GOL 106: Historical Geology

Northern Virginia Community College

Dr. Victor P. Zabielski

February 2012

Sediment Characteristics and Depositional Environments

Objective:
The objective of this lab is familiarize you with the general types of sediments
common to the marine environment and the processes and forces responsible for
distributing and modifying them.

Introduction:
The oceans, unlike most land surfaces, are constantly collecting and accumulating
sediments. In fact, there are very few regions of the ocean that are not accumulating
sediments. What types of sediments are accumulating in the oceans? Are sediments in
the ocean all the same or do they vary from place to place? What controls the type and
amount of sediments that will accumulate in any given area? The answers to these
questions provide the knowledge to understand the distribution of sediments in the
modern (and ancient) oceans and hold the key to unraveling the history of ocean
circulation, productivity and even the climate of the Earth over the past hundreds of
millions of years.
A geologists job is to read the history of the earth or oceans from the evidence
that is left behind. This is much like a detective who characterizes a persons life and
actions by looking through their garbage. In the geologists case, we first need to
familiarize you with what to expect in the garbage (sediments) and how to interpret
whats there, and perhaps more importantly, what is not there.
Marine sediments are an accumulation of particles that were either transported to
the ocean or produced in the oceans. There they are modified by additions or subtraction
of various constituents and by weathering and erosion at the earths surface. Each of
these actions will leave a noticeable imprint on the sediment. By understanding each of
these processes and identifying their imprints, we can slowly unravel the history of any
sediment and propose a potential depositional environment in which these sediments
accumulated. This type of study is widely employed when looking at ancient rocks and
sediments produced in depositional environments that are no longer existent.
The first step in understanding this potentially complex mix of effects is to 1)
become familiar with the common types of particles encountered in most sediments 2)
learn to identify the physical properties of those sediments and 3) understand the specific
processes that can alter these properties and the affects they have on the sediment.

There are four primary particle properties used to describe a sediment sample.
These are:
1) Particle composition
2) Particle size
3) Particle shape
4) Particle sorting
These properties are controlled largely by the following factors:
Energy of the environment of deposition (high verses low energy)
Proximity to original source material (close verses distant)
Age of the sediment (degree of exposure to weathering and erosion)
Composition of parent material (granite verses basalt, etc.)
Mechanism of sediment transport (wind, water, glaciers, etc)
Once you familiarize yourself with how each of the properties is affected by the
controlling factors, you can make some generalizations about the depositional
environment in which the sediment must have been deposited. The depositional
environment will include the dominant factors of a location affecting the type of sediment
deposited there. This can include local climate (temperature, precipitation), energy level
(high or low energy), regional topography, biological factors, geologic setting, etc.

Part I: Particle Types and Properties

1) Particle composition:
Oceanic particles can be classified into one of four particle categories based on
there composition and/or origin. These categories are:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Lithogenous
Biogenous
Hydrogenous
Cosmogenous

Lithogenous:
Lithogenous particles are derived from the weathering and erosion of rocks, either on
land or in the ocean. Thus, their composition can vary depending on the original rock
material. The most common types of lithogenous particles encountered in marine
sediments are:
Quartz (generally a granitic parent)
Clays (weathering product of silicate minerals)
Mafics (dark minerals such as olivine [green], amphibole [black], pyroxene
[black], magnetite [black and magnetic] (generally a basaltic/volcanic parent
rock)
Rock fragments (indicate incomplete breakdown of parent material, close to
source)

Biogenous:
Biogenous particles are created in the oceans through the action of a living organism,
either a plant or animal. The composition of these particles is usually calcium
carbonate (CaCO3, calcite or aragonite), but can also be silica (SiO2). These
sediments are either precipitated by microscopic plants or animals living in the upper
water column (planktic) or on the sea-floor (benthic). The most common types of
biogenous sediments encountered in marine sediments are:
Foraminifera (animal, CaCO3)
Radiolarians (animal, SiO2)
Diatoms (plant, SiO2)
Coccolithophores (plant, CaCO3)
Shell fragments
Calcareous algae (halimeda, penicillus, udotea, rhipocephalus)
The saturation state of CaCO3 in ocean waters is directly related to water
temperature and pressure. Warm, shallow waters (tropics, surface) are generally
supersaturated with respect to CaCO3 and cold deep waters (poles, deep ocean) can be
undersaturated. Sediments from warm tropical beaches will generally contain
abundant CaCO3, whereas deep ocean contain little to no CaCO3 due to its removal
by dissolution.
Unlike CaCO3, SiO2 is undersaturated everywhere in the ocean water and is
susceptible to dissolution. Its presence in sediments is generally an indication of high
production rates, and thus high productivity where the inputs of the mineral can
outpace the removal by dissolution.
Forams, radiolarians, diatoms and coccolithophores are found living and growing
in most ocean surface waters. Some deep ocean sediments are composed of almost
100% biogenous particles. These sediments are called oozes.
Hydrogenous:
Hydrogenous sediments are created by inorganic chemical reactions in the oceans.
Their origin is not linked to any living organism. They can be created in both shallow
and deep water and their composition is linked closely with the chemical composition
and physical properties of the seawater in which they were formed. The most
common types of hydrogenous sediments encountered in marine sediments are:
Calcite (CaCO3, ooids/ooilites, shallow intertidal tropical shoals)
Gypsum (CaSO4, shallow sea water pools prone to evaporation)
Glauconite ((K,Na)(Fe,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2)
Phosphates (CaPO4, usually associated with highly productive regions)
Pyrite (FeS2, indicates low oxygen content in the water)
Halite (NaCl, shallow sea water pools prone to intense evaporation)
Cosmogenous:
Cosmogenous sediments are derived from extraterrestrial bodies, usually meteors that
enter our atmosphere and break-up. These are the rarest types of sediments to be

found in the ocean. However, when they are found, the interpretations and
repercussions could be significant. We will not be seeing any of these sediments in
this lab.
You can use Table 2 at the end of this lab to help you estimate the percentage
composition of each particle type.

2) Particle Size:
Particle Size is described using the Standard Wentworth Scale.
Wentworth Particle Name
Boulder
Cobble
Pebble
Gravel
Very coarse sand
Coarse sand
Medium sand
Fine sand
Very fine sand
Silt
Clay

Size Range (mm)

>256
64 - 256
4 - 64
2-4
1-2
0.5 - 1
0.25 0.5
0.125 0.25
0.063 0.125
0.063 0.033
<0.033

Screen (
m)
256,000
64,000
4,000
2,000
1,000
500
250
125
63
33
pan

The size of particles in any specific region of the ocean is affected by the amount
of physical energy moving particles around at that location and the proximity to source
material. A high energy region will contain larger sediment particles than a stagnant area
because most of the smaller particles will have been removed. This process of
accumulating what is left behind is referred to as a lag deposit. Regions near a coastal
mountain range will contain larger particles than areas more distant from the source
simply due to the proximity to the original source and the fact that the particles will not
have had undergone long periods of intense weathering.
The standard method of determining sediment size is to pass the sediment through
a series of sieves with mesh openings corresponding to the divisions of the Wentworth
size categories. In this lab I will provide samples of sediment of several sizes and we will
estimate the size of the particles in your samples by comparing them with the sediment of
known size.
Although both the energy of an environment and the proximity to the source will
have a role in determining the size of particles in a sample, one will often be more
important. To determine which is the most important, it is often necessary to review the
other characteristics to see what they can reveal.

3) Particle Shape:
The shape of a particle can range from angular to rounded. This property is
usually reserved for lithogenous sediments and is controlled by the amount of weathering
and erosion of the particle.

angular

sub-angular

sub-rounded

rounded

Through time, particles will become more rounded as they are exposed to longer
periods of weathering. Thus a very angular particle is likely younger or less mature than
a very rounded particle. Since some particles such as calcite (CaCO3) are much softer
than others such as quartz (SiO2), some particles may mature faster than others. By
looking only at the quartz present in a sample, rather than other constituents, you can
compensate for any differences in hardness between particles.

4) Particle Sorting:
The sorting of particles refers to the distribution of particle sizes contained in any
sample. Well sorted sediment will be composed of sediment particles of only one
particle size (for example, coarse sand). Poorly sorted sediment will contain many
different particle sizes, sometimes ranging from clay to cobbles or larger.

well sorted

moderately sorted

poorly sorted

The sorting of a sediment is controlled primarily by the mechanism of transport which

moved and redistributed the sediments. The most common means of moving and
redistributing sediments is by water (currents), wind, and glaciers. Wind is by far the
most efficient means of sorting sediments and produces sediments that are very well
sorted. This is because wind can generally only carry one size particle. Glaciers are the
least efficient mechanism for sorting, and generally produce very poorly sorted

sediments. Sediments redistributed by water can produce a range of sorting, but

generally will always result in a moderate to well sorted sediment.

Part 2: Factors Controlling Sediment Particle Characteristics

The most common factors affecting the composition and characteristics of
sediment particles are the following:
Energy of the environment of deposition (high verses low energy)
Proximity to original source material (close verses distant)
Composition of parent material (granite verses basalt, etc.)
Mechanism of sediment transport (wind, water, glaciers, etc)
Age of the sediment (degree of exposure to weathering and erosion)
Energy of the Environment
This refers to the average level of energy to which a sediment sample was
subjected. The energy of the environment has a large effect on the overall size of the
particles in the sample. Fine mud particles are easily washed from a beach and carried
offshore to be deposited in deeper low energy environments. Thus most beach samples
contain little fine material. A beach that is subjected to very high wave action, on the
other hand, will likely not even contain sand and may be composed only of pebbles or
cobbles.
Proximity to Source (lithogenous)
The proximity to source refers to how close the sample was to its original parent
material or the site where it was formed. A general rule of thumb states that the closer a
sediment is to its source, the larger the particle size. This is generally only true for
lithogenous particles (quartz, mafics, etc) since most lithogenous particles will need to be
transported to the site where the sediment is accumulating. Biogenous particles can be
formed/precipitated anywhere in the ocean and are often formed in the general vicinity of
where they are found. Lithogenous particles on the other hand can be transported
hundreds to thousands of miles.
Composition of Parent Material (lithogenous)
The composition of the parent material will have a great affect on the composition
of the subsequent sediment sample. Quartz, one of the most common mineral on earth, is
mostly found in granitic rocks. Granite is mostly found on continents. Thus the presence
of quartz in a rock implies a continental source. Similarly, the absence of quartz in a rock
could imply the lack of a proximal continental source. The presence of mafics implies a
proximal mafic source, usually basalt or another volcanic rock. This would imply a
proximal active margin.

Mechanism of Transport
The mechanism of transport will have a great affect on the sorting of the sediment
particles. As stated previously, transport by wind will produce the most well sorted
sediments. Transport by ice (glaciers) generally produces very poorly sorted sediments.
Transport by water generally produces moderate to well sorted particles.
Age of Sediment
The age of the sediment refers to how long the sediment particles have been
removed from their original parent source (in the case of lithogenous particles), or how
long ago they were formed in the case of biogenous or hydrogenous particles. Age can
potentially have an effect on several particle properties including composition, shape, and
sorting. Geologist refer to the collective affect of age on a sediment particle as its
maturity. The maturity of a sediment sample refers to the degree to which the sediment
properties have been modified from their original properties. For instance, an immature
sediment is will have just been formed from its parent material and will have been
subjected to little weathering or erosion (transport). Thus its composition will be very
close to its original parent and contain several types of lithogenous particles, possibly
including rock fragments. Since it was not transported very far, it will show poor to
moderate sorting and the lithogenous particles will be angular. A mature sediment, on
the other hand will have been subjected to intense weathering and erosion. The softer
lithogenous particle may have completely weathered away and only the hardest particles
(quartz) will remain. The lithogenous sediments will show a high degree of sorting and
will likely be well rounded.
Sources / Sinks / Dilution
When trying to interpret the depositional setting of a sediment, you will need to
consider factors that explain the presence as well as the absence of the types of particles
that you find. For instance, given the fact that calcareous sediments are so common in
the ocean, their absence from a sediment sample is highly unusual and could indicate a
depositional setting at a high latitude (where many organism cannot thrive), the deep
ocean (which is corrosive to calcite) or a coastal setting with a high input of lithogenous
particles (which will dilute the calcareous material and make it seem less abundant that it
actually is). Similarly, the absence of quartz from a sediment sample may indicate that
the depositional environment was either distant from a continental source (oceanic island,
oceanic banks, continental edge far from any mountains, etc) or an absence of a means of
delivering the quartz to the site (no rivers, little wind) Thus, when considering the
presence or absence of specific ocean particles from a sediment sample, you must
consider each of the following:
Sources (a means of input)
Sinks (mechanisms for removing or dissolving particles)
Dilution (a means of masking a particles presence)
As you can clearly see, any one particle characteristic can be affected by several factors.
For instance the sediment composition is both affect by its source, its age and also
possibly by dilution or dissolution. Thus no one single particle characteristic can be used

to definitely determine the characteristics of its depositional environment. Instead, you

should attempt to gather as many clues in the form of particle characteristics and come to
a conclusion based on a preponderance of the evidence. Table 1 on the following page
outlines the affects of many of these factors on sediment particles and can be used as a
rough guide when interpreting depositional environments.

Table 1
Composition
Original composition of
parent material
granite quartz, clay
Basalt/volcanics mafics, clay
hot spot mafics,
olivine, clay
Tropical oceans biogenous
Proximity to original
source
near
distant
Mechanism of
transport
wind possible iron
stains on
particles
(red)
glaciers

water

Energy of environment
high energy

medium energy

low energy

Age of Sediment
young
old Mostly
quartz

Size

Shape

Sorting

>sand
<sand

sub-angular
sub-rounded

fine
medium
sand

sub-rounded well sorted

to rounded

coarse to
fine
material
fine to
coarse
sand

angular to
rounded

poorly
sorted

sub-angular
to subrounded

moderate
to well
sorted

coarse
sand+

rounded

sand - silt

sub-angular
to subrounded
NA

moderate
to well
sorted
moderate
to well
sorted
moderate
to well
sorted

silt, clay

angular
rounded

Poorly
sorted
Well
sorted

Lab Exercise
Equipment needed:
1 binocular microscope
Samples of various particle compositions (provided)
Samples of various sediments

1) Part I: Particle Samples

In the first part of this lab you will look at a variety of different common sediment
particles in order to familiarize yourself with the range of composition you can
expect to observe in sediment samples.
2) Part II: Depositional Environments (known locations)
Next you will look at sediments from several different known locations and
describe each sample according to particle a) composition, b) size, c) shape, and
d) sorting and hypothesize on what each particle characteristic can reveal about
the source of the sediment and the depositional environment.
3) Part III: Depositional Environments (unknown locations)
Finally you will analyze four unknown sediment samples and describe their
sediment characteristics in an attempt to try to identify the depositional
environment in which it was formed

Directions:
Part I: Particle samples
I have placed several examples of some particle types around the room. Look at each of
these particle types and describe them such that if you were to see them again (such as on
a quiz) you would be able to identify them. A small drawing may help in some instances.
If you have any questions, ask me, thats why I am here.

Particles:
Lithogenous particles:
Description
Quartz (beach):

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Quartz (desert):

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Mafics:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Drawing

Biogenous Particles:
Description
Foraminifera: _______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Radiolarians:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Diatoms:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Drawing

Shell fragments:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Calcareous Algae:
Halimeda:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Penicillus:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Udotea:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Rhipocephalus:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Hydrogenous Particles:
Description
Ooids/ooilites: _______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Gypsum:

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Drawing

Directions:
Part II: Depositional Environments (known locations)
I have provided several sediment samples from known locations around the room. Using
the characteristics discussed previously, describe each of the sediments by approximate
size, composition, particle shape, and sorting. Additionally, make some generalizations
about the environment in which the sediment was created (deposited). Was it a high
energy (beach, river) environment or low energy (lake, pond) environment? Was it an
ocean beach or desert? Was it moved by water, wind or glaciers? How far has this
sediment traveled from its source? What was the composition of the original source?
The answer to each of these questions is contained in the particle properties you
described. Use Table 1 to help you understand what factors can control each of the
properties.

Depositional Environments (Known Samples)

Carolla Beach, North Carolina
Size:
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Playa Hermosa, Costa Rica

Size:
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

Duck Key, Florida

Size:

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

White Sands, New Mexico

Size:
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Kanab, Utah
Size:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Hawaii (Big Island)

Size:

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Directions:
Part III: Depositional Environments (unknown locations)
I have provided you with four sediment samples from unknown locations. In fact I do
know the exact location that each of these samples came from. Using the same
techniques you used in Part II, analyze each of the unknowns and try to determine some
of the major characteristics of the environment in which this sediment was deposited. I
do not expect you to give me an exact location name (although that would be amazing!).
But instead give me generalities of what you think the environment was like.

Depositional Environments (Unknown Samples)

Sample A
Size:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Sample B
Size:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Sample C
Size:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Sample D
Size:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Composition:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Shape: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Sorting:

Interpretation:

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
parent material/source :________________________________
proximity to source :___________________________________
energy of environment :________________________________
mechanism of transport :_______________________________
maturity :____________________________________________
comments :___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Table 2