Question 1 a.

Gravitational Force The astronomical objects (Sun, Earth and so on) and particles in space may exert gravitational force or attraction force on the space station. The gravitational force affects the maneuver of space station and the structure experiences extra stress. Magnetic Force Space station may get charged as it passing through the partly ionized medium in space, hence it is vulnerable to the effect by the magnetosphere and magnetic field of Earth, as well as solar wind which consisted of charged particles and other electromagnetic forces. The magnetic force impacts the space stations motion by creating torque and drag. The magnetic force varies with the intensity of magnetic field. Thermal residual stress (Thermal radiation) Temperature changes alter the lifespan and reliability of spacecraft. It ranges from -1000C to 1000C due to the orientation of spacecraft and exposure to Sun. The rigorous temperature change may form a thermal gradient across space station or spacecraft. Due to the different thermal expansion of materials in the structure, the space station will experience a deformation of structure in curve shape due to expansion when hot or contraction when cold. The expansion or contraction eventually produces stress on the other connected parts. Besides, thermal radiation will also introduce vibration to the structure and cause thermal residual stress on the structure. The structure is in risk to fail. Particle Collision Forces The space station will be hit by particles such as meteoroids or space debris. These particles collision impose an impulsive force on the space station. A small collision brings minor effect to the maneuver of space station but a big collision may damage the space station structure. b. Yes, the space station is flexible. This ensures that the space station is able to flex when subjected to environmental forces as mentioned above and some non-environmental force. The space station needs to withstand vibration due to maneuvers, drag due to orbital velocity, extreme thermal changes and undesired self-induced disturbance such as the moment produced during deploy of solar array and jet thrust. c.
The configuration of the space station should be symmetrical with its center of mass. A symmetrical space station often spins about its own spin axis (coincides with center of mass) to maintain stability and position in its desired position or location. The same concept is shown in fired spinning bullet to maintain its path to target. Firearm usually has a rifling design in the inner barrel. This design sets the projectile

spinning while fired. The projectile motion is stabilized and controlled by the spinning motion and centrifugal force. A symmetrical space station also eases the design process since technically the spacecraft is balanced such that the spin axis is located at its center of mass. This helps the space station to travel in its desired orbit.

Question 2. (1) Yes, it is appropriate to illustrate a space station as a two-degree-of freedom mass-spring-damper system. Example: during the docking of other spacecraft on space station, there will be some acoustic loading (due to jet propulsion) on the space station. Acoustic loading is a type of vibration and hence it is valid to use a two-degree-of freedom mass-spring-damper system for simple illustration on the situation. On the other hand, mass-spring-damper system can also be used for modeling and analysis of its self-induced force on space station. Space station is composed of solar array, thruster, bus and other components. The activity of its own parts may also bring impacts to its own structure, like vibration due to jet thrust from thruster. The mass-spring-damper system may not be precise enough to display the real situation but its outcome is useful as a reference for monitoring and analysis purpose. Question 2 (b-f) and Question 3 are answered in the last part of these papers.

Question 4. (1) The Payload Fairing protects satellites or other spacecraft against aerodynamic, thermal and acoustic environments that the vehicle experiences during atmospheric flight. When the launcher has left the atmosphere, the fairing is jettisoned by pyrotechnically initiated systems. One system splits the fairing vertically, the other frees the two halves. The fairing then falls back to Earth and burns up in the atmosphere. SYLDA5 is the structure that launches satellite and enclosed in the Payload Fairing. The satellite is located at the top of SYLDA5 and connected by upper adapter. It receives a constant flow of dry air via an umbilical ground line to keep the satellite inside cool until liftoff. Upper and lower adapters interface with the vehicle and the payload and are the only attachment point of the payload on the Launcher. The adapters locked the payload in position and protect it. The cone 3936 is an adaptation structure between the VEB upper frame and the lower frame of lower adaptor. It is composed of a carbon structure and 2 aluminium rings. The cone 3936 comprises a membrane, which separate the satellite compartment from the upper stage. It is designed to be impervious to Helium gas.

Vehicle Equipment Bay (VEB) is the brain of the launch vehicle. It houses the electronics equipment to control the flight. Examples of systems in VEB are attitude control system, inertial control system, and inertial measurement units. VEB can autonomously orchestrate from start to end all the systems required to control a flight such as engine ignition, separation of the boosters, the upper stage, and operation and release of the individual payloads. The inertial measurement units and an independent guidance system are used to maneuver the stack after Booster Separation and especially during orbital coast phases after 2nd stage shutdown before the spacecraft are separated. VEB also sends back a steady stream of information to the ground stations to allow the diagnostic of the launcher during its mission. The Cryogenic Upper Stage of the vehicle, called ESC - tage Suprieur Cryotechnique, is fueled by Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen. It is located in the second stage in the launcher. Some version of the Upper Stage can only be ignited once. Other versions of the second stage use different propellants and another engine. Interstage structure is to support rocket motors or other means of propulsion that send space vehicle or payloads beyond earths orbit. During launch, the rocket subject to various forces Two Solid Rocket Boosters are mounted on the Ariane 5 rocket to provide 92% of thrust at Blastoff. They are referred to as EAPs from the French Title Etage d'Acceleration Poudre. Each booster contains three segments filled with propellant. Sometimes, boosters are equipped with parachutes for recovery and post-flight analyses. Pyrotechnic devices are used to free the boosters and for separation of rockets. The Cryogenic main core stage of the Ariane 5 Rocket is called the EPC (tage Principal Cryotechnique) and is composed of an aluminium tank with two compartments, one for Liquid Hydrogen and one for Liquid Oxygen. At the bottom of the EPC is the propulsion segment, Vulcain Main Engine. 2) Strap-on boosters are finless rockets attached to the sides of a normal 3FNC (Three Fins and a Nose Cone) type rocket. The first advantage of strap-on booster is that the thrust during first stage of rocket launching can be altered to account for an increased payload without changing the fundamental design of the main rocket. As usual, when the propellant is exhausted, boosters are separated guided by explosive charges or springs to avoid collision with the main rocket due to the weightless condition during shutdown of first stage and ignition of the second stage. The separation of booster avoids the increment of load (empty fuel tank) to the rocket and reduces overall drag. The other advantage of strap-on booster is cost effective. Manufacturers just have to increase the number of booster to rocket rather than design, build and test a new big rocket, which is more costly than put on extra booster. (3) Conversation of energy applied for gas flow in nozzle:

H1

mv1 mv H2 2 2 2

H is enthalpy, m is mass and v is velocity. Assume there is no loss of mass, all terms divided by mass. h is specific enthalpy.

v v h1 1 h2 2 2 2

h1 = h0 = CpT0, v1 = v0 =0; h2 = he = CpTe, v2 = ve

v h0 he e 2

ve 2(h0 he )
Question 5 (a) Stirling engine working principle has identical properties as Carnot engine. Both engines utilize the heat transfer in the fluid and the engine efficiency is depending on the temperature difference between cold source and hot source. The larger the temperature difference, the higher the engine efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency of Stirling engine is equivalent to the Carnot cycle. However, Stirling cycle in real life is not reversible as Carnot cycle due to isochoric process where heat goes in but no work gets done. The Carnot is reversible. It operates at constant thermodynamic equilibirum using infinitesimal temperature differerence and slow adiabatic compressions and expansions. If you store the work output, you can use that work to reverse the cycle by an infinitesimal change in conditions. (b) Yes, it is possible for the mechanical system of Stirling engine to achieve such efficiency. The efficiency can be further improved by using shaft with low friction coefficient and replacing piston with diaphragm to reduce friction loss. In industry, Stirling Energy Systems combines Stirling engine and solar heat concentrator (glass mirror) to produce electricity. The equipment is known as Suncatcher. The highest achievable efficiency is 31.5% and the average efficiency is 24-25%. Of course, the operation is carried out under the exposure to Sun. Even though Stirling engine is high capital cost, high cost per unit power and need time to start the engine, it is undeniable that it is one of the green solution to solve energy crisis since require no fuel to run the engine.