n the heat is high enough, the hydro-carbon will " crack " and the coke will remain, representing u p w a r d s of SO per cent, by weight, of the original hydro-carbon product.

T r u e Gasoline N o L o n g e r Obtains in A u t o m o b i l e Fuel "\ITERE it not for the fact lhat true gasoline is so vv scarce as a market c o m m o d i t y that it m a y not n o w be had in quantity sufficient lo respond to the d e m a n d or anything like the d e m a n d , it w o u l d not be necessary

Fig. II. Depicting the silent chain transmission system located at the front end of the Rockefeller molor in an oil-light case, transmitting power to the lay-shaft ai one-half the speed of Ihe crankshaft: also driving the magneto with means for taking up lost motion in ihe system. This D of a these method drive of important auxiliaries of ihe motor is nol only to favor subject by Ihe least approach to discussion. silent but the remarkable Indeed, as well. Ihe " m o t o r spirits," so-called, of this late day, are so difficult lo vaporize in the absence of applied heat, that carburetors are laxed to the utmost of iheir ability; motors are prone to g r o w a deposit of carbon d u e to " cracked " fuel, and besides a s m o k i n g exhaust, there is a m a r k e d increase in fuel consumption, nol forgetting a sad diminution of p o w e r , and a falling off of flexibility of p o w e r deliverysuch is the fate of all motors of loday.

107

T h e present practice is, not to use true gasoline as automobile fuel, but to put e n o u g h true gasoline in the naphthas to afford a vapor during startinglong enough to get the motor heated up, so that the heat thus raised m a y be taken advantage of to vaporize the part of the motor spirits that resist vaporizationthat will not vaporize at normal temperatures. H o w e v e r , as might be expected, s o m e of the coarser hydro-carbon fractions get into the working cylinder, where they " crack," which accounts for Ihe rather short period of time n o w required to develop an excess of carbon in the cylinders of even good motors. It will be understood that, w h e n gasoline vaporizes, it merely boilsils temperature of ebullition or boiling point, is so low that, without any application of (outside) heat, it gets e n o u g h heat out of the surrounding air at normal temperatures, to cause it to boil O f course, increasing the temperature causes the boiling to go on al a faster rate, as the following table (from tests made by Sorel) will s h o w : Rate of Ebullition of Hexanc (Gasoline) Increasing with Temperature Temperature Centi (trade 12.2 14.8 Fahrenheit Va port red 29. 30.6 J 31.32 32.50 W 37 16 10 37.74

1 0 is 20 22 24

M 59 61 64 6S 72 J5

In studying the table, observe, first, that h e x a n e boils satisfactorily for purposes of carburetion at 12.2 degrees centigrade (54 degrees Fahrenheit) ; and, second, thai

108

the rale of boiling increases gradually with temperature. Third, this rale of boiling is not changed w h e n hcxane is mingled with heavier hydro-carbons, excepting that time must be allowed for the hexane lo extract itself from the mesh of the heavier liquids. Motors depend for their success largely upon the presence of this hexane in solution. Proof kerosene, on ihe other hand, has not even a trace of hexane in its makeup it would not be proof kerosene were it thus contaminated. .-*< Granting that the kerosene must be vaporized, just as gasoline has been vaporized in the past, in order lo obtain satisfactory results, motor makers have been content Io supply heat to the carburetor, taking the same from the exhausted products of combustion, utilizing more or less efficient means. T h e lemperature of the exhausted fluids is high enough for the purpose. There is enough of stray heat units residing in the exhaust fluids to accomplish the end. But. as will be surmised, there is a most tantalizing instability about the whole plan. Not even a necromancer would he able to foretell the wants of ihe fuel as it responds to Ihe demands of a variablespeed, changing-power motor and, infine,the high and variable temperature of the exhausted fluid is the undoing of the project. T h e other side of the question is thai the heat abstracted from the water of the jackets cannol be high enough for the purpose for the very simple reason that water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas the requirement is in the region of 285 degrees Fahrenheit. O f course, all attempts at kerosene burning in ordinary motors contemplate using gasoline for purposes of starting. In the Rockefeller motor, no attempt is m a d e to utilize exhausted-fluid heat for purposes of vaporization of the fuel. N o r is the fuel permitted to enter ihe working cylinders of the molor in liquid form. T h e plan adopted is along new lines. Instead of water in the 109

water-jackets of the working cylinders. ' * T h e r m o i l " is substituted. This fluid affords a " stove " heat of 285 degrees Fahrenheit for the vaporization of the kerosene. T h e " Thermoil " is sucked from the region of the greatest heat (over the heads of cylinders) and forced through the " s t o v e " (situated between the carburetor and the intake manifold), and, after vaporizing Ihe kerosene by means of heat exchange at exactly the right lemperature, the " Thermoil " departs from the " stove " and flows to the radiator, where it is cooled, from whence it flows back to the water-jackets, ready lo begin a succeeding cycle of work. T h e very fact that the " stove," with its efficient means for rapid heat exchange, is healed to exactly the right temperature, is the foundation of the complete success of ihe Rockefeller motor. Regulation, ihe little that m a y be required in view of great differences in surrounding temperature between S u m m e r and Winter weather, is afforded through a proportioning valve, so designed that the operator, at will, regulates the flow of hot " Thermoil " to the " stove " all thai does not flow through the " stove " flows directly to the radiator to be cooled. This plan has an added virtue. S o m e of the heat lost to the water-jacket is recoveredit is put into the fuel.

110

Fig. 12. Looking al the Rockefeller motor from above, showing the L-head cylinders en bloc. The fact that i t is a sleeve-valve motor is not shown by any difference that may be discerned in the apF-carance of o theamotor rom that of conventional forms of poppei valve motors.

Just above Ihe " stove " a spark-plug is screwed into the induction pipe. W h e n the motor is about lo be started, this spark-plug is connected to the magneto. Ignition takes place, not only in the working cylinders as usual, but also in Ihe intake. Partial combustion of the cold fluid takes place in the induction pipe. Heal is thus generated. T u r n i n g Ihe molor over soon affords enough heat so that it builds up, so to speak, and, w h e n it begins to spin, allowing a minute Io store u p heal, ihe spark-plug in ihe induction pipe is switched out of circuitafter that, the m o t o r lakes care of itself, due lo the heat delivered to the "stove." Contrary to ihe half-baked theories of those w h o have ventured to pronounce against kerosene for automobile motor fuel, and just w h e n they were so perfectly all right in their self-assurances, the thing's accomplished. M o r e over, instead of having to eschew one fuel in favor of another, the Rockefeller motor thrives o n gasoline, does equally well o n kerosene and, in fine, il delivers ils fat (full p o w e r ) from "swill"il will burn hexane, heptane, octane, nonane or decane, separately or combined in any proportionbenzol, too, m a y be used lo advantage if ever, by virtue of s o m e improvemenl yet not c o m m e r cialized, benzol b e c o m e s a factor.

Fig. 13. Presenting ihe Rockefeller motor with the en bloc cylinders removed, showing the barrel-type crankease and the simple and strong design where >v weaving and other dilortions arc prevented. thus adding a due measure of noise-preventing rigidity to an otherwise efficient situation. a a d

Refrigeration C i r c u m v e n t s C a r b u r e r i o n E x c e p t in Rockefeller P l a n In order to properly expose this situation it will first b e necessary to tabulate the refrigerating values of the hydro-carbon constituents. Baillie gives these values as follows: Drop in Temperatute Due to Evaporation Density at 15eC. 0.674 0.688 0.719 0.740 0.738 0.884 "C. Drop in Temperature Evaporated in Evaporated in correct 70 per cent. amount of air shortage 19.0 23.3of air 17.9 17.2 23.4 21.5

Fuel Hexane Heptane Octane Nonane Decane Benzol

Formula C6H 14 (7 1 1 16 C8H 18 C9H20 CIO H 22

|
14.8 32.2 18.5 47.3

C6H6

It will b e seen that m a x i m u m refrigerating effect follows with m i n i m u m air. Success will only attend the effort that admits of the use of a proportioning valve to regulate the supply of heat to the " stove"at the required temperatureas arranged for in the Rockefeller system. T h e temperature of the " stove " must be high enough lo assure a rapid rate of heat transfer to the working fluidwhich is cared for in the Rockefeller system. Heal enough to balance the latent heat of evaporation of the hydro-carbon in the working fluid, must be at handprovided in the " Thermoil" of the Rockefeller system. Because there is no w a y of telling just the proportions of the constituents in the hydro-carbon of the working fluid at any given instant, adjustment for the proper heat

112

balance must be available in order to adequately compensate for all changes in the working conditionforeseen in Ihe Rockefeller system. Adjustment of the air admission is necessary within certain limits. T h e auxiliary air valve provides this facilityperfectly in the Rockefeller system. T h e boiling point of the coarsest hydro-carbon of the whole series is that of pentadccane. which is given by Sorel as 2 5 8 to 2 6 2 degrees Centigrade (500 degrees Fahrenheit). T h e lowest boiling point of any constituent in kerosene is given by the s a m e authority as that of nonane, which is 149.5 degrees Centigrade (301.1 degrees Fahrenheit)provided for in the Rockefeller system. T h e following tabulation m a y be consulted for further information o n the subject of the boiling points of the constituents of hydro-carbon oils. Table of Specific Gravily and Boilins; Point of Hydro-carbons Soiling Point in decrees Centigrade 69-71 Specific Gravity at R'vcn Temperature in degrees| Centigrade Temperature Spec. Grav. 17 0 663 0 688 0.719 0.719 0.723 0.742 0 736 0.7S6 0.755 d 778 0.796 i i SO1*

Name Molor Spirits Hexane Heptane Normal I so mere Keroaene Decane Undccane Dodecane Medecane Telradecanc Pentadccane

Formula

C6H 14 C7H 16 C8H 18

98 124
119-122 U'< 5 158-159 180-182 214.5 218-220 236-240 258-262

IS 0 17
13.5

C9 H 20 CIO H 22 CM H24 CI2 H 26 CI3 H 28 CI4H30 CI5 H 32

12 18 1 6 1 5 15
1.* > 15 1

113

R e m e m b e r i n g that the latent heat of evaporation lowers the temperature during carburelion, thus lowering the vapor pressure, external heating, as in the Rockefeller " stove," is absolutely necessary; otherwise, the suspended particles of fuel will precipitate in liquid form. Sorcl gives the vapor pressures at different temperatures, for different hydro-carbons, as follows: Vapor Pressures of Hydrocarbons in M. M.'s of Mercury. Temperature degrees Centigrade Hydro-carbons Compared Kerosene Motor Spirits Poor Good

Hexane

Beiuol

0 5 10 1 5 20 25 J O 35 40 4. 50 55 60

45 58 74 95 1 1 9 1 5 4 1 8 4
22% 276

315 4 0 1 482 567

16 1 7 19 22 24 28 30 34 39 43 48 53 59

99 1 1 5 1 3 3 154 179 210 251 301 360 422 493 561 648

152 170 1 9 1 214 240 260 292 345 416 496 575 660 768

27 36 4 5 6 1 7 7 96 1 7 0 1 5 6 I B S 224 2 7 1 326 390

T h e tabulation shows that the vapor pressure of kerosene is far below even poor motor spirits, but that it increases with temperature at a rate that promises successful vaporization in a " stove." as provided in the Rockefeller system.

114

Kerosene

Problem

Outlined

But the demonstrator may give you a circular containing kerosene questions and answers, purporting to settle the whole matter. If he does, just point out lo him lhat a circular is not a contract; tell him to incorporate the statements m a d e in the circular in a duly executed contract. D o not forget that the contract should be signed by an officer of the company empowered by the board of directors lo enter into a contract. Y o u should be afforded due evidence of the fact that the board of directors of the company authorize Ihe officers thereof to enler into the contract. But i t is not necessary to go to the trouble of formulating a legal contract for the purchase of an automobile based upon promises in circulars and statements of the demonstrator of the car so long as simple means at hand will supply definite information : no intending purchaser of an automobile should be content with a good contract for a bad car. It is not possible to ride around in a lawsuit. N o one can get very far in a fight. If the demonstrator stales lhal ordinary grocery kerosene will work perfectly well in the car which he offers for sale, as before slated, i t is easy enough to drive up to a grocery store, substitute kerosene for gasoline, and try it out. If the demonstrator states that the mileage of kerosene will be as good as the mileage obtainable Fig. 14. Depicting the lay-shaft of the Rockefeller motor. This shall is of ihe crankshaft design and construction: it is driven at half of the speed of the main crankshaft: and is designed to reciprocate a d theaeight sleeves of the fourcylinder motor io which it relates.

115

Fig. 15. Presenting j two bearing crankshaft of the Rockefeller motor. This is of alloy sleel. of a composition which facilitates heat treatment for ihe beit results. T h e flywheel flange is an integral part of a the n crankshaft. a with gasoline, w h y nol ascertain the actual facts by a trial which is easy io make.' If the demonstrator states that the motor will not smoke m u c h or any more when i t is burning kerosene lhan i t will w h e n i t is burning gasoline, n o w what's the use of arguing about it? W h y not photograph the smoke w h e n the motor is burning gasoline, and then photograph the smoke w h e n the motor is burning kerosene, and compare the two? If the demonstrator says that the motor in Ihe car which he is offering for sale will not knock or pound running on kerosene, just ask him lo include that statement in his guarantee in the contract for purchase of the car. If the demonstrator makes any oiher statements of a character not susceptible of proof, lei him incorporate them into the contract. But if the demonstrator makes statements which are susceptible of proof, go through the process of proving before accepting the automobile.

116

P r i c e of C r u d e

Petroleum

T* HUSK who are not prepared to accept the advices thai * gasoline for automobiles is getting scarcer as time goes on. are optimistic in the face of a hardening market for " crude." T h e present market of " crude " is $*i.5il per bbl. T h e average market for 1913 was $ " * . * . , 5 . In 1012 the average market was $1.67. Il will be of interest to learn lhat pig iron declined from $15.91 in 1912, d o w n to $14.90 (low level) for the first month of this year. In a word, pig iron softened while " crude " hardened. In the same way steel billets fell from an average price of S-*.:ts for 1!"K'. d o w n to $20.00 for January of this year. Again, showing that, on a softening steel billet market, " crude " hardened. There is one more point in relation lo " crude " which should not be overlooked. T h e great majority of Ihe industrial users of " crude," for forge and heat-treatment fires, are looking for other means of their heal supply. W h y ? Because " c r u d e " is gelling so scarce that ihey are becoming alarmed. T h e time is near at hand when the owners of automobiles will have to lake notice of Ihe fact that gasoline is but a small percentage of the " crude " s o m e means will have lo be devised for using a considerably increased proportion of the " crude."

Lubricating Oil Uses \nSCOSITY, mobility, and unctuousness of lubricat* ing oils are relating properties. True, there is no direct connection between unctuousness and Ihe other properties. Viscosity however, being a manifestation of oil reflecting internal friction in ihe body of the same, will sustain a variation of that internal friction in response to

any change in the unctuousness of the oil, hence, there is an indirect, but positive relation between viscosity and unctuousness. A s proof of the relation of unctuousness and viscosity, attention is called to the g u m m i n g of lubricating oil after the unctuous properties wear out. Internal friction becomes the controlling factor as soon as the unctuousness of the oil is destroyed by continued work. If there is a relation between viscosity and unctuousness; if ihe contentions here are Irue; if a given lubricant is more uncluous at one point in its curve of viscous properties, than ii is at another point, then, since the viscosity of the oil is affected by temperature; since, in a word, ihe oil displays mobility under temperature changes, it will be seen that a given grade of lubricating oil of a given body, or viscosity at a given temperature, will scarcely suffice for a plurality of uses. Fig. 16. Looking ai a piston head after o p e r a t e d in ihe Rockefeller m o t o r burning kerosene oilshowing the tool marks, thus indicating that there is no collection of cart.cn worthy of notice due in this motor. It ii worthy of note that. in the burning of kerosene, unless the temperature in the intake is approximately 280 degrees Fahrenheit, there will be a -i-.ii excess ol smoke in ihe exhaust and an accumulation of carD piston lion O onD the head.^ This illustration is of exceeding no carbon importance proves feller burns accumulation motor kerosene. in that the because there when Rockeof i t it it

118

In order to fully appreciate just-what i t means to attempt to employ a given grade of lubricating oil for a l l purposes, i t is only necessary to glance al the following classification of Ihe duties of lubricating oils: Classification of Duties of Lubricating Oils in Service

A
Pressure Speed Temperature

P .
I i ..ivy Slow High Axles

c
Medium Medium Medium

n Heavy Fast High

F ,
Light Fast Hish Pistons and Valves

Transmissions Crankshafts

Fig. 17. Presenting the piston of the Rockefeller motor, Ihe head of which is shown in Fig. 16. affording an opportunity to examine the inside of ihe piston for the purpose of disclosing its neat design and light construction. It is worthy of note that this piston is ol sleel with excellent means of securing ihe piston-pin in place, thus saving the cylinder bore from being scored by a floating piston, which too_ often happens in ordinary practice. A further examination of this illustration discloses Ihe fact that Ihe piston is finished inside. Attention is also of tory in a called face indication molor. the ih; a thermal of to head. operation athe of bright This conditions underside satisfacof is surthe an

11!

T h e General Competence of the Molor O R( IADLY speaking, motors belong to three general * * * * classes: (1) pleasure vehicle types, designed for all-around good performance rather than for high speed; (3) commercial vehicle types, designed to deliver maxi m u m power al relatively slow speeds and for endurance in continuous service; (:l) racing vehicle lypes. designed for speed alone, often to ihe high disregard of every utility consideration. Referring lo thefirsttype of molor above mentioned, since users of cars do nol wish lo travel at m a x i m u m speeil all of the time, i t remains for them lo attach a fair measure of significance to the fact lhat flexibility of Ihe power plant is an excellent substitute for mere speed of the motor. Thisflexibilityof power planl is a characteristic of well-designed motors with relatively light reciprocating parts (in which the compression of the fluid is in the region of < ; > pounds per square inch above the atmosphere), referring, of course, to gasoline motors. Freed o m from prc-ignition trouble, which is usually attributed lo carbon in the combustion chambers of the working cylinders of the motor, is one of the special recommendations for motors of this compression. S o m e writers refer to high-compression motors as " hard " motors; in the same sense ihey refer to general utility motors as " soft motors. T h e impression this conveys appeals lo the average reader. At all events, the cosi of up-keep of general utility motors utilizing a relatively low compression is favorable; over-heating is less likely to occur; pre-ignition and pounding are nol so prevalent; the lubrication problem is less acute; the economy of operation is favorable; the bearings do nol develop losl motion with anything like the same facility; and for up-hill and down-dale work under all sorts of conditions, i t is the prevailing experience that the " soft" motor, so-called, leaves little to be desired.

120

Sporting events, since they partook of the advertising tinge, necessarily developed motors built for speed. In not a few examples the motors that brought racing success to iheir designers, so far as motors were concerned, have barely lasted through a single race ; indeed, hundreds of racing motors went to pieces before ihey completed the allotted number of laps in the events for which ihey were entered. In a great m a n y cases the advertising rep resentatives of concerns w h o participated in racing events gave the impression thai the cars entered were slock affairs, when, as a matter of fact, they were special in point of design in almost every particular. Il is true that advertising which misrepresents the facts iu the manner above referred to is false, but i t seems to be accepted practice in m a n y fields of endeavor lo depart from truth in advertising until, in fine, those w h o are attracted to advertising by the cleverness of its phrasing or the ingenuity of its make-up. fully understand lhat they are nol lo look for the truthunless in very rare instances. Just a word in dismissing the subject of commercial vehicles: i t is enough to point out that " hard " motors are not as likely to deliver as good an account of themselves under the exacting demands of commercial service as " soft " motors. T h e spring suspension and weight of the commercial vehicle, as well as the mounting of the motor in the frame, all have an unquestionable influence on the life and performance of the motor, and these conditions differ radically from those obtaining in pleasure vehicles. Referring to the power of the molor for a given case, the average purchaser will do well to pay more attention to the performance of the automobile on the road than he will to any statements of the horse-power which the motor is capable of delivering. 121 Excellence of perform-

ance of a n automobile does not necessarily depend upon large m a x i m u m p o w e r possibilities of the motor. It will not be difficult for a n intending purchaser to prove to his o w n satisfaction that he can wilh ease realize forty miles per h o u r over fairly g o o d roads with a ten-horse-power m o l o r of g o o d design, such as ihe Rockefeller sleevevalve motor, whereas, considering a car of the same weight a n d capacity a n d a m o t o r of n o great competence which might be rated at forty-horse-power, the s a m e observer might have extreme difficulty in getting u p speed even approaching forty miles per hour. B u t the intending purchaser should not lay too m u c h stress u p o n the lype of m o t o r involved. It is true that the Rockefeller sleeve-valve type of m o t o r above referred to is perfectly capable of accomplishing the task to which it is assigned, but it does not necessarily follow, that sleeve-valve motors in general should be the choice of the purchaser. T h e point to be m a d e here is that there arc g o o d a n d b a d motors in every type of design. For

122

Fin. 18. Micrograph (magnified .'00 diameters) showing Ihe micro-structure of the excellent grades of steel used in Rockcfelle' sleeve valve construe1 ion. This structure oilers an excellent view of the steel in its final heat treated form, and it is worthy of note that any timber temperature influences, to which D the steel D might be subjected in service, would merely tend to refine the grade.

Fig. 19. Micrograph (magnified 35 times) showing a specialised form oi free graphite in cast iron, which has been developed for use in the sleeve valve for the Daimler engine. The small graphite plates of carbon are distinctly visible all over the micrograph. which also illustrates a wide network of siliconimpregnated fcrritc in a matrix of gray pearlite. This example of cast gray iron for the sleeves of K n i g h t motors is one which n recommendaa a has the tion of Ihe Daimler instance, if a sleeve is of great diameter, it will have a Engine Company, large surface to be lubricated; there will be no great difCoventry. England, and is specially referredin mere lubrication unless i ficulty involved t is that the to by Berriman in his molor will burn u p a little extra oil and perhaps smoke; "Notes on Materials of (in the winter time) w h e n the oil gets but the point is that M o I o r-car Construcsticky in the cold, ihe sleeves will be " glued," as it were, tion." lo Ihe adjacent surfaces, with the result that if the motor can be started at all i t is with extreme difficulty. Mention is m a d e of this problem of ihe sticking of the sleeves due Io cold and viscous lubricating oil in order to more clearly indicate to the novice, w h o m a y be too prone to become fascinated with types of motors, that extreme and a w k w a r d problems m a y confront him when he ventures inlo a n e w field, especially if he is unaware of the influences of heat, cold and position upon the behavior and performance of Ihe relatively n e w devices to which his attention m a y be drawn.

123

That which m a y be said without transgressing Ihe proprieties in relation lo the competence of sleeve-valves in motors is particularly true of rotary-valves; moreover, i l applies to a considerable extent in poppet-valve types of motors. In a word, while the type of motor should be selected with care and after due consideration, the fact remains that a good motor is what the buyer wants; i t is what Ihe buyer requires; i t is the only power device that will propel the automobile over average roads lo Ihe satisfaction of the user and. in distinguishing a good molor from one of mediocre characterises, i t is (1) a matter of material; ( , ' ) concealed in the design; (3) involved in the w o r k m a n s h i p n o matter what the type. Referring lo the qualities of ihe materials required in motors, the intending purchaser will do well not to pay too m u c h attention to the suave representations of the salesman, w h o . by his attitude, if he proves anything, proves that he is a jack-of-all-tradesand a master of none. Metallurgy is a bottomless pit of knowledge to be gained, and a science which is still in ils infancy. The problems of metallurgy are daily eluding the traps and wiles of the most advanced and learned physicists iu the world. W h e n a mere salesman in a loud-toned voice showers metallurgy there is only one conclusion to reach, and thai is lhat if the lightning were lo strike the salesman, i f would kill a fabricator, but a motor is best known by ils performance, and a salesman by his competence. and though there is an occasional salesman w h o "steps in where angels fear to tread." he is outweighed by his better qualified confrere. M u c h depends upon the weight of the automobile in comparison with the power the motor is capable of delivering, with further understanding that the gear 124

ratio between the motor and the driving road wheels of Ihe automobile is such as to facilitate the release of the power of the motor. A modicum of experience on the road with a given car will suffice for the iuformalion of a m a n of average intelligence, telling him whelher or nol Ihe car is geared for hill climbing, so lo speak, or so geared lhat il will go at the highest possible speed along a level, hard road, only lo fail w h e n it comes to a fairly steep hill. There is excellent opportunity for misunderstanding in this matter of the gear ratio between the motor and the road wheels of the car; for instance, if the demonstrating car in a given case is geared for hill climbing then the " prospective " will think lhat that m a k e of automobile is a great hill climber. But if the car actually delivered to the " prospective " is geared for speed on a level, hard road instead of for hill climbing, then lhat " prospective " will find himself mistakenafter he takes delivery of the car. T h e motor m a y be capable of delivering a very high rale of power at some relatively high speed of its crankshaft, but the fact remains that thai motor might be aflatfailure in an automobile. T h e reason for possible failure of a high-powered motor w h e n i t is installed in a car lies in the simple truth that the actual power of which a motor is capable depends ( a m o n g other things) upon the actual speed at which i t is run. T h e gear ratio between the m o tor and the road-wheels of ihe car thoroughly establishes the relation of the speed of the automobile along the road lo ihe rotation of the crankshaft of the motor, and unless the motor is so geared to the car as to permit i t lo deliver its m a x i m u m power coincident with ils ability to move the mass of the car along the road i t will fail for want of harmony. 125

Fig. 20. Intake side of Rockefeller motor showing the t position of the piston with inlet valve open.

Fig. 21. Exhaust side ol Rockefeller motor showing the exhaust valve closed at ihe beginning of the suction stroke.

T h e problems of up-keep of motors are not so readily solved in the absence of actual service as lo m a k e it an easy malter to discuss this important phase of automobiling in definite terms. Gross use and abuse of a good automobile involving a capable motor m a y be the signal for a high cost of maintenance. S o m e drivers wreck good motors by " racing " them. It is true that racing a motor cleans up the nozzle of the carburetor. It is equally true that nozzles of carburetors do not have to be cleaned oul every little while. Besides, if the gasoline is screened w h e n it is put into the tank it will be less likely to conlain such foreign substances as are prone to slop up ihe nozzle of the carburetor. H o w e v e r , recklessness is ever willing to act on semblance of a license, and the m a n w h o 12f.

races a m o t o r to the high disregard of the attending ills pursues recklessness to its headquarters. Experience proves that il is not necessarily in the fine quality of a motor o n a car that long life and a low cost of maintenance is to be found. Indeed, a shabbily-made motor, but poorly installed in a car of n o great pretense. will last for a very long time in the hands of a frugal and painstaking operator. T h e oilier side of ihis question is fittingly represented in the n u m b e r of beautifully-made high-power automobiles w h i c h end their m a d career in wrecks b y the roadside, indicating in definite terms the lust for speed, w h i c h is the a n t o n y m of long life and a low cost of maintenance.

Oil Swiioo

Fig. 22. Intake side of Rockefeller motor with ihe piston approaching the bottom dwell point on the suction stroke.

127

Fig. 23. Exhaust side of Rockefeller motor with the exhaust valve closed and the main piston descending on the suction stroke.

R e c o u n t i n g the M o t i v e

Power

Ol'KCIFIC instances of marked gain in power hav

been met where it seemed as though Ihe molor size had been increased. T h e keynote of the situation is " Effectiveness." T h e motor gives a certain amount of power. H o w m u c h of this power is really delivered to the ground in pushing the car forward? Let us analyze. T h e molor, as a source of power, imparts rotation to the flywheel in the form of energy of action. F r o m the flywheel back this energy passes through the various devices of transmission anilfinallythrough the tires. Each device through which this energy passes, steals a Utile energy and wastes i t in the form of friction and heat. W h a t is left is really the effective power. N o w , any mechanical transmission device wastes some power in friction, and great care and study have been expended with a view of reducing loss. In a motor car, there is frictional loss (a) in the joints between ihe clutch and transmission (unless the transmission is constructed as a unit with the motor) ; (b) in the gear case bearings; (c) in gear tooth contact; ( d ) in producing sound vibrations; (e) in the clutch throwout mechanism; (f) in the packing devices for holding lubrication in the gear case: (g) in rotating idle shafts and gears within the gear case; (h) when gears are warped in heat treating: (i) when shafts are not parallel and the proper distance apart <\ut to faulty machining; (j) when gear teeth are of improper form due to worn cutlers; ( k ) in universal joints in propeller shafts (this loss increases in proportion to the angle through which the joint has to transmit the motion); I2S

(1) in all the bearings of the rear axle both "radial" and "thrust"; ( m ) in tooth contact in the bevel gears; (n) in misalignment of the bevel gears; (o) in poorlycut or warped bevel gears; (p) in poorly-designed and made differentials; (q) in oil retaining devices; (r) in brake mechanisms lhat do not release; (s) in spring suspensions lhat bind or distort any portion of the transmission mechanism; (t) in brakes that, due to poor designing, throw on a trifle w h e n going over a b u m p ; (u) in springs that let the wheels bounce off the ground when going over rough roads; (v) in tire rims that are not rigidly attached lo the wheels; ( w ) in tires poorly constructed or improperly inflated; (x) in insufficient or ineffective lubrication of any of the parts requiring lubrication; (y) in misalignment of front and rear axles and wheels which causes tires to rub, and, finally, (z) in worn parts and bearings incapable of adjustment. This seems like an astounding array of " power thieves," but the lisl is nol exaggerated.it is likely lhat there are other causes of power loss not mentioned. T h e facl remains that each " thief" steals a little power, and the aggregale " theft," subtracted from the power delivered by the motor to ihe flywheel, frequently results in a meager balance. O f course, some of these losses are large, while some are minute and variable, but they are all important. M a n y of the minor causes of loss can be reduced to negligible amounts or entirely eliminated by careful design and construction. A study of these losses explains w h y the condition is sometimes met where two cars supposed to be identical do not perform alike. T h e one exhibiting more " power " 129

on a hill m a y have the s a m e motor-power as the other, but the difference lies in the effectiveness with which that power is transmitted and delivered. T h e friction losses of t w o " identical " cars can be compared by a comparative " coasting test " with motors disengaged. M a n y of the losses can be reduced or eliminated on a finished car by skillful adjustment. It must be taken into consideration that air resistance varies approximately as the cube of the car speed, and that comparative " coasting tests " of t w o or m o r e vehicles should be conducted under the s a m e conditions relating to air currents, as well as to road surface, otherwise unreliable results m a y be expected.

Fig. 2*. Intake side of Rockefeller motor showing the inlet valve s t i l l open and the main piston receding from ihe lower dwell point. 130

Fig. 25. Exhaust side ol Rockefeller motor showing the exhaust valve closed and the main piston ending the suction cycle.

.in
SwrtXi |fTT Pint S"S

ILL
rCilm

US. M \

I
W

f j-

Middl.ot __Jao4

m i

VUfctwt S I- 1 * Fig. 26. Intake side ol Rockefeller motor showing the piston ascending on the compression stroke. Fig. 21. Exhaust side of Rockefeller motor with both valves closed and the piston completing the compression stroke,

Notes on Electrical Installations "DEFERRING to electrical installations, Abbott, in s o m e of his earlier efforts in electric lighting, reduced the whole matter Io eight rules for the guidance of operators in that zone of activity. Foster, in his Electrical Engineers Pocket B o o k , refers to Abbott's points in flattering terms. Unfortunately, the language originally employed in bringing out Ihese points on electrical installation w o r k will scarcely suffice in setting d o w n the s a m e ideas for the guidance of those w h o install electric starters, lighting equipment, and ignition systems

131

in automobiles: but the faci remains that purchasers of cars will undoubtedly find something of interest in a recast of Abbott's ideas. 1. T h e conductors must be so proportioned lhat the energy transmitted ihrongh them will not cause an undue rise in temperature. ?. T h e conductors must have such mechanical properties as to enable them to be successfully erected, and so durable as to require a m i n i m u m of annual maintenance. 3. T h e conductors m a y be so designed as to entail a m i n i m u m first cost; preferably Ihrough simplification of ihe system employing a m i n i m u m number of wires, or, if the opportunity affords, through shortening ihe distances between units to be connected. 4. T h e conductors m a y be so designed lo attend a m i n i m u m first cost ihrough so proportioning the losses as to have the m a x i m u m losses occur in the conducting system; in ihis plan the functioning units must attain a high efficiency. 5. T h e conductors m a y be so designed as to favor a relatively high inefficiency of the functioning units. In this example, however, the conductors themselves must be of large section and low internal resistance, reflecting the high first cost for Ihem. G. T h e conductors m a y be designed lo secure minim u m totalfirstcost of the installation as a whole. This plan pre-supposes a harmonious distribution of losses between units and ihe conducting system connecting them. A T h e conductors m a y be so designed as to secure m a x i m u m conditions of good service. T h e thought i s suggested here that an adequate amount of metal, wellinsulated and installed in a workmanlike manner, is a step in the direction of good service. T h e remaining con132

struction would have to do with the simplicity of the plan and the means whereby a m a n of no great skill might take the system apart and restore i t to its original form without being able to misplace a single part. S. T h e conductors m a y be so designed as to attend a m a x i m u m of return with a m i n i m u m of cost. This is the point which the purchaser nuns at. In the installation of self-starters, a m o n g the dangers lo be encountered none are more eminent than the possibility that the cross-sectional area of the insulated copper wire used in connecting u p ihe storage battery with ils relating members will be insufficient for the pur|>ose. li is true that the normal draft from Ihe baltery. although i t m a y be fairly high at times, is not. as a rule, sufficient Io test the capabilities of a moderate-sized copper wire: but the fact remains that a slicking sleeve, or a hot bearing, or some other temporary derangement of the motor or its relating parts will result in difficult starting. In that event, i t is easy l < foresee that the copper conducting system between the baltery and ils relating units m a y be so overworked as to bring about failure. If, for instance. the baltery is raled at. say, J't amperes as the normal discharge value and the wiring installation is based upon. say, 100 per cent, overload.even so, there is nothing to prevent the load from going u p to "200 per cent, or even more and, so far as the capacity of the battery is concerned, i t will continue to deliver the increasing requirement to the point where .Vi per cent, of its amperehour capacity m a y he delivered in ten minutes, which is another w a y for saying that the current discharge for a prevailing interval m a y be several hundred per cenl. of the normal rate of discharge of the battery. But, even if the cross-sect ion a I area of the copper conducting system is designed for work involving considerable overloads, there still remains the chance that the ler-

133

minals and other joints m a y be insufficiently designed for the work. T h e terminals in and about the storage battery suffer corrosion due to the action of the sulphion which is sprayed out of the battery under certain conditions as, for instance, w h e n the battery is being charged and i t is nearing a state of full charge. In order to thwart the i l l s of corrosion of the lerminals their joint surfaces must have a large area, a tightfit,and a m e a n s for maintaining a good pressure relation between them. In this connection some metals are more easily corroded than others the more nearly non-corrosive metals should be employed for baltery terminal work. In any case, if the terminals _ j - ^ m Coolloc K OU Buttlon 5!

JJC-T^I
L
ICaM'

OU f-|

I
m.*

yi
Dt*i<ini!i( rrri^^jtj <A Po"r " " r ^( ' CJ<Vptotea1 A 1 iT-iit / y / Ciamimi/ f 1 BtnU j l l Fig. 26. Intake side ol Rockefeller motor showing the main piston in the position of late ignition.

Fig. 29. Exhaust side of Rockefeller motor presenting the main piston near the end ot the compression stroke and Ihe mix134 ture being burned.

are relatively massive, there will be m o r e metal available to pay for corrosion and the service rendered from the battery will be less prone to inlerruplion. If the battery is accessible the ills of corrosion m a y be largely diverted if the operator will paint the lerminals with a bitumen c o m p o u n d dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, such as " P and B " paint; another w a y to accomplish m o r e or less the s a m e end is to liberally smear the terminals with vaseline. This inert product of petroleum adheres tenaciously to the battery terminals, protecting them from the sulphion of the electrolyte of the baltery to a remarkable degree. But if the battery is inaccessible. all that the o w n e r of the car can hope for is that it will

Fig. 30. Intake side of Rockefeller molor showing the main piston descending on the power stroke with both valves closed. 135

tag. 31. Exhaust side of Ihe Rockefeller motor showing the main piston near the end of the power stroke, both valves being closed.

last for a considerable length of time without the good attention which a delicate apparatus normally deserves. There should be n o joints in the electrical conductors between lerminals. It is a very poor w o r k m a n w h o cannot measure the distance between terminals and cut the electrical conductors to their proper length. O n e cannot be sure that w o r k m e n will solder the joints if they have to m a k e them in the process of splicing short lengths of wire to m a k e a long lenglh. Even if the joints arc soldered, there is n o w a y of restoring ihe insulation over a joint to m a k e i t as good as the unmutilated insulation protecting the normal section of the wire ai the point remote from joints. In any case, i t is the w o r k m a n w h o indicates his incompetence by not cutting his conductors to the proper length to save joining, w h o will also make a bad splice, forgetting lo solder the same, and ending up by making a botch job of the insulation.

Starters the V o g u e in the N e w e r Cars

/"fc.VIXr, to the considerable number of accidents which *-' befell automobilists in the pastthose w h o persisted in cranking motors Ihe wrong way. employing their right hand pushing d o w n t h e self-starter, socalled, has been a potential possibility, dating from the first years of automobile work, referring to its commercial basis. T h e earlier attempts at improvising self-starters were at the hands of those w h o invented complications. The primary thought w a s that the self-starter should be wound up. T h e obvious conclusion reached, without difficulty. by the average automobilist is that anything which has 130

lo be wound up will run d o w n again. In a word, refer ring to the mechanical contrivance involving the spring lo be used iu starting the work, i t has failed to gel itself elected to the position of regular equipment in cars as Ihey come from the maker's shop. But some of these mechanical starters, notably those involving the use of a strong spiral spring, in other words, a clock spring only on a larger scale, work fairly well iu the starling of fairly well-made motors if ihey are not too large. T h e prevailing history of the self-starter for automobile motors records a few instances of devices which lay no claim to competence excepting to fracture the limbs of ihose w h o are so unfortunate as to have lo use them. O f course there m a y be some way of building a self-starter employing a rack and a pinion, a system of levers ami a pedal whereby the operator m a y press the pedal thereby furnishing the torquing means for starting the motor: 1ml if the motor " back kicks." and the ratchet-dogs stick. ihe pedal will c o m e back at such a great rale of speed as lo injure the operator even to the extent of breaking a limbnot a few instances of this character are on record. T h e second type of self-starter, so-called, obtains to a limited extent on the market, utilizing acetylene gas to energize the cylinder full of air. which is therefore ignited by the regular sparking equipmenl when the operator "cranks" the motor: the acetylene gas is substituted in place of the regular working mixture because of the proportionally greater explosive characteristics of the acetylene. However, there are conditions under which even acetylene mixtures fall short of ihe requirement. T h e other side of the acetylene starter question is that starting is attended by a measure of violence which m a y not be entirely good for Ihe bearings and other functioning members in the composition of the motor. It is not always necessary lo crank the motor to gel i t going, using acetylene as the means of starting. S o m e 137

' OU auction

Fig. 33. Exhaust side ol Fig. 32. Intake side of Rockefeller motor presenting the Rockefeller motor showing the exhaust valve open and the main main piston al the bottom dwell piston ascending on ils scavengpoint at Ihe end of the power ing cycle. cycle. of the acetylene starters, so-called, rely u p o n an explosion of the acetylene mixture over the piston which is descending o n the p o w e r stroke, providing a m e a n s of selecting that piston out of the total n u m b e r in the m a k e - u p of the given m o t o r . T h e piston selected m a y be so far advanced o n the p o w e r stroke as to render the explosive effort of the mixture futile. Still a n y m o v e m e n t brought about b y the first explosion m a y bring another of Ihe pistons into a position of advantage, w h e n , as will be readily understood, it remains merely to explode the mixture over the piston thus brought into its position of advantage.

138

rMma on BueiNa rip.

Fig. 34. Intake side of Rockefeller motor with the main fiston at the middle of Ihe ex* lust cycle and the intake valve closed.

Fig. 35. Exhaust side of Rockefeller motor showing the main piston corresponding to the exhaust valve wide open.

In the acetylene system of starlers it is necessary to provide the source of acetylene gas. In the d a y s w h e n acetylene lights w e r e used almost to the exclusion of other f o r m s of lighting, acetylene g a s w a s almost invariably available either from generators carried along or f r o m a tank holding acetylene gas. T h e reaction lhat has set in in favor of electric lighting h a s also established the necessity of providing a storage battery a n d the m e a n s w h e r e b y the s a m e m a y be charged according Io the requirements. T h e result is that Ihe m a k e r s of automobiles, responding to the sentiment of the users thereof, are disinclined to l u m b e r u p a car with a n acetylene generator or

130

a lank to hold this gas if a storage battery must be carried along, considering the fact lhat the storage baltery may well serve as a source of supply of the auxiliary energy for starting and lighting work, thus making i l unnecessary to have a dual source of this supply. T h e time was when compressed air m a d e ils bid for recognition in ihe self-starter field of endeavor. T h e fact thai air is compressed into the tires, coupled with the excruciating annoyance of having a reciprocating and puny air p u m p which some makers of automobiles arc so fond of providing as regular equipment, m a d e a place for a power p u m p , which is ihe regular lliing in some of the better makes of cars. Naturally, the thought occurred thai, since the power p u m p is carried along as ihe source of compressed air for the tires, i t might just as well be used as Ihe means for starting the molor. O n account of the considerable clearance above the piston in the working cylinders of internal combustion engines, ihey are very inefficient w h e n they are being opcrated as air-power motors. W h e n compressed air is permitted to enter the combustion chamber above the piston in the working cylinder of an internal combustion engine, even though i l is only for starting purposes. Ihe facl remains that the engine must function as an air-power motor. T h e trouble is lhat ihe motor under the conditions above named requires so m u c h air in ils operations that a large lank must be carried along for the slorage of air under pressure, otherwise on a cold morning, in particular, the air would be used up long before the motor could be slarted; low temperatures introduce extra difficulties, due lo the refrigerating action of the expanding air. which action is more pronounced in proportion as the temperature of Ihe surrounding atmosphere is lowered. T h e measure of ihe lowering lemperature of the expanding air is more or less that of the heat of compreslio

sion, which is lost to Ihe surrounding air iu tine course. These refrigerating phenomena become pronounced in cold weather and. remembering thai gasoline can be vaporized lo establish a good working mixture in the presence of a very low temperature, i t merely remains to observe that Ihe compressed air starter, working in- ihe cold of a northern winter, defeats itself. Iu a word, the refrigerating effect of the compressed air under conditions of low temperature is the very effect which prevents the gasoline from remaining in vapor form in the combustion chamber long enough to get i t to burn and form a working mixture. There are a few constructional details attached to compressed air which should not be overlooked: the piping and connections throughout must be tight against the leakage of compression; Ihe vibrations of ihe car in its regular road performance should not lie permitted to so vibrate the piping and connections as to cause leaks of joints; chafing of the piping against adjacent members iu Ihe make-up of the chassis should be guarded against in order Io prevent loss of compression through holes which are likely to be produced on account of chafing; and, remembering thai air holds its quota of moisture, it is necessary to provide a means for absorbing ihe moisture out of ihe air during Ihe compression effort, otherwise on a cold morning ihe water in the compressed air system will freeze and prevent Ihe valves and other functioning parts from working, in which event the compressed air starter will be disqualified for any useful purpose. W e might conclude by observing thai the compressed air equipment weighs considerable, costs not a little, and presents a conspicuous opportunity for knowledge of its operaiion on the pari of the owner of the car.

Hi

Electrical E q u i p m e n t Desirable CONTROVERSY at the present time is limited to that type of discussion having bearing u p o n the range of uses of self-starters rather lhan u p o n the type of self-

Fig. 37. Exhaust side of Fig. 36. Intake side of Rockefeller motor during the Rockefeller molor indicating the period of maximum dynamic position of maximum brakinc braking effect. effect in the operation of Ihe dynamic brake. slarter to employ. T h e great majority of the automobiles n o w being manufactured, if they use self-starters at all, are being filled with electrical self-stariers. Remembering lhat a well-designed electrical self-starting system weighs u p w a r d of I w o hundred pounds and costs from 50 cents to $1.00 per pound, Ihe makers of the smaller and low-priced types of automobiles depreciate

112

the idea of adding so m u c h weight and incurring such a high cost as that above referred lo; they even go so far as to intimate that, since Ihe owner of the car almost invariably serves as his o w n operalor in this zone of lowpowered, low-priced road machines, he might reasonably be expected to spin his o w n motor to the exclusion of a

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rihiixi *>* Fig. 38. Intake side of Fig. 39. Exhaust side of Rockefeller molor giving posiRockefeller motor indicating the tion of main piston al middle of registry of the auxiliary ports in compression stroke with dynamic the operation of the dynamic braking mechanism jn action. brake. self-starter. S o m e of these makers of cars limit the use of self-starters to the high-power road machines which are invariably operated by a chauffeurthey would save the chauffeur the work of starting the motor. But a thing has to be right in point of principle to survive. T h e average owner of an automobile will scarcely

143

appreciate the sentiments expressed in the thought that he should do his o w n cranking if he drives the car; whereas he should provide a starter if he hires a chauffeur to drive the car. In the application of electrical self-starters advantage is sometimes taken of the similarity of events suggesting the combination of starting, lighting, and ignition work. to Ihe extent of employing a c o m m o n source of electrical supply. But no matter h o w the work is done, an electric storage battery must be utilized as the reservoir of electrical energy in the operation of ihe self-starter and for electric lighting purposes. Not a few capable automobile engineers, acting in sympathy with very experienced operators of cars, persist in adhering to the thought that the magneto electric machine should be retained in Ihe ignition work. If ignition is done through a magneto, and a storage baltery is used as a reservoir of energy to operate the selfslarlcr and for electric lighting, since a means must be provided for charging the storage battery, the occasion arises for having two sources of electrical energy in the make-up of the automobileIhe alternating current magneto electric machine as used for ignition work, and ihe direct current d y n a m o electric machine lo be employed iu recharging the storage ballery. A n alternative proposition is suggested in the thought thai Ihe magneto electric machine, as used in ignition work, might he dispensed with in favor of a sialic coil system of ignition, utilizing direct current, obtaining the same from the storage battery. Xol a few electrical systems are thus provided. In some cases, too. in addition lo the spark coil system in combination with the storage baltery. the magneto electric machine is also provided. But no matter h o w the details of the electrical system are worked out in combination with ihe power planl of an automobile, i l isfittinglo conclude that the success of 144

the car depends u p o n the nice detail of the electrical system, at least in a large measure. Since the storage battery is the reservoir of electrical energy required in these important undertakings, it m u s t be of adequate capacity, reliable iu every w a y , with m e a n s for replenishing the charge at a higher rate than lhat of the discharge, not only to m a k e u p for the withdrawal, hut as well lo c o m pensate for the internal losses in the battery. T h e |M>ssibility that Ihe storage battery will c o m e to its stage of inefficiency in the course of events is the m a i n ground for believing lhat the ignition w o r k should be done by a separate m a g n e t o electric machine. W h e n a self-starter is used, if the slarler is capable, auxiliary ignition systems m a y he dispensed with ; starting o n Ihe niagnelo is a sim-

Fig. 40. Depicting conventional timing oi a four-cycle motor. showing the exhaust valve closed at a point on theflywheelfivedegrees past top dead Center, and the intake valve open ten degrees past top dead center. The exhaust valve is set to open at fifty degrees before lower dead center, whereas the intake valve closes thirty degrees past lower dead renter, ln the Rockefeller motor the intake valve opens six degree-. early and closes forty dcurces late. a Likewise, d the exhaust valve open* forty-six degrees early and closes six degrees early.

145

pic thing to do w h e n the motor is actuated by a selfstarter. Deferring discussion of the details of ihe storage baltery to the last, the intervening observations will refer to the means of charging the storage battery. The charging work must be done by means of a direct current of electricity. T h e source of the supply of the direct current of electricity is a d y n a m o electric machine provided with a commutator. T h e d y n a m o elcciric machine may be driven by the gasoline motor, which is normally employed to propel the automobile. T h e gearing between the gasoline motor and the charging d y n a m o m a y be through a silent chain and a clutch, or a sliding gear m a y be used instead. If the charging d y n a m o is a separate and distinct machine, utilized for charging purposes only, then, in order to provide the electrical starter feature, a motor must be introduced for starting purposes. In some cases the charging dynamo, so-called, and the starting motor feature arc combined. In general practice there are three systems of electrical equipment k n o w n as ihe " one-unit," the " two-unit," and the " three-unit " styles. In thefirst,or " one-unit " class, the generator and motor are combined in a single machine geared to the engine at a ratio to give sufficient torque effort for starting, when i t operates as a motor, and also sufficient speed that i t m a y be efficient w h e n operating as a generator to charge the battery. S o m e of these " one-unit" outfits automatically change from a generator and vice versa by virtue of a special winding within the machine. Others of the " one-unit" class require an external regulating device to effect the change. Such a regulating device must necessarily be a delicate and complicated affair requiring the services of an experienced person thoroughly familiar 146

with i t when anything goes wrong. This point would recommend the self-regulating device because of ils lack of complication. The self-regulaling "one-unit class changes from a molor to a generator al a certain critical speed l>\ virtue of a suitable winding. W h e n once the starting switch is closed i t needs no further atlention. for as soon as the engine slarls and the speed goes aliove ihe critical point. i t immediately goes lo charging the baltery. Iu the non-self-regulaling " one-unit " class, if, for any reason the external regulating device becomes inoperative. the battery will soon be run d o w n with its lighting ami starting work and. should ihe battery be allowed lo slant! for any length of time in a discharged condition, i t will he permanently injured. The wiring of the " one-unit " class is quite simple, but the double duly required of the equipment suggests making i t quite large and heavy. This weight is reduced in some cases by having an arrangement whereby Ihe ratio of gearing to the engine is lower w h e n the machine is Iterating as a m< lor than when i l 0p< rates as 3 gem rator. In the "two-unit" class Ihe motor ami generator are separate, the motor being generally disengaged by a clutch or clash gear. This permits the use of a very small m o tor unit. T h e generator unit, generally about the same size as the molor unit, is usually left in constant engagement with the engine, and ihe gearing so proportioned lhat i t m a y not run at objectionable speeds. T h e wiring is such lhat every wire has its place and. unless every wire is connected to ihe proper terminal, the whole outfit will be inoperative. In Ihe " three-unit " class ihe battery current is utilized for ignition work. A timer, spark-coil, and high-tension distributor are employed to deliver the spark. In all electric starling systems wliere the car is equipped with electric lights, the lights are "floated" 147

across the battery terminals in such a way that w h e n the generator is charging the battery, the lights are virtually operated by the generator. W h e n a battery of greater voltage than the lamps is employed, the wiring is so arranged as to give the lamps their proper voltage. The current required by the lamps w h e n driving with all lamps lighted is sometimes sufficient to consume Ihe entire output of the generator, thus starving the battery to such an extent that it becomes weaker and weaker to the point where it will fail to operate the starting motor. T h e " one-unit " class generally turn the engine over at a rapid rate, causing quite a large current draft. The " two-unit " class turn the engine over more slowly, but by virtue of their low gear reduction and small size, seem to consume very little current, or at least indicate a small

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148

draft on the battery. T h e real meat in the cocoanut lies in the measurement of the current draft per engine revolution. This is a measure of the efficiency of the outfit as it generally takes about the same n u m b e r of engine revolutions to slart. T h e higher current draft will not necessarily injure a storage battery, hence it is perfectly fair to compare the draft per engine revolution. T h e starting device must be designed for ihe engine to which it is applied to get the most efficient results. T h e characteristics of different engines vary so widely lhat a starter that might work satisfactorily in one case might be a rank failure in another. S o m e engines have a very high friction load and require a very powerful starter to start Ihem in cold weather when the lubricating oil is cold and g u m m y . W h e n the working parts of an engine present great areas to be g u m m e d up by cold lubricating oil. as in the case of en-

Fig. 42. Time-area diagram of the exhaust valve of ihe Rockefeller motor giving f u l l data of ihe performance.

149

gines having very large diameter sleeve valves, it is particularly necessary to have an extremely strong starter. as these engines become so stiff in winter weather that they are nearly impossible lo start by hand. W h e n a motor is inclined to be stiff-operating in low temperatures. and the slarier takes enormous drafts of current, it is wise to keep a close watch on the storage battery and all the elements of the starting system lo be assured that every part is properly in order. A great source of trouble encountered in electric starters is loose lerminals and short circuits. Terminals properly designed and attached will give little trouble; but beware of small terminals and diminutive connectors. Terminals around a storage baltery corrode and should be generous in dimensions and secure in attachment. T h e y should be readily accessible for purposes of cleaning and inspection.

Technical R e q u i r e m e n t s of Storage Batteries

HP HERE are two types of storage balteries extant: (1) A lead-lead batteries and ( * . ' ) Edison nickel-iron balteries. T h e time was w h e n storage batteries were confined for iheir use in transportation to the storing of energy employed to drive electric vehicles, excepting for the limited extent lo which the} were used in ignition work involved in gasoline automobiles. T h e modern trend is for electric starters attached to gasoline automobiles. T h e probabilities are that every car of the future will befittedwith a starter of one kind or another. Il is not difficult to predict that the electric 150

starter will dominate the future situation. Obviously, storage batteries arc of growing importance in automobile work. It is in this department that the average user is in pressing need of information. Fortunately, however, a storage battery will operate for a considerable time without detailed attention, and if il does get out of order it is at a slow rale, thus giving the user fair warning so that he can get a substitute battery while his o w n is being fixed, thereby saving himself from being seriously discommoded. In dealing with the storage battery as it is required in self-starters applied to automobiles, the average intending purchaser will have lo rely upon Ihe good judgment of the m a k e r of ihe car in the selection of ihis equipment, and, in the operation of ihe car. the user will find il quite to his advantage lo bestow a fair proportion of operating care upon the battery rather than to take it for granted that il is of exclusive importance lo lubricate Ihe working parts as Ihey obtain in the car. O f the t w o lypes of storage batteries employed in this work the lead-lead battery will require the greatest measure of attention. In ihis type of storage battery or accumulator, as it is sometimes called, since each cell delivers approximately* t w o volts electromotive force, it will be understood that the n u m b e r of cells to employ depends upon the voltage required by the lamps; if the lamps are designed lo operate at eight volts it will readily be seen that four cells of the batteries will have to be connected in series to deliver that voltage. T h e capacity of each cell of ballery. referring to the output in ampere-hours. "The range of voltage of ihe lead-lead cell is from 2.2 down lo 1 . 8 volts.

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Fig. 43. Time-area diagram of a conventional inlet valve with corresponding complete dala of performance. must be figured as a separate matterthe greater the capacity of the battery the longer ii will deliver its rate of discharge maintaining its voltage. If the voltage falls off to a point materially below t w o volts per cell, it is an indication of depletion of the charge. In the lead-lead type of battery the positive and negative plates, so-called, are composed of lead. T h e real difference between the two sets of plates in each cell of battery lies in the difference of the lead salts, which in the form of a pasle, paint, or cement, are attached to the grids, so-called, and these grids, with their active materials applied to them, in one w a y or another are called plates. In the positive plates of the lead-lead type of baltery the active materials obtain either as peroxide of lead, sulphate of lead, or s o m e combination intervening these 152

Fig. 44. Time-area diagram of a conventional exhaust valve with corresponding complete data of performance. two extremes. W h e n a set of baltery is fully charged, all of the active material residing upon the grids, the latter forming the backbone of the plates, is in the condition described as peroxide of lead. But w h e n the cell battery is fully discharged, then, instead of peroxide of lead, all of the available active material is reduced to the form k n o w n as sulphate of lead. W h e n Ihe positive plates in the cell of a lead-lead battery are in good condition they will have the appearance of a luster-brown verging into a chocolate color: Ihe active material will appear firm and intact; there will be no indication of lead needles or loosened particles of any kind either upon the surface of the plates or between the plates, nor will there be a quantity of " m u d " at the bottoms of the jars. A s a further indication of a condition of well-

153

being of Ihe positive plates there will be no evidence of white sulphate of lead either staining the surface of the active material or appearing iu the interstices of the same. Referring again to the positive plates in a cell of leadlead storage battery, if the plates arc very thin the rale of discharge m a y be relatively high, the reason for which being ilia! Ihe active material is accessible lo the sulplnon of the electrolyte, thereby inviting intimacy of contact and facilitating chemical cooperation. W h e n cells of battery are being discharged the active material undergoes chemical change which, in a healthy cell of ballery, is limited to the specific reactions which evolve sulphate of lead as the final form of the salts. T h e great question is to limit the reactions involved lo those brought about by actual useful discharging of the cell; if there arc any impurities dissolved in the electrolyte, in which the elements are submerged, local action will unquestionably set in and the cell of battery will be discharged without doing useful work. This form of discharge is prejudicial to the battery, and, since i t goes on twenty-four hours per day, independent of the service which m a y be rendered by the automobile, the time soon arrives iu the history of the car when the storage battery becomes so lacking in capacity that it will fail lo perform the work for which it is intended. Thus far discussion has been m o r e or less confined lo the characteristics of positive plates in cells of baltery. T h e negative plates are, of course, entitled to their measure of attention. However, they are nol so prone as the positives to gel out of order. In the negative plates the active material is in the form of spongy lead w h e n the battery is fully charged, reducing to sulphate of lead during discharge. A s a rule, the capacity of the negative plates is considerably more than that of the positive plates. Il is also true of the negative plaies thai Ihey are more 154

substantial ami hardy. S o long as the battery is kept free from impurities, if the rate of discharge is not greally in excess of the capacity of the cells, ihe negative plaies will last for a very long lime. O n the oiher hand, if impurities are dissolved in the electrolyte, and.if the battery is overworked, the negative plaies become less porous in the course of events, and. remembering that the sulphioii must contact wilh every particle of the active material if the ballery is to work properly, i t merely remains to observe thai if the negative plates lose their porosity their capacities will fall off-accordingly. In Ihe make-up of a leadlead storage battery Ihe functional elements are as follows : (a) Tight jars capable of holding the nest of positive and negative plaies in their relation to each oilier and the electrolyte in which the plates are submerged. (b) Britlge pieces across the bottom of ihe jars for the purpose of holding the elements u p from the bottoms. thus affording a space for " m u d " which scales off of the plaies (notably the positive plates 1 iu the ordinary course of events, and which reduces the quota of active material. but which also intervenes to d a m a g e the cells in the latter case if Ihe " m u d " forms a short circuit across the bottoms of ihe plates. T h e object of the britlge pieces, then. is to afford a storage space for the " m u d . " preventing i t from forming a short circuit across the bottoms of the plates. (c) T h e positive plates with their cross-bars and conductors so arranged that w h e n ihey arc brought togclher to form the nest of plates they are Hanked by negative plates. Since there is one m o r e negative than positive plate in a cell, it is easy to deduce that a cell of battery contains an even number of positive plates and an odd number of negative plates. 155

(d) T h e negative plates with their cross-bars and connector flanking the positive plates, thus indicating that the negative plates are the odd number in the cell. (e) T h e separators, which m a y be of treated wood, perforated sheets of rubber composition, and oilier like separating means or combinations thereof for the purpose of keeping the positive and negative plates from contacting with each other without obstructing either the circulation of the electrolyte or the loosened particles of active material which, if they drop to the bottom of the cells, will clog up the spaces between plates, forming short circuits, hence reducing the capacity of the battery and hastening the time when i t will cease to deliver satisfactory service. (f) T h e electrolyte conies next in the order of functioning elements. This electrolyte is composed of water

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nt ( SUlvl:nit V M i > n ro>Tll V"lt Fig. 45. Inlet lime-area diagrams of ihe before mentioned conventional WO. Il.tMl poppet valve combined with the Rockefeller sleeve valve for purposes ol comparison, showing an enormous increase in time-area of the Rockefeller sleeve valve over poppet valves. 1 ^. V ) Iff It IB Cr...t "i..n \ I

150

and pure brimstone sulphuric acid, the specific gravily of which should be 1,300 al 62 degrees Fahrenheit w h e n the battery is fully charged. But, since the sulphion of ihe electrolyte combines with the lead sails, composing the active material of ihe plates, then, as the battery is discharged, the sulphate of lead formed is at the expense of sulphion in the electrolyte; hence it will be readily underStood that the specific gravity of the eleclrolyie reduces in a discharging battery, becoming about 1,200 when the cell is said to be discharged. O n e w a y to ascertain the state of charge of a cell of battery is lofloata hydrometer in ihe eleclrolyie and note the specific gravity of the same. If i t is found that the specific gravity is approximately 1,300 i t m a y be inferred that the cell of battery is fully charged. If, on the other hand, the electrolyte approximates 1,200 specific gravity, then it m a y be inferred that the cell of battery is discharged.

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157

( g ) Since impurities in a battery induce local aciion and in oilier ways aborl capacity and shorten life, it is not too m u c h lo expect lhat the cell will be covered and sealed. Under the circumstances a proper cover must be looked upon as a functioning element in the make-up of the cell. H o w e v e r , since, on charge, the baltery generates gases, a proper vent must be placed in ihe cover. otherwise damaging pressures m a y be generated, and, in view of the fact that the gases generated arc hydrogen and oxygen, llierc is the chance that an explosion will occur if these gases are permitted to accumulate and grow in pressure and ihey accidentally suffer contact with a naked flame. Il must Ik- quite plain to the reader that ihe specific gravity of the electrolyte is an important matter iu the management of a storage battery. Indeed, ii the Spe cific gravity of the electrolyte indicates the state of charge of a cell of ballery. then, for the best result, the specific gravity of the electrolyte must be ihe same in each of the cells of the battery. T h e w a y to ascertain the state of well-being of a battery is to try the specific gravity of the electrolyte in each of the cells thereof, and. if a difference between them is noted, i t is a sure indication that the battery is not acting with that bonhomiue which would surely obtain under conditions of electrolytic harmony. T h e specific gravity of the electrolyte, if i t is not uniform in Ihe cells, should be m a d e so without ado. T h e proper procedure in the equalization of ihe electrolyte in the cells is to add pure distilled water to those which are too strong and 1.100 specific gravity eleclrolyie lo those which are too weak. T h e measurement of the electrolyte in Ihe cells of a battery should be taken when the battery is fully chargedafter i t cools off. A battery will be fully charged w h e n each of the cells thereof shows a potential difference of 2.6 volts on charge. 158

Another w a y to ascertain Ihe approximate stale of the charge is to connect up to the charge and continue the charging operation until the battery gases violently, in other words, the cells boil. In order lo continue the boiling until ihe baltery is fully charged i t m a y be necessary to taper off the rate of charge. In proportion as the cells show distress during charge, i t is a simple thing lo reduce ihe ampere-rate to relieve such distress, and. for that matter, in the charging of a battery i t is entirely wise to start with a high rale of charge and lo taper d o w n to a low rate of charge; ihe potential difference across ihe terminals of a battery should increase at a gradual rate. approaching 2.6 volts per cell at Ihe end of the charge. and, as before stated, w h e n a ballery is fully charged the positive plates thereof will show a dark chocolate color, whereas the negative plates will be a slate-drab color. There is one disconcerting factor in relying upon the hydrometer to indicate the slate of charge of a battery. For instance, a mere trace of nitrate in a cell will suffice lo induce a violent local action without making a noticeable difference in the hydrometer readings. In the s a m e way chlorine m a y be present sufficiently to cause disintegration of the active maierial on ihe plates and yet nol be in sufficient quantity to be observable in ihe hydrometer readings. Again, iron m a y do its disastrous work and the operator of a hydrometer never realize that i t is present; or, for lhat mailer, mercury, and even copper, are deteriorating elements, having the same drawbacks. In a practical way, i t is quite to Ihe point to keep the cells of ihe batteries sealed so that impurities will not gel in, bul, if for any reason i t is suspected that the cells of battery m a y be contaminated, a quick w a y of arriving at a belter state of affairs will be to siphon out the suspected 159

electrolyte afler the battery is fully charged and quickly substitute a chemically pure eleclrolyie in its stead. In Ihe ordinary course of events it is necessary for the operator to examine the jars to see if any of them are broken. T h e electrolyte must not be permitted to get below the tops of the plates. There are two ways whereby electrolyte m a y be lost; leaky jars are not infrequently the cause of loss; the boiling a w a y of the electrolyte during charge is the remaining cause. In the replenishing of the electrolyte it is merely necessary to add distilled water. T h e safe rule is to "keep the jarsfilled,never allowing the tops of the plates to c o m e into contact with the atmosphere; and in the absence of definite information. add distilled water. In ihe purchase of an automobile, if the storage battery is wholly inaccessible, it is a bad sign. M u c h might well be said in favor of accessibility. There is one other point which ought to gel a measure of attention at the proper time. For instance, the capacities of the respective cells in a battery should be about equal to obtain the best result; in like manner the capacities of the plates composing each cell should be balanced against each other. If a plate has a greater capacity than an adjacent plate, local action will set in because of the unbalanced condition. Carrying this phase of the mailer a little further, while it is Irue that the negative plaies in a cell, as a rule, are of greater capacity and endurance than the positive plates, even so. the time must arrive w h e n the negative plates will so harden and otherwise deteriorate that their capacities will fall below Ihe capacities of the adjacent positive plates, resulting in an unbalanced relation and a reduced capacity of ihe battery. In order to ascertain the relative capacities of positive and negative plates, it is necessary to employ what is k n o w n as the " cadmium test," which is a simple thing to do if the battery is accessible. It is also desirable to ascertain

160

oi fMtosirihaaMl Htl(W..ltWlCV.ii Fig. -47. W a x engraving of ihe from elevation of ihe Rockefeller motor wilh Ihe chain case cover removed, exposing the half-time and other gears with iheir chain drives, for purposes ol study.

161

the potential difference of cells from time to time, requiring the use of a low reading voltmeter, but here again accessibility is thefirstconsideration. In view of the fact that a lead-lead storage battery is an electrochemical equipment which must be maintained in excellent poise in order to obtain the best result, remembering that each cell of the battery must be open to inspection: that the electrolyte must be replenished and equalized; lhat potential difference readings must be taken from time lo time, and thai a " cadmium lest " for negative plate capacity is the occasional requirement, now that ihe storage battery is of such great importance in an automobile, surely i t is as m u c h to the interest of the maker of a car as it is to the owner thereof lo dignify the battery to the extent of affording i t an ample space under clean and well-ventilated conditions, where the temperature can be maintained at an even level al all times. T h e matter of temperature applies with equal force to all types of batteries; the actual delivery from any battery is reduced with lowering temperature and is greatest between : . " and HO degrees Fahrenheit (in round numbers) and falls off with increasing temperature beyond from 100 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. Referring to lead-lead balteries, their capacity is reduced lo one-half when the temperature falls to 3*2 degrees Fahrenheit, and they are excessively deteriorated when the temperature is permitted to increase to 110 degrees Fahrenheit.

C a r b o n Deposit a n d

Its R e m o v a l

TTNDER dale of April 85. 1914. The Autocar (F.n-, glish). commenting upon one of its leading articles by the well-known author, Eric Walford, points out that carbon deposit represents the most serious defect 162

in the running of the engines of today. goes on to say :

This editorial

" It is necessary to bear in mind that the natural condition of the inside of an internal combustion engine is a dirty condition; ils pristine cleanliness is sullied by the veryfirstexplosion, and every successive explosion makes i t dirtier, until the time arrives w h e n i t will no longer work t i l l the resultant carbon deposit has been removed. It should be understood that w c arc talking n o w of ihe average poppet-valve engine with all the valves on one side, as this is the engine which today is in by far ihe widest use. Whether i t be an engine of high volumetric efficiency or of low efficiency does not appear to matter very much. There w a s an idea at one time that the engine of low efficiency ran for m u c h longer distances without suffering from the effects of carbonization than an engine of the same size giving greater power. This. however, does not appear to be borne out in practice. It is only in engines of super-efficiencydownright racing engineslhat this greater sensitiveness appears; so far as ihe rest are concerned, whelher the engine be only very moderately efficient or quite highly efficient, the mileage i t will run before ' pinking ' commences through internal dirtiness appears to be about the same. Improvement in All Respects But One " The fact of the matter is that for some years the majority of automobile engineers have not given very m u c h attention to ihis matter. T h e y have gone on improving the engine in almost every possible way, and they have brought i t to an extraordinary stage of durability, combined with high power for weight, smooth running, and so on. Not only so: they have improved i t into a neat. self-contained unit, having found i t surrounded and almost concealed by a forest of pipes, rods and wires. They 1C3

have reduced ihe number of its parts not only without impairing its efficiency, but with an immense increase of efficiency. All these good things Ihey have done and others besides, so that the modern petrol engine is in most respects a marvelous power unit, but throughout all the process of improvement they seem to have forgotten Ihe fact that these beautiful engines cannot be maintained in perfect running order unless their cylinders and piston heads arc cleaned comparatively frequently. " Just what is the average period of running before decarbonizing becomes necessary it is impossible to say, for many reasons. Not only do different engines run for different distances without requiring internal cleansing, but individual owners have different ideas as to how an engine should run: one m a n is only happy when his engine is in perfect, or almost perfect, trim; another does not mind h o w i t ' knocks' or ' pinks ' or what it does so long as i t does not stop. However, making full allowance for these variants, w e believe w e shall be within a little of accuracy w h e n w e say that the average engine will run Iwo thousand miles without requiring decarbonizing ; some will run a great deal more and some will run very m u c h less, bul two thousand miles is. wc think, a fair approximation. " W e r e the ' pinking ' or incipient knock due to carbon deposit merely an unpleasant lapping noise w e should not regard i t as seriously as w e do, but, as every motorist knows, the m o m e n t ' pinking' commences, power begins to fall away; and very soon i t means that the engine cannot be driven on full throttle at all, allhough the ignition m a y be fully retarded. " In the symptoms, there are m a n y interesting differences. For instance, in some engines 'pinking' comes on very gradually, while in others i t m a y not com164

IYi-la< <VS

I UlH-i'M Fig. 48. Cross-section of Ihe Rockefeller motor affording an excellent idea of the relations and proportions of the functioning parts with explanations of relations.

165

mence lo show itself at any shorter mileage, but from the m o m e n t when the first symptoms arise to the lime when the engine becomes almost undrivable, the distance is very short indeed; in fact, w e have an engine which practically became unusable within a hundred miles of the development of itsfirst' pinking' symptoms, though i t would always run faultlessly for over 2,000 miles.

Carbonization and the Sleeve Valve Engine " There is no need for us to enlarge upon the seriousness of ihis sensibility to internal dirtiness, as every motorist of experience knows it only too well. At the same time, i t really is most extraordinary that with all the intense striving after improvement in the m o d e m engine ihis one cardinal defect should have been either overlooked or accepted as something incurable. In any case. the time has n o w come w h e n this defect will have to be seriously tackled if the popular engine of the day is to retain its hold upon the motoring world. There is no doubt whatever that i t is a dirtier engine altogether than the T-headed type wilh the valves on opposite sides, in which there is a constant cross blasl from inlet to exhaust. but above and beyond all this there is the sleeve valve engine, which certainly keeps no cleaner than the poppet engine, but the running of which is not affected by internal dirt for tremendously long distances. " O n another page today w e publish a letter from an engineer w h o has molor omnibuses in his charge, and he refers there to a sleeve valve engine which has run practically forty thousand miles without requiring carbon removal. W e certainly hold no brief for the sleeve valve engine, hut its iusensitivencss to carbon is such a very practical virtue that w e want i t to be realized by the makers of poppel valve engines, as w e cannot believe 166

t.,0. rH ProdutU ' " . n. v-i.-. lo 'I.ir

Pflralnt Coe* 'Crllo-sr-rxad Coi.r

iljin Cirtmn-trr'l-WlL-pj . (or Mjia Cxiiitrtli-t Fie. 49. Rear end view of the Rockefeller motor with explanations of the relations of the co-operaling part*, presenting the action of the iockcshaft transmission system by m e a n s <-i which the dynamic brake mechanism is actuated.

that, if they were seriously and individually to give attention to the matter, they would not discover ways and means to produce poppet engines which would run as long without attention as sleeve valve engines. If they do not do this, i t is obvious that in course of lime the sleeve valve engine will oust the poppet engine, not because it is really a better engine, but simply because i t will run for longer distances without requiring attention. In other words, i t will run a greater mileage, s t i l l retaining its normal power and sweetness of running. In Ihe earlier sleeve engines, oilier defects counterbalanced the insensitivcness to carbonization, but experience enabled these defects to be overcome, just the same as experience enabled the poppet valve to be made into a comparatively quiet and durable mechanism."

C&J

?<3

Referring to M a i n t e n a n c e : H e W h o M a k e s a Failure Remains Loyal to His H o b b y to the E n d , Like the Broken-down Drunkard to His Bottle "CUERYTHING that animates or that has motion imparted lo its mass, resists all motion. It has a friction component. If motion is desired, lubrication is necessary. T h e friction must be overcome. W e r e i t not for friction, i t is generally well understood that a moving mass would continue to move, and a still body would 168

stay still. All bodies when at rest are mute They do not m a k e noise. All bodies w h e n in motion vibrate. They d o propagate sounds. T h e pitch and timbre of sound due to the vibration of a body depend upon Ihe rate of vibration. Hard sleel makes more noise when i t vibrates than soft steel. A n y steel is a more vigorous sound producer than any of Ihe white (softer) metals. Oil, for illustration, smothers vibrations. Oil. therefrre. is a set of efficient brakes for sounds. Thick walls are less efficient sound producers than thinner walls. Bell shapes and diaphragms are more prone to vibrate and propagate sounds than the contours and shapes lhat are more rigid. A sound damper m a y be m a d e by facing a metal that is readily vibrated wilh a metal that resists vibration, as a sheet of lead over a wall of hard steel. T h e vibralions resulting from a dual melal wall are al a far lower rale lhan the vibrations of the hard steel, but at a higher rate than the natural vibrations of the softer steel. T h e efficiency of the damper, then, depends upon the ralio of the ihickness of the lead damper wall to the steel wall. Slow motion of mass does not, as a rule, produce sound. T h e springs of a chassis, for illustration, do not evolve soundsIhe rate of vibration (like ihe oscillation of a pendulum) is too slow for sound-producing. In order, however, to illustrate the principle of the damper more clearly than i t is brought out above, i t is poinled oul lhat a plate of soft iron, inserted between the platts of spring steel composing a set of springs, has the effect of lowering the rate of oscillation of the springs as i t responds to the will of energy. In a word, ihe soft iron plate is a damper for ihe spring.

(S&

c&)

Fig. 50. I.ongitudinal view in part section of the Rockefeller motor with full explanaton of the co-operating relations of 'he functioning members. This wax illustration of an actual work* ing drawing discloses divers refinements of design, and the space economy arrived al in the process of production ol a motor .vhich is as simple for its diminutive sice as il is for its enormous output in the face of the fact that il burn-- either gasoline or kerosene without change or adjustment of the carburetor, delivering substantially i-iu.i 1 power for all fuels. The sleeve construction present* balanced rclalions of the pressure-resisting members and other p'inciples of design with a view io sileni performance of the motor. This view also presents all detail* of design and construction for the proper utilization cf " thermoil." otherwise known as quenching oil. for use in the cooling jackets of the motor as a proper substitute for water in this case, the heat in the oil being transferred to the "stove" whc.e it is released and put into the vaporizing fuel in the process of burning the coarser constilucnl* of the hydrocarbon fuel. _ Regulation of the heal Io the "stove" is by means of a proportional valve shown. Kkccsscs of heat are diverted to the radiator. The result i* that the vaporization of the coarser >:onstilucnts of the hydrocarbon fuel is affected spontaneously nd without rouble on the part of the a wli o> o o L the j propoilion a D operator, reKulatcs of heat to the "stove." with scarcely any effort, il rough the manipulation of 1711 a lever situ-tcd on the steering post of the autonobile. In the use of ihe " thermoil " :t is worthy of note thai this temperatures; thai aulomohilc provide oil cylinders amination the This necessary sene, ration o mechanisms this R product plan of of aoil of affords minis in th; of tie Motors -.'in.n the the does this it hot domes employed is motor. for vaporization the illustration also be from since not skimmiiiK hitih used of to freeze A the they the in lie temperature in further the cold observed of discloses ordinary working the do in sepakcro oil. low not hot ex-

to Ra4lntor

r-fufci

Oi.dr.oB

g"
l-.Sr<ttc-BC!>f"

171

Referring to Vibration:To

the Trained Ear, It Is What

Classified as ( A ) Music and (B) Noise. Master and the Mechanic ?

Is the Distinclion Between the Music

TDKTTER results will be obtained from all mechan* * * isms, and especially automobile mechanisms, when those w h o operate them k n o w more than they appear lo understand about the laws of sound and h o w it is propagated, or h o w it is smothered. T o the music master an oil can is an unknown device. W h y ? Because a film of oil on a musical instrument would act as a mute. The reason w h y every mechanic knows an oil can when :ie sees one is because mechanisms for mechanical purposes are not so finely made as musical instrumentsthe mechanical device makes noise, rather than music. The oil in the can is used to gag that noise. But i t is not the custom to look upon the oil can as a noise killer. Every mechanic thinks that the function of the oil is to lubricate. Nearly every mechanic even goes so far as to believe that oil has no other function than lhat of lubrication. But every mechanic w h o relies upon the doctrine of lubrication per se, is mistaken. M e n think in chunks. They do not analyze. They appreciate the collective facts. The details are disregarded. W h e n an instructor tells an inexperienced purchaser of an automobile what to do lo make ihe car run. what are his most specific injunctions? Does he not say: "If you hear a strange sound, be sure and locale the cause of i t "? And. does he not add : " W h e n you find out the cause of the noise, be sure and squirt oil on the offending mechanism " ? Would it not be more to the point to say: " W h e n you find the cause of the noise, be sure to so adjust the relations of the members that no further noise will trouble you"? Is it not just as well to clearly un172

derstand that, as a rule, i t is the action of two or more relating parls that sets up noise waves? Is i t always realized that il is better to remove the cause of the noise than il is to put a damper on the sound? T o eliminate the noise, i t is necessary to so adjust the relating m e m bers that they cannot clash with each other. It is only when the parts arc so related lo each oilier that there is relative motion that the oil can should be marshalled out. In a word, lubricate to subdue friction only. Adjust to eliminate noise. But. if a complex condition obtains, what is plainer than that in addition lo making adjustment, lo apply oil not only to lubricate for relative m o tion, bul lo dampen sound as well, is Ihe necessity? There are three classifications of automobiles: (a) noise-making automobiles, (b) music-producing automobiles, and (c) silent (mute) automobiles. Referring to class (a) automobiles, of them i t must be said they cannot be adjusted so finely in the relation of the parts as to realize a condition of silence. T h e y must be profusely lubricated, not only to subdue friction, bul also to dampen the noise. O f the class (b) automobiles, i t may be said the relations of the parts are so nicely adjusted, and the proportions of ihe parts are so skillfully wrought that the designer, in addition to being an engineer, must be classed as a music-master as well. These automobiles must be lubricated not only lo retain the pitch and timbre of Ihe musical m u r m u r , but lo subdue friction. N o w . the class (c) automobiles, instead of being ihe product of Ihe engineer-music-master, are the handiwork of the grand master mechanician. Lubrication is confined in these automobiles to reducing friction of bearing surfaces in the face of relative motion.

0?<3

0?

173

Referring to Lubrication :- - T o o Often, W h e n the Oil Vender, After Having Lustily Cried O u t His "Wine," Sells U s His "Vinegar." T UBRICATIXG oil is found in Nature. Money is ^ coined at the mint. All of the money ever coined cannot add or subtract one iola to or from Ihe handiwork of Nature. If mineral oil, as i t gushes forth from a hole iu the ground, is not adulterated, provided it is decanted according to the service demanded of it, i t will be as good or as bad as Nature provided. W h e n the oil distiller attempts to improve on Nature, that he is " painting the lily." i s all that can be said for his process. In a word, natural mineral oil at twenty cents per gallon, m a y be far superior lo " blended " oils at four limes twenty cents per gallon. A s a primary condition, the automobile to be lubricated must be considered. W h a t kind of lubricant will it require lo m a k e i t work? If i t belongs lo class (a) above. the oil should have a m a x i m u m body. It should be nonmobile. If the oil is to be used in an automobile of the class (b) i t musl be of medium body, non-mobile, and unctuous to a degree. If. on the other hand, ihe oil is for use in the more perfect, silent (mule) automobile of class (c), then, lo select a liquid of less body, greater lubricating value in the matter of unctuousness. slight mobility, ami absolute non-acidity iu its reaction, is a necessity. However, so far as acidity is concerned, i t is extremely important not lo employ an acid bearing lubricant in any automobile that supports annular lype or other well-made ball or roller bearings. Referring to cylinder oil for Ihe molor, the requirements are much the same in all makes of motors, sub171

ject to the following deviations, viz.: high compression racing motors must have high flash point, extremely unctuous lubricating oil for Ihe cylinders, such as (in extreme cases) cold-press castor oil. But if the motors are relalively " soft " performers, used for the most part in general service, to select a find grade of pure mineral oil. with the flash-point suitably sustained, is all thai the occasion, and i t is what the situation, demands.

M a k e Sure of the Motor's Compression 'C* VERY lype of fuel available for use in internal com*-J bustlon engines has a m o n g ils characteristics its best compression. A m o n g the fuels available in automobile work the hydro-carbons of the paraffine series rank first. They include hexane, heptane, octane, iionaue. and decane. Motor spirits, so-called, are composed of proportions of these " fractions.'' T h e best compression for motor spirits m a d e up of these " fractions " ranges somewhere between GO pounds per square inch (gauge) and 75 pounds per square inch (gauge). In this connection i t will be understood that the absolute pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch above gauge pressure measured at the sea level. It is also true that the pressure of the atmosphere decreases with altitude so that the value 14.7, representing the pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level, must be decreased for altitude. T h e above range of compressions for molor spirits includes service motors at substantially GO pounds per square inch (gauge) and up. to racing types of motors with the compression fixed at more or less 75 pounds per square inch (gauge). Benzol and toluol are possible fuel values for internal combustion engines; these products are distillates from 175

coal tar. T h e best information available at the present time would place the compression for these coal tar distillates substantially the same as for motor spirits composed of " fractions " of the hydro-carbons of the paraffine series above referred to. Alcohol has been heralded abroad as the fuel of the future, referring to internal combustion engines, and i t has one of the fundamental characteristics, which is entirely in its favor, i. e., there is no limit to the possible supply, since this distillate is ihe product of grain. Referring lo the problems of compression, however, m o tors which are designed to operate with hydro-carbon fuels are not efficient w h e n alcohol is substituted as the fuel. Alcohol requires a higher compression. F r o m the point of view of the purchaser of an automobile there are two things for him to consider: (1) the compression, and (2) uniformity of compression in the respective cylinders of the motor. It is not believed that uniformly good service is a reasonable expectation from a motor which is designed to include racing compression, so-called. It is equally true that possible failure, or at least grave dissatisfaction, will attend the purchase of a motor in which ihe compression has an uncertain value, or if that compression is below, say, 55 pounds per square inch (gauge). In a general sense, the efficiency of a motor increases with the compression. F r o m the purchaser's angle good performance is to be expected if the compression hovers around 60 pounds per square inch (gauge). Bul the compression is not always the same in the several cylinders; the reason for this lies in the difficulties encountered in machining cylinders. It is not an easy matter to " tool " the heads of the cylinders. O n this account not a few motor builders advocate separable heads. It is unfortunate, however, that the joint in this const ruc176

tion comes at Ihe hottest part of the cylinder, thus making a tight joint problematic. A well-performing motor is almost a moral certainty if its reciprocating parts arc reasonably light and wellfashioned, provided the compression is neither too high nor too low, and the same figure for all of the cylinders. T h e purchaser's interest in the details of construction of the cylinders should not center in the question of whelher or not the heads arc separate; nor should he lake too m u c h interest in the maker's problemresult is what counts.

Outlining ihe Ideal Engine* "The ideal engine is the engine which will not require internal cleansing or other attention except oiling till its bearings require adjustment; that is to say, it should not require internal cleansing till i t is due to have a thorough overhaul. This is the position to which the most advanced examples of the sleeve engine have n o w attained. It m a y be argued that the means by which ihese ends have been attained are cumbersome, and w e must confess that with the two-sleeve lype there is a great deal to be said for this contention, but i t must be borne in mind that m a n y purchasers of motor cars d o not consider this side of the question at all; Ihey merely look to the mileage for which Ihe original perfection of running can be maintained without the necessity for adjustment or dismantling for internal cleaning. W e want all upholders of the poppet valve engine to recognize this fact and to tackle seriously the removal of the one great objection to the poppet engine, which, in other respects, is so vastly preferred by a large proportion of makers and users. The Autocar. April 25. 1914. 177

" W h e n one conies to think of it, the poppet valve has to thank the sleeve valve for a great deal. T h e silence of the sleeve has resulted in so great a refinement of the poppet engine that in point of quielncss the one is practically equal to the other. It was the silence of the sleeve which provided the necessary emulation to improve the poppet system to an almost equal degree of quietude, and w e must n o w hope that the insensitivencss of the sleeve engine to carbon deposit will result in a similar improvement being brought about in the poppet engine. W e believe i t can be done."

C&

r*&

17K

Characteristic Mechanism

Rotary

Valve

NOT a few attempts have been made in the field

rotary valves for the obvious purpose of inducing a better measure of volumetric efficiency in the operation of motors than can possibly be expected from poppet types of valves. It would be a futile preemption of space here and, in all probability, a useless expenditure of the reader's time in any discussion involving the whole list of roiary types of valves suggested by inventive genius from time to time. Characteristic of rotary types of valves, the M e a d system is here illustrated. Figs. 51, 52, 53, and 54, depict cross-sections of the four cylinders of a M e a d type of motor, giving the four cyclic relations and the cooperative registry of ports in the rotary valves under the representative conditions depicted in the figures. Referring to Fig. 51, which is of the induction cycle, the intake valve is shown at the instant of opening with Ihe exhaust valve closed. T h e direction of rotation of the valves is shown by arrows. T h e piston in the working cylinder of Ihe motor is at the top of the stroke about to descend. Fig. 52 presents a cylinder during the compression stroke, the piston in the working cylinder of the motor being at Ihe bottom dwell point about to ascend. T h e exhaust valve is closed; the inlet valve, however, is not, as yet, closed, the timing relation being such that the inlet valve closes 30 degrees late. Referring to Fig. 53 of a cylinder during the explosion or power cycle, i t will be seen that the valves are closed and the piston in the working cylinder of the motor is at the top dwell point about to descend. In like manner, 179

Fin. 51. Diagram honing intake and exHamt valvea o( the Mead motor with the make valve at the initial ol opening at the 'cginning ol the suction cycle. a a D D D

D D D

passing on to Fig. 54, the exhaust cycle is depicted presenting the piston in the working cylinder of the motor at the bottom dwell point about to ascend. Since the exhaust valve opens 50 degrees early, i t will be understood that the scavenging of the cylinder is started at this early opening of the exhaust valve, continues across the bottom dwell point of the piston, and is extended on to include the whole of the up stroke, the valve closing 5 degrees late. It would appear from the circumstances above named that i t was the avowed purpose of the designer of ihis motor to afford ample opportunity for the escape of the products of combustion and it is natural to infer that this syslem of valves requires some such construction.

180

In relation to the timing of this type of engine, it will suffice to observe that the timing events are fixed in the order as follows: Intake valve opens 10 degrees late. Intake valve closes 30 degrees late. Exhaust valve opens 5 0 degrees early. Exhaust valve closes 5 degrees late. A s the illustrations indicate, this motor has t w o sets of roiary valves situated o n opposite sides of the cylinders ; they are not unlike hollow sleeves rotating in barrels situated parallel to the length of the motor. E a c h valve rotates continuously in one direction. Rotation is imparted to the valves by silent chains driven from the crankshaft. It is said for this motor that any desired timing of the valves m a y be effected. T h e valves are cooled through the withdrawal of heat to the adjacent jackets. T h e designers in ihis example preferred to e m Fig. 52. Mead rotary valve motor showing the intake and exhaust valves closed on the compression stroke. 'J r u D D a

l u l a k t

^^ * ] ( ]

^^^_

K tin u-ft

a 181

ploy separate valves for the intake and exhaust in order to avoid excessive heat changes in the metal of the valves. It is pointed out that, in the operation of the valves, their surfaces are exposed to heat of combustion during one-quarter of the whole time. In the lubrication of the valves, space between the valve and the casting is afforded for a film of oil; which space however becomes a leakage path in the absence of the film of oil above referred to. In this connection attention is here drawn to Fig. 55, which gives the viscosities of five different lubricants at various temperatures, the idea being lo indicate to what extent lubricating oil is affected by temperature changes. Since the valves are subjected to the heat of combustion for one-quarter of the whole time, they will, of course, develop temperatures sufficient to m a k e it necessary to consider the characteristics of the lubricant employed lo maintain a tight relation. Fig. 53. In the Mead rotary valve motor indicating position ol intake and exhaust valves and the relations ol ports during the power C cycle.

Intake .^-*^^\i&vL_ ) -

^^^^-W_ ""^HTl t =

m0%

D G D D D D D

182

Fig. 5*. In the Mead rotarv valve motor ihowing Ihe piston on the exhaust cycle wi:h the intake valve closed and the exhaust valve open. D 0 a G D

Intake

^0t

<^*i^^ ttbauit

T h e designers of the M e a d m o t o r m a k e the statement as follows: "The low weight per square inch of bearing surface and low peripheral speed arc two elements in (avor ot case ol lubrication. W e have passed through the various Stages of lubrication from grease cups, sight-feed oilers. mechanical oilers, and other methods to Ihe present system of introducing five per cent, by volume of lubricating oil in the fuel." The designers of the Mead motor claim certain advantages for lubricant dissolved in the gasoline supply, among which are the following: " The lubricant is fed into each cylinder and covers all surfaces with a thin film of oil at every complete cycle of the motor. This film of oil is in direct proportion to the number of heat units introduced into the motor and is replenished in infinitesimal quantities at each successive stroke of the motor. This method of lubrication is both economical and effective and does not produce smoke or carbon nor affect carburetor ad jusi men t to the slightest degree."

183

Concerning Sleeve T y p e s of Motors CAREFUL search in the United States patent office would seem to indicate that there are upwards of 120 modifications of valves (other than poppet valves) clamoring for recognition by the users of automobiles. T h e fact remains that the poppet type of valve obtains today in the majority of examples, although i t is slowly but surely being superseded by sleeve valve motors. S o m e seven or eight years ago, Charles Y. Knight introduced sleeve valves concentric with the main pistons in the working cylinders of a motor. It seemed like a clumsy thing to do. T h e fact remains that the sleeves of this design are being used in motors in increasing numbers every day. T h efirstKnight motor (as the author understands it) had but one sleeve to the cylinder. Modern types of Knight motors have two sleeves between the main pistons and the barrels of the working cylinders of the motor. T h e timing of Ihe valves in motors of this make is not very different from the conventional timing of poppet valves in motors. It is doubtless true that the timing of the Knight sleeves m a y vary over a wide range, imitating poppet valve timings to whatever extent i t m a y be desired to do so. T h e two moving sleeves concentric with the main piston in the working cylinder of the motor cooperate with each other and Ihe working piston, all of which, enclosed within the main barrel of the cylinder, is subject to the cooling action of the adjacent water jackets. These sleeves are actuated by separate eccentrics on the halflime shaft situated to one side of the main crankshaft and given rotation by means of a silent chain. Connecting184

rods b e t w e e n the half-time shafts a n d the sleeves translate the rotary into reciprocating m o t i o n . T h e small ends o f the connecting r o d s are attached to the sleeves by m e a n s o f g u d g e o n pins in lugs cast integral with the sleeves. T h e sleeves are not provided with p a c k i n g rings. S e p a r a b l e water-jacketed cylinder h e a d s , resembling inverted pistons a n d carrying the s p a r k i n g plugs, are fitted with p a c k i n g rings. T h e s e rings are in halves, cooperating with inner rings w h i c h resemble ordinary piston rings, designed to press o u t w a r d against the inner wall of the inner sleeve for the o b v i o u s p u r p o s e of preventing leakage a r o u n d the u p p e r e n d s of the sleeves. Since the sleeves are fitted wilh cooperating ports, w h e n the piston reciprocates the ports in the sleeves are so positioned that ihe m o t o r operates according to the four-stroke cycle principle.

10W
tUtfO * B COM Viscosities of Fire DlCcrcitt Lubricants at Various Temperatures

lYY

u
A CucxOlt B Sfrelil Prapsrod HyilraortxMi Oil C OorOil O Refined Rjnian Oil ! . 6C/lioJer ml -

IWO MO

'^S^ 1' * l _ e ' ;0 H UV 100 110 1AI13) IW 130 1W 1T0 lid I/O W ill (M IMUOIWttdf

s * . 1^

s. \

Fig. 55. Chart showing the relation ol viscosity to temperature on a comparative basis for the various types of lubricants used in automobile work as reported by the Daimler laboratory at Coventry. England.

185

O n e of the unquestioned advantages of poppet-valve types of motors lies in the fact lhat the valves themselves do not have to be lubricated. O n e of the trying situations in relation to sleeve valves lies in the necessity of well-regulated lubrication under a wide variety of conditions. It has been shown elsewhere in this work that the viscosities of the different kinds of lubricating oils available in molor work change enormously when subjected to temperature variations. It is not too m u c h to say that these properties of ihe lubricating oil are disconcerting factors w h e n attempts are m a d e to lubricate sleeves. In the M e a d molor il w a s pointed out that, after running the gamut of lubricating methods, i t was decided to dissolve the lubricating oil in the gasoline. Dissolving the lubricating oil in the fuel for the motor offers one excellent advantage, especially in cold weather, w h e n the glue-like consistency of lubricating oil is likely to cause the sleeves to stick, thus making i t extremely difficult if not imppssible to start the motorthe oil dissolved in the fuel would lose its glue-like consistency. O f course, the extent to which the glue-like consistency of cold lubricating oil is likely to abort easy starting of the motor depends largely upon Ihe dimensions of the sleeves. If they are of large diameter and closely fitted then, as will be understood, the area of surface will be relatively great and the glue-like consistency of the lubricating oil, interposed between the surfaces for lubricating purposes, will present its greatest force in the direction of defeating starting of the motor. O n e w a y to thwart troubles of this character lies in the use of a very capable starter for the motor. But such starters are heavy and rather too costly to consider, except in special cases, whereas it m a y be that the designers of the M e a d motor have suggested a simple remedy for the whole difficulty.

186

P A R T

III

R E C O R D

Car name MODEL FACTORY NO. M O T O R NOTire Size LICENSE NO. STATE YEAR INSURANCE C O . POLICY NO. EXPIRES CAR AGENT ADDRESS TELEPHONE NO. 191

188

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1

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A P P E N D I X The Rockefeller Motor By David Beecroft

Directing Editor The Automobile, Molor Age, Molor World, a n d M o t o r "Print THE ROCKEFELLER motor is out-and-out a sleevevalve type, two sleeves to a cylinder, one sleeve for the intake, and one sleeve for the exhaust. These sleeves occupy the same position that the poppet-valves do and bear practically the same relationship in diameter to the piston diameter as do poppet-valves. If you have an Lhead motor of the Rockefeller type you have the two sleeves side by side, and externally you could scarcely tell whether the motor was a sleeve-valve one or the poppet type; with the T-head type the sleeves would be on opposite sides. But you can g o further: the sleeves in the Rockefeller motor are as quickly removed and replaced as are the poppet-valves. Infiveminutes an ordinary w o r k m a n can remove the intake and exhaust sleeves from the motor after i t has been running for hours. In slightly more than a minute longer these sleeves can be again put in place and the motor started. This is one of the first sleevevalve types in which this aspect of accessibility is such a factor. T o g o still further, the Rockefeller system of sleevevalve design is very closely related to standard engineering practice in that, to adapt these sleeves to a motor, it is only necessary to use different cylinder castings; in other words, the crankcase that serves for a poppet type will serve for the Rockefeller sleeve type, the lay shaft 264

which operates the sleeves working on the same centers as the camshaft which works the poppet-valves. A vertical section of the Rockefeller motor, with cylinders GG by 120 millimeters, shows the general arrangement. This is an L-head motor, and the sliding sleeves are at the right. These sleeves serve for the exhaust valve and the intake, occupying the same relative positions. T h e sleeve is open at its upper and lower ends and is reciprocated through the connecting rod, driven from a half-time or lay shaft, which is in reality a small crankshaft. Above the sleeve is what is k n o w n as the fixed sleeve, which threads into the top of the opening for the valve mechanism and extends well downwards, leaving an open annular space between it and the cylinder casting and into which annular space the top of the sleeve extends when at the top of the stroke. Within the reciprocating sleeve is what is k n o w n as a hand-controlled abutment which can be raised and lowered to regulate the size of the opening or port into the combustion chamber of the cylinder. This abutment can be raised or lowered from the steering wheel of the car, and otherwise remains stationary within the reciprocating sleeve. T h e m o d u s operandi of the sleeve operation is practically the same for the intake as i t is for the exhaust. In fact, the sleeves are the same diameter and the same length, and are reciprocated 60 millimeters or half the stroke of the piston, so that explaining the operation of the exhaust sleeve will serve to explain the iniake. T h e sleeves are m a d e of either drawn steel tubing U millimeters thick, or cast iron 2J millimeters thick. In one example each sleeve at its upper end carries four castellations, and instead of cutting ports or openings in the sleeve the gases enter or leave through these wide slots in the top of the sleeve, the extension of the sleeve between the slots being merely to form a guide for the sleeve between the fixed part and the cylinder casting. 265

T h e assembly of the sleeve with the castellations leaves four openings in the top of the sleeve, the openings being six millimeters or one-fourth inch deep, and occupying approximately 75 per cent, of the circumference of the sleeve. T o the top is the fixed sleeve which threads into the cylinder head and below i t the manually controlled abutment which is within the reciprocating sleeve. Referring to the piston at the end of the exhaust stroke and the sleeve closing the annular port, w h e n the piston descends on the suction stroke the exhaust sleeve continues to rise leaving the exhaust port closed through suction, compression and explosion strokes. O n the exhaust stroke the sleeve descends, entirely opening the port. In the intake port the flow of the gases is simply reversed, but the sleeve construction and operation are identical, in other words, the gases enter the top of the sleeve and when i t opens the corresponding port the gases enter the cylinder. T h e lay shaft operating the sleeves, rotates at half the speed of the crankshaft. Sleeve-valve motor sealing, by which is meant preventing the gases from leaking on the compression stroke, is always a factor to be reckoned with, and, in the Rockefeller, this is accomplished by using compression rings in three different places. First there is the compression ring in the stationary or fixed sleeve, this ring being intended to prevent gases leaking past the sleeve w h e n i t extends into the annular space. A t the bottom of the reciprocating sleeve is a compression ring to prevent gases leaking d o w n into the crankcase between the sleeve and the cylinder casting; and. in the abutment, are three compression rings. These latter rings are to prevent leakage into the crankcase. All of these rings are Tungsten steel. T h e timing in a sleeve-valve motor has always been advanced as one of the arguments in its favor in that it is possible to keep the intake, or exhaust opening, at its m a x i m u m for a longer period of time than a poppet-

valve can be held at its point of full opening. This can be best understood when the timing of the Rockefeller is given, which is as follows: Intake opens G degrees before top center. Intake closes 40 degrees afler bottom center. Exhaust opens 46 degrees before bottom center. Exhaust closes G degrees before top center. With this timing the intake port on the Rockefeller remains at its wide-open position during a period of 117 degrees rotation on the flywheel. In other words, i t reaches its m a x i m u m opening at 58 degrees and remains to 175 degrees. With the poppet-valve the m a x i m u m opening is generally reached al 90 degrees, or w h e n a quarter of the flywheel rotation is over, and remains at this full opening for a period of 40 degrees. T h e reason w h y the Rockefeller sleeve-valve, the same as other sleeve valves, obtains a long m a x i m u m opening, is that i t opens while the piston is at the top of the stroke, and reaches its full opening and retains it while the piston is traveling downwards at ils greatest speed, when, consequently, the greatest demand for gas is made. After timing comes lubrication in a sleeve-valve motor, and with the Rockefeller, lubrication by oil, in the understood sense of the term, is not used, but a composition known as magnesite is used. Magncsile is m a d e of finely pulverized magnesia and graphite. These are mixed and carried in a compression grease cup on the motor with leads near to the base of each sleeve. This magnesite, in addition to having lubricating values because of the graphite, possesses insulating qualities, so that as the reciprocating sleeve becomes coated, i t resists the heat from the explosion chamber, keeping the valve cool. In order to m a k e practical use of magnesite as a lubricant, the outside of the reciprocating sleeve is not smooth, but threaded from top to bottom with the United States standard thread. 18 threads or turns to the inch. T h e object of this threading is that the spaces between the thread 267

fill with magnesite, thus insulating the sleeve, and further, should any foreign particles get between the sleeve and the castings in which it works these would be buried in the magnesite in the crevices. That this method of lubrication, by resisting the heat, is proving satisfactory has been demonstrated by continuous laboratory tests of m a n y hours' duration. A G-ounce compression grease cup will hold enough, it is claimed, for three months' or a year's use, and that in a recent test of 31 hours' continuous running it was scarcely perceptible Ihe amount of magnesite consumed. In addition to the outer surface of the reciprocating sleeve being threaded from top to bottom, the outer surface of the abutment is similarly threaded in order to be coated with magnesite, and the outer surface of the fixed sleeve is similarly finished. W h e n the intake or exhaust sleeves are removed after running the motor, they are entirely coated with this material, showing h o w i t is distributed throughout the length of the cylinder in which the sleeve reciprocates. T h e working of the manually-controlled abutment within the reciprocating sleeve reveals some interesting facts. This abutment has several duties to perform: one, by virtue of the gable-shaped top i t directs the flow of cither intake or exhaust gases. T w o , w h e n going d o w n long hills, by slightly raising the abutment through the control on the steering wheel, you partially close the exhaust valve and thereby accomplish approximately 20 per cent, braking effect on the car. Three, by a third position of this abutment you bring into use what is k n o w n as the dynamic brake, in which you relieve the compression in the cylinder on the compression stroke during a period of subsequent 31 degrees rotation on the flywheel. thereby entirely cutting out the explosions. This is done by lowering the abutment so that the bypass passage in its top registers with a bypass channel in the cylinder casting. W h e n these are in register the gases escape

from the combustion chamber through the annular port, and flowing through the bypass, pass out through the opening w h e n it is in register, and g o on their way to the muffler. T h u s the compression is lost and consequently any explosion nullified. T h e abutment in the intake sleeve is in reality a separate motor control and is intended to be used instead of the throttle control, in other words, the throttle is left wide open and the speed of the engine regulated by raising or lowering the abutment, thereby restricting the size of the opening into the cylinder. While thus serving as a motor control and intended to be used instead of the throttle in the carburetor, the abutment also serves to direct the flow of the incoming gases. It is further claimed that by controlling through this abutment instead of through the carburetor throttle, greater economy of fuel is obtained, due to the better carburetor functions obtained by the wide open throttle for slow speed running than with a closed throttle. T h e method of raising and lowering these abutments in either intake or exhaust sleeves is interesting. T h e abutments for the exhaust are connected with a control shaft extending from end to end of the motor, within the crankcase, and immediately below the sleeve. Those abutments for controlling the intake are connected with the rocker shaft, located immediately above the other. A t their rear ends these shafts carry spiral gears engaging with cross shafts. T h e end of this rocker shaft carries a short a r m for connection with the control on the steering wheel. T h e relative location of these intake and exhaust abutment rocker shafts, as well as housing them in aluminum castings, is shown in the rear view of the motor. F r o m a manufacturing viewpoint, there are not a few details of interest connected with this Rockefeller motor. First, the method of preparing the cylinder casting to receive both the intake and exhaust sleeves is a simple 269

one. In the motor in question the sleeve has an external diameter of 33 millimeters, and i t occupies practically a cylindrical opening in the cylinder casting. This cylinder is finished by broaching, only two cuts being necessary. T h e sleeves, as already stated, are either steel tubing or cast iron, and in either case are threaded throughout their length on the outside and ground on the inside. Each sleeve threads into a bottom thimble on which is an ear for attaching the connecting rod for reciprocation. B y this construction it is but necessary to unthread ihe sleeve from this thimble in removing it, after which i t is lifted out through the lop of the opening the same as you would remove a poppet valve. In replacing the sleeve i t is necessary to again thread it onto the thimble. Similarly, the abutments in both intake and exhaust sleeves thread onto a small sleeve, which carries the bushing for the top end of its connecting- rod. This permits of a quick removal of the abutment if necessary. By this construction it is readily seen that the three units comprising each valve mechanism are readily removable,firstthe fixed sleeves threading inlo the cylinder casting; second, the reciprocating sleeve threading onto its thimble or base: and third, the abutment threading onto its connecting rod. At present the Rockefeller motor is being tested with either gasoline or kerosene as a fuel, a carburetor suitable for handling either fuel being used. In a test m a d e the motor showed 2.300 r.p.m. on kerosene, and 1.790 r.p.m. on gasoline carrying ils rated load of 11 horsepower at 1.000 feet per minute of piston speed, the m a x i m u m power being between 16 and 17 horse-power. It is naturally optional with any concern whether gasoline or kerosene is used. So far as horse-power and torque are concerned, the torque is stated being good from GOO to 1.600 r.p.m., at which point i t begins dropping off up to 2,000 r. p. m., 270

where it falls off rapidly. T h e best horse-power is 2,000 r. p. m . and the best available torque 1,600 r. p. m. W h a t m a y be considered more or less of a novelty. which is being developed with this motor, is the use of oil-cooling instead of water. Oil worth 15 cents per gallon is used and it is claimed that onefillingof the cooling system will sufi.ce for an entire season. T h e reason that oil is being used is that it boils at a temperature of 450 degrees Fahrenheit, instead of 212. the boiling point of water. Because of this higher boiling point a higher working temperature within the cylinder is obtained, which is desired in that the hydrocarbon motor is a heat motor. It is explained that where water cooling is used, the water boiling at 212 degrees on the top of the combustion chamber, which is the hottest part of the motor, leaves small gas bubbles, which are non-conductors of heat, so that the heat is really insulated in the casting instead of being conducted out as desired. This spheroidal action of water, occuring at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, does not occur with oil until Ihe 450 m a r k is reached, hence the better conductivity of heat up to this point. O n e factor has been discovered in connection with this oil-cooling, namely, that it has been necessary to place in the jacket space above the cylinder head a graduated pipe of small diameter to conduct ihe hottest oil from the vicinity of the cylinder head. This pipe leads from the cylinder jacket to the heater on the carburetor and thence to the oil p u m p . Previous to thefittingof this hot oil pipe, as the term m a y be used, there was difficulty experienced wilh oil-cooling.

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A P P E N D I X What to Do with a New Car

II

STRICT economy in the operation of an automobil

must include the consideration of its maintenance. Those w h o can afford to keep their cars in a first-class garage, where they get good attention, including washing and rub-down every day, indicate by their action that cost of service is a secondary consideration with them. But those w h o have to consider the economic phase of the situation, apart from the quality of service, might well decide to put up a small garage in their back yards rather than to put up with bad service in a third-rate garage. There is nothing very difficult about building a small garage. T h e cost m a y be anywhere from $75 to $750. O n the principle of " safety first," the condition surrounding the prospective garage should be seriously considered. T h efirstrequisite in the undertaking is a copy of the building code as i t relates to private garages; m a k e sure that the building laws will not be violated in the construction of a garage adjacent to a dwelling; ascertain that the distance between the house and the garage will be sufficient to satisfy the fire laws; and in all other respects comply with the city ordinances and the rules and regulations of the board offireunderwriters of competent jurisdiction. Having paid proper regard to the safety and convenience of others, m a k e sure that a garage in the yard adjacent to the dwelling will not in any w a y endanger the health or safety of the occupants thereof; then see h o w the automobile can gain access and egress to the garage if one is put up in the yard; find out whether or not the Commissioner of Highways will consent to a crossing 272

over the sidewalk in front of the house; note the conditions under which a crossing can be made, and plan to comply with all of these requirements. In the construction of a garage the floor space should not be less than 12 x 18 ft.; the width of the door should allow for one foot clearance on each side of the m u d guards of the car; the height of the entrance should allow 6 inches above the top deck of a limousine, and the approach to the floor of the garage should be almost level. In view of the specific weight of gasoline and air mixtures, since they are heavier than air, there is grave danger in having any depressions or pockets in the floor of the garage or the basement thereunder since the heavy vapor of gasoline and air will gravitate to the lowest point and fill these depressions, awaiting the unfortunate instant when a lighted match or other naked flame will set the mixture off and produce a more or less violent explosion. A very good w a y to proceed with the whole matter is to have the garage built in some establishment making a business of portable garages, so-called, and, in the meantime, lay d o w n a floor m u c h as a concrete sidewalk is constructed, costing about 15 cents per square yard; if the garage is 12 x 18 feet inside, m a k e the floor 13'-6" x 19'-6", which allows 9 inches for wall thickness, upon which the portable garage m a y be erected at the proper time. T h e concretefloor,since it will extend under the framing if the garage is of wood, will protect the framing against dry rot and other deteriorating influences. Referring to the exterior appearance of the garage, the design should be left to an architect, w h o , in all probability, will consider the surroundings and govern himself accordingly, thus making of the proposed garage an ornament, in a fair measure, which, to be sure, will in no wise interfere with its utility. 273

If the garage is m a d e of wood, it should be built with the same attention to detail as that attending a well-made house. Since the building will have to be heated in the winter time i t should be so designed and constructed that it can be economically and well heated. T h e framing of the structure m a y be 2 " x 4 " studs on 1 0 " x l 2 " framing, the latter resting upon the concrete floor beneath. T h e studs should be placed according to the usual rule for good construction and height to support a roof, the latter to accord with the surroundings from the architectural point of view; the lining of the garage might well be tongued and grooved flooring. O n the outside, after the lining is fastened to the studs and the sheathing is done, paper should be put all over the surface, upon which the clapboards should be secured. If a shingle finish is desired, on the ground that i t accords with the architectural style of the adjacent dwellings, there can be no possible objection to the plan. That the roof should be pitched for shingling goes without saying. Referring to the ceiling of the garage, the tongued and grooved flooring will serve very well. Since daylight, and plenty of it, is of the greatest possible value in a garage, ample windows on all sides, if possible, are well worth considering. In view of the fact that the garage must be kept at an even temperature above the freezing point in the winter time, the w i n d o w sashes and m a terial should be of good quality and fitted into place in a workmanlike manner. T h e garage should be painted inside and out. T h e best paint is an excellent grade of white lead in linseed oil. T h e inside of the garage should get a primer and two coats. In painting the outside of the garage the color scheme must conform to the adjacent dwelling. In the matter of heating, the best plan is to run a pipe connection from the hot-water or steam-heating system, if steam is used for heating in the residence nearby. If, 274

however, steam is not used in the residence, care must be exercised in selecting the method of healing ihe garage, remembering that an open fire is a hazard in the vicinity of a gasoline automobile, or where liquid fuel is stored and exposed. In all probability, a hot-water heating system, putting the boiler in the basement of the residence and piping to the garage, is the safest and best method to employ. T h e fact that the supply of coal will undoubtedly be in the basement of the residence, is an additional reason w h y ihe furnace should be put in the same basement. B y way of artificial illumination of the garage, incandescent electric lights, w h e n properly installed, are safe and satisfactory. Referring to the storage of gasoline, remembering that i t is cheaper to purchase the same in barrel lots, resort m a y be had to any of the well-known systems of gasoline storage; in all of these plans the storage tank is put in the ground outside the buildings. T h e p u m p for delivering the gasoline from the storage tank under the ground to the automobile m a y be put inside of the garage. This is a particular advantage in the winter time. Lubricating oil, since i t is also m u c h cheaper w h e n purchased in barrel lots, should be provided with a storage for same and, in these connections, the rules and regulations of the fire underwriters, and the ordinances relative to the handling of inflammable materials should be consulted. Since the automobile should be washed every time i t comes in off of the road, the concrete floor should be pitched to a trap and water connections should be provided to facilitate the undertaking. In this connection, since water is of no great value in putting out a gasoline fire, means should be provided for meeting a possible emergency. A couple offirst-classman-sized chemical extinguishers will c o m e very handy in a pinch. A box of sand, convenient to reach, would also do good work. 275

A metal pan placed on the concrete floor under the automobile, the same to befilledwith sawdust, will not only give the garage a neat and prosperous appearance, but the sawdust has the additional virtue of absorbing not only the drippings of lubricating oil, but any gasoline that m a y drip out of the carburetor as well; fumes of gasoline do not rise from sawdust under the conditions herein named. It might be a worth-while piece of information to know that sawdust saturated with gasoline will supplant soap in the removal of axle grease and other like accumulations from the hands. A s a matter of fact, saturated sawdust is better than soap for this purpose. Last, but not least, the doors and windows of the garage should be provided with good and secure locks.

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